University of Medicine and Pharmacy [603514]

University of Medicine and Pharmacy
ieganu”
Cluj-Napoca
Faculty of Medicine

LICENSE THESIS

ASSESSMENT OF AIR
QUALITY IN URBAN AND
SUBURBAN AREAS OF
FREIBURG
(GERMANY)

Coordinator:
Prof. Dr. POPA Monica

Graduate:
ANTOCE Adrian Constantin

2019

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AKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, I would like to thank my coordinator
Prof. dr. Monica Popa who guided me through this work .

My deepest gratitude to Miriam and Angelica who always
believe in me.

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Table of Contents
General Review ………………………….. ………………………….. ………….. – 3 –
Introduction ………………………….. ………………………….. …………….. – 4 –
Primary Pollutants ………………………….. ………………………….. ……. – 7 –
Secondary Pollutants ………………………….. ………………………….. . – 13 –
Exposure ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………. – 17 –
Cardiovascular Risk associated with Particular Matter …………….. – 20 –
Neuroplastic Effects of Air Pollution ………………………….. ………… – 22 –
Mortality ………………………….. ………………………….. ……………….. – 27 –
Special Review ………………………….. ………………………….. …………. – 36 –
Introduction ………………………….. ………………………….. …………… – 37 –
Material and Methods ………………………….. ………………………….. – 38 –
Results ………………………….. ………………………….. …………………. – 41 –
Discussion ………………………….. ………………………….. ……………. – 51 –
Conclusions ………………………….. ………………………….. ………….. – 59 –
Bibliography ………………………….. ………………………….. ………….. – 61 –

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General Review

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Introduction

The scientific study of the e arth’s atmosphere and it s physical processes
is called A erology, also known as Atmospheric Science. Our planet is
surrounded by different layers of gasses, making up the earth ’s
atmosphere. One could say “ We live at the bottom of an invisible ocean
called the atmosphere, a layer of gases surrounding our planet ” (1).
These layers are retaine d by earth due to its gravity.
Oxygen is an enormous “friendly” element, meani ng that it forms
bondings with many other molecules. For this reason geologist s are so
interested in analyzing rocks, since oxygen attaches to the rocks iron
molecules. Interes tingly, scientist have found no geological “foot prints”
of air on the oldest rocks found on planet earth. In conclusion, our
atmosphere was not always that rich in oxygen and life therefore was not
possible as it is today (2). “People take oxygen for granted because it is
just there and we breathe it in all the tim e” (3) says Dr. Donald. Canfiield,
geochemist at the University of Southern Denmark .
Speak ing in numbers, dry air is made up of 78,09% nitrogen, followed by
20,95% oxygen, 0,93% argon, 0,04% carbon dioxide and sm all amounts
of other gasses . Water vapor in the air differs. At sea level it is as high
as 1% and 0,4% over the entire atmosphere (4). Only in the earth ’s
troposphere, air suitable for photosynthesis by plants and for respiration
for animals and us humans can be found.
The average person inhales abou t 11,000 liters of air daily and the
presence of pollutants can have adverse effects on our health (5) Since
air does not respect borders, polluting it affects all countries an d all
beings on earth. In conclusion , good air quality is essential to our well –
being.
Air pollution is defined when harmful or excessive quantities of toxic
substances are introduced in to earth ’s atmosphere. These substances

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can have different forms like: gases, particulates or biological molecules.
One could call air pollution a silent and invisible kille r. It passes our
body’s defense mechanism unnoticed and causes pathologies.
Especi ally people with pre-existing respiratory and cardiac conditions,
diabetes, the young, and elderly are particularly vulnerable to breathable
toxins .
In 2015 the WHO released alarming data: 4.2 million estimated
premature deaths every year as the result of exposure to ambient
(outdoor) air pollution . And since more than 40% of the world ’s
population do es not have access to clean cooking fuels and technology,
around 3.8 million deaths every year are caused by household exposure
(indoor air pollutio n) to smoke from dirty cook stoves and fuels .
Also it is estimated that 91% of the world ’s population live in places ,
where air pollution exceed WHO guideline limits . Air pollution is a threat
to all of us, but mostly harmed are people of low socioeconomi c status in
this world .
“It is unacceptable that over 3 billion people – most of them women and
children – are still breathing deadly smoke particles every day from using
polluting stoves and fuels in their homes. If we do not take urgent action
on air pol lution, we will never come close to achieving sustainable
development ” (6).
9 out of 10 air pollution – related deaths occur in low and middle -income
continents, like Asia and Africa, but also in low and middle -income
countries in Eastern Mediterranean region s, Europe and the Americas
are as well affected. Some people might claim t hat access to clean fuels
and technologies are on the rise everywhere, but so is the rise in air
population too!
Since air pollution is classified as a a “ critical risk factor for non –
communicable diseases (NCDs), contributing to an estimated one –
quarter ( 24%) of all adult deaths from heart disease, 25% from stroke,

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43% from chronic obstructive pulmonary d isease and 29% from lung
cancer ” (7).
More and more cities and countries are taking action!
The WHO collects data of m ore than 4300 cities in 108 countries in their
WHO’ s ambient air quality database, making it the world ’s most
comprehensive database on ambient air pollution in the world. Since
2016 more than 1000 additional cities have been added to WHO ’s data
base clearly stating that measuring and taking action has become a
higher priority. In the data base are included annual mean
concentrations particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5). PM2.5 includes
pollutants, such as sulphate , nitrates and black carbon, which represent
one of the greatest risk to our health among air pollutants (8)
Poor air quality harms our environment as well, especially affecting
climate, and in turn and can ha ve negative economic impacts. We are
reducing our productivity of agricultural and forestry industries by
damaging our vegetations, waterways and soils.
On the other side, while we are generating poll utants as “byproducts”,
people are at the same time bene fiting from these activities, like:
warming our home s (from burning wood or coal, or other heating
sources) or transportation provides people with mobility and the
distribution of goods and services.
Pollutants can origin from a nthropogenic (man -made) sources or from
natural sources. Pollutants are classified in primary or secondary.
Carbon monoxide (CO) gas from motor vehicle exhaust , sulphur oxide
(SO) released from factories or even ash resulted from volcanic eruption
are examples for primary pollutants.
Secondary pollutants are formed when they react or interact with primary
pollutants in the air. Secondary pollutant s are therefore not emitted
directly. Ground level ozone (O 3) is a common example of a secondary
pollutant .

