Traducerea Grupurilor Adjectivale din Engleza In Romana

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Traducerea Grupurilor Adjectivale din Engleza In Romana

Byadmin ianuarie 1, 2024

Traducerea Grupurilor Adjectivale din Engleză în Română (în Baza Termenilor Economici)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER I. TRANSLATION OF ECONOMIC TEXTS.

I.1. Translation Issues in Economic Texts

I.2. Definition and Classification of Errors

I.3. The Existing Relationships between the Common and Specialized Lexicon

I.4. Specialized Language Particularities

CHAPTER II. THE NOTION OF THE ADJECTIVAL PHRASE IN ENGLISH

II.1. The Adjective and the Adjectival Construction

II.2. Adjectival Group Particularities

II.3. Adjective Phrase vs. Adjectival Phrase

II.4. Translation of Adjectival Groups and the Construction with ”of”

II.5. Syntactic functions of the adjectival Group

CHAPTER III. INTRA AND INTERLINGUAL COMPARATIVE CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE ADJECTIVAL GROUPS

III.1. The Determination of Translation Unit.

III.2. Phrase Level Structures

III.3. Interlingual Comparative Contrastive Analysis of the Economic Terms

III.4. Schemes of Morphological Analysis of the Economic Terms

CONCLUSIONS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANNEXES

INTRODUCTION

Nowadays, translation research started to take another path, which is more automatic. The invention of the internet, together with the new technological developments in communication and digital materials, has increased cultural exchanges between nations. This leads translators to look for ways to cope with these changes and to look for more practical techniques that enable them to translate more and waste less.

The present paper aims to be a theoretical and practical approach, especially in the field of economic translations. The view of translation has, however, changed over the years, which has consequently resulted in several theories about the discipline [Ingo 14, p. 15]. It is structured in three chapters, each of which covering important issues related to translation studies and translation process.

The first chapter sets out to examine a critical survey of the most important trends and contributions to translation studies, especially in the specialized language and it briefly describes the history of the development of the discipline. The purpose of this chapter is to examine what exactly is understood by translation and how each theorist approaches this domain according to his viewpoint and field of research. This section also highlights the fact that nowadays' translation started to take a more automatic path.

The invention of the internet, together with the new technological developments in communication and digital materials, has increased cultural exchanges between nations.

The second chapter looks at translation from three perspectives: translation quality, errors and difficulties in translating economic texts (definition, classification, implications), and consequences of errors in professional translation. First of all, the chapter points out the importance of performing a good and correct translation (synonymy, homonymy and polysemy, false friends), which is one of the most important elements to be considered when discussing translation.

All in all, the paper is an overview of the history of translation studies, of the errors and difficulties in translating text and of the consequences of errors in professional translation, with applications to the economic field.

CHAPTER I. TRANSLATION OF ECONOMIC TEXTS

I.1. Translation Issues in Economic Texts

This chapter aims to look at translation from at least three perspectives: translation quality, errors and issues in the process of translation. To start with, the general tendency is to consider translation as something that somebody can do with the help of a dictionary, but the fact is that producing a written text using another text as a basis is a much more complex phenomena than what is commonly believed.

The complexity becomes even more evident when the text in question deals with specialized subjects such as finance, banking, legal or economics. "In this particular case, when words belonging to the so-called General English appear next to specific terms and within a specific context, they contain nuances that must be accounted for in the final translation. The set of terms gathered together in a text and considered more or less specific establishes a helpful context for the reader to interpret, decode and subsequently to translate. In other words, the translator will be able to process and understand the information he has at his disposal. Such a contextual help becomes much more evident when translating a text of an eminently economic nature, basically making it almost impossible to analyze outside its context." This illustrates that a translation, apart from being cohesive, must also be coherent. The translator must take into account the contextual clues embedded in the discourse in order to avoid ambiguities in the produced document, as long as such ambiguity did not exist in the original one.

The following thesis aims at the problem related to the translation of the adjectival groups as well as the qualitative translation problems of a specialized text. At the roots of translation studies is the issue of translation quality. Numerous scholars such as Katharina Reiss, Juliane House and Susanne Lauscher have proposed various methods for determining what makes a good translation or whether a translation should be called good, adequate or appropriate. However, there is a tendency to regard translation errors solely from the academic point of view of studies and translation pedagogy, completely shut off from professional practice [Olteanu 18, p. 14]

As we all know, the accuracy is one of the most important conditions for a translation correctness. The criteria of accuracy varies according to the style and genre of the text. The translator should avoid altering the text, introducing improper, foreign elements in the translated text or performing a literal mechanical translation.

It is well known, that in order to translate means to express exactly and to reproduce not only the content of the original text but also the form of it.

At the present moment, the work of translation has strived at perfection and nothing less, however the demand has arisen for variation in both directions. "Levels of translation quality can be described at least in the following terms: raw translation, normal quality translation, extra-quality translation, adaptation of the original text.

Raw translation means a translation which sends the central meaning of the original text. There may be grammatical errors and misspellings, but the text has to be understandable. Typically, this could be translations of large amounts of scientific abstracts.

Normal quality translation corresponds roughly to the translations of old. The original text is fully translated and the translated text is grammatically correct and reasonably fluent. The text may be awkward at times, but the contents of the original text should be completely understood from the translation. Typically, this could be a translation of a technical manual.

Extra-quality translation implies that the translated text is both fluent and idiomatic. The translation should be assimilated completely to the cultural context of the target language. One should not be able to recognize the translated text as a translation. Typically, this could be an advertisement brochure or a piece of literature [http://www.translationquality.com].

All in all, errors are circumstantial evidence of quality and a precise error measurement is necessary as it provides sufficient indications of good or bad translations because nevertheless a good translation is a translation with very few errors or none at all.

The translator confronts with great difficulties when he tries to translate an old 'monument' of language into a language without any literary traditions. The precise reproduction of the content and form of the original text is a complicated task because every language has its own individual way of reflecting the environmental reality, organizing differently the data of the experience.

Although, there are inadmissible the cases of bad translation and not always is chosen the construction from a stylistic point of view reproduces exactly the original.

Frequently, one does not take into account the specific of the source language using as equivalents in their translation words that are from a different stylistic register than that of the original text, thing that leads to the alteration of the text. Many translators, mostly without experience, use the dictionary and choose at random the first equivalent of the word in the original. One of the basic issues, when dealing with translation is choosing the correct equivalent of the word. So, the responsibility of a translator is to find the suitable equivalent and use it in the right context.

I.2. Definition and Classification of Errors

Errors in translation mostly result from the non-equivalence between the source and the target languages [Baker 1, p. 20-21].

However, good translators with encyclopedic and linguistic knowledge, both the source and target languages know how to deal with them; therefore, "errors can indicate the quality of translations but in the same time they can reveal what is going on in the translator's thinking process." [Seguinot 22, p. 68]. In looking up the translator's mind, we may be able to give an explanatory account of the source of an error, which will throw some light on how to address problems in translation and in this respect, to improve the translation quality.

