The Fight against [629196]

The Fight against
Terrorism
by Spiridon Silviu Andrei

Coordinating teacher: Roxana Dumitrascu

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I. Contents

II. What is terrorism? ………………………….. ………………………….. ………… 2
III. War on Terror ………………………….. ………………………….. ……………… 3
i. U.S. objectives ………………………….. ………………………….. ………….. 4
ii. War in Afghanistan ………………………….. ………………………….. …….5
iii. Iraq War ………………………….. ………………………….. ……………………. 6
IV. ISIL ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ..7
V. The Psychological Impact of the Continued Terrorist Threat …….10
VI. Bibliography ………………………….. ………………………….. ……………… 12

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II. What is terrorism?

Terrorism has been described variously as both a tactic and strategy; a crime and a
holy duty; a justified reaction to oppression and an inexcusable abomination. Obviously, a lot
depends on whose point of view is being represented. Terrorism has often been an effective
tactic for the weaker side in a conflict. As an asymmetric form of conflict, it confers coercive
power with many of the advantages of military force at a fraction of the cost. Due to the
secretive nature and small size of terrorist organizations, they often offer opponents no clear
organization to defend against or to deter.
Terrorism is a criminal act t hat influences an audience beyond the immediate victim.
The strategy of terrorists is to commit acts of violence that draws the attention of the local
populace, the government, and the world to their cause. The terrorists plan their attack to
obtain the gr eatest publicity, choosing targets that symbolize what they oppose. The
effectiveness of the terrorist act lies not in the act itself, but in the public’s or government’s
reaction to the act. For example, in 1972 at the Munich Olympics, the Black September
Organization killed 11 Israelis. The Israelis were the immediate victims. But the true target
was the estimated 1 billion people watching the televised event. Those billion people
watching were to be introduced to fear – which is terrorism's ultimate goal . The introduction
of this fear can be from the threat of physical harm/a grizzly death, financial terrorism from
the fear of losing money or negative effects on the economy, cyber terrorism harming the
critical technological infrastructures of society and psychological terrorism designed to
influence people's behaviour. Terrorism is designed to produce an overreaction and
anecdotally, it succeeds at that almost all the time. Societies tend to close themselves off and
governments use tactics that restrict a nd infringe upon everyone.
There are three perspectives of terrorism: the terrorist’s, the victim’s, and the general
public’s. The phrase ―one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter‖ is a view
terrorists themselves would gladly accept. Terrorist s do not see themselves as evil. They
believe they are legitimate combatants, fighting for what they believe in, by whatever means
possible to attain their goals. A victim of a terrorist act sees the terrorist as a criminal with no
regard for human life. T he general public’s view though can be the most unstable. The
terrorists take great pains to foster a ―Robin Hood‖ image in hope of swaying the general
public’s point of view toward their cause. This sympathetic view of terrorism has become an
integral par t of their psychological warfare and has been countered vigorously by
governments, the media and other organizations.1

1 http://www.terrorism -research.com/

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III. War on Terror

The War on Terror (WoT), also known as
the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT), refers to
the international military campaign that started
after the September 11 attacks on the United
States.2 These attack triggered the longest war in
U.S. history, even longer than Vietnam, and with
no fixed enemy, this conflict could be indefinite.

On the morning of 11 September 2001, 19 men affiliated with al -Qaeda hijacked four
airliners all bound for California. Once the hijackers assumed control of the airliners, they
told the passengers that they had the bomb on board and would spare the lives of passengers
and crew once their dem ands were met – no passenger and crew actually suspected that they
would use the airliners as suicide weapons since it had never happened before in history.3 The
hijackers – members of al -Qaeda's Hamburg cell – intentionally crashed two airliners into the
Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. Both buildings collapsed within
two hours from fire damage related to the crashes, destroying nearby buildings and damaging
others. The hijackers crashed a third airliner into the Pentagon in Arlingto n County, Virginia,
just outside Washington D.C. The fourth plane crashed into a field near Shanksville,
Pennsylvania, after some of its passengers and flight crew attempted to retake control of the
plane, which the hijackers had redirected toward Washingt on D.C., to target the White
House, or the U.S. Capitol. No flights had survivors. A total of 2,977 victims and the 19
hijackers perished in the attacks.4
U.S. President George W. Bush first used the term "War on Terror" on 20 September
2001. The Bush adm inistration and the western media have since used the term to argue a
global military, political, legal, and conceptual struggle against both organizations designated
terrorist and regimes accused of supporting them. It was originally used with a particula r
focus on countries associated with Islamic terrorism organizations including al -Qaeda and
like-minded organizations.