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Some pollutants may have are classified as both: primary and
secondary , since they are both emitted directly and formed from other
primary pollutants.
Primary Pollutants

Carbon Mono – and Dioxide
Plants, c yanobacteria and algae consume CO 2, using light energy to
photosynthesize carbohydrate from CO 2 and then produce oxygen as a
“waste ” product.
We humans are producing with the help of our re spiratory system
approximately one liter of CO 2 a day, which is exhaled during expiration.
In general, all aerobic organisms produce CO 2, when metabolizing
carbohydrates and lipids for generating energy. While CO 2 returns to the
air via us humans and air breathing animals, it returns to fish in water via
another mechanism: gills of fish. High amounts of thi s odorless gas are
produced in man -made processes like biomass burning, cement
production, deforestation, combustion of wood and other organic
materials, burning fossil fuels such as petroleu m, coal, natural gas and
peat. Another source of production is de cay of organic materials and
sugar fermentation.
It is a gas, used in variety too, like an inert gas for fire extinguishers or
for example as a pressurizing gas in oil recovery.
It has a use in removing liquid in a precise and controlled way (called
super critical drying) in decaffeination of coffee or drying spices. To a lot
of beverages, beers, and to spark ling wine, CO 2 is added.
Although CO 2 is a natural component of our atmosphere, too high
amounts are seen as the leading pollutant” and " the worst clim ate
pollutant” (9). It is the mos t prominent long -lived gas, contributing to the
green house effect (GHE) . Since the Industrial Revolution, CO 2 levels

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have been constantly increasing, leading to global warming. Together
with other gases, like methane, CO 2 has the properties of a green house
gas, meaning that it absorbs and emits infrared radiati on and during this
process, it warms the surface all inhabitants of our earth live on, and
lowers the temperature of upper atmospheres. High amounts of this
odorless gas are produced in man -made proce sses like biomass
burning, cement production, deforestation, combustion of wood and
other organic materials, burning fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal,
natural gas and peat. Another source of production is decay of organic
materials and sugar fermentati on. It is a gas, used in variety too, like an
inert gas for fire extinguishers or for example as a pressurizing gas in oil
recovery.
It has a use in removing liquid in a precise and controlled way (called
supercritical drying) in decaffeination of coffee or drying spices. To a lot
of beverages, beers, and spark ling wine, CO 2 is added. And since it has
an ultra long atmospheric lifetime of about thou sand -hundreds of years,
it represents the greatest concern regarding global warming as
mentioned before. Als o its level has increased in the last decades, as
the graphic (10) below shows:

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SULPHUR OXIDES(SOX)
– generated naturally during volcanic eruption and lighting striking s.
It is also emitted in many industrial processes , like in those, using
coal and/or petroleum. Further oxidation of SO 2, usually in the
presence of a catalyst such as NO 2, forms to H2SO4, and thus
results in acid rain. This type of rain has demons trated its adverse
effects on forests, freshwaters and soils, harming insects and
aquatic life-forms , leading paint to peel and to corrosion of steel
constructions such as bridges .

VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPUNDS (VOC)
– is a significant outdoor air pollutant. They are classified as either
methane (CH4) or non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an
extremely efficient greenhouse gas, since it increases the lifespa n
of methane due to formation of ozon e. As a result, it contributes
strongly to global warming. The aroma tic NMVOCs benzene,
toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to
leukemia with prolonged exposure .

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NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO 2)
– Nitrogen dioxide belongs to the most prominent a ir pollutants, it s
reddish -brown toxic gas has a typical sharp and biting odor.
Nitrogen oxides can be of natural source, like the emission of it by
electric al dischar ges during thunderstorms. A man -made origin is its
emission during high temperature combustion. Fertilize d farmland was
also identified as a major source of nitrogen oxides. Its concentration in
high amounts is recommended to be avoided, like the following chart by
Environmental Protec tion Agency of the United States published:

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Particulate Matter (PM)
Also known as fine particles are microscopic
in size of solids or liquids found within our
atmosphere. The term “ aerosol ” defines
combined particles with gases. Their origin
can also be natura l source, as a product of
volcanic eruption, dust storms, forest and
grassland fires, li ving vegetation and sea
spray. Man- made processes such as
burning fossil fuels by operating vehicles, power plants and various
industrial processes create a prominent amount of aerosols. It is
estimated, that anthropogenic aerosols currently make up about 10% of
our atmosphere (11). Long – and short – term exposure leads to adverse
health effects, studies have shown, as later the chapter “Cardiovascular
Risk associated with PM” will elaborate upon . This picture abov e is an
electron microsc opic image of PM on a filter that was placed near a
traffic roa d. Black carbon (the little, grey balls) is ubiquitous on this filter.
The light blue balls are particles originating from combustion processes;
while the pink particles are minerals and the green cubes are salts (12).

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Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
— strongly harm s ozone layers in the u pper atmospheres, which leads
to more ultraviolet rays reaching the earth ’s surface.
We know that more exposure to ultraviolet light is associated with higher
incidence of skin cancer and eye disease but also damage to plants.
By reaching up to the stratosphere, it is not just contributing to the
depletion of ozone layers, but also a type of gas, enhancing the green
house effect, due to its infrared absorption bands, that trap heat from
escaping our atmosphere.
Due to this know ledge, the manufacture of such compounds has been
“phased out” at the “Montreal Protocol” which represents an international
contract, with the aim of protecting the layer of ozone by phasing out
production of numerous substances that harm the ozone layer. CFCS
are gases, released e.g. from air conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol
sprays, etc. Their use plays an important role in production of teflon, fire
fighting agents, propellants and other blowing agents.
Ammonia (NH3)
is a common nitrogenous waste and therefore a byproduct of
agricultural processes. It contributes significantly to the nutritional needs
of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and
fertilizers.
Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. It is usually
characterized by its pungent odor. Also for pharmaceutical companies, it
plays an important role in the synthesis of many drugs.
Although in widely use, its hazardous effects are well known. It is
collected by downward displacement of b oth air and water. In the
atmosphere, ammonia reacts with oxides of nitrogen and sulfu r to form
secondary particles.

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Odors – such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes are
classified as primary pollutants as well.

Radioactive pollutants – produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear
events, war explosives, military machinery exercise, as well as natural
processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.

Secondary Pollutants

Classified as pollutants resulting from gaseous primary pollutants and
compounds in photochemical smog. Smog is a kind of air pollution.
Classic smog res ults from large amounts of coal -burning areas caused
by a mixture of smoke and sulphur dioxide. Modern smog does not
usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial processes. It
reacts in the atmosphere with ultraviol et light coming from the sun to
form secondary pollutants, creating photochemical smog.
Ground level ozone (O 3) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
Not to be confused with the stratospheric ozone, which is formed
naturally in the upper atmospheres, protecting us from the sun's
dangerous ultraviolet rays, ground -level (also called tropospheric) ozone
is the result o f interactions of man -made, but also natural emissions of
VOCs and NOx in the presence of he at and sun rays. Car engines ,
burning gasoline are large sources of VOCs. VOCs also emitted while
using paints, cleaners, insecticides, as well as industrial solven ts and
chemical manufacturing. Our suns ultraviolet rays react with these
emissions, turning them into ground -level ozone, a product not healthy to
breathe. High concentrations of ozone near ground level can be health

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damaging to us humans, animals and pla nts. The o zone represents an
irritant to our respiratory system, causing cough reflex , unpleasant
feeling/ irritation in ones throat and/or uncomfortable sensation in ones
chest. It can aggravate asthma tic symptoms, and cause inflammation
and damage to cel ls which our lungs are composed of. Therefore it is
known to aggravate chronic lung diseases such as bronchitis, lung
emphysema and reduce ones immune system's capacity to fight off
upper and lower respiratory tract infections. The chapter “Health Effects”
of this thesis c ontains more details about the before -mentioned health
impacts. Meteorological conditions are proofed playing a major role in
formation of ground -level ozone. Examples are therefore: temperature,
wind speed and direction, time of day, and driving patterns. As
mentioned before, due to its dependence on weather conditions, ozone
is a summertime pollutant and mainly formed during sunny periods.
Minor Air Pollutants
There is also a large number of minor hazardous pollutants in the air,
although not visible to the naked eye . They represent also a variety of
persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to other particulates.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are
resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and
photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to
persist in the environment, to be capable of long -range transport, bio –
accumulate in human and ani mal tissue, biomagnifying in food chains,
and to have potentially significant impacts on human health, the
environment and upon all living beings.
There are various locations, activities or factors which are responsible
for releasing pollutants into the at mosphere. These sources can be
classified into two major categories: anthropogenic and natural origin.

