The Difference Between An Old Translation And a New Translation Of Wuthering Heights

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CHAPTER THREE. TRANSLATION-ORIENTED APPROACHES TO EMILY BRONTË’S WUTHERING HEIGHTS

3.1 Wuthering Heights in other wor(l)ds

Wuthering Heights, Emily Brontë’s only novel is now regarded as a classic of English literature. Considering this fact, there is no surprise that Wuthering Heights is a widely translated novel. In order to demonstrate this supposition, I have made online researches, in various databases and articles. Some of these resources may be considered reliable, others – unreliable, taking into consideration that tops were made by various organizations. Still I reached the following results:

the novel is regarded as an important part of 19th century world literature and it is widely included in educational curricula;

the novel does not make the Top of The Most Translated Authors in the World, realized by https://translateshark.com and cited by wikipedia.org

the novel does not make the Top of the 50 of the world's most translated book, realized by the https://thetranslationcompany.com and cited by wikipedia.org;

the novel or the author are not included in any Guiness World Records;

Wuthering Heights is the most appreciated love story in a Top 20, based on the reviews of the Guardian newspaper’s readers. The top was realized in 2009 and comprised the opinions of 2,000 readers on major works of world literature. The greatest love stories were considered to be:

1 Wuthering Heights, Emily Brontë, 1847

2 Pride and Prejudice, Jane Austen, 1813

3 Romeo and Juliet, William Shakespeare, 1597

4 Jane Eyre, Charlotte Brontë, 1847

5 Gone with the Wind, Margaret Mitchell, 1936 (Martin Wainwright 2007)

But I considered necessary to study a reliable database, so I took into consideration Index Translationum – World Bibliography of Translation, a UNESCO online database. It “contains cumulative bibliographical information on books translated and published in about one hundred of the UNESCO Member States between 1979 and 2009 and totals more than 2.000.000 entries in all disciplines: literature, social and human sciences, natural and exact sciences, art, history and so forth. The references registered before 1979 can be found in the printed editions of the Index Translationum, available in all National depository libraries and at the UNESCO library in Paris.” (Portal Unesco)

A search following the item < Wuthering Heights > revealed 412 records, that is titles of Wuthering Heights translations, included in Index Translationum. After studying these records, I must underline that they comprise not the number of translations in a certain language, but the number of published editions. For example, the first two entries are books published in Spanish, in Spain:

“Brontë, Emily: Cumbres borrascosas [Spanish] / Luaces, Juan G. de / Barcelona: Destino [Spain], 1979. 316 p. 2a ed. Wuthering heights [English]

Brontë, Emily: Cumbres borrascosas [Spanish] / Esplugas de Llobregat, Barcelona: GP [Spain], 1978. 431 p. 10a ed. Wuthering heights [English]”. (Portal Unesco)

This database indexed more that 50 editions of Cumbres borrascosas / Wuthering Heights published in Spain, between 1979-2009. According to the same database, Wuthering Heights was translated into: Spanish, Portuguese, Bulgarian, Danish, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Dutch, French, Finnish, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Bengali, Panjabi (Indo-Aryan language spoken by Punjabi people), Slovak, Slovenian, German, Swedish, Malayalam (language spoken in India), Icelandic, Burmese, Turkish, Macedonian, Romanian, Korean, Finnish, Bulgarian, Russian, Arabic, Polish, Slovak, Czech, Lithuanian, Serbian, Norwegian, Greek, Hebrew, Sinhala (native language of the Sinhalese people, who make up the largest ethnic group in Sri Lanka), Catalan, Assamese (an Eastern Indo-Aryan language used mainly in the state of Assam, India), Hindi, Albanian, Croatian, Farsi, Norwegian Bokmål (an official written standard for the Norwegian language), Breton, Estonian. That is 48 languages, Romanian being one of them.

These records are not complete: there is no database regarding Wuthering Heights translations before 1979 and after 2009. So the 412 records represent just a part of the translations. Still, they show that Wuthering Heights, like many other classic novels, has been not only translated and published, but retranslated and then republished. For example, in Greece, in 1995, there were published two translations of the novel, translations realized by different translators:

Brontë, Emily: Anemodarmena Ypsi [Greek, Modern (1453-)] / Giannopoulou, Kleoniki / Athīna: Palintrom [Greece], 1995. 462 p. Wuthering heights [English]

Brontë, Emily: Anemodarmena Ypsi [Greek, Modern (1453-)] / Berlis, Aris / Athīna: Agra [Greece], 1995. 443,4 p. Wuthering heights [English] (Portal Unesco)

One of the most interesting situation regarding Wuthering Heights translations is to be found in Germany. Between 1979-2009, there were published 34 translations of Wuthering Heights. 17 books were published in Grete Rambach’s translation, other 5 in Ingrid Rein’s translation, 4 in Michaela Messner’s translation and the rest wew signed by different translators. It is interested to note that Insel Verlag published an edition of Die Sturmhöhe / Wuthering Heights every year, between 1984-1990. Thus we can state that the novel must have been a success in Germany.