Translation errors are different from errors that occurs in spontaneous second language production. In translation, working with a source text induces errors under the influence of source language morphology whereas in spontaneous language production, native morphological system of language, the learner tends to interfere with knowledge of the second language system. In the case of the second language learner, identifying translation errors is tricky as translation errors may be mixed up with linguistic errors. In the literature of translation training, many studies have been done to find out what types of errors translators often commit in their process of rendering a certain structure from one language into another.

Thus, one believes in the necessity that translation deserves importance and we should not consider it a mechanical process that can be done with the help of a dictionary only.

I.3. The Existing Relationships Between the Common and Specialized Lexicon

The entirely vocabulary lexical units under the influence of the stylistic and functional factors are grouped into two main compartments: the one of the common language and the specialized one. Between these compartments are permanent reports, boundaries of which being easily penetrable. If the joint language is defined usually as the whole words that are commonly used in the specialized language belonging to all the lexical items that are in a way or another, linked to a specific activity of a scientific-professional field and are used by a group of speakers in their written or oral communication, within the social existence, professional and cultural area. It has a limited scope of use and, consequently, is understood by only a strictly determined social group. The existing relations between the general and common lexicon make possible the lexicon units movement from one register to another. On the one hand, the specialized language attracts through specialization and transfer current elements of the common lexicon, and on the other hand, it borrows terms to other lexical areas that may be subject to other specialties or to a new metaphoric transfer.

Nowadays, it is often the opposite: by the popularization of special concepts the signifiers lose their terminological precision and enter thus in a wider circuit. One of the main features of the specialized language consists in the specific nature of the existent relationship fic activity of a scientific-professional field and are used by a group of speakers in their written or oral communication, within the social existence, professional and cultural area. It has a limited scope of use and, consequently, is understood by only a strictly determined social group. The existing relations between the general and common lexicon make possible the lexicon units movement from one register to another. On the one hand, the specialized language attracts through specialization and transfer current elements of the common lexicon, and on the other hand, it borrows terms to other lexical areas that may be subject to other specialties or to a new metaphoric transfer.

Nowadays, it is often the opposite: by the popularization of special concepts the signifiers lose their terminological precision and enter thus in a wider circuit. One of the main features of the specialized language consists in the specific nature of the existent relationship between its component elements and concepts or objects known.

These links has a more or less regular character for the words of the common lexicon, naming ordinary objects and common concepts in everyday life. These were formed over centuries and were adopted by speakers along with learning the language. As a result, compared to the language code, the specialized lexicon is secondary and is artificially developed from created or borrowed indigenous elements. In case of the indigenous words have developed specialized meanings, this secondary character, in relation to the general lexicon is more obvious.

For example: heel, 1. the back part of the human foot below the ankle. 2. the back part of the foot in vertebrate animals. 3. the part of a shoe or boot supporting the heel. 4. The part of a sock covering the heel.

In comparison with the common lexicon, in the specialized language are used more neologisms loans, which favors the communication between specialists from different linguistic areas. These loans are extracted from their professional field, being usually classified in the system as a literary language neologisms and professionalism, understood and possibly used by speakers who do not belong to these professional sphere. Specialized languages are inextricably linked to the national language. These are using the same phonetics and grammar. The differences are manifested mainly in the lexicon, in which the nouns prevails.

Specialized vocabulary words are grouped in the lexical systems isolated by the words from the common lexicon, and are correlating with other notional-objectual fields. Sometimes the homonymy of words appears in the common and specialized lexicon as units belonging to different fields.

On the bases of the current language, the specialized language is characterized with a clear and concise expression, the concepts being precisely defined or described, defining its own pure denotative and mono-semantic terminology. The specialized languages may be placed only by the current language, their basic concepts can be defined only by this language, and using the logical thinking are obtained the deducted formulas from these basic concepts.

Since the specialized language has no particularities of grammatical structure or main lexical background different from the national language, the specialists from a certain theoretical or practical field are using the standard literary language, in which are placing the necessary terms to describe concepts to their field of activity. By the industrialization of everyday life, the migration of the lexical elements from the scientific-technical sphere for the usual vocabulary is growing. The dictionaries records this phenomenon, including terms that belongs to various specialized areas.

In the specialized languages, the used vocabulary has a heterogeneous structure. It defines two relatively independent layers:

1. The non-terminological lexicon; 2. the specialized lexicon, consisting of:

a) the general scientific lexicon; b) the terminological lexicon.

In terms of style, the non-terminological lexicon makes up the neutral level containing words of common literary language. Generally there are few neologisms that serve to explain certain concepts, phenomena or properties. The following action verbs belongs to this lexicon: to prove, to treat, to formulate, to characterize, to extract, to give, to communicate, etc., the abstract and verbal origin nouns: topicality, use, introduction, attraction; adjectives and adverbs with appreciative sense: active, actual, positive, negative, significant etc.

The non-terminological lexicon in the technical-scientific communication is the basis on which a scientific text is build. The proportion of these words varies by the receiver. Thus in the strictly specialized texts, the number of common words is lower than in the popularized science papers. The selection of the literary lexicon words is usually done according to their ability to express a general scientific notion or naming a class of objects, phenomena etc. This explains the frequent presence of the words with abstract and generalized meanings.

a) The General scientific lexicon contains terms with one or more meanings that works in one area or in all specialized areas. The terms of this category are widely used, expressing special concepts, with a broad profile correlated with phenomena, processes etc. in various areas of the surrounding reality. It represents the basic scientific notional fund and, not coincidentally, have a very high frequency. We mention terms like: (rom.) operation, phenomena, process, system, hyperbole, dislocation, to rely, to absorb, abstract, adaptation, acclimatization, acceleration etc.; (fr.) effet, sens, structure, valeur, conclure, opposer, essentiellement, relativement etc., expressing basic concepts without which the specialized communication would be difficult.

b) The terminological lexicon is the specificity area of the non-artistic functional styles, in particular, of the scientific style. It is consisted of the terms that are grouped in various nomenclature and terminology. The terms correspond exactly to the scientific communication objectives, being the linguistic concretization of the main extra-linguistic features of the scientific style. They are in the terminological systems, each corresponding to a specific system concepts for science, electricity, school, etc.

The term is the basic unit of these systems; it expresses theoretical concepts or scientific names concepts, phenomena, processes, instruments, etc. Having a special semantics, the terms are the fullest part of information from the specialized lexicon, they are the ones that differs from the literary language lexicon by the lexicon used in various specialized fields.

The terms are marked by abbreviations like: astron. (astronomy), arch. (architecture), biol. (biology), ling. (linguistic), med. (medicine) etc.

The term is considered mono-semantic, while the word is most often polysemous. There are schools that continue to promote the terminological monosemy, although this principle is no longer valid in terminology. Most scholars argue that the monosemy is no longer an absolute property, but a sought ideal, difficult to achieve.