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Anthropogenic (Man -Made) Sources

Such sources are m ostly related to the burning of different types of fuels.
Stationary sources include smoke stack s of fossil fuel power stations ,
like the coal industry, manufacturing facilities, like factories and waste
incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel -burning heating
devices. In developing countries, “traditional” burning of biomass, like
wood, crop waste and dung, is the main sourc e pollutants found in the
air. Mobile sources include motor -vehicles, marine vessels and aircrafts.
In agriculture and forest management, controlled burn is widely
practiced. This technique used in farming, prairie r estoration or
greenhouse gas abatement. Since fire is a natural part of both forest and
grassland ecology and control , it can be seen as a useful tool for
foresters. For example, controlled burning can stimulate the germination
of some desirable forest tre es, thus renewing the forest (13)
Fumes result from paint, perfume, soap, hair -spray, varnish, aerosol –
sprays and other solvents. Methane is highly flammable and may form
explosive mixtures with air. It results for example from waste depositions
in landfills. It has the character of an asphyxiant, meaning it displaces
oxygen in an enclosed space .

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Natural Source
Dust results for example from large areas of land with little or no
vegetation, as a natural course of pollution. An example would ne
volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates.
Methane is another natural minor pollutant. It i s a gas resulting from
digestion of food by animals, for example by cattle.
Radon is a color – and odorless, naturally present due to radioactive
decay of radium in our planets crust. It’s widely known to be a health
hazard. Radon gas from natural sources c an accumulate in buildings,
especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is leading
cause of lung cancer in non -smokers.
It is worth mentioning that wild fires result in huge smoke and carbon
monoxide emission.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs ) are emitted on sunny days by
vegetation. They then react with primary anthropogenic pollutants,
mainly with NOx, SO 2, resulting in a seasonal, summertime haze of
secondary pollutants. Black gum, poplar, oak and willow are some
examples of vegetation that can produce abundantly VOCs. Health
effects include eye, nose and throat irritations, headaches, loss of
coordination, nausea, and damage to the liver, kidney, and central
nervous system (14).

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Exposure

Air pollution exposure can be defined and calculated for individuals, for
certain groups (e.g. neighborhoods, vulnerable individuals like children
an elders living in a country or region), or for entire populations even.
One possible way is to calculate t he “inhalation exposure”, meaning the
risk of exposure to a hazardous air pollutant for a geographic area,
referring to its micro -environments and different age or risk groups.
Various locations could be used for measurements, like indoor micro –
environment s and macro outdoor locations settings.
It should also account to different age and other demographic groups,
especially infants, pregnant women, children in general and other
sensitiv e subpopulations, like elders . They form the vulnerable in
society. The calculation should also include an air pollutant in its
concentration, respecting the exposure time spent, the respective
inhalation rates for each subgroup for each specific time that the
subgroup is in the setting, engaging in different particular activi ties
(sleeping, playing, cooking, reading, working, etc.)
A small child's inhalation rate will be less compare d to the one of an
grown adult.
A child engaged in sports activities will have a higher respiration rate,
compared to the same child in a sedentar y activity. In case of daily
exposure, one must consider the time spent in each micro -environmental
setting and the type of activities performed meanwhile.
The air pollutant concentration during each activity and in each micro –
environmental setting is calc ulated to define the approximate exposure.

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Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
A partial or complete absence of ventilation indoors , increases air
pollution where people often spend the majority of their time. One major
risk is presented by r adon gas (Rn), a carcinogen, produced from the
Earth ’s crust. In specific locations it is trapped inside houses, especially
in basements.
Unintentional indoor air pollution is due to using building materials such
as carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde (H2CO) gas, paint and
solvents emit VOCs while they are drying. Lead paint can degenerate
into dust, which in then inha led into the lungs for example. Intentional air
pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners, traditional incenses,
and other scented items.
Controlled burning of wood fires in stoves and fireplaces can fill up
indoor air with high amounts of toxic s moke particulates. It is also worth
noting that particles that do not enter into indoor air, are mixing with
outdoor air.
Health Effects
Later in this thesis, scientific findings about linking air pollution and lung
cancer are presented. Taking this as an example, it’s quite challenging
to design a research program on the topic “Health Effects linked to Air
pollution”. For achieving reliabl e results, one must include numerous
factors. For example, if individuals have more risk factors than just
exposure to air pollution, such as being active smokers or being an ex –
smoker.
Also, idealistically sp eaking, in such a study, as much medical data from
as many people as possible should be included, over a long period of
time. Unfortunately, this requires lots of effort and financing if such
projects are conducting and that is not always possible.
PM of aerodynamic size < 2,5 μm and < 10 μm concerns t he WHO most,

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since they are small enough to be inhaled deeper into the lungs.
Symptoms after exposure are “increased respiratory symptoms,
decreased lung function, and increased incidence of chronic cough,
bronchitis, and conjunctivitis” (15)
Furthermore, epidemiological and clinical studies have in creasingly
shown that air pollution is associated with not only respiratory and
pulmonary diseases, but there are even more links to cardiovascular
pathologies. Pathophysiological studies proved that air pollution
generally increases cardiac and respirator y pathologies and therefore
increases ri sk of mortality and morbidity (16).
Especially patients with weak immune systems, such as elders, children
and those suffering from preexisting cardiop ulmonary diseases, are
affected more by the health hazards due to air pollution. Especially ultra
fine particles (< 100 nm) are linked to more severe pathologies. Their
aerodynamic size matters, like PM10 (range 2,5 -10) are deposited in the
nasal cavities and upper airways. PM 2,5 and PM 0,1 can even reach
the lung alveol i and enter the blood stream (17).
Even in placentas of pregnant women macrophages engulfin g ultra fine
particular matter w as believed to be found in a research published by
Queen Mary University of London in 2018 (18) .
Also animal experiments have shown that PM 2,5 can be taken up by
macrophages. One cannot claim per se, that PM 2,5 is more harmful
than PM10, since preexisting conditions like asthma exacerbations could
make exposure of PM 10 a significant risk factor.
The World Health Organization (WHO) claimed that ambient air pollution
was responsible for 3.7 million deaths in 2012, r epresenting 6.7% of total
deaths worldwide, and was the cause of 16% of lung cancer deaths,
11% of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease -related death, 29% of
heart disease and stroke, and approximately 13% of death s due to
respiratory infection (19)

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Cardiovascular Risk associated with Particular Matter