The German translations of the novel are interested not only from the point of view of republishing translations, but also from different ways of translating its title:

Sturmhöhe – in 15 editions

Die Sturmhöhe– in 18 editions

Sturmumwetterte Höhen – in 1 edition.

But any reference to the other wor(l)ds of Wuthering Heights must underline the fact that not only the novel, but also its translations to different languages were analyzed by researchers. Here are some scientific articles:

– The Effect of the Translator's Gender Ideology on Translating Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights, by S.G. Shafiee-Sabet, published in The Journal of Teaching Language Skills (JTLS) 3(3), Fall 2011, Ser. 64/4 (Shafiee-Sabet 2011).

– Emily Brontë & The Vikings, by Stevie Davies, published in the Swansea Review, Fall 2012 (Stevie Davies 2012).

– Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights In Indonesian Version: Lulu Wijaya’s Translation Strategies and Inappropriateness Explored, by Maria Lucia Luciana, published in Jurnal Pendidikan Human, Vol. 2, No.2 (Maria Lucia Luciana 2)

– Wuthering Heights in Taiwan: Translations, Adaptations and other Derivative Works, by Sharon Tzu-yun Lai, published in Compilation & Translation Review.September 2013, Vol. 6 Issue 2, p1-39. 39 p. (Sharon Tzu-yun Lai 2013)

– Wuthering Heights and two Danish translations. Master Thesis, by Ida Pedersen, Aarhus School of Business, Aarhus University, 2014 (Pedersen 2014)

3.2 Wuthering Heights in Romanian. The translators

The study of Index Translationum – World Bibliography of Translation revealed four books publishing Wuthering Heights, translated to the Romanian language. All translations have the same title: La răscruce de vânturi. The four indexed books are:

Brontë, Emily: La răscruce de vânturi [Romanian] / Stahl, Henriette Yvonne / București: Eminescu [Romania], 1985. 320 p. Wuthering heights [English]

Brontë, Emily: La răscruce de vânturi [Romanian] / Stahl, Henriette Yvonne / București: Gesa [Romania], 1991. 304 p. Wuthering heights [English]

Brontë, Emily: La răscruce de vânturi [Romanian] (ISBN: 973-7786-73-4) / Popescu, Dana / București: Leda [Romania], 2005. 351 p. Wuthering heights [English]

Brontë, Emily: La răscruce de vânturi [Romanian] (ISBN: 978-973-102-128-7) / Popescu, Dana / București: Leda [Romania], 2008. 352 p. Ed. a 3-a Wuthering heights [English]. (Index Translationum)

Thus we have the name of two translators – Henriette Yvonne Stahl and Dana Popescu – whose translations have been published and republished in the 20th and 21st century. Still my research revealed the fact that at least one other translator – Mary Polihroniade – is not indexed in this data base.

My library researches showed that the first Romanian translation of Wuthering Heights, published as a book, was achieved in 1937: La răscruce de vânturi was published by Fundația pentru Literatură și Artă "Regele Carol II", in Bucharest. According to the library description, this book has 480 pages and was published in the series Scriitori străini moderni /Foreign modern writers. This translation is signed by Mary Polihroniade (b. 1904 – d. 1969). She also translated the well-known American novel Gone with the Wind / Pe aripile vântului and the Autobiography of Sir Henry M. Stanley /Autobiografia lui Sir Henry M. Stanley.

Mary Polihroniade was widely known in the literary society of Bucharest, in interwar times. Details about her are to be found in Mircea Eliade`s Memoirs: “Mary, Mihail Polihroniade`s wife, was an English woman and she has recently began to teach English at highschool.” (Eliade 1991, 234).

A second translation of the novel was published by Henriette Yvonne Stahl in 1959. Henriette Yvone Stahl was born in a German – French family, in France, in 1900; her family moved to Romania in 1902 and her younger brother (later member of the Romanian Academy) was born here. She published her first poems in newspaper, in 1921, but she had begun writing her first novel – Voica – at the early age of 18. She published the short-stories volumes Mătușa Matilda and Nu mă călca pe umbră, and the novels: Steaua Robilor, Între zi și noapte, Drum de foc, Marea bucurie, Pontiful, Lena, fata lui Anghel Mărgărit.