The terms also differ from the common language words by having a precise target and limited use to a clearly defined field of knowledge, even if at the origin are common language words. Unlike the word, the term belongs to a specialized field that needs all the time to be specified.

I.4. Specialized language particularities

The specialized translations suppose knowledge and command of the specialized notions and terms specific to the field to which they belong. Specialized languages give the name of specialized translations.

The main issue connected to translating from and into a specialized language, irrespective of the field, regards the competences translators should have. In this respect, translators have the triple advantage of mastering phrases, of being used to formulating sentences and familiar to the way language functions. In fact, the translators’ art consists in mastering terminology and writing techniques, knowing the conventions specific to each type of text.

After all, the translation act resides in overcoming polysemy or ambiguities and in rephrasing information from one linguistic code to another, allowing the message to be conveyed from the source text into the target language, in terms of communication, mediation or message.

It is a well-known fact that the semantic derivation process, as a way to enrich vocabulary, allows words from the common language to penetrate into the specialized one, as, via resemantisation (analogy or metaphoric use are essential), they acquire the status of specialized terms. The transfer of a word from general use into a specialized language by amplifying its semantic structure with a new meaning is a process which specialists call terminologisation. Many words in the common language are terminologized due to the combination of words with a terminological character (for example, in Romanian blocadă economică, bani gheață, preț de piață, preț de cost, vad comercial, pachet de acțiuni etc.) or by means of transfers from other languages (for Romanian, the most frequent sources are French and English: cont descoperit, vânzare en gros, plată cash, intrare free etc.).

Although everyday language and specialized languages use the same phonetics and grammar, the differences become manifest especially as regards the lexis (lexical systems are formed with meanings isolated from the common language), in which nouns prevail. They are followed by verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Thus, for exemplification, if in the Romanian common language nouns such as scară, cameră, cutie, corp are easy to understand without determiners, in the specialized language, a determinant is imperative in order to delimitate the terminological fields: (techn.) scară rulantă; (mus.) scară muzicală; (phys.) scara durității; (techn.) camera de comandă; camera de sunet; (mil.) camera cartușului; (techn.) cutie de viteze; (mus.) cutie de rezonanță; (med.) cutie craniană; (jur.) corp delict; (chem.) corp simplu; (med.) corp străin; (techn.) corp de literă. Conversely, the penetration of words from specialized languages into everyday language is mostly due to the media and the Internet, as well as to the attempts to vulgarize the realities named. Although the morphological adaptation of anglicisms arises many adaptation problems to Romanian, taking into account the differences between the two grammar systems.

The specialized language, developed from the common one, is characterized especially by clarity and concision. It precisely defines or describes concepts, creating its own, purely denotative and monosemantic terminology. Specialized languages can only be introduced with the help of the current language, their basic concepts being defined by means of this language only and the terms subsequently deduced being obtained from these basic concepts with the help of logical thinking. Given that specialized languages do not have other peculiarities as regards grammar structures or the basic vocabulary than the national language, specialists in a particular field of theoretical or practical activity use the standard literary language, in which they introduce the necessary terms to designate notions characteristic to the respective field of activity.

According to A. Guțu, the process of translating a text into a specialized language is characterized by the following: 1.the semasiological stage (which is connected to the text form in the source language), when translators have to: define their uncertainties, establish the comprehension level, delimitate the semantic and terminological units, conduct terminological research; 2. the onomasiological stage (which is connected to the meaning of the text, both in the source and in the target language), when translators have to: establish the necessary precision level for the target audience, to find the appropriate terminology to render meaning, to choose an appropriate form (univocal, clear and precise), to control meaning (internal and external coherence) and form (spelling, syntax, terminology). [Ana Gutu 8,] In order to translate a specialized text, one needs, first of all, to decode it. The decoding of the specialized text consists in comprehending the conceptual nucleus of the terminological notions used in the text.

The concept makes reference to the extra-linguistic reality. The economic language, permanently connected to the ever-changing reality, generates numerous registers. Terminology represents not only an integral part of the lexis specific to the economic language, but also one of its defining features, which, together with other language means, gives its status of specialized language. The economic specialized language is divided into sub-fields, so that there is a commercial language, a language of transportation, one connected to finance, insurance, human resources, management, tourism etc. In the economic specialized language, the stages of translating texts from English into Romanian differ from the general case only in point of the specific discourse, lexical or stylistic features of the text given.

In present paper we would emphasize the translation of nominal and adjectival groups from English into Romanian on the basis of economic texts.

CHAPTER II. ADJECTIVAL PHRASES CONSTRUCTIONS

II.1. The Adjective and the Adjectival Construction

The adjective depends by the noun and tend to form groups or syntactic units.

Generally, the Germanic languages from which English belongs, and Romance languages from which Romanian belongs, there is an opposition in terms of adjective collocation. The adjective collocation is freer in Romanian and Spanish than in English. If it is pre-posed it expresses some stylistic nuances, and when is postposition it specify the object and puts it in opposition to others. The adjective is invariable in English. Unlike English, in Romanian and Spanish, the adjectives are granted in gender and number. In English, the predicative adjective differs from epithet regarding to its collocation in a phrase, i.e. “a tall boy” – epithet, “the boy is tall” – predicative.

In the Romance languages, especially French, this determination between the predicate and epithet adjective exists, but it doesn’t have the rigor and accuracy as in German languages.

Adjectives are descriptions and classification of nouns and pronouns and have two main functions [Crystal 4, p.166]. An adjective occurring before a noun head in a noun phrase has an attributive function as it modifies the noun (pre-modifier), e.g. “a primary institution”. An adjective can also have a predicative function, exclusively when it occurs with copular verbs which is most frequently the verb be [Leech and Svartvik 17, p.218], e.g. “the family is constituted through general patterns of behavior”. In this case the adjective refers back to the subject, which makes it a subject complement, or more specifically, the whole adjective phrase – i.e. the adjective and its complement, together function as a subject complement. When adjectives have a predicative function they usually take a complement, i.e. they do not stand on their own and are followed by another structure which completes the adjective phrase [Estling Vannestål 7, p.240], which in this particular case is a prepositional phrase. An adjective can also refer back to the direct object of a sentence which then makes it an object complement [Leech and Svartvik 16, p.218], as in “supporters of the status quo […] in society have made the term family values synonymous with traditional definitions of the family”.

Some adjectives can only function attributively while others can only occur in connection with copular verbs, and never in front of a noun head in a noun phrase.

There is an additional feature of adjectives, namely that some verb participles with -ed and -ing endings may be used as adjectives [Crystal 3, p.170]. For instance: “shifting economies” and “a married couple”. In order to decide whether a word can be used as an adjective or a verb participle, there are some helpful ‘rules’ that can be applied. In many cases it can be helpful to use one of the general rules: a modification by very is possible, the adjective can occur with another adjective, or with another copula verb other than be [Greenbaum and Nelson 11, p.58]).