Cardiovascular R isk Associated with Particular M atter 2,5
The increased risk of lung cancer and cardiovascular death after
exposure to PM2.5 was also seen in a cross -sectional study. In a study
that followed 8111 adults in six cities in the United States over 14 -to-16-
years, mortality rates were 1.26 fold and 1.3 7% higher among people
who lived in the most polluted cities versus in the least polluted sites.
Numerous reports document the link between PM 2.5 and
cardiovascular diseases (19).
Further more , a study of 500,000 teens and adults with a 16 -year follow –
up revealed that risk of ischemic heart disease, heart failure,
arrhythmias, and cardiac arrest increased 8~18% for every 10.5 μg/m3
in PM2.5” exposure on the long term (19).
Studies involving humans in different countries have revealed ad verse
effects of air pollution in relation to human fertility.
One study was carried out on data including probates, in this case love
couples of Teplice, a highly polluted district in Czech Republic, Dejmek.
The study included couples that had unprotected sexual intercourse for 2
months and were followed up regularly. An increased sperm motility was
observed during the months January –March compared with September ,
when air pollution was at lower rate and vice versa (20). Therefore this
analyzed data revealed estimations that with each increase of 10 μg/m3
in PM2.5 concentration there was a link to a decrease of 22% in
fecundability (9 5% CI = 6–35%) (20) . All these results underline the
importance and se verity of air pollution and that this global problem must
be addressed more and more in the fu ture.

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Cardiovascular Risk Associated with Particular M atter 10
The “National Morbidity, Mortality and Air Pollution Study” (NMMAPS) is
a study, carried out on 50 million people, including the 20 largest cities in
Europe and USA, figuring out associations between mortalit y, morbidity
and air pollution.
The result showed that each increase of 10 μg/m3 increase in PM10 on
the day before death, was linked to a 0,68% higher chance of death due
to cardiopulmonary pathologies (21).
The Health European Approach study (APHEA -2), showe d comparable
results. Researchers analyzed data of around 43 million people, living in
29 European mega -cities. For every 10 μg/m3 rise in PM10, the risk for
cardiovascular death increased 0.76%, which was higher than
pulmonary diseases (21).
Air Pollution and I ncrease in Blood Pressure
Studies have also proved positive correlations between air pollution and
increased cardiovascular events, due to the risk factors like elevated
blood pressure.
A study performed in Sao Paulo, Brazil, showed an increase in SBP (of
2.6 mmHg) a nd diastolic blood pressure (of 2.4 mmHg) are significantly
influen ced by carbon dioxide levels (22).
Of great concern , are results of studies including elderly people living in
urban areas with high levels of PM 2,5, that showe d doubled risk for
obesity, hypertension, chronic pulmonary disease, and cardiovascular
disease.
Importantly, increased C -reactive -protein (CRP) and other inflammatory
markers were found especially in these elders, suffering already from
preexi sting condit ions such as DM2 (16).

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Neuroplastic Effects of Air Pollution

Many studies have proved in the last years that living in high risk areas
of air pollution, has severe long term health effects. Especially growing
up as a child in such areas, but also being permanently exposed during
adolescence, results in decreased mental capacity and in increase of
various ne urological disorders.
It was concluded therefore that air pollution has also harmful
neuroplastic effects. Altering the brains chemistry and structure, leads to
neuronal remode lling. Sometimes, these brain damages does not
manifest for a prolonged period of time. Disorders such as Alzheimer
Disease may pos sibly have an earlier onset. (23)
A pilot study from 2008 performed on children and dogs in Mexico City,
has revealed central nervous system (CNS) damage and Blood -Brain-
Barrier (BBB) alteration, neuroinflammation and degenerated glial cells
in white matter (WM). Cognitive investigat ions in children, that are not
affected by known risk factors for neurological diseases, except for the
high air pollution, have shown a deficit in a combination of fluid and
crystallized cognitive tasks as a believed consequence.
The study also concluded by magnetic -resonance -imaging (MRI) scans,
that 56% of Mexico Citiy children present prefrontal white matter hyper
tense lesions. These lesions could be also observed in dogs living in this
area. Also seen in these dogs were neuroinflammation -related enlarged
Virchow -Robin -spaces, increased number of gliosis and eve n deposits of
ultrafine particular matter (24).
Another study which was performed in Chile, found a significant
correlation between air pollution and increased risk of epilepsy. Identified
were pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, large and fine
particular matters and carbon monoxide. The researchers hypotheses is,
that a higher occurrence of epileps y is significantly related to higher

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neuroinflammation and BBB alterations, which are the result of
excessive air pollution exposure. Increased levels of oxidative stress and
neuroinflammation are thought to be among the causes of brain
remode lling (25).
Risk of Ophthalmologic D iseases Associated with Air Pollution
The impact of air pollution on the ocular surface has been subject to
research.
One Korean study suggested that high levels of O ₃ and low humidity are
causative in Sicca Eye D isease (SED). A study performed on inhabitant
of Hangzhou, China, concluded that higher levels of air pollution leads to
more frequent presentations at the ophthalmologist complaining from
conjunctivitis, an i nflammation of the eye conjunctiva.
Higher incidences of the symptoms are thought to be also related to
higher air pollution: itching, photophobia, epiphora, hyperemia, foreign
body sensation, contact lens intolerance and burning eyes sensation
(26).
High levels of nitrogen dioxide is a known cause for epistaxis, dry cough,
conjunctiva irritation, strengthening the suspicions of linking dry eyes
symptoms to air pollution. Particular matter on the eyes surface is more
harmful to individuals, in which the ocular surface is lacking in adequate
tear production (26).

Respiratory Diseases
There is more and more evidence, suggesting that air pollutants play an
important role in their causations to a wider range of respiratory
pathologies and allergies, including asthma, emphysema, bronchiti s,
chronic obstructive disease (COPD) and pneumonia, than ever believed
before.

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Linking air pollution to these pathologies is very complex to understand,
but epidemiologist s have insisted increasingly to take traffic -related, but
also domestic fire produced biomass burning -in developing countries -,
more seriously.
Poor indoor air quality is especially in developing countries an important
chapter.
Physicians an d scientists are appealing to therefore communities and
governments for a greater awareness.
Avoiding living in certain polluted areas, therefore functions as a
prevention of risk exposure. International health concerns therefore
underline the importance and caution with traffic -related -air-pollution
(TRAP) and biomass burning (BMB), since these two sources belong to
the most l ocalized sources.
There is proof , that TRAP increases the rate of allergic asthmatic
symptoms . Inhaled particles from diesel ex haus t increase the formation
of immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies and result in airway inflammation.
COPD is mainly caused in developed countries by tobacco, but in
develo ping countries, biomass fuel ga ses are recognized to be the
leading cause. Also low b irth weight (LBW) in infants is associated with
their mothers being exposed before and during pregnancy to high indoor
and outdoor air pollution (27).