She translated: Misterele Parisului, by Eugene Sue, Laurențiu Magnificul, by Marcel Brion, India secretelor, by Paul Bruton, Drămuitorul de suflete, de Andre Maurois, Forsyte Saga and Comedia modernă, by John Galsworthy, Gora, by Rabindranath Tagore, Genji de Murasaki Shikibu. Her translation of Wuthering Heights / La răscruce de vânturi was published for the first time at Editura de Stat pentru Literatură și Artă / The State Publishing House for Literature and Art, in 1959. It was re-editated in the following decades, her translation being one of the most used.

Henriette Yvone Stahl was imprisoned during the communist regime for almost a year and she died in 1984. (Stahl 2010, 3-13)

Dana Popescu signed a 3rd translation to Romanian of the novel Wuthering Heights. The first edition was published by Leda Printing House in 2005 and was followed by at least two other editions published by the same printing house. Unlike Mary Polihroniade and Henriette Yvone Stahl, Dana Popescu has not yet become a name in the field of Romanian literature or translations. Still her name is related to some other translations of children and young adults books: Big Fat Liar/ Cel mai gras mincinos, by James Patterson and Lisa Papademetriou, Pure Dead/ De-a dreptul ucigător, by Debi Gliori, and Forver in My Heart/ Pentru todeauna în inima mea, by Jo Goodman.

In my translation-oriented approach to Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights, I have used Henriette Yvonne Stahl`s translation, two being the reasons:

a) I wanted to analyze a literary translation (in this regard I thought best to choose either Henriette Yvonne Stahl`s work or Mary Polihroniade`s due to their literary background),

b) Mary Polihroniade`s translation is rather rare as it was not republished after 1950. So I used Henriette Yvonne Stahl`s translation, published by the Adevărul Holding Publishing House, in 2009. The book has 366 pages.

My analysis will try to reveal the proportion in which Henriette Yvonne Stahl manages to give a proper translation of one of the highly regarded novels in world literature. In this regard, proper translation means a translation that respects the author’s style and his efforts to render a cultural environment. Eugene Nida noted that “language is a part of culture, and in fact, it is the most complex set of habits that any culture exhibits. Language reflects the culture, provides access to the culture, and in many respects constitutes a model of the culture” (Nida 1964, 2). The same opinion is revealed by the novelist Joseph Conrad, who wrote to his niece and translator Aniela Zagorska: “it is better to interpret than to translate […] It is, then, a question of finding the equivalent expressions. And there, my dear, I beg you to let yourself be guided more by your temperament than by a strict conscience….]” (Conrad 2007, 524).

***

I shall begin with the title of the novel Wuthering Heights which in Romanian was translated as La răscruce de vânturi. In my opinion this translation is perfect and it would be very difficult, if not impossible, for a translator to suggest another title. Wuthering Heights is the name of the Earnshaws` estate and the choice of this name as the book title is explained both by the author herself, in Chapter 1, and by the first editor – Currer Bell / Charlotte Brontë – in the Preface.

Emiliy Brontë states: “'Wuthering' being a significant provincial adjective, descriptive of the atmospheric tumult to which its station is exposed in stormy weather. Pure, bracing ventilation they must have up there at all times, indeed: one may guess the power of the north wind blowing over the edge, by the excessive slant of a few stunted firs at the end of the house; and by a range of gaunt thorns all stretching their limbs one way, as if craving alms of the sun. Happily, the architect had foresight to build it strong: the narrow windows are deeply set in the wall, and the corners defended with large jutting stones.”

The author thus directly relates the title to the natural setting, but reading Charlotte Brontë’s lines in the Preface, we clearly perceive the connection between the natural setting and the tumultuous relationships described in the novel: “It is rustic all through. It is moorish, and wild, and knotty as a root of heath. Nor was it natural that it should be otherwise; the author being herself a native and nursling of the moors. Doubtless, had her lot been cast in a town, her writings, if she had written at all, would have possessed another character. Even had chance or taste led her to choose a similar subject, she would have treated it otherwise… her native hills were far more to her than a spectacle; they were what she lived in, and by, as much as the wild birds, their tenants, or as the heather, their produce. Her descriptions, then, of natural scenery are what they should be, and all they should be.”; “Having avowed that over much of 'Wuthering Heights' there broods 'a horror of great darkness'; that, in its storm-heated and electrical atmosphere, we seem at times to breathe lightning: let me point to those spots where clouded day-light and the eclipsed sun still attest their existence.”

Keeping in mind this connection between the landscape and the turmoil experienced by the characters, yes, we can clearly state that the Romanian title – La răscruce de vânturi – is a perfect illustration of the natural and psychological turmoils.

On the one hand the noun vânturi suggests the stormy weather, the atmospheric tumult, and the Romanian word gets more suggestive power through its plural form.