However, it is not always possible to translate English adjectives as well as adjectival groups literally into Romanian; sometimes the translator needs to reformulate the entire adjective phrase into another phrase.

The most frequently used adjectives in English are monosyllabic or bisyllabic words of native origin such as good, bad, big, small, little, tall, short, black, white, easy, hard which have no distinctive form to mark them as adjectives. Many adjectives are derived from nouns, other adjectives and verbs by the addition of certain characteristic suffixes. Some of these are of native origin, as in greenish, hopeful, handsome, handy, foremost, while others are formed on Greek or Latin bases, as in central, secondary, apparent, civic, creative, and yet others via French such as marvellous and readable. Most adjectival prefixes are added to words which are already adjectives: unhappy, insecure, discourteous, abnormal, irrelevant. Some adjectives are formed by adding the prefix a- to a verb or adjective (asleep, awake, ablaze, alone). Many adjectives have compound forms composed of various classes of words, for example:

noun + adjective: tax-free (goods)

determinative + noun: all-American (girl)

number + noun four-wheel (drive)

adverb + participle well-balanced (character)

adverb + adverb well-off (people)

Adjectives in English are invariable in form. They are not marked for gender or number. A fair-haired girl – fair-haired girls; a tough character – tough characters.

Such adjectives express the following types of meaning:

• size, weight, extent: (note that these are often paired as opposites): big/ little,

large/ small, heavy/ light, long/ short, tall/ short, wide/ narrow, deep/ shallow

• colour: black, white, red, blue, green, yellow

• meanings related to time: young, old, new, recent, early, late, weekly, daily

• evaluative: pretty, beautiful, good, bad, nice, awful, dreadful, shocking

• an active or passive process (participial adjectives): frightening, surprising,

soothing, tired, exhausted, refreshed

• general qualities: hot, cold, full, empty, sweet, sour, hard, soft, strong, weak,

bright, dull

• a temporary state: asleep, alone, awake, ajar (with predicative function only)

These are of three types:

• restrictive: they restrict the referent of a noun in relation to another referent:

average, additional, chief, complete, entire, final, following, initial, main, only,

particular, primary, public, single, standard.

A sub-type relates the noun referent to time or place: old, new, previous, former,

right, left;

• relating to groups such as nationalities, religions, politics: Brazilian, Christian,

Muslim;

• category-specific meanings associated with culture, technology, science, and

so on.

restrictive: an only child, the standard size, the main reason, the entire novel, the

previous page, his former boss, my old school, her current boyfriend, your left leg,

my right hand

relating to groups: Greek sculpture, the Western powers, African music

category-specific meanings: a nuclear plant, a medical student, parliamentary

debates

II.2. Adjectival Group Particularities

The aim of this subchapter is to analyze the adjectival phrases, because are representing interest, both in intra-lingual and interlingual level.

An adjective phrase is a group of words that describe a noun or pronoun in a sentence. The adjective phrase can be placed before, or after, the noun or pronoun in the sentence.

An adjective phrase (or adjectival phrase) is a phrase whose head word is an adjective, e.g. “fond of steak”, “very happy”, “quite upset about it”, etc. The adjective in an adjective phrase can initiate the phrase (e.g. “fond of steak”), conclude the phrase (e.g. very happy), or appear in a medial position (e.g. “quite upset about it”). The dependents of the head adjective – i.e. the other words and phrases inside the adjective phrase – are typically adverbs or prepositional phrases, but they can also be clauses (e.g. “louder than you do”).

Adjectives and adjective phrases function in two basic ways in clauses, either attributively or predicatively. When they are attributive, they appear inside a noun phrase and modify that noun phrase, and when they are predicative, they appear outside the noun phrase that they modify and typically follow a linking verb (copula).

The adjective phrases are underlined in the following example sentences, the head adjective in each of these phrases is in bold, and how the adjective phrase is functioning – attributively or predicatively – is stated to the right of each example:

a) Sentences can contain tremendously long phrases. – Attributive adjective phrase;

b) This sentence is not tremendously long. – Predicative adjective phrase;

a) A player faster than you was on their team. – Attributive adjective phrase;

b) He is faster than you. – Predicative adjective phrase;

a) Sam ordered a very spicy but quite small pizza. – Attributive adjective phrases;

b) The pizza is very spicy but quite small. – Predicative adjective phrases;

a) People angry with the high prices were protesting. – Attributive adjective phrase.

b) The people are angry with the high prices. – Predicative adjective phrase;

The distinguishing characteristic of an attributive adjective phrase is that it appears inside the noun phrase that it modifies. An interesting trait of these phrases in English is that an attributive adjective alone generally precedes the noun, e.g. “a proud man”, whereas a head-initial also precedes its noun but a head-medial adjective phrase follows its noun, e.g. “a man proud of his children”. A predicative adjective (phrase), in contrast, appears outside of the noun phrase it modifies the predicate and stays usually after a linking verb, e.g. “The man is proud”.

Many present and past participles of verbs perform grammatical functions which are typical of those realized by adjectives, and for this reason are recognized as adjectives having the same form as participles, or as being derived from participles. We indicate them here by the symbols -ing and -en, and recognize the following classes:

Participial adjectives seldom used in VGs

This is a small set of forms which are never or very rarely used as part of a Verbal Group, but only as modifiers in NGs or as Complements (Cs and Co) in a clause, for example:

-ing: interesting, amazing, charming, disappointing, pleasing

-en: animated, ashamed, assorted, sophisticated

Pseudo-participial adjectives

An increasing number of adjectives are coined by adding -ing or -ed not to verbs but to nouns. These are termed pseudo-participial adjectives, such as:

-ing: enterprising, neighboring, appetizing

-en: talented, skilled, gifted, bearded, detailed

Participial adjectives commonly used as VGs

A large number of participial adjectives derived from transitive verbs can be used as

modifiers in a NG and as Complements in a clause, while also retaining their ability to function as part of a VG: A confusing remark (m); That is confusing (Cs); You are confusing me (part of VG). Forms which can carry out these functions include the following:

-ing: annoying, exciting, frightening, surprising, boring, distressing, satisfying,

tiring

-en: annoyed, excited, frightened, surprised, bored, distressed, satisfied, tired

In both their attributive and predicative functions, these participial adjectives can be

graded and intensified:

Attributive Predicative

-ing: very distressing news the news is most distressing

-en: rather frightened tourists the tourists seemed quite frightened

Participial modifiers

To distinguish the -ing adjectives from participial modifiers such as rising prices, we shall adopt the following criterion: if the -ing form cannot be graded, or intensified by very, as in 1, we shall consider it to be a participial modifier. If it can be graded, or intensified by very, we consider it an adjective. Compare a sleeping child with a horrifying story:

1 (participial modifier) a more/very sleeping child the child is more/very

sleeping

2 (adjective) a more/very horrifying story the story is more/very

horrifying

Furthermore, is sleeping in the child is sleeping will be interpreted as a verb, the predicative adjective being asleep. In examples such as sleeping bag, sleeping pill, the word sleeping is neither adjective nor verb, but a noun modifier (a bag/ pill for sleeping), the combination now having the status of a count noun. Past participles may often have either an adjectival or a verbal interpretation. In The flat was furnished, the participle may be understood either as part of a passive verb former as the adjectival Cs of the copula was.