A article published by “The Lancet” in 2007, compared lung grow th of
children living 500m and 1500m away from motorway. The result
suggested that TRAP leads to deficient lung vo lume development in
children (28).
The “Ultrafine Particle Hypothesi s” suggests that ultra fine particles,
meaning they are smaller the 100nm, have a more harmful toxic effect,
due to their increased surface area (29).
In developing countries, not just vehicle industries represent a source of

– 25 –
pollution, but one’s own hom e too. Burning wood, charcoal, dried animal
dung in proximity of individuals, combined with the lack of ventilation,
turns into high exposure to endotoxins.
Usually women and children are exposed most, while cooking, heating
or during other household activ ities. This was for a long time
underestimated. Since biomass fuels are cheaper and more affordable
for poorer families, burn with a lower efficiency, lead and leads till today
to an increased use of them, resulting in even more pollutant emission.
The num ber of biomass burning (BMB) indoor toxins, is much higher
than the ambient air levels. For BMB, but also for TRAP, time -activity
patterns are of great significance. Important to mention is, that BMB and
TRAP both “undergo complex aging” processes includin g oxidation,
other chemical reactions and physical processes that alter exposure and
toxic properties in ways, that are yet not fully understood” (30).
Also daily travel mode behavior plays an important role when it comes to
the inhaled daily dosage of toxins. For example, if one takes the bike or
the bus. Meaning , a bicyclist having a higher inhaled dosage on average
than a daily electrical bus rider (31).
Acute lower respiratory infections (LRTI) in children and COPD in adults
patients are the mostly confirmed health effects resulting from BMB fuels
inhalation. In contrary , studies focusing on TRAP, outdoor air pollution
have been repeatedly associated with higher prevalence of cardio – and
respiratory morbidity and mortality. BMB smoke is estimated by the
WHO to be responsible for approximately one and a half million
premat ure deaths annually worldwide . These shocking numbers are
coming from all the respiratory infections of infants and children, younger
than 5 years of age and adul t women, suffering from COPD .
TRAP was increasingly blamed and more often linked in recent stu dies
to a higher prev alence of asthma in children (32).
In 1953, “The great Smog of London” took too many lives. A combination

– 26 –
of cold weather with windless conditions and an antic yclone (counter –
clockwise circulation, clear skies, and high atmospheric pressure)
resulted in thick, dark smog, a deadly collection of airborne pollutants
(mainly from coal burning). It was estimated that 4,000 people died as a
direct result of the smog, at least 6,000 -8,000 in the upcoming months
and over 100,000 complained about sickness benefits. Clinically
speaking, the cause of death were acute – and chronic lower respiratory
tract infections, such as bronchopneumonia an d acute purulent
bronchitis as supra-infection upon underlying chronic bronchitis.
The World Health Organization repor ted in 2018, that 93% of youngsters
worldwide, younger than 15 years of age, are breathing dangerously
polluted air. Tragically speaking, that makes 1,8 billion children on a
daily basis breathing in toxins. “Polluted air is poisoning millions of
children a nd ruining their lives” WHO chief
Tedros Adhanom Ghe breyesus said in a statement (33). This also
explains how as many 600,000 children died in 2016 from lower
respiratory infections.

– 27 –
Mortality
Air pollution was in 2014 the main cause for seven million premature
death , estimated the World Health Organization. The WHO also stated
that approximately 500,000 people die each year due to health
consequences caused by air pollution.
India’s and China ’s populations are suffering severely from air pollution,
since its air qu ality belongs to the poorest on this planet. According to a
statement released by the WHO in 2014, most patients in the world that
died from as thma tic symptoms, died in India (34).
A 2007 World Bank report conducted with C hina's national
environmental agency found that "[…] outdoor air pollution was already
causing 350,000 to 400,000 premature deaths a year. Indoor air
pollution contributed to the deaths of an additional 300,000 people, while
60,000 died from diarrhea, bl adder and stomach cancer and other
diseases that can be caus ed by water -borne pollution ” (35). But a lso
European prematures die and many of them are linked to air pollution,
where the rate was estimated to be around 430,000 per year (36).
Also gases of nitrogen dioxide (NOx) are an important cause for
aggravating health problems, which are emitted by vehicles. Road
transport make up forty percent of Europe ’s NO emissi on. 80 % is
emitted by vehicles running on diesel.
In 2010, the European Commission's Joint Research Centre tested six
petrol and six diesel cars. "The main conclusion was that there is a huge
problem with diesel NOx emissions on the road," said Alois Krasenbrink,
of the Joint Research Centre, at the hearing.
Not to forget that Volkswagen was caught in a cheating scandal , when
they underwent an emission test in the United States. After that, the
Council considered updates to exist ing emission rules, making more
sure, the results are more reliable when it come s to real driving
conditions (36).

– 28 –
Over a decade, approximately 1,320 patients suffered death due to
asthmatic co mplications in England and Wales, which is strongly linked
to air pollution, stated the Office for National Statistics. In total, 386,374
people died from pneumonia in England during the eight -year period but
there were widespread regional variations. “ Thousands of people in
England have died from pneumonia caused by po llution, a report
suggested ” (37).
A article released by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) in the
year 2005, stated that even in Europe, life expectancy is shortened due
to air pollution by an average of nine months for everyone (37).
Below is a graphical repr esentation from the same for mentioned BBC
article, regarding European countries and their rate of premature death,
linked to air pollution,(year 2000) (38)

– 29 –
The reason why children and fetuses are so much at risk, lies within the
particularity, that their respiratory organ system is still immature and they
can not co pe with pollution like adults.
Also mentioned in the British article, were “blackspots”, the most polluted
air to be found in the Benelux region from northern Italy and in new
members back then of the European un ion, like Poland and Hungary
(38). Shorted l ife expectancy was found to be worst in Belgium, with a
loss of a total 13.6 months of life, and the Netherlands with 12.7 months.
Finland was the least affected, losing jus t 3.1 months on average,
followed by the Irish at 3.9 months (38).
In 2004 the US EPA proposed changes in diesel engine technology
(Tier 2), since they estimated that these charges would result in several
thousands of f ewer premature mortalities , fewer heart attacks fewer
emergency department visits by children with asthma, and fewer
respiratory -related hospital admissions each year in the United States .
All of the following gr aphs are obtained by US EPA (39):

– 30 –

– 31 –

– 32 –

Lung Cancer R isk and Air Pollution
Epidemiological studies provide direct evidence on the presence and
magnitude of cancer risk in humans. In spite of this, epidemiological
approaches to assess environmental cancer risks have serious
limitations.
First, the effects pertain to exposures during earlier years or decades.
The exposure panorama has changed extensively during the last
decades, which hampers interpre tation of cancer risks of current
exposures.
Second, as the risks are near the detection limit of present
epidemiological methodology, the studies are particularly sensitive to
bias resulting from uncontrolled confounding or impr ecise estimation of
exposure .
Lung cancer is responsible for nearly one in five cancer deaths in the