On the other hand, the noun răscruce can be read in two different ways:

– relating it to the noun vânturi / winds it perfectly describes the stormy weather,

– relating it to the characters, it perfectly describes the tumultuous inner nature and the tumultuous relationships.

Afterwards, the comparative reading of the source text and of the target text reveals a professional translation in Romanian and a careful choice of words. Though the translator is not a native Romanian speaker, Henriette Yvone Stahl manages to create a literary frame for the reader of La răscruce de vânturi. This is proven by the powerful words she uses, sometimes as powerful as or even more powerful than the one used in the source text. Here are some examples from the first two chapters:

– in the paragraph “A perfect misanthropist's heaven: and Mr. Heathcliff and I are such a suitable pair to divide the desolation between us. A capital fellow!”, the final remark “A capital fellow!” is translated “Strașnic bărbat!” In my opinion the translator’s choice perfectly evokes Mr. Lockwood`s admiration to Heathcliff. The translator supports her choice using this adjective later and expressing the idea of superlative.

– in the paragraphs describing how Mr. Lockwood was assaulted by dogs at Wuthering House, the authors writes: “Happily, an inhabitant of the kitchen made more despatch: a lusty dame, with tucked-up gown, bare arms, and fire-flushed cheeks, rushed into the midst of us flourishing a frying-pan: and used that weapon, and her tongue, to such purpose, that the storm subsided magically, and she only remained, heaving like a sea after a high wind, when her master entered on the scene.” In her translation, Stahl writes: “Din fericire, cineva din bucătărie veni în grabă. O femeie corpolentă, cu fusta suflecată, brațele goale și obrajii rumeniți de foc se repezi în mijlocul nostru învârtind o tigaie. Cu ajutorul acestei arme și al glasului ei, furtuna se potoli ca prin farmec, iar când stăpânul intră nu mai rămăsese în arenă decît ea, suflând where, in my opinion, the translator could have used more meaningful words din greu, ca marea după un vânt năprasnic”. In this context, Stahl preserves the fight meaning of the words and she translates the noun scene by using arenă, which evokes fighting.

Still there are situations:

– “ ‘Wretched inmates!’ I ejaculated, mentally, ‘you deserve perpetual isolation from your species for your churlish inhospitality.” Stahl translates it as following: “Oameni blestemați! zisei în gând, ați merita să fiți pe veci izolați de semenii voștri pentru lipsa de ospitalitate și mojicia voastră.” I think that the Romanian verb a răbufni would have added more colour in translating ejaculated.

– The phrase “‘Get it ready, will you?’ was the answer, uttered so savagely that I started.” is translated as following: “Fă ceaiul! fu răspunsul, rostit cu atâta brutalitate, încât am tresărit.” I would have used the noun sălbăticie in order to translate savagely.

I highly appreciated Stahl`s choice to translate text using words / phrases specific to the Romanian Language, but also her very good knowledge of the source language:

– “I felt interested in a man who seemed more exaggeratedly reserved than myself” / “Mă interesa să cunosc un om care părea și mai posac decât mine.” Here exaggeratedly reserved was translated through a single but very suggestive word: posac.

– “Go to the Deuce” is correctly translated “Du-te dracului”, as according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, deuce is used chiefly as a mild oath. In Chapter 3 there is a similar situation, Nick being translated Scaraoțchi.

– The paragraph “Possibly, some people might suspect him of a degree of under-bred pride; I have a sympathetic chord within that tells me it is nothing of the sort: I know, by instinct, his reserve springs from an aversion to showy displays of feeling – to manifestations of mutual kindliness” is translated as following: “L-ai fi putut bănui că este de o îngâmfare de proastă calitate; dar inima mea binevoitoare îmi spunea că nu poate fi vorba de așa ceva: nu știu ce instinct mă făcea să cred că rezerva lui izvorăște din sila pe care o are pentru orice exteriorizare a sentimentelor.” In my opinion in this fragment, where adaptation is highly used, some translation situation must be underlined as an example of good literary translation: “I have a sympathetic chord within that tells me” is adapted to the well-known Romanian sentence “dar inima mea binevoitoare îmi spunea”; then “I know, by instinct” was translated as: “nu știu ce instinct mă făcea să cred că”, the translator using extension as a translation strategy.

Adaptation is intensively used in Chapter 3:

– “she could not begin to be curious” is translated as “nu voia să înceapă a-i descoase”;

– “we took our initiatory step this evening” is translated as “am pus totul la cale”;

– “'And at the end of it to be flighted to death!'” is translated as “Și peste toate să mai și gonești până să-ți iasă sufletul!”.

I have also remarked in the Chapter 2 – Chapter 10:

* transpositions: from the adjective companionable in the source text to the noun sociabilitate in the target text: “evidently pleased to find me so companionable” – “încântată desigur de sociabilitatea mea”;

* word changing: hear into see, as in: “I was deceived completely, as you will hear ” was translated as: “Dar cât de mult m-am înșelat veți vedea din cele ce urmează”.