Compound forms

Many participial forms are compounded with a noun, an adjective or an adverbial prefix, whose syntactic relationship with the verbal participle may be Subject, Object or Adjunct:

-ing: heart-breaking news; good-looking girl; fast-selling magazines

-en: well-paid workers; sun-tanned legs; well-known brands.

II.3. Adjective Phrase vs. Adjectival Phrase

The term adjectival phrase is sometimes used instead of adjective phrase. However, there is a tendency to call a phrase an adjectival phrase in such a case where that phrase is functioning like an adjective phrase, but does not contain an actual adjective. For example, in “Mr Clinton is a man of wealth”, the prepositional phrase “of wealth” modifies a man the way an adjective would, and it could be reworded with an adjective, e.g. “Mr Clinton is a wealthy man”. Similarly, “that boy is friendless” (the adjective friendless modifies both, the predicate and the subject “boy”) and “That boy is without a friend” (a prepositional phrase “without a friend” modifies “boy”).

Similarly, the term adjectival phrase is commonly used for any phrase in attributive position, whether it is technically an adjective phrase, noun phrase, or prepositional phrase. These may be more precisely distinguished as phrasal attributives or attributive phrases. This definition is commonly used in the English style guides for writing, where the terms attributive and adjective are frequently treated as synonyms on different levels “attributive” at the level of syntax and “adjective” at the level of morphology, because attributive phrases are typically hyphenated, whereas predicative phrases generally are not, despite both modifying a noun.

The structure of the adjective phrases (and of all other phrase types) is often represented using tree structures. There are two modern conventions for doing this, constituency-based trees of phrase structure grammars and dependency-based trees of dependency grammars. Both types of trees are produced here. The following trees illustrate head-final adjective phrases, i.e. adjective phrases that have their head adjective on the right side of the phrase:

The labels on the nodes in the trees are acronyms:

Adj = adjective Adv = adverb

AP = adjective phrase N = noun/pronoun

P = preposition PP = prepositional phrase.

The constituency trees identify these phrases as adjective phrases by labeling the top node with AP, and the dependency trees accomplish the same thing by positioning the AP node at the top of the tree. The following trees illustrate the structure of the head-initial adjective phrases, i.e. adjective phrases that have their head on the left side of the phrase, so to say, the head noun is pre-modified by an adjective phrase.

And the following trees illustrate the structure of head-medial adjective phrases:

Here we have a tree showing a mixed adjectival phrase. The important aspect of these tree structures – regardless of whether one uses constituency or dependency grammars to show the structure of phrases – is that they are identified as adjective phrases by the label on the top node of each tree.

II.4. Translation of Adjectival Group and the Construction with –of

“Of” is an English preposition that can be found within various expressions which has several equivalents in the Romanian language (Ljung and Ohlander 17, p. 266). Primarily, of is a simple preposition, i.e. occurs alone, but can also occur as a part of a complex preposition, i.e. occur with one or two additional words, e.g. of course and in spite of. Furthermore, as any other preposition, of usually has a prepositional complement as well, i.e. words that immediately follow the preposition (Estling Vannestål 7, p.363), as in traditional definitions of the family, and which most frequently is a noun phrase.

Another frequently occurring construction with of in English, is the of-construction which is a special kind of construction that has several functions, of which one is to express possession with nouns: the title of this chapter. Expressions like this can usually be expressed as s-genitives as well: this chapter’s title. However, the of-construction is much more frequently used “when the “owner” is not a person, animal, collective noun or geographical name”. Additionally, when the “owners” are a group of people in general, the of-construction is used rather than the genitive.

However, the of-construction does not only have a possessive function, but also concern other types of expressions. Partitives, constitute a group that consists of various expressions that can be used with uncountable nouns in English, when wanting to state the quantity: a piece of information [Biljana Milikic 18, p.11].

It is well known the fact that is extremely important for a translator to always respect the language that he or she is translating to; the grammatical rules in the TL need to be taken into consideration in order to attain a correct translation (1974:4). As mentioned above, adjectives have two main functions; they can either have an attributive or a predicative function. The attributive adjectives are followed by a noun has been translated into a compound noun, and in addition to this, has been somewhat modulated in order to be idiomatically correct in the TL. The amount of adjectives with a predicative function is much smaller compared to the previous group of attributive adjectives, in the ST as well as in the TT. The majority of these adjectives are subject predicative, i.e. adjectives that refer back to the subject of the clause.

The English language is full of constructions with the preposition of. As was mentioned earlier the of-construction is one group among these constructions. These are mainly used when expressing possession of inanimate things. However, this ‘rule’ is not always the most reliable, since the s-genitive occasionally appears in connection with inanimate things as well. The context and the rhythm of the text usually determines how to express possession (Svartvik and Sager 1996:156), as does the style of the text (Altenberg 1982:125).

It is known that a translator always needs to take the context into consideration when translating a text. An optimal translation does not always involve a literal translation; sometimes it is essential to disregard the structure of the ST and try to make the TT more fluent instead.

Other of-constructions, that according to Altenberg are obligatory, involve partitives (1982:27), i.e. countable expressions that are used with uncountable nouns (Crystal 2004:121).

II.5. Syntactic functions of the adjectival Group

Adjectival Groups can realize functions in both group and clause structures, as follows:

Adjectival Groups in groups:

• (pre-)modifier in a NG: a very good actor, heavy rain, an old friend

• (post-)modifer in a NG something cheap, the person responsible

• head of a NG: the French, the sick, the most expensive

• complement of a preposition: at last, for good, in short

• modifier in an Adjectival Groups: bright red, pale blue, red hot

Adjectival Groups in clauses:

• Subject Complement: The acting was brilliant.

• Object Complement: I consider that offensive.

Peripheral Adjectival Groups

• Stance Adjunct: Strange, I never suspected him.

• Detached predicative supplement: Angry and tearful, Susan walked out.

• Exclamation: Fine! Great! Right! Fantastic!

Among adjectives as modifiers, the type ‘a good actor’ constitutes a special use of certain adjectives, as in a slow reader, a hard worker, a big eater. This is sometimes called the process-oriented use, as the adjective doesn’t modify the noun directly, but rather the manner of performing the action. However, the manner of performing the action may become a characteristic feature of the entity: I’m a sound sleeper means, in effect, ‘I always sleep soundly’.

Stance Adjuncts make an evaluative comment on the content of the whole clause. In common use in this function are: odd, strange (Odd, I never noticed). Others such as More important still can also function as connectives between clauses.

