Writing At University 1 The Essay [631758]

LEARNING AND ACADEMIC SKILLS RESOURCES
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Writing at University: The Essay
1. Different types of writing at university
In your studies at Swinburne, you will be asked to produce a range of different assignment types. The main types (or ‘genres’) include:
essays, reports, book/article reviews, literature reviews.
The following table sets out some of the differences between these genres. In this tutorial we will focus on the essay.
Genres Description Conventional Structure Research base Format and style
Essay An extended task that
usually requires you to
present an argument in
response to a question or issue IntroductionBody*
Conclusion
References*Body – students need to
develop the structure of the
body, based on the particular question they are dealing with
and the argument they wish to
present.Based on wide-reading of books, journal articles etc.
around the topicFormal academic style
Personal pronouns (‘I’)
sometimes permitted
Paragraphing very important to indicate essay structure
Subheadings may be used, but not
essentialExtensive use of citations
Report A task that usually requires you to investigate a situation, problem etc.
Often involves making
recommendations for some action to be takenExecutive summaryIntroductionMethod
Findings
ConclusionsRecommendations
References
The structure may vary
depending on the type of
reportBased on background reading on the topic; also often involves collecting/
analysing primary material
( eg. interviews, data etc)Formal academic style No use of personal pronouns (‘I’)Subheadings with numbered
sections essential (eg. 1, 1.1 etc.)
Concise, ‘to the point’ style Some use of citations
Book / article reviewA task that requires you to summarise the main content of an article, book,
website etc, and then
provide an evaluation of this contentIntroductionSummary of textEvaluation of text
ConclusionUsually based on the
close reading of a single text – but can also include
reference to other related
readingsFormal academic style Personal pronouns (‘I’) usually permitted
Paragraphing important to indicate
review structure
Literature reviewA task requiring the collecting, summarising,
and evaluation of a range
of texts around a particular topicIntroduction Theme 1
Theme 2
Theme 3 etc.Conclusion
ReferencesBased on wide and critical
reading of state of the art
journal articles, books etc.Formal academic style
Personal pronouns (‘I’) sometimes
permitted
Subheadings used to structure different themes of review
High use of citations
Table 1: The more common genres of university study 2. Essay questions
As we saw in the table above, an essay is usually based on a
question. The first thing to be said about essay questions is that they do not usually have any simple and straightforward
answer to them. In this way, they are not like the types of
questions you will see on an exam e.g. in multiple choice or short answer questions.
For example, the following factual question might appear as a
question on an exam.
What is social networking?
(Sample short answer question)

To answer this question, you would just need to outline the
basic features of social networking, drawing on the type of information you would find in a textbook, or which is presented in lectures.
Essay questions, in contrast, have no simple answer, like the
following question on a related topic.
Has social networking improved the quality of relationships in society?
(Sample essay question)

To answer this question you need to exercise your own
judgment, and provide what YOU think is the best answer to the question. The answer you present in an essay is what we
call YOUR ARGUMENT.
ACTIVITY 1: Thinking about arguments
Have a look at an essay question you need to
complete this semester/study period. What
JUDGMENT do you need to make about this topic?

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3. What does an ARGUMENT look like?
In an essay it is important to present a clear ARGUMENT. Let’s think about possible answers to the
‘social networking‘ essay question above. The following are two possible responses:
NO! Social networking has had a terrible effect on the quality of relationships YES! Social networking has had an overwhelmingly good effect on the quality of
relationships

These ARGUMENTS represent more extreme positions, and while it is possible to argue either
position, there would be a good deal of pressure placed on you to justify and support such a
strong claim.
The more conventional way to go is to consider both sides of the issue. This however, does not
mean you should go straight for the middle, intermediate position; that is to argue something
along the following lines.
Social networking has had both positive and negative effects on the quality of relationships
This example is a bit of YES and NO option, and while it is possible to argue it, your lecturer may
criticise you for going for the easy, ‘sitting on the fence’ option.
The better academic arguments are ones that consider both sides of an issue, but ultimately make
some commitment either way. Such arguments are often structured around connective words like
while, although, however, such as the following:
WHILE social networking has had a number of positive effects on the quality of relationships
in society, these are outweighed by the problems that this new technology has brought.
ALTHOUGH there are certainly some problems associated with social networking, on balance
this technology has done much to improve the way that people relate to each other.

These are just two of the arguments you could run. There may be other ways you could take
the topic. In the first example below, the ARGUMENT is focused on different ‘phases’ of social
networking; in the second example, the focus is on different ‘uses’.In its early phases social networking clearly had a positive effect on social relationships. HOWEVER, in its more recent developments, particularly with its increased commercialisation, it is difficult to see any positive influence.
Some specialised uses of social networking have been most beneficial to people. HOWEVER
the more common uses seem to have led to a deterioration in the quality of relationships.