2 Eric Schmitt; Thom Shanker. "U.S.".
3 Holmes, Stephen (2006). "Al Qaeda, 11 September 2001". Making sense of suicide missions. Oxford
University Press.
4Matthew J. Morgan (4 August 2009). The Impact of 9/11 on Politics and War: The Day that Changed
Everything?. Palgrave Macm illan. p. 222

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i. U.S. objectives
The Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists or "AUMF" was made
law on 14 September 2001, to authorize the use of United States Armed Forces against those
responsible for the attacks on 11 September 2001. It authorized the President to use all
necessary and appropriate force against those nations, organizations, or persons he
determines planned, a uthorized, committed, or aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on 11
September 2001, or harbored such organizations or persons, in order to prevent any future
acts of international terrorism against the United States by such nations, organizations or
persons. Congress declares this is intended to constitute specific statutory authorization
within the meaning of section 5(b) of the War Powers Resolution of 1973. The George W.
Bush administration defined the following objectives in the War on Terror:5
1. Defeat terrorists such as Osama bin Laden, Abu Musab al -Zarqawi and demolish their
organizations
2. Identify, locate and demolish terrorists along with their organizations
3. Deny sponsorship, support and sanctuary to terrorists
 End the state sponsorship of terrorism
 Establish and maintain an international standard of accountability with regard
to combating terrorism
 Strengthen and sustain the international effort to combat terrorism
 Work with willing and able states
 Enable weak states
 Persuade reluctant stat es
 Compel unwilling states
 Interdict and disorder material support for terrorists
 Abolish terrorist sanctuaries and havens
4. Diminish the underlying conditions that terrorists seek to exploit
 Partner with the international community to strengthen weak states and
prevent (re)emergence of terrorism
 Win the war of ideals
5. Defend U.S. citizens and interests at home and abroad
 Integrate the National Strategy for Homeland Security
 Attain domain awareness
 Enhance measures to ensure the integrity, reliability, and availability of
critical, physical, and information -based infrastructures at home and abroad
 Implement measures to protect U.S. citizens abroad
 Ensure an integrated incident management capability

5 "President Bush Releases National Strategy for Combating Terrorism". 14 February 2003. Retrieved 14
September 2014.

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ii. War in Afghanistan
Operation Enduring Freedom is the official name used by the Bush administration for
the War in Afghanistan, together with three smaller military actions, under the umbrella of
the Global War on Terror. These g lobal operations are intended to seek out and destroy any
al-Qaeda fighters or affiliates.
On 20 September 2001, in the wake of the 11 September attacks, George W. Bush
delivered an ultimatum to the Taliban government of Afghanistan, the Islamic Emirate o f
Afghanistan, to turn over Osama bin Laden and al -Qaeda leaders operating in the country or
face attack. The Taliban demanded evidence of bin Laden's link to the 11 September attacks
and, if such evidence warranted a trial, they offered to handle such a trial in an Islamic
Court.6 The U.S. refused to provide any evidence.