* explicitation: the words “compelling him to do so as hard as any other lad on the farm” were translated “silindu-l să facă munci tot atât de grele ca orice rândaș de la fermă”. Because the meaning of lad here is that of groom, Stahl preferred the explicit Romanian word rândaș, meaning groom. The same case we register in the translation of Cathy`s words: “20 years. I've been a waif for twenty 20 years!'” to “Sunt douăzeci de ani de atunci, boci glasul, douăzeci de ani de când nu-mi găsesc locul!”. Stahl avoided to translate the noun waif (a stray person or animal), preferring the expression “nu-mi găsesc locul!”, more familiar to the Romanian readers;

* some group words – like pronominal adjective plus noun – are transformed into simple noun: “my bony boy” – “băiete”, “my boy” – “băiete”, “my lad – “băiete” and thus the translation looses the feeling of closeness;

* loanwords: the noun lady is adopted from English in order to translate “you look like a lady now“ – “arăți ca o "lady"” and it is marked with quotation marks. The same case is to be noticed with the noun gentleman.

Likewise, in the Romanian translation we have the noun porridge mentioned for five times; I must underline that the translator gives an explanatory note: “Mâncare populară englezească: un fel de fiertură de cereale”. In my opinion, Stahl chose to preserve the English noun porridge because it might have been known to some Romanian readers, due to the fact that porridge has been widely mentioned for the English culture in newspapers and literary works.

In case of gruel (thinner version of porridge), another English food, Stahl preferred to translate it using:

– an adaptation: “supă de cereale fierbinte” (example: “you must have some gruel to drive it out” – “trebuie să mâncați puțină supă de cereale fierbinte, să vă treacă frigul”). In the minds of the Romanian readers, the translator’s choice of words sounds familiar, as hot chicken and vegetable soup is served to sick people.

– a general word – “mâncarea” (example: “your gruel cold” – “mâncarea vi s-a răcit”),

– a Romanian food name – “arpacaș” (example: “desired a renewed supply, and a basin of gruel” – “cerându-mi și o farfurie de arpacaș”);

* adaptations: the words “You might be dumb, or a baby” are translated “ai putea fi mut sau copil de țâță”; the words “'you look as dismal as a drowned whelp” are translated “arăți ca un câine plouat”; the exclamatory sentence “'I'm n hell till you do!'” is translated “Nici chinurile iadului nu sunt mai grele decât așteptarea asta!”;

*modulation: the phrase “'but he looked better when he was animated; that is his everyday countenance: he wanted spirit in general.'” is translated “Aceasta era expresia lui obișnuită. De fapt nu era destul de vioi.”

There are situations, still, when the translator does not succeed in creating the same meaning effect as in the source language. Here are three examples from Chapter 10, Chapter 11 and Chapter 12:

– “She was nearly heartbroken when he ran off” is translated “A fost distrusă când a fugit Heathcliff de-acasă”; in the Romanian version, the adjective distrusă does not necessary involve love as the cause of a broken heart.

– the phrase “'Judas! Traitor!' I ejaculated. 'You are a hypocrite, too, are you? A deliberate deceiver.'” is translated as “Iudă! Trădătorule! strigai eu. Ești un ipocrit! Un mișel.” The Romanian word mișel means villain, whereas deliberate deceiver is connected more to cheating and misleading.

– Nelly’s words “'Sorry? he'll break his heart should anything happen” are translated as “Trist? Ar fi distrus dacă s-ar întâmpla ceva.” I think that a more appropriate Romanian translation would have been: “Trist? I-ar frânge inima dacă s-ar întâmpla ceva.”

In Chapter 11, I have also remarked a change of sentence type, from interrogative to exclamatory sentence: “What new phase of his character is this?' exclaimed Mrs. Linton, in amazement.” – “Iată un nou aspect al caracterului tău! exclamă uluită doamna Linton.”