ACTIVITY 2: Possible arguments
For the essay question you are working on, what would be some POSSIBLE
ARGUMENTS/ ANSWERS to the question?
4. How do I develop an ARGUMENT?
We do not want to suggest from the explanation above, that you just look at the question and then
decide what your position will be. This would be violating a major principle of essay writing – which is that it is always based on wide and critical reading (see Table 1 above). It is through your reading
on the topic that your argument will develop and begin to take shape. That is to say, in the case
of the social networking question, you will look at research that has been done on this topic, and also read the ideas and views of some leading scholars in the field. It is your engagement with this material that will help you to develop the ARGUMENT you wish to present.
Some students however, find it useful to begin their research by adopting a PROVISIONAL position
on the issue. This is the position that you intuitively have when you read the question. So for the social networking question, you may begin by taking for example, a generally pessimistic view
of the effects of this phenomenon. This is in effect your hypothesis: that social networking has
generally had a harmful effect on social relationships.
Equally, though you could adopt the more ‘positive’ position.
It will be in the process of reading and thinking about material that you will decide what your final
position will be. It is important when you come to writing and structuring your work that you have
made some commitment to the ARGUMENT you wish to present.
ACTIVITY 3: A provisional argument
For the essay question you have chosen, what would be a PROVISIONAL argument?

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5. How do I STRUCTURE an essay?
The conventional structure of an essay is usually given as:
Introduction
Body
Conclusion
List of references
On its own, this doesn’t tell us very much. We know we have to begin an essay with an introduction
and finish with a conclusion (and also provide a list of the references we have used). The challenging part is developing a structure for the main part of the essay – the body.
It is important that whatever STRUCTURE you develop for your body, it is one that is going to allow
your ARGUMENT to come through.
Imagine for example, that you wish to present the following argument in your essay, one which is
focused on the negative aspects of social networking:
WHILE social networking has had a number of positive effects on the quality of relationships in society, these are outweighed by the problems that this new technology has brought.

A possible structure for this work would be as follows:
Introduction
Background to social networking
Positive effects on social relations Positive effect #1
Positive effect #2
Negative effects on social relations Negative effect #1
Negative effect #2
Negative effect #3
Negative effect #4
Conclusion
List of referencesThis essay structure would clearly be appropriate for the negative argument to be adopted. We
can see in such a plan there is a clear outweighing of negatives over the positives. If you were to adopt the view that social networking has mainly led to improvements, then the ‘balance’ in the
plan would need to be tipped the other way.
Among other things, a clear essay plan can keep you on track with the number of words you need to write. If for example, you needed to write an essay of 2,000 words, you could work out some
approximate allocation of words as follows:
Introduction 100 words
Background to social networking 200 words
Positive effects on social relations 400-500 words
Positive effect #1
Positive effect #2
Negative effects on social relations 900-1000 words
Negative effect #1
Negative effect #2
Negative effect #3
Negative effect #4
Conclusion 100 words
References*
*Not usually included in word count
ACTIVITY 4: Essay structure
What is a possible STRUCTURE for the essay you intend to write? How many words
(approximately) might you devote to each section?
6. How do I REFERENCE material in my essay?
As mentioned above, your essay needs to be based on wide reading of sources, and your
argument needs to be supported by relevant research, and evidence from these sources. To do this, you need to properly reference these materials in your work. This is done through the
practice of citation.
At Swinburne, we generally use the Harvard (or Author-date system) system of referencing. This
requires that you include details about the author and date (and optionally the page no) in the
text of your essay, and then provide full information about the publication in a separate list of
references at the end.

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The following are two examples of citations that could be found in the ‘social networking’ essay:
Nowadays as many as 43% of America teens report experiencing some form of cyber
bullying (Patchin, 2008).
Nie (2005) explains that time spent on the internet actually ‘displaces’ time spent socialising,
particularly with family.
You will notice that these citations take slightly different forms. In the first one, the citation (author
–date) appears at the end of the sentence. In the second example the author is present at the
beginning of the sentence.
Thus the two citations have the following forms:
Type 1 Information …….. (author, date).
Type 2 Author (date) …. information.
Both of these are acceptable forms, and you are encouraged to use both in your essays. Type 1
citations (information-prominent) are used when the focus is more on the actual information itself. Type 2 citations (author-prominent) are used when the focus is more on the ideas, opinions etc of
a particular writer.
At the end of your essay you need to present all the publication details of these texts in a separate
list of references. Thus, for the citations above the entries would be as follows:
References
Nie, N 2005, ‘Researchers link use of Internet, social isolation’, Stanford Report, 23
February 2005, viewed 10 March 2011 <http://news.stanford.edu/news/2005/february23/
internet-022305.html>
Patchin, J. W. 2008. Cyberbullying: An Exploratory Analysis of Factors Related to Offending
and Victimization. Deviant Behavior, 29(2), 129–156.

For full details about referencing your essay, you should consult the Harvard Style Guide provided
by Swinburne:
http://www.swinburne.edu.au/lib/researchhelp/harvard_quick_guide.pdf7. A SAMPLE essay
To find out how all the above looks in practice, read a sample essay written on the ‘social
networking’ topic:
http://www.swinburne.edu.au/student/study-help/las/resources/Sample_Text_1_Essay_
Social_Networking.pdf