Subsequently, in October 2001, U.S. forces (with UK and coalition allies) invaded
Afghanistan to oust the Taliban regime. On 7 October 2001, the official invasion began with
British and U.S. forces conducting airstrike campaigns over enemy targets. Kabul, the capital
city of Afghanistan, fell by mid -November. The remaining al -Qaeda and Taliban remnants
fell back to the rugged mountains of eastern Afghanistan, mainly Tora Bora. In December,
Coalition forces (the U.S. and its allies) fought within that region . It is believed that Osama
bin Laden escaped into Pak istan during the battle.7
The Taliban regrouped in western Pakistan and began to unleash an insurgent -style
offensive against C oalition forces in late 2002. Throughout southern and eastern Afghanistan,
firefights broke out between the surging Taliban and Coalition forces. Coalition forces
responded with a series of military offensives and an increase in the amount of troops in

6 "President Bush Releases National Strategy for Combating Terrorism". 14 February 2003 .
7 Shane, Scott (28 November 2009). "Senate Report Explores 2001 Escape by bin Laden From Afghan
Mountains". The New York Times

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Afghanistan. In February 2010, C oalition forces launched Operation Moshtarak in southern
Afghanistan along with other military offensives in the hopes that they would destroy the
Taliban insurgency once and for all. Peace talks are also underway between Taliban affiliated
fighters and Co alition forces. In September 2014, Afghanistan and the United States signed a
security agreement, which permits United States and NATO forces to remain in Afgha nistan
until at least 2024. The United States and other NATO and non -NATO force s are planning to
withdraw; with the Taliban claiming it has defeated the United States and NATO, and the
Obama Administration viewi ng it as a victory. In December 2014, ISAF encasing its colors,
and Resolute Support began as the NAT O operation in Afghanistan. United State s operations
within Afghanistan will continue under the name "O peration Freedom's Sentinel".8

iii. Iraq War
The Iraq War was a protracted armed conflict that began with the 2003 invasion of
Iraq by a United States -led coalition. The invasion regime toppled th e government of Saddam
Hussein. However, the conflict continued for much of the next decade as an insurgency
emerged to oppose the occupying forces and the post -invasion Iraqi govern ment.9 An
estimated 151,000 to 600,000 or more Iraqis were killed in the first 3 –4 years of conflict. The
United States officially withdrew from the country in 2011 but became re -involved in 2014 at
the head of a new coalition; the insurgency and many dimensions of the civil armed conflict
continue.
The Bush administration based its rationale for war principally on the assertion that
Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) and that Saddam's government posed
an immediate threat to the United States a nd its coalition allies.10 Select U.S. officials
accused Saddam of harbo ring and supporting al -Qaeda, while others cited the desire to end a
repressive dictatorship and bring democrac y to the people of Iraq. After the invasion, no
substantial evidence was foun d to verify the initial claims about WMDs. The rationale and
misrepresentation of pre -war intelligence faced heavy criticism within t he U.S. and
internationally.
The invasion began on 20 March 2003, with the U.S., joined by the United Kingdom
and several coalition allies, launching a "shock and awe" bombing campaign. Iraqi forces
were quickly overwhelmed as U.S. forces swept through the country. The invasion led to the
collapse of the Ba'athist government; Saddam was captured on December 2003 in Operation
Red Dawn and executed by a military court three years later. However, the power vacuum
following Saddam's demise and the mismanagement of the occupation led to widespread
sectarian violence between Shias and Sunnis as well as a lengthy insurgency against U .S. and
coalition forces. The United States responded with a troop surge in 2007 to attempt to reduce
the violence. The U.S. began withdrawing its troops in the winter of 2007 –08. The winding

8 Lamothe, Dan (29 December 2014). "Meet Operation Freedom's Sentinel, the Pentagon's new mission in
Afghanistan". Washington Post.
9 "Iraq War". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 27 October 2012.
10 Center for American Progress (29 January 2004) "In Their Own Words: Iraq's 'Imminent' Threat"

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down of U.S. involvement in Iraq accelerated under President Bar ack Obama. The U.S.
formally withdrew all combat troops from Iraq by December 2011.11