– 33 –
whole world.
It makes up 19.4% of all cancer deaths and is the leading cause of
cancer death in men in 87 countries and in women in 26 countries (40).
It is well known that the vast majority of lung cancer is caused by
tobacco smoking, but in the last decades, researchers are more and
more concerned about environmental factors too. Therefore, outdoor air
pollution has gained attention and it was more frequently linked to a wide
range of adverse health effects.
Not only ranging in all the before mention ed risks, such as increased
mortality and morbidity due to respiratory and non -malignant
cardiovascular diseases, but also to its role playing in lung malignancy.
Due to increasing evidence, the WHO and governments in Europe, the
US and Canada have tighten ed air quality rules and standards in the last
decades.
About 1 in 10 lung cancer cases in the United Kingdom, are thought to
be mainly related to outdoor air pollution exposure (41).
A study performed by the American Cancer Society (ACS), concluded
that “each 10 -microgram /m elevation in fine particula r matter air pollution
was associated with approximately a 4%, 6%, and 8% increased r isk of
all-cause, cardiopulmonary, and lung cancer mortality (42).
North American and European research that used spatial statistical
methods estimated individual long term exposure health effects. Nyberg
et al approximated, the highest relative risk of lung cancer caused by air
pollution, must be twenty years or even more, before diagnosis .
A full manifes tation therefore can only be observed, after decades of
long term exposure, of individuals that are scientifically followed up.
Lung cancer death ’s due to air pollution is estimated to be as high a s
62000 per annum worldwide (43).
It is important to highlight that this number is much lower to the 712 000
deaths due to non -malignant cardiac and respiratory pathologies, also

– 34 –
caused by polluted air. Highest at risk are people living in poll uted cities.
In India and China a lot of st rongly polluted cities can be found.
According to the “International Agency for Research on Cancer” “ more
than half of all lung cancer deaths attributable to ambient particular
matter were estimated to have been in China and other East Asian
Countries ” (44).

Often it is wrongly believed that cars and power plants cause alone air
pollution, but looking at the following map, one can observe that PM
concentration ’s are high areas where there are not that many cars, like
in developing countries: (45) In North Africa one can see high
concentrations of PM and the reason behind it is, that its population is

– 35 –
burning tons of biomass fue l, such as coal and wood. It is estimated, that
2,400 000, 000 people are still using biomass fuel for cooking purposes.
The graphic bel ow was published by the WHO (45).
The countries most worried about air pollution are:

Since there is a lack of reliable studies and research in general in
developing countries, governments should work more with scientists to
strive for more accurate data, so risks could be more specific estimated.

The goal of scientific studies should especially help us to fill up the
“scientific -gaps”, addressing the greatest risks, which are n ot just lung
malignancies, but other health impacts that occur much earlier in life,
such as non -malignant cardiovascular and respiratory pathologies.
Since in developing countries, biomass burning is still widely used for
heating and cooking purposes, res earch should be orientated also
towards indoor air pollution and not just ambie nt air pollution.

– 36 –

Special Review

– 37 –
Introduction

Air does not respect borders; therefore its quality affects all countries
and beings on earth. Unfortunately, air pollution has worsened in the last
decades. Especially the vulnerable in our society are most affected, such
as children, p regnant women, children and elderly people .
Freiburg ranks definitely as a green city, especially with German
innovative and efficient thinking regarding profit, engineering, planning
and social cooperation.
German mentality is quite “green”, in the sense that it is nature –
orientated . Not just that Gre en parties are on the rise in genera l in
Europe , but in the recent European elections of 26. May 2019, the
German Green Party only won 2nd place. R esidents are putting for a long
time an accent on keeping their region “green”. For example, they

– 38 –
managed to chancel the construction of a nuclear power plant by
protesting in the mid 1970s, without a worth mentioning governmental
resistance (46). Also the municipal promoted alternatives to replace
more and more classic transportation, by introducing more trams, bicycle
roads and more pedestrian s sidewalks. Freiburg also belongs since
1986 to the very first German cities to ad opt production of local energy.
“In 2007 the Municipal Council decided to reduce its CO 2 emissions by
40% by 2030. This target was updated in 2014 to 50% less CO 2
emissions by 2030 and 100% of energy from renewable sources by
2050. To achieve the goal of being climate -neutral by 2050, the city has
launched a large number of initiatives focused on construction, energy,
private households, transport, forestation, natu re conservatio n, waste
management and tourism ” (47).
In my thesis I would like to compare the change in air quality in urban
and suburban areas of Freiburg in Breisgau, Germany in between the
years of 2013 -2017.
Material and Methods
In this retrospective -descriptive study, only data collected by the LUBW
(Landesanstalt für Umwelt Baden -Württemberg/ Institute of Environment
Baden – Württemberg) were used. The LUBW provides free access to its
database.
All data can be downloaded by anyone for free from their homepage:
http://udo.lubw.baden -wuerttemberg.de
All the graphs included in this study were created with the program
“NUMBERS”, designed by Apple, Version 5.0.1 (5579).
Since the aim of this study is to compare air quality in urban and
suburban areas of Fre iburg, values were obtained by 2 different
measure stations:

– 39 –
The urban measuring station is located at:
Address: Talstrasse, next to Schwarzwaldstraße, 79102 Freiburg
Geographical Position:
Easting: 32414935 /
7°51'35.59"
Northing: 5315688 /
47°59'19.80"
Altitude: 289

In service since: 0 6.05.2004 – today . Pollutants included in this study,
measured monthly: O 3, NO 2/NO,SO 2 Pollutants included in this study ,
measured annually:NO 2/NO PM 10, PM2,5 . (48)
The suburban measuring station is located at:
Address Fehrenbachallee, 79106 Freiburg
Geographical Position:
Easting: 32412885 /
7°49'55.63"
Northing: 5317129 /
48°00'05.46"
Altitude: 262m

In service since: 01.06.1979 – today
Pollutants included in this study , measured monthly: NO 2/NO.
Pollutants included in this study , measured annually: O 3,NO 2/NO,
PM 10, PM2,5. (49)

– 40 –
Urban measurement station:

– 41 –
Results

Monthly Levels Urban and Suburban NO 2/NO
Period: January 2013 – December 2015
SU: Suburban Freiburg (Address: Fehrenbachallee)
U: Urban Freiburg (Address: Schwarzwaldstrasse)

Both nitric oxide and nitric dioxide levels were higher in the urban area of
the city of Freiburg, compared to suburban levels, measured in the
period January 2013 -till December 2015
Highest means were reported during the winter months. Highest of all
nitric oxide level of 98µg /m³ was measured in November 2014 in urban
Freiburg.
0 26 52 78 104 130
Jan. 2013 Jan. 2014 Jan. 2015 Dec. 2015 monthly mean (arithmetic) µg/m³
Title NO2 (SU) NO (SU) NO2 (U) NO (U)

– 42 –
Annual Levels Urban and Suburban NO 2/NO

Period: 2013 – 2015
Location: Urban & Suburban
SU: Suburban Freiburg (Address: Fehrenbachallee)
U: Urban Freiburg (Address: Schwarzwaldstrasse)

The graph below represents nitric oxide and nitric dioxide levels, which
were both higher in the urban area of the city of Freiburg, compared to
suburban levels, measured in the period January 2013 -till December
2015. According to the WHO NO2 Guideline val ues, the
recommended annual mean of 40 μg/m3 was exceeded only in urban
Freiburg in the above years mentioned, with the highest being reported
as 65 μg/m3 in 2013. This was classified as “moderate” quality and
recommendations are that “Individuals who are unusually sensitive to
NO 2 should consider limited prolonged outdoor exertion” (50).
22 19 19
9 8 7 65 62 56 73 70 64
0 25 50 75 100 NO2 µg/m³/mean annual