It must be underlined, that Stahl’s writing force is to be seen in some confession paragraphs where she highly succeeds to render the turmoil of character souls. Here are Heathcliff’s words, in Chapter 14: “Two words would comprehend my future – DEATH and HELL: existence, after losing her, would be hell. Yet I was a fool to fancy for a moment that she valued Edgar Linton's attachment more than mine. If he loved with all the powers of his puny being, he couldn't love as much in eighty years as I could in a day. And Catherine has a heart as deep as I have: the sea could be as readily contained in that horse-trough as her whole affection be monopolised by him. Tush! He is scarcely a degree dearer to her than her dog, or her horse. It is not in him to be loved like me: how can she love in him what he has not?'”. The translation in the target language is: “Viitorul meu ar fi cuprins în două vorbe: "moarte” și "iad”. Viața, după pierderea ei ar fi un iad. Am fost un nătărău când mi-am închipuit că prețuia dragostea lui Edgar Linton mai mult decât pe-a mea. Dacă el ar iubi cu toate puterile făpturii sale firave, n-ar putea iubi nici în optzeci de ani atât cât pot iubi eu într-o zi. Iar inima Catherinei este tot atât de fierbinte ca și a mea, și mai degrabă ar putea încăpea toată apa mării într-un șipot decât să poată pune Linton stăpânire pe toată dragostea ei. Hm! Poate că ține ceva mai mult la el decât la câinele sau la calul ei. În el nu găsește să iubească ceea ce găsește în mine, și cum l-ar putea iubi pentru ceea ce n-are.” Reading comparatively the two texts, I highly appreciate Stahl’s manner to construct metaphors and comparison, sounding Romanian, and the final explanation: “În el nu găsește să iubească ceea ce găsește în mine.”

In order to make the text more accurate to the Romanian readers, Stahl uses explicitation, as translation strategy. For example, in Chapter 10 we have the following source text: “'What the devil, indeed!' I muttered. 'The herd of possessed swine could have had no worse spirits in them than those animals of yours, sir!” The target text runs like this: “Ce dracu, într-adevăr! mârâii eu. Turma de porci în care-au intrat demonii nu era stăpânită de duhuri mai rele decât jivinele dumneavoastră, domnule”. There is an explanatory note saying that the text is a reference to Bible, but, in my opinion, Stahl’s choice to clearly write that the pigs are possessed by demons is very good translation decision.

Another explicitation is to be found in Chapter 17, where Brontë writes: “There he has continued, praying like a Methodist: only the deity he implored is senseless dust and ashes; and God, when addressed, was curiously confounded with his own black father!” Stahl translates: “Acolo s-a rugat neîncetat, ca un metodist; numai că zeitatea pe care o implora el nu era decât praf și cenușă fără simțire; iar pe Dumnezeu, când i se adresa, îl confunda în mod ciudat cu Diavolul, propriul lui tată!” Thus, his own black father is explicitated to the noun Diavolul, meaning devil.

In Chapter 19, while describing Linton`s arrival to Thrushcross Grange, Brontë writes: “'Let me go to bed, then,' answered the boy, shrinking from Catherine's salute; and he put his fingers to remove incipient tears”. And Stahl translates it: “- Atunci lasă-mă să mă ducla culcare, răspunse băiatul, ferindu-se de îmbrățișările verișoarei lui”. Stahl uses the verb a se feri in order to translate shrinking and I think that the Romanian verb is too soft, but Stahl manages to correctly describe Linton`s gesture by translating the noun salute with the Romanian noun îmbrățișare (hug). This noun perfectly describes Catherine`s involvement and Linton`s passivity.

Stahl prefers to directly address Romanian readers` cultural and linguistic background in two other translation situations, in Chapter 20 and Chapter 21. She uses the nouns miazănoapte and miazăzi, bearing an old times flavour, instead of nord and sud, widely used now in today Romanian. Heathcliff`s words “that's worse than I expected – and the devil knows I was not sanguine!'” are translated as follows: “Să știi că-i mai rău decât mă așteptam… și numai dracu' știe că nu mă așteptam la prea mult!”. Thus the translator uses a Romanian expression nu mă așteptam la prea mult (I did not expect too much) in order to translate “I was not sanguine”.

Two explicitations also appear in Chapter 25 and Chapter 27. For example, the dialogue between Edgar Linton and the nurse and goes as follows:

“-I'd rather resign her to God, and lay her in the earth before me.'

– 'Resign her to God as it is, sir,' I answered.”

And Stahl translates:

“- Aș fi preferat să i-o dăruiesc lui Dumnezeu și s-o așez în pământ înaintea mea.

– Dăruiți-i-o lui Dumnezeu vie, domnule, i-am răspuns eu. ”

In my opinion the translator`s choice to use the term vie (alive) is a very good one, as there is an additional and very useful explanation.

In the next situation, Brontë writes “WHY won't you be candid?' cried Catherine, swallowing her greeting. 'Why cannot you say at once you don't want me?” and Stahl translates: “De ce nu vorbești deschis?! strigă Catherine fără a-l saluta. Pentru ce nu-mi spui fără înconjur că nu vrei să mă vezi?!” The first sentence is to be noticed, because Brontë uses the term candid, that means expressing opinions and feelings in an honest and sincere way. In Romanian language, the translation could have been: De ce nu ești sincer?, thus using the same verb to be. Still Stahl prefers to use the verb a vorbi / to speak, thus creating a unity with the next sentence, where we found the verb to say / a spune. A similar great translation is to be found in Chapter 27, where the phrase “You who have felt what it is to be so neglected!” has been translated as follows: “Și doar ai simțit pe pielea dumitale ce-nseamnă să fii părăsit!”: in my opinion, the usage of the Romanian expression – a simți pe pielea ta – is a great literary choice.