IV. ISIL

The Islamic State of Ir aq and the Levant , often translated as Islamic State of Iraq and
Syria and accordingly also commonly known as ISIS , is a Salafi jihadist m ilitant group that
follows an Islamic fundamentalist, Wahh abi doctrine of Sunni Islam. The group is also
known as Daesh , which is an acronym derived from its Arabic name ad -Dawlah al -Islāmiyah
fī 'l-ʿIrāq wa -sh-Shām ("Islamic State in Iraq and Syria").
The group has referred to itself as the Islamic State or IS ever since it proclaimed a
worldwid e caliphate in June 2014 and named Abu Bakr al -Baghdadi as its caliph. As a
caliphate, it claims religious, political and military authority over all Muslims worl dwide.12
The group's adoption of the name "Islamic State" and idea of a caliphate have been widely
criticised, with the United Nations, various governments, and mainstream Muslim groups
rejectin g its statehood or caliphhood. As of December 2015, the group has control over vast
landlocked territory in Iraq and Syria, with a population estimate ranging between 2.8 mi llion
and 8 million people and where it enforces its interpretation of sharia law. ISIL affiliates
control small areas of Libya, Nigeria and Afghanistan and operate in other parts of the world,
including North Africa and South Asia. ISIL gained prominence in early 2014 when it drove
Iraqi government forces out of key cities in its Western Iraq offensive, followed by the
capture of Mosul and the Sinjar massacre. The subsequent possibility of a collapse of the
Iraqi state prompted a renewal of US military action in the country. In Syria, the group has
conducted ground attacks on both government forces and rebel factions . The number of
fighters the group commands in Iraq and Syria was estimated by the CIA at 31,000, with
foreign fighters ac counting for around two thirds,13 while ISIL leaders claim 40,000 fighters,
with the majority being Iraqi and Syrian nationals.
Adept at social media, ISIL is widely kno wn for its videos of beheadings14 of both
soldiers and civilians, including journalists and aid workers, and its destruct ion of cultural
heritage sites. The United Nations holds ISIL responsible for human rights abuses and war
crimes, and Amnesty International has charged the group with ethnic cleansing on a "historic
scale" in northern Iraq. Around the world, Islamic religious leaders have overwhelmingly
condemned ISIL's ideology and actions, arguing that the group has str ayed from the path of

11 Feller, Ben (27 February 2009). "Obama sets firm withdrawal timetab le for Iraq". Associate d Press.
12 "What does ISIS' declaration of a caliphate mean?". A l Akhbar English. 30 June 2014.
13 Robert Windrem (28 February 2015). "ISIS By the Numbers: Foreign Fighter Total Keeps Growing". NBC News
14 "A Short History o f ISIS Propaganda Videos". The Wor ld Post. 11 March 2015.

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true Islam and that its actions do not reflect the religion' s real teachings or virtues.15 The
group has been designated a terrorist organisation by the United Nations, the European Union
and its member states, the United States, Russi a, India, Indonesia, Israel, Turkey, Saudi
Arabia, Syria, Iran and other countries. Over 60 countries are directly or indirectly waging
war against ISIL.
The group originated as Jama'at al -Tawhid wal -Jihad in 1999, which pledged
allegiance to al -Qaeda and participated in the Iraqi insurgency following the March 2003
invasion of Iraq by Western forces. Joining other Sunni insurgent groups to form the
Mujahideen Shura Council, it proclaimed the formation of the Islamic State of Iraq (ISI) in
October 2006. In August 2011, following the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War, ISI, under the
leadership of al -Baghdadi, delegat ed a mission into Syria, which under the name al-Nusra
Front established a large presence in Sunni -majority provinces. The merger of ISI with al –
Nusra Front to form the "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant" (ISIL), as announced in April
2013 by al -Baghdadi, was however rejected by al -Nusra leader al -Julani, and by al -Qaeda
leader al -Zawahiri who subsequently cut all ties with ISIL, in February 201 4.16
According to Jason Burke, a journalist writing on Salafi jihadism, ISIL's goal is to "terrorize,
mobilize [and] polarize". Its efforts to terrorize are intended to intimidate civilian populations
and force governments of the target enemy "to make rash decisions that they otherwise would
not choose". It aims to mobilize its supporters by motivating them with, for example,
spectacular deadly attacks on enemy soil such as the November 2015 Paris attacks, to
polarize by driving Muslim populations —particularly in the West —away from their
governments, thus increasing the appeal of ISIL's self -proclaimed caliphate among them, and
to: "Eliminate neutral parties through eit her absorption or elimination".17
One observer has described ISIL's publicizing of its mass executions and killing of civilians
as part of "a conscious plan designed to instill among believers a sense of meaning that i s
sacred and sublime, while scaring the hell out of fence -sitters and enemies".18 Another
describes it purpose as to "break" psychologically those under its control "so as to ensure
their absolute allegiance through fear and intimidation", while generating "outright hate and
vengeance" among its enemies.19