Detached predicatives such as angry and tearful are a type of supplementive unit,

that is, a unit used non-restrictively (see 49.2) and are illustrated in the text in that

section. Syntactically, they are not integrated into the unit which they modify. They are thus free as regards position, though in practice they are usually found in initial rather than final or medial positions. They provide an economical means of adding contextual information which fills out the reader’s perception of the person or thing referred to. They are common in certain written genres and generally absent from conversation. Adjectives as exclamations as in Great! can be considered as ellipted copula clauses: That’s great! In addition, adjectives function in the exclamative structure initiated by how: How dreadful it was! This too can be ellipted to How dreadful!

Of these functions the most central are the attributive function, as modifier in the NG, and the predicative function, as Subject Complement in the clause. It is normal to classify as central those adjectives which fulfil these two functions, and as peripheral those which realize other functions, or only one, or neither of these central functions. Interestingly, central adjectives are also descriptors. They add information as part of the nominal group or as subject complement, which fills out and enlivens the description of people, places and things. Central adjectives also play an important role as evaluators, expressing the subjective or objective evaluation of the speaker. With the exception of the adjectives of temporary state beginning a-, all the adjectives are central and are different types of descriptor. By contrast, the

classifiers, degree emphasizers and process-oriented adjectives are all peripheral.

Summarizing, then, we have:

1 Central adjectives: descriptors

2 Predicative adjectives only: afraid, asleep, ablaze, afloat, alive, alone, alike, aware, averse

3 Attributive adjectives only: these can be grouped into the following types:

• restrictive classifiers: the chief/ main reason; sole responsibility; an only child

• time/ space: the previous page; my old school; a new baby; your left leg

• associative classifiers: an agricultural college, foreign affairs, a nuclear weapon

• degree emphasisers: sheer nonsense; utter rubbish; an outright lie

• process-oriented: a big eater; a hard worker, a light sleeper, a slow reader

Most peripheral adjectives have a further restriction in that they cannot be graded or intensified: very main, extremely chief, more utter. This also applies to adjectives functioning as classifiers: a very nuclear weapon, a rather Egyptian mummy, fairly prehistoric remains. However, a number of classifying adjectives can also be used as descriptors and graded, some more easily than others: British exports (classifier), a very British attitude (descriptor) [Angela Downing 1, p. 481].

CHAPTER III. INTRA AND INTERLINGUAL COMPARATIVE CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE ADJECTIVAL GROUPS

III.1. The Determination of Translation Unit

Normally you translate sentence by sentence, running the risk of not paying enough attention to the sentence-joins. If the translation of a sentence has no problems, it is based firmly on literal translation, plus virtually automatic and spontaneous transpositions and shifts, changes in word order etc. The first sign of a translation problem is where these automatic procedures from language to language, apparently without intercession of thought are not adequate. Then comes the struggle between the words in the SL – it may be one word like 'sleazy', it may be a collocation like “a dark horse”, it may be a structure like “the country's government”, it may be a referential, cultural or idiolectal problem – in any event, the mental struggle between the SL words and the TL thought then begins. Maybe if you are an interpreter, a natural communicator, you try to forget the SL words, you deverbalize, you produce independent thought, you take the message first, and then perhaps bring the SL words in. As P. Newmark states, you never forget the SL words, they are always the point of departure; you create, you interpret on the basis of these words.

You abandon the SL text – literal translation if you like, only when its use makes the translation referentially and pragmatically inaccurate, when it is unnatural, when it will not work. By rule of thumb you know literal translation is likely to work best and most with written, prosy, semi-formal, non-literary language, and also with innovative language; worst and least with ordinary spoken idiomatic language. Further, it is more often effectively used than most writers on translation, from Cicero to Nida and Neubert, (but not Wilss) lead you to believe.

Since the sentence is the basic unit of thought, presenting an object and what it does, is, or is affected by, so the sentence is, in the first instance, your unit of translation, even though you may later find many SL and TL correspondences within that sentence. Primarily, you translate by the sentence, and in each sentence, it is the object and what happens to it that you sort out first. Further, if the object has been previously mentioned, or it is the main theme, you put it in the early part of the sentence, whilst you put the new information at the end, where it normally gets most stress.

Your problem is normally how to make sense of a difficult sentence. Usually you only have trouble with grammar in a long complicated sentence, often weighed down by a series of word-groups depending on verb-nouns.

Other difficulties with grammar are usually due to the use of archaic, little used, ambiguously placed or faulty structures. You should bear in mind, however, that if long sentences and complicated structures are an essential part of the text, and are characteristic of the author rather than of the norms of the source language, you should reproduce a corresponding deviation from the target language norms in your own version.

III.2. Phrase Level Structures

Without understanding the text to be translated means that the translator would be hopelessly lost. This is why the translation scholar has to be a semanticist over and above everything else. Faced by a text, the translator has to cope not only with the semantic sense of the words but also the “meaning” of the sentences.

The translator’s task is to see the picture clearly since it is the idea or picture that has to be communicated, and not the equivalents of the actual words there can be no reports of that picture which cannot be re-reported in another language, i.e. translated.

The grammar of a language is an option system, that’s why the translator must handle with them both in the SL as well as in the TL. Just as the clause has its structure, so too phrases have their own structures which R. Bell name them modifier (m), head (h), qualifier (q).

The chain in the clause typically contains functions and forms such as: Subject (S), Object (O), Complement (C), typically ‘realized’ by formal items such as noun phrases (NP) ‘filling’ S, O and C ‘slots’. The Predicator (P), realized by verb phrases (VP) ‘filling’ P “slots”. The Adjunct (A), realized by adverbial phrases (AdvP) and prepositional phrases (PP) ‘filling’ A ‘slots’. For example:

Equally, phrases also contain chains and choices, e.g. in the NP, AdjP and AdvP; modifier (m), head (h), qualifier (q), ‘filled’ by formal items (normally words), as in the example blow, by a determiner, an adjective, two nominal and a prepositional phrase:

Economic terms and their schemes from English into Romanian

TWO MEMBER TERMS

abstract of title – extras de titlu de proprietate

Adj.1 + prep. + N2 → N1 + prep. + N2 + N3

accelerated depreciation – amortizare accelerată

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj1

accepted check – cec acceptat

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

accepted draft – cambie acceptată

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

active capital – capital activ

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

active money – bani activi

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

active shares – acțiuni active

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

antitrust legislation – lege antitrust

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

authorized capital – fond social

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

authorized person – persoană împuternicită

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

bad loan – credit neperformant

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

black market – piața neagră

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

blank acceptance – accept în alb

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + prep. + Adj.1

bilateral agreement – contract bilateral

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

budgetary order – mandat bugetar/ dispoziție de buget

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

clean charter – contract de navlosire curat

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + prep. + N3 + Adj.1

closed corporation (close corporation) – corporație închisă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

collateral acceptance – accept de garanție colaterală

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + N3’ + Adj.1

cooperative bank – bancă cooperatistă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

commercial paper – cambie comercială (document comercial)