A return to the Romanin linguistic context would have been needed in another translation situation, to be found in Chapter 27: “Mr. Edgar is not dead?' I gasped.” is translated as “A murit domnul Edgar?! am întrebat -o eu țipând”. To gasp means to say (something) with quick, difficult breaths, so I would have translated as follows: “A murit domnul Edgar?! am întrebat eu cu respirația tăiată.”

In Chapter 29, Stahl proves once again her ability to gasp the meaning of the source target and to convey it to the target text. In the phrase “The sound of our informant's voice directed him to the library”, Stahl translates the noun informant with the Romanian noun servitoare (servant), thus pointing better to the person acting. Then, Stahl gives the following translation “m-ai lăsat atât de multă vreme singură să lupt împotriva morții, încât nu simt și nu văd decât moarte! Mă simt ca moartă!” for the target text: “you have left me so long to struggle against death alone, that I feel and see only death! I feel like death!”. The expression to feel like dead is used commonly when describing one's own feelings provided they are really bad and Stahl provides the perfect Romanian translation by using a modulation: she changes the noun death to the adjective moartă / dead, used for a comparison.

Henriette Yvonne Stahl also succeeds to give more power to the target text while translating the dialogue:

“- 'Now, mind you don't talk with and notice your cousin too much,' were my whispered instructions as we entered the room. 'It will certainly annoy Mr. Heathcliff, and he'll be mad at you both.'

– 'I'm not going to,' she answered.”

In the case of the last sentence, Stahl writes: “- Nu-ți fie teamă, îmi răspunse.”, which means “Don`t worry”. In my opinion by using the Romanian expression a-i fi teamă, Stahl underlines the nurse`s preoccupation.

Still, in Chapter 33, in a dialogue between Heathcliff and Cathy, Stahl might have more underlined Cathy`s involvement. Heathcliff says: “As to Hareton Earnshaw, if I see him listen to you, I'll send him seeking his bread where he can get it! Your love will make him an outcast and a beggar.” And Stahl translates the last sentence as following: “Dragostea va face din el un proscris și-un cerșetor.” Carefully analyzing the target text, I notice that in the target text the pronominal adjective your, from your love, does not appear in the target text.

A special attention must be given to Joseph`s speech, which is not easy to understand even for English people. According to Charlotte Bronte, she, the editor, made some adjustments to Joseph`s speech in order to make it more intelligible. Charlotte Brontë mentioned in a letter to her editor W. S. Williams: "It seems to me advisable to modify the orthography of the old servant Joseph's speeches; for though, as it stands, it exactly renders the Yorkshire dialect to a Yorkshire ear, yet I am sure Southerns must find it unintelligible; and thus one of the most graphic characters in the book is lost on them." (Wiltshire 2005, 22).

Norman Page (Page 1988, 77) underlines that these changes were few and they made a significant contribution to easy reading. Still, Page recomends re-editing Emily`s original text.

In my opinion, Stahl`s translation of Joseph`s speech is a proof of mastery. First off all, just like it was stated by Charlotte Brontë herself, first of all, it is not easy to understand this speech, and secondly, it is not easy to make it sound Romanian.

“ ‘What are ye for?’ he shouted. ‘T’ maister’s down i’ t’ fowld. Go round by th’ end o’ t’ laith, if ye went to spake to him.’

‘Is there nobody inside to open the door?’ I hallooed, responsively.

‘There’s nobbut t’ missis; and shoo’ll not oppen ’t an ye mak’ yer flaysome dins till neeght.’

‘Why? Cannot you tell her whom I am, eh, Joseph?’

‘Nor-ne me! I’ll hae no hend wi’t,’ muttered the head, vanishing.”

“ – Ce cați aici? strigă el. Stăpânu-i jos, la vite. Dă ocol casei și du-te pân’ la capătu’ grajdului dacă vrei să vorbești cu el.

—Nu-i nimeni în casă să-mi deschidă? răcnii eu drept răspuns.

—Nu-i decât cucoana, si ea nu deschide chiar de-ai face larma asta turbată pân' la miezu' nopții.

—Dar pentru ce?Nu-i poți spune cine sunt? Haide, Joseph!

—Ba nu! Nu mă bag în treaba asta, mârâi capul din fereastră și dispăru.”