– 43 –
Annual Levels Suburban and Urban Particular Matter 10 μg/m3
Location: Urban & Suburban
Period: 2015 – 2016
SU: Suburban Freiburg (Address: Fehrenbachallee)
U: Urban Freiburg (Address: Schwarzwaldstrasse)

The graph above represents annual means of particular matter 10 µm,
documented in urban and suburban areas in Freiburg for the year 2015
and 2016. Measured l evels in both areas were lower in the following
year 2016. According to the WHO PM 10Guideline values, the
recommended annual mean of 20 μg/m3 was therefore not exceeded.
Highest annual mean PM 10 was recorded in urban Freiburg 2015,
reaching 19 μg/m3. “These are the lowest levels at which total, cardio –
pulmonary and lung cancer mortality have been shown to increase with
more than 95% confidence in response to long -term exposure to PM2.5
(50).16
14 19 18
0,0 6,25 12,5 18,75 25,0
2015 2016 PM 10 μg/m3/mean annual

– 44 –
Annual Suburban Levels O 3
Annual Average of O 3
Period: 2015 -2016
Suburban Freiburg (Address: Fehrenbachallee)

The graph above represents the annual mean of suburban ozone, also
called trioxygen , in the city of Freiburg. Levels were measured in µg/m³
and higher in 2015 than in 2016.

54
48
0 50 100
2015 2016 O3 µg/m³ (mean annual) Suburban

– 45 –
Monthly Levels Suburban O 3 in 2013 -2015
Suburban Freiburg (Address: Fehrenbachallee)

The graph above represents the monthly means of suburban ozone
levels, measure in
µg/m³, in the period of January 2013 till December 2015. Peak
incidences were in the months June, July and August, in all three years.
Highest measured value was reported in July 2015, with a monthly mean
level of 93µg/m³. Ozone at ground level – not to be confused with the
ozone layer in the upper atmosphere –makes up big parts of
photochemical smog. Its formation results due to reactions with sunlight,
photochemical process es of pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NO x)
produced by industry vehicle emissions . As a result, meteorologically
speaking, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during periods of
sunny weather.
0 25 50 75 100
Jan. 2013 Oct. 2013 July 2014 March 2015 Dec. 2015 SU O3 in µg/m³ 2013 -2015 monthly mean(arrithm.)

– 46 –
Monthly Levels Suburban SO 2-2013 -2015
Suburban F reiburg (Address: Fehrenbachallee)

The graph above represents monthly means of suburban sulfur dioxide
levels, measured in µg/m³ between the months of January 2013 and
December 2015. Highest level documented in that period was December
2013 with 3,0 µg/m ³.

0 1 2 3 4
Jan. 2013 Jan. 2014 Jan. 2015 Dec. 2015 SO2 µg/m³ (arithm.mean)

– 47 –
Daily Urban Means PM10 µg/m³ in 2013
Urban Freiburg (Address: Schwarzwaldstrasse)

The graph above represents daily means of particular matter 10 µm,
measured in µg/m³ , documented in urban Freiburg in the year 201 3.
0 25 50 75 100
January June (in µg/m³)

– 48 –
Daily Urban Means PM10 µg/m³ in 2014
Urban Freiburg (Address: Schwarzwaldstrasse)

The graph above represents daily means of particular matter 10 µm,
measured in µg/m³ , documented in urban Freiburg in the year 201 4.

0 25 50 75 100
January June December (in µg/m³)

– 49 –
Daily Urban Means PM10 µg/m³ in 2015
Urban Freiburg (Address: Schwarzwaldstrasse)

The graph above represents daily means of particular matter 10 µm,
measured in µg/m³, documented in urban Freiburg in the year 201 5.
0 25 50 75 100
January June December (in µg/m³)

– 50 –
Daily Mean Levels Urban CO in 2016 -2017
Urban Freiburg (Address: Schwarzwaldstrasse)

The graph above represents daily means of carbon monoxide, measure
in mg/m³ in the period of January 2016 -December 2017 in urban
Freiburg. The highest level was measured on 6th December 2016 ,
reaching 1,2 mg/m³ of CO. 0 0,25 0,5 0,75 1 1,25 1,5 CO mg/m³

– 51 –
Discussion

In Germany, environmental pollution is decreasing in the last decade.
For example, the government managed to rise the use of renewable
energy from 6,3% (2000) to 34% (2016). Through a consequent ial
transition of using sources of renewable energy, Germany has become
the leader in climate change policy not just in the European Union, but in
the whole world.
In 2016, the German Climate Action Plan 2050 ( Aktionsprogramm
Klimaschutz 2050) was approved and introduced by the government,
which describes measures to d ecrease their emission of greenhouse
gas (GHG) by 55% by 2030 and the reduction of it by 80 -95% by the
year 2050.
Four strategies and polici es were set to achieve the above mentioned
goals:
-Establishing environmental Equality S tandards
-Restricting Emi ssion with the help the best current available T echnology
-Regulations of P roduction
-Laying down Emission Ceilings
Different Policy Instruments have contributed to their success so far:
Technical Instructions on Air Control (TA Luft): Is trying to lowe r the
harm of air pollution on their inhabitants and nature, by setting emission
limit values. Preexisting installations must then be always updated to the
best available technology.
Air quality control in Germany is mainly governed by the Act on the
Preve ntion of Harmful Effects on the Environment caused by Air
Pollution, Noise, Vibration and similar Phenomena.

– 52 –
Federal Emission Control Act and Implementing Ordinances: Controlling
and improving German air quality is regulated by acting in prophylactic
ways, like increasing renewable energy sources, resulting in the
reduction of adverse health effects on its citizens but also on nature and
animals.
In 2000 the German Feed -in-Tariff policy (=Einspeisevergütung) was
introduced. Germany was the first country ever to do this, when they
passed its Energy Feed Law in 1990, which resulted in a strong increase
of using renewable energy, like: bio mass, wind – and hydro power,
geothermal power and photovoltaics. The following graph was obtained
from Fr aunhofer Insti tut, Freiburg (51).

– 53 –
Implementation of the directive on industrial emissions
Transboundary air pollution control policy : since a big p art of Germany ’s
air pollution is caused by importing and exporting goods by planes,
Germany is constantly holding talks regarding air pollution on a
European , but also international level.
Feed -in Tariffs (FIT) encourage German citizens to invest into ne w
energy technologies, by remuneration (=“Tarif” in German). Also long
term contracts were given to producers of renewable energy, which are
based on the costs of generation. Therefore, investors and producers
can survive and easily research for new techno logies, without fearing
that cheaper prices of non -renewable energy suppliers, will lead to
shutting down their businesses.
The Germa n government plays therefore an immense role in all these
positive changes. The Conservative -Social -Democratic party leads the
German government since 2005 and due to their priorities, they are
working constantly on the German and European climate and energy
policies.
There have been several rea sons discussed which caused these
governmental and German mentality changes, like: The growing
awareness of air pollution and its link to health damage, due to smog,
but also its damage to nature due to acid rain.
In 1973 and in 1979 Germa ny suffered two oil price crisi s, which caused
awareness and anxiety of depending too much on unpredictable and
foreign energy sources, in case a crisis would break out in the future
again.
Also a huge change in Germa n mentality took place and by this
meaning, that there was a growing opposition exponenti ally to the
growing reliance on nuclear energy, after nuclear power plants disaster,
like the one in Fukushima, that took place 2011.