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

conditional acceptance – acceptare condițională

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

conditional franchise – franciză condiționată

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

consequential damages – pierderi indirecte

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

considerable/ hefty profits – beneficii considerabile

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

continental cover – acoperire continentală

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

contractual licensing – licențiere contractuală/ pe bază de contract

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

convertible bond – obligațiune convertibilă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

convertible currency – valută liber convertibilă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.3’ + Adj.1

convertible share – acțiune convertibilă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

corresponding bank – bancă corespondentă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

cross licensing – licențiere încrucișată

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

current production – producție în curs de execuție

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + prep. + N3’ + prep. + Adj.4’

current transaction – decontări curente

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

deductible franchise – franciză deductibilă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

deferred liabilities – pasive amânate

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

developing countries – țări în curs de dezvoltare

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + prep. + N3’ + prep. + Adj.1

direct investment – investiție directă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

direct quotation – cotație directă (ofertă directă)

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

dirty cash, black money – bani murdari (proveniți din afaceri ilegale)

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

double insurance – dublă asigurare

Adj.1 + N2 → Adj.1 + N2

double taxation – dublă impozitare (dublă impunere)

Adj.1 + N2 → Adj.1 + N2

economic blockade – blocadă economică

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

economic cycle – ciclu economic

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

economic crisis – criză economică

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

economic development – dezvoltare economică

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

economic freedom – independentă economică

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

economic geography – geografie economică

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

economic integration – integrare economică

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

economic stability – stabilitate economică

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

economic situation – conjunctură economică/ situație economică

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

elastic demand – cerere elastică

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

electronic banking – activitate bancară electronică

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1 + Adj.3’

effective date – data a intrării in vigoare

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + prep. + Adj.1 + prep. + N3’

essential foodstuff – alimente de primă necesitate

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + prep. + N3’ + Adj.1

estimated tare – greutate estimata a ambalajului

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1 + prep. + N3’

external financing – finanțare externă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

external deficit – deficit al balanței comerciale

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + art. N3’ + Adj.4’

fictitious bankruptcy – faliment fictiv

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

fictitious capital/ property capital) – capital fictiv (social)

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

financial business – operații financiare

Adj.1 + N2 → N3’ + Adj.1

financial crisis – criză financiară

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

financial investments – investiții financiare

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

financial lease – închiriere financiară/ locație, arendă financiară

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

financial market – piață financiară

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

fixed cost(s) – costuri fixe

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

flexible budget – buget flexibil

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

fluid cargo – încărcătură lichidă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

foreign allowance – indemnizație de muncă în străinătate

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + prep. + N3’ + prep. + N.4’

foreign loan – împrumut extern

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

free offer – ofertă liberă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

general charter – charter general

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

general policy/ floating policy – poliță de asigurare flotantă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + prep. + N3’ + Adj.1

general warrant (general power of attorney) – mandat general

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

idle capital – capital nevalorificat

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

illiquid funds – fonduri ne-lichide (valori ne-lichide)

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

indirect tax (hidden tax) – impozit indirect (impozit ascuns)

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

industrial user, industrial consumer – consumator industrial

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

insolvent debtor – debitor insolvabil

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

intangible assets – active fixe necorporale

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1 + Adj.3’

international tender – licitație internațională

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

invisible balance – balanță invizibilă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

joint creditor – creditor global

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

joint venturing – întreprindere mixtă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

legal entry (legal person) – persoană juridică

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

limited license – licență limitată

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

liquid goods – bunuri lichide

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

long hedge – hedging lung

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

middle class – clasă de mijloc

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + prep. + Adj.1

mixed action – acțiune mixtă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

monopolistic competition – concurență monopolistă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

multilateral agreement – acord multilateral

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

multiple taxation – impozitare multiplă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

municipal enterprise – întreprindere comunală

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

national income – venit național

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

natural person – persoană fizică

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

necessary damages – daune/ prejudicii generale

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

offshore company – companie offshore (extrateritorială)

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

open charter – contract deschis de navlosire

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1 + prep. + N3’

open exchange – bursă deschisă (bursă cu liber acces)

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

outbound/ outward freight – transport pentru mărfuri de export

Adj.1 + N2 → N3’ + prep. + N2 + prep. + Adj.1

passive balance/ adverse balance – balanță pasivă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

personal account – cont personal

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

personal insurance – asigurare personală

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

physical distribution – distribuție fizică

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

preferential duty – impozit preferențial

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

preferred share – acțiune preferențială

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

preliminary agreement – contract preliminar

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

private enterprise – activitate privată

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

private investments – investiții private

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

progressive taxation – impozitare progresivă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

prohibitive tariff – tarif prohibitiv

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

qualified acceptance – acceptare cu rezerve

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + prep. + N3’

red clause – clauză roșie

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

registered debenture – angajament nominal

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

restrictive covenant – acord contractual restrictiv

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + N3’ + Adj.1

reliable bank – bancă sigură/ de încredere

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

restrictive endorsement – andosare restrictivă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

revocable credit – credit revocabil

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

soft loan – împrumut preferențial

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

shady deal/ affair – afacere dubioasă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

short delivery – livrare parțială

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

sliding parity – paritate variabilă

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

small privatization – mică privatizare

Adj.1 + N2 → Adj.1 + N2

special warrant – autorizație specială

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

specific guarantee – garanție specială

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

statutory meeting/report – adunare statutară

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

statutory order – ordonanță statutară

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

straight bond – obligațiune obișnuită

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

temporary admission – admitere temporară

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

twin shares – acțiuni gemene

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

unfair competition – concurență neloială

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

unprofitable enterprise – întreprindere nerentabilă/ deficitară

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

usual dividend – dividend ordinar

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

weather-beaten – avariat de condiții atmosferice nefavorabile (despre mărfuri)

N1 + Adj.2 → Adj.2 + prep. + N1 + N1 + Adj.3’

whole timer – angajat cu norma întreagă

Adj.1 + N2 → N3’ + prep. + N1 + Adj.1

willful bankruptcy – faliment premeditat

Adj.1 + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

THREE MEMBER TERMS

active/ favorable balance of trade – balanță comercială activă/ excedentară

Adj.1 + N2 + prep. + N3 → N2 + Adj.2 + Adj.1

active bank operations – operații bancare active

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 +Adj.2 + Adj.1

advance secured on merchandise – avans garantat cu mărfuri

N1 + Adj.2 + prep. + N3 → N1 + Adj.2 + prep. + N3

collection with subsequent acceptance – colectare cu acceptare ulterioară

N1 + prep. + Adj.2 + N3 → N1 + prep. + N3 + Adj.2

commercial credit company – societate de credit comercial

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

common stock fund/ equity fund – fond mutual cu plasamente în acțiuni comune

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + Adj.4’ + prep. + N5’ + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

confirmed letter of credit – acreditiv confirmat

Adj.1 + N2 + prep. + N3 → N2 + Adj.1

constant weight indexes – indici cu ponderi constante

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

credit and monetary financing – finanțare monetară și prin credit

N1 + conj. + Adj.2 + N3 → N3 + Adj.2 + prep. + prep.+ N1

direct bill of lading – conosament direct

Adj.1 + N2 + prep. + N2 → N2 + Adj.1

double taxation agreement – înțelegere asupra dublei impuneri

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + Adj.1 + N2

excess retention tax – impozit pe profitul excedentar nedistribuit

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N4’ + N5’ + Adj.1 + Adj.6’

fixed assets turnover – rotație a activelor fixe

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

fixed rate mortgage – ipotecă cu rată fixă a dobânzii

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1 + prep. + N4’

fixed rated loan – împrumut cu dobândă fixă

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

flat fee contract – contract cu preț fix (prestabilit)