15 Hasan, Mehdi (10 March 2015), "Mehdi Hasan: How Islamic is Islamic State?", New Statesman,
16 Holmes, Oliver (3 February 2014). "Al Qaeda breaks link with Syrian militant group ISIL". Reuters.
17 Gambhir, Harleen (February 2015). IS IS Global Intelligence Summary: January 7 – February 18 .
Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of War.
18 Atran, Scott; Hamid, Nafees (16 November 2015). "Paris: The War ISIS Wants". The New York Review of
Books.
19 Reardon, Martin (6 July 2015). "ISIL and the management of savagery". Al Jazeera.

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This map shows areas of Control, Attack, and Support for
ISIS in Iraq and Syria.

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V. The Psychological Impact of the
Continued Terrorist Threat

It is easy to assume in the post -9/11 world that the psychological impact of the
continued threat of terrorism would be considerable. Across the globe, terrorist attacks kill
and maim thousands each year and cause massive economic damage. Images of the aftermath
of bombings and other atrocities are rarel y absent from the media. In such a context it would
be natural to expect that the fear and threat of terrorism would have a crippling psychological
effect on society. Yet is this the case?
In some respects the evidence is surprisingly optimistic. Even in the wake of
catastrophic attacks such as 9/11, American society overall displayed a quick recovery. In the
days immediately after the attacks, stress reactions and anxiety were very common, but these
symptoms did not persist; they quickly returned to pre -9/11 levels for most. Psychologists
found that the American public tended to be remarkably resilient in dealing with terrorism
and this has also been the finding in regions which experience terrorist attacks on a frequent
and widespread basis.
Terrorist vi olence – and the threat of such violence – can work to bind communities
together with a sense of common purpose and common outrage. Not only do terrorist attacks
give a perception that there is a shared enemy out there, such attacks also bolster an
individ ual’s ties to their local community, deepening their sense of belonging and their
identification with others living in the area. This is a powerful social effect which has been
witnessed many times before. For example, during the London Blitz in World War II, many
people noted the widespread camaraderie and closeness of what became known as the Blitz
Spirit. Some aspects of this effect have already been seen in the US after 9/11. While many
commentators talked about the sense of fear and panic sweeping the country, it was equally
clear that there was a massive and widespread sense of shared community. Sales of American
flags rocketed and millions of homes flew flags in a very public display of shared identity.
Similar trends have been seen in Israel, where r elentless terrorist attacks, rather than
shattering society psychologically, have instead witnessed a remarkable resilience effect.
Social psychologists have long understood that a strong sense of community in a
population is associated with a wide range of positive benefits including better physical and
psychological health. In fostering a greater sense of community, terrorism can actually end up
working to improve the ability of most people to cope and respond positively to it. While
recognizing that ind ividual victims can still be profoundly and negatively affected by their
experience, the overall reality is that the psychological impact of terrorism on wider
communities has often been surprisingly mild even in countries where terrorist attacks are
very common.