– 54 –
“In 2007 the Municipal Council decided to reduce its CO 2 emissions by
40% by 2030. This target was updated in 2014 to 50% less CO 2
emissions by 2030 and 100% of energy from renewable sources by
2050. To achieve the goal of being climate -neutral by 2050, the city has
launched a large number of initiatives focused on construction, energy,
private households, transport, forestat ion, nature conservatio n, waste
management and tourism” (47).
The Environmental Badge
With the help of introducin g “Fine Particles Badge”, also called
“Environmental Badge”, the German government is putting effort in
reduction of air pollution, thus following the European directive on air
quality and the health of its inhabitants. Mainly the emission reduction of
fine particles (PM) is the target.
Germany itself has declared 55 zones in different cities through the
whole country already as so called “environmental zones”. I n these
zones, a traffic ban w as introduced for all vehicles that do not respond to
the norm EUR O4. Since then, the fine particle concentration in German
cities has on averag e- already decreased by 10% (52). Nitrogen oxides
(NOx) concentration reduction was not achieved so far. In contrary, its
levels has permanently in creased in the past 10 years (52).
As part of the Germans government “Action Plan” for keeping air cleaner
(“Luftreinehalteplan”) and improving air quality, “low emission zones”
were introduced in many cities. Among them also Freiburg, a city locate d
in the lower left corner of Germany, situated in the Black Forest, in
southern Germany.
The Cities Municipal Freiburg i.Brsg. took action, as part of exceeding
measured values of particular matter and nitrogen dioxide levels in the
past years , combined with complaints of local residents , living right next

– 55 –
to the cities centers roads, where traffic and therefore pollution levels by
vehicle emission is highest.
The city itself has forced into action since 1st January 2010, such an
“Environmental Zon e”, covering approximately 28km. Beginning with
March 2019, the zone will ex pand, by including new roads (53).

Since January 2010, all drive rs, not just Freiburg inhabitants had
therefore to get such badges. The TÜV=Technischer
Überwachungsverein”, which is translated with: “Technical Inspection
Association, is a common place to receive such a badge. Other
municipals administrative institutions are alternative sources. Also an
online delivery service was introduced. For obtaining such badge online,
one must scan the following documents/information: registration
certificate, registration number, first date of registration, category of the
vehicle (car, small/big truck, bus), the type of fuel for its engine, and a
document, stating the the Euro -norm of the vehicle and -if present –

– 56 –
details about retrof itting with a particle filter (54).

In exchange of 9,90 Euro fee, the badge will then be delivered, after a
duration of 3 -7 workdays.
Depending on how high the pollution emission of a car is, a different
“Umweltplakette”, a different “ Environmental Badge or S ticker ” is handed
out The environmental badge must be stuck on the windscreen, from the
inside, on the right side below. As long as the motor, the emissions norm
or the registration plate of the vehicle remain s unchanged, the
environmental badge remains va lid for the lifetime of the vehicle.
These “Environmental Stickers” have different colors: “Green Badge”
being the “best” followed be “Yellow” and “Red”. Cars with a "very high
pollution emission ”, were no bandage granted at all.
For the lifetime of the vehicle , the environmental badge does not l ose its
validity, as long as the emissions norm, motor and/or the registration
plate remains unchanged. The badge must be stuck on the windscreen,
from the inside, on the right side below.
The“Green Sticker” allow s driving and parking in low -emission -areas,
without any restrictions in the near future.
On the contrary, in 2009 the Government announced, that cars with the
“Yellow Sticker”will not be allowed anymore driving through
environmental zones starting with 01 .01.2013. The least measurement
that must be undergone for such cars , is a retrofitting with a particle filter.
Vehicle owners with a “Red Sticker” were given a maximum time until
31.12.2012 for applying for a “Yellow Badge” , via a “National Exception
Authorization”. Any application aft er the deadline is excluded, excep t for
a very few.
Vehicles without any environmental sticker, meaning that they belong to
very-high-emission vehicles, are prohibited from being operated in any

– 57 –
environmental zone in Germany .
The low emission zone is clearly signposted with road signs, informing
the driver, that he entered the “Environmental Zone”. Driving without any
environmental badge in a protected area, or driving without authorization
in a diesel restricted area, will b e fined with a penalty of 80 Euro, plus 25
Euro of administration charges. Also continuing ones journey is usually
prohibited (55). There is a possibility to upgrade ones Euro 1, 2 or 3
vehicle. Information about retrofitting a car which is not Euro 4 with a
new “particle filter” can be obtained from ones car dealer for example.
Germany belongs to the countries that have managed to reduce their
own air pollution significantly in the past decades.
Germany ambitiously targeted reducing its green house gas es (GHG)
emissions by switching to newer, so called renewable energy sources.
The new t rend of using renewable energy use rose in the year 2000 from
6.3% within the next six years to 34% Through the realization and
successfully switching to renewable energy sources , Germany has
become the leader when it comes to climate change policy leader in the
European Union (EU) and in the world with with the countries climate
change programs. The current target of the German government was
approved on 14 .11.2016 in the German Climate Action Plan 2050 , which
introduced measures by which Germany can meet its greenhouse gas
emissions target by 2050. Till the year 2050, Germany wants to reduce
their GHGs by 80 % down to 95% and by 2030 they want to reduce it
even more down to 55%, compared to the EU target of 40% (55).

– 58 –
Traffic signs indicating
pedestrians are about to
enter environmental zones:
Image obtai ned from:
Fotolia Adobe Sock (56)

On the left environmental
badges can be seen, as in
use in Germany (57)

– 59 –
Conclusions

-According to the WHO PM 10 Guideline values, the
recommended annual mean of 20 μg/m3 was therefore not exceeded
during the years 2015 and 2016.
-According to the WHO PM 2.5 µm Guideline values, the
recommended annual mean of 10 μg/m3 therefore were slight ly -still-
exceeding during the years 2015 and 2016, both in urban and suburban
areas (50).
-But at the same time, it must be underlined that progress took place
during the years 2015 -2016, since both PM 10 and PM 2,5 in urban and
subur ban areas have been decreasing.
A likely major contributor are environmental zones and its restricted
access according to environmental badges, that were introduced in the
year 2010, contributing to air quality improvement from year after year
since then.
Since the content fo cus upon only on some factors, more variables must
be taken into consideration in order to approximate better, how many
other contributors there are in total, and how big the role of each played.
-According to the EPA NO 2Guideline values (page 10 of this t hesis) , the
recommended annual mean of 50 μg/m3 was not exceeded in suburban
Freiburg and therefore categorized as “good” according to their Air
Quality Index. On the other hand, urban Freiburg values were exceeded
in the years 2013, 2014 and 2015, with peak reported 65 μg/m3 in 2013.
-For the high levels carbon monoxide in December 2016, no explanation
was found.

– 60 –

-CO concentration means by the suburb an located measurement statio n
were not recorded during 2016.2017, therefore no comparison could
been done.
All in a ll, the citizens of Freiburg have b een breathing air of good of
quality for a long time, with increasing quality even in the past years
since measurement s were implemented.

– 61 –
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