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

floating exchange rate – curs de schimb fluctuant

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

forced rate of exchange – curs de schimb forțat

Adj.1 + N2 + prep. + N3 → N2 + prep. + N3 + Adj.1

foreign debt service – serviciu al datoriei externe

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

foreign general average – avarie comuna în străinătate

Adj.1 + Adj.2 + N3 → N3 + Adj.2 + prep. + Adj.1

foreign payments balance – balanța de plați externe

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

foreign trade contract – contract extern

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + Adj.1

foreign trade transaction – tranzacție de comerț exterior

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

free enterprise zone – zonă economică liberă

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + Adj.4’ + Adj.1

free movement of labor – liberă circulație a forței de muncă

Adj.1 + N2 + prep. + N3 → Adj.1 + N2 + prep. + N4’ + prep. + N3

free-trade policy – politica liberului schimb

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + Adj.1 + N2

free market deals (open market operations) – operațiuni pe piața liberă/ operațiuni pe piața monetară

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

full service agency – agenție de servicii complete

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

general arrangement to borrow – acord general de împrumut

Adj.1 + N2 + prep. + N3 → N2 + Adj.1 + prep. + N3

general meeting of shareholders – adunare generală a acționarilor

Adj.1 + N2 + prep. + N3 → N2 + Adj.1 + prep. + N3

high-octane petrol/ gasoline – benzină cu cifra octanica înaltă/ ridicată

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N2 + prep. N4’ + N5’ + Adj.1

individual and group indexes – indici individuali și de grup

Adj.1 + conj. + N2 + N3 → N3 + Adj.1 + conj. + prep. + N2

International Monetary Fund – Fondul Monetar International

Adj.1 + Adj.2 + N3 → N2 + Adj.2 + Adj.1

level of economic development – nivel de dezvoltare economică

N1 + prep. + Adj.2 + N3 → N1 + prep. + N3 + Adj.2

Limited Liability Company – Societate cu Răspundere Limitată

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

loan for an indefinite term – împrumut pe termen nelimitat

N1 + prep. + art. + Adj.2 + N3 → N1 + prep. + N3 + Adj.2

long-term acceptance – acceptare pe termen lung

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

long-term contract – contract pe termen lung

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

long-term guarantee – garanție pe termen lung

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

long-winded business – afacere de lungă durată

Adj.1 + Adj.2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + Adj.1 + N4’

make a safe landing – acosta în bune condiții

V1 + prep. + Adj.2 + N3 → V1’ + prep. + Adj.2 + N3’

Ministry of External Affairs – Ministerul Afacerilor Externe

N1 + prep. + Adj.2 + N3 → N1 + N3 + Adj.2

model of economic growth – model al creșterii economice

N1 + prep. + Adj.2 + N3 → N1 + art. + N3 + Adj.1

monetary resources in circulation – disponibilități bănești în circulație

Adj.1 + N2 + prep. + N3 → N2 + Adj.1 + prep. + N3

multiple peril insurance – asigurare împotriva riscurilor multiple

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

non-commercial enterprise – societate non-profit/ (întreprindere non-profit)

Adv.1 + Adj.2 + N3 → N3 + Adv.1 + N4’

notice of interest declared – avizare a interesului asigurat

N1 + prep. + N2 + Adj.3 → N1 + prep. + N2 + Adj.3

outward bill of lading – conosament extern

Adj.1 + N2 + prep. + N3 → N2+3 + Adj.1

passive bank operations – operațiuni bancare pasive

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + Adj.4’ + Adj.1

primary securities market – piață primară de capital

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N2 + Adj.1 + prep. + N4’

secondary securities market – piață secundară a titlurilor de valoare

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N2 + Adj.1 + prep. + N4’ + prep. + N5’

simple division procedure – procedeul diviziunii simple

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + N2 + Adj.1

short-term/-range forecast – prognoză pe termen scurt

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

short-term obligation – obligație pe termen scurt

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

short-run supply – aprovizionare pe termen scurt

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N4’ + Adj.1

sustainable economic development – dezvoltare economică durabilă

Adj.1 + Adj.2 + N3 → N3 + Adj.2 + Adj.1

variable rate mortgage – ipotecă cu rată variabilă a dobânzii

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1 + prep. + N4’

variable weight indexes – indici cu ponderi variabile

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 → N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

FOUR MEMBER TERMS

European Bank for Reconstruction and Development – Banca Europeană pentru Reconstrucție și Dezvoltare

Adj.1 + N2 + prep. + N3 + N4 → N2 + Adj.1 + prep. + N3 + prep. + N4

freely floating exchange rates – cursuri de schimb cu fluctuație liberă

Adj.1 + N2 + N3 + N4 → N4 + prep. + N3 + prep. + N2 + Adj.1

CONCLUSIONS

Adjectival Groups and typical Adverbial Groups have potentially the same structure: head (clear, clearly), pre-modifier (very clear, very clearly) and post-modifier (very clear indeed, very clearly indeed).

Both Adjectival Groups and Adverbial Groups are frequently realized by the head element alone (a fast train; drive fast).

Their main functions and uses, however, are different. The Adjectival Group typically provides information about people, places and things, while the adverb typically characterizes the process expressed by the verb. For this reason we deal first with adjectives and the adjectival group, and later with adverbs and the adverbial group.

Formally, adjectives may be simple (tall, brilliant), prefixed (un-, im-, dis-, ab-), suffixed (-ful, -able, -ous, -ive), participial (-ing, -en) or compound (home-made, duty-free, sunburnt).

Syntactically, Adjectival Groups typically function attributively as pre-modifier (in NG) (hot water) and predicatively as Complement of the Subject in clauses (the water is hot). In addition they can function as Complement of the Object (I like it hot) in clauses, and less commonly, in various other functions in groups and clauses.

Semantically, Adjectival Groups can express a state (lonely), a quality (narrow), a sub-class (northern) or a property (creative). They can indicate an attitude (lovely, odious) or a judgement (true).

Many adjectives may take a complement in post-head position which completes their meaning (good at chess, glad (that) you came).

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