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A further way in which people adapt to terrorist threats is through what psychologists
refer to as "mortality salience," which is the effect of overexposure to death -related thoughts
or imagery, including even very subtle cues relating to death or cues not consciously
recognized by the person involved. The images of death, dying and killing, which are
inherent in most media coverage of terrorism, are usually sufficient to produce a mortality
salience effect.
Mortality salience can lead to an incre ase in identification with and pride in one’s
country, religion, gender, race, etc. Crucially, mortality salience can lead to an increase in
support for extremism when it is linked to group identity. For example, one study found that
under mortality salien ce conditions, white Americans expressed more sympathy and support
for other whites who expressed racist views. Also, individuals experience exaggerated
tendencies to stereotype and reject those who are different from themselves. Research has
demonstrated that mortality salience produces especially harsh reactions to those who are
seen to be breaking the rules. Thus, the mortality salience created by the coverage of
terrorism can be expected to lead to an increase in sympathy and support for the government,
and increased hostility toward the country’s perceived enemies.
While populations tend to cope fairly well with ongoing terrorist threats, media
coverage often adds a destabilizing factor to the mix. Media attention certainly fosters a
widespread belief that terrorist attacks are both more common and more dangerous than is
actually the case. Psychologists have also found that intense media coverage by itself can
have some damaging impact with some adults and children appearing to suffer serious
psychologi cal problems as a result of long exposure to media coverage of terrorist attacks.
They often had trouble sleeping, suffered from nightmares, anxiety problems or depression.
Yet, these people had not been at the scene when the attack occurred and they were not
connected to direct victims. They had not lost family members, friends, neighbors or
colleagues in the devastation, but they had witnessed a great deal of media coverage.
Researchers found that in some groups of schoolchildren, media exposure alone see med to be
a primary cause of PTSD in the aftermath of the attacks .
A survey of residents of Manhattan in the months after the destruction of the World
Trade Center published by the New England Journal of Medicine in 2002 found that 7.5% of
the respondents reported symptoms consistent with PTSD and 9.7% reported symptoms
consistent with depression. There was a direct link between how close one lived to the Twin
Towers and the likelihood that you would develop PTSD. Twenty percent of those living in
the vici nity of the World Trade Center showed signs of PTSD. The findings also emphasized
the vicarious impact of the attacks: most of those displaying negative symptoms of PTSD and
depression had not been physically at the Center when the attack occurred, they ha d not been
in immediate danger and they were not related to direct victims. Instead, these people turned
to television, radio, and the Internet, to learn about what had happened, and for some, the
media had then become an extremely significant vector of fe ar.20

20 http://www.aaets.org/article216.htm

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VI. Bibliography

1. http://www.terrorism -research.com/
2. Eric Schmitt; Thom Shanker. "U.S.".
3. Holmes, Stephen (2006). "Al Qaeda, 11 September 2001". Making sense of suicide missions.
Oxford University Press.
4. Matthew J. Morgan (4 August 2009). The Impact of 9/11 on Politics and War: The Day that
Changed Everything?. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 222
5. "President Bush Releases National Strategy for Combating Terrorism". 14 February 2003.
Retrieved 14 September 2014.
6. "President Bush Releases National Strategy for Combat ing Terrorism". 14 February 2003.
7. Shane, Scott (28 November 2009). "Senate Report Explores 2001 Escape by bin Laden From
Afghan Mountains". The New York Times
8. Lamothe, Dan (29 December 2014). "Meet Operation Freedom's Sentinel, the Pentagon's new
mission i n Afghanistan". Washington Post.
9. "Iraq War". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 27 October 2012.
10. Center for American Progress (29 January 2004) "In Their Own Words: Iraq's 'Imminent'
Threat"
11. Feller, Ben (27 February 2009). "Obama sets firm withdrawal timet able for Iraq". Associated
Press
12. What does ISIS' declaration of a caliphate mean?". Al Akhbar English. 30 June 2014.
13. Robert Windrem (28 February 2015). "ISIS By the Numbers: Foreign Fighter Total Keeps
Growing". NBC News
14. A Short History of ISIS Propaganda Videos". The World Post. 11 March 2015.
15. Hasan, Mehdi (10 March 2015), "Mehdi Hasan: How Islamic is Islamic State?", New
Statesman.
16. Holmes, Oliver (3 February 2014). "Al Qaeda breaks link with Syrian militant group ISIL".
Reuters.
17. Gambhir, Harleen (February 2015). ISIS Global Intelligence Summary: January 7 – February
18. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of War.
18. Atran, Scott; Hamid, Nafees (16 November 2015). "Paris: The War ISIS Wants". The New
York Review of Books.
19. Reardon, Martin (6 July 2015). "IS IL and the management of savagery". Al Jazeera.
20. http://www.aaets.org/article216.htm