In my opinion, still, there could have been more Romanian words adapted to Joseph`s speech; here are some examples: nimeni – nime`, dacă – de, nu-i decât cucoana – Îi doar cucoana, de-ai face – de-i face.

In the end, I must underline one more aspect: in the source text, some words are marked, being written with italics. In the Romanian edition I have read, there is no text mark.

3.3 Characteristics and evaluation of an old and new translation of Wuthering Heights

Characteristics of translations

After a comparative analysis in which we followed the methodology, in this section, we stop to specify the characteristics of an old and new translation method in Romanian. This section includes examples of vocabulary and expressions that have changed over time (aging of the language), translation errors present in the texts, as well as the method followed by translators. We find numerous examples in which the sense of translation and the intentionality of E. Brontë have been distorted, such as omissions, additions or simplifications. This section does not appear in the methodology; however, in our opinion, it is essential to know the characteristics and language of each translation before assessing the old and new translation method in Romanian.

Vocabulary and expressions

In Popescu Dana’s translation (Bucharest, Leda Publishing House, 2008, Third Edition), the use of enclitic pronouns in translation is frequent, as detailed in these examples below:

Also in Popescu Dana’s translation we often find the expression "with faith":

The use of these expressions gives translation a few linguistic connotations identified with a previous age. Regarding this aspect, there are a number of nouns, adjectives, verbs and expressions that could cause compression problems in the current receiver of translation.

Also in some chapters of Popescu Dana translation, we find the periphrasis «to have», which is used frequently in her work. Another example that appears in the translations is the adverb "how" and by means of demonstration, the following cases have been selected:

With respect to the first example, the "fennel" is an adverbial phrase that indicates a "kneeling" position. Regarding the second example, which is indicated below: "of sideways", one also refers to this adverbial locution in its third meaning for the word "sideways": adv. loc. Long, passing or top, to avoid a difficulty.

On the one hand, the translation of Popescu Dana makes use of an expression, which although it does not distort the information of the TO, does not sound natural: «Catherine no longer exists». On the other hand, the use of terms or expressions whose use has changed, gives the translation some linguistic connotations that are identified with a previous century. In the fourth example, the expression "[…] and live God, I am going to execute it!" Sounds strange to the eyes of the current target reader. In addition to these expressions whose use has varied over time, it is also common to find in the translation of Popescu Dana the expression "of you", with a possessive sense. This characteristic can be seen in the following example, "in spite of yourself". Again this example indicates an aging of the language. The repetitive use of the adversative conjunction "more" shows, in the same way, an evolution in the language, since "but" is the most used nowadays.

Colloquial expressions

The examples, which are discussed below, are characterized by a colloquial tone, nonexistent in the translation of Stahl Henriette Yvone. This type of expressions ("knowingly", "silly capirote") have a colloquial connotation in English, for example, and they have also in this translation.

The translation of Stahl Henriette Yvone (1985) is characterized, in general, by a language that today is considered archaic and with many features close to the target culture to be able to transfer the cultural and social legacy of E. Brontë:

Errors

Some remarkable examples of errors are:

The option the verb to cut that both translators choose causes a loss of the semantic nuance of crop, which means "to cut"; in this case the narrator Nelly refers to Hareton's haircut.

Dialect

At first glance, it is worth mentioning the lack of naturalness in the expression "The master is barely buried". In the second example, we find a case of reduction, as can be seen in the quote "Miss Cathy has broken the lid with her foot in the first part of the" "Wide Way of Destruction" ». In the first place, this is a case of dialectal comprehension, since in the translation of Stahl Henriette Yvone, Cathy it is the one that rips the helm of salvation and also omits Heathcliff trampling the first part of Width Path of destruction.

Presence of the translator in the translation of Popescu Dana

In this translation of 2008, the translator intervenes in the text on numerous occasions. Next, in the selected example, the translator adds to the translation method information that is implicit in the old translation. Recalling the statement of Klaudy (1998: 84) «the tendency towards explicitation is always stronger than the tendency towards implicitation».

We find a clear example of religious clarification in the expression "to those whom God sends". This second example has the addition of "if not flying" and another peculiarity is the incorporation of an expression that does not sound natural "I came running, if not flying".

Literality and lack of naturalness

With regard to this example, a lack of naturalness and meaning is detected. As a general rule, the translation of Popescu Dana allows the intervention of the translator to be glimpsed in a very obvious way. In the first place, the translation of irrationality supposes an important modification of the text. The new translation provides the textual solution, which is detailed below: «to the clumsiness of drunkenness», which without a doubt would create centreness in the eyes of the current target reader. Second, in addition, we perceive a free translation; the creative thought of Popescu Dana generates new ideas in the new translation.

In the first place, we must observe a certain lack of naturalness in some extracts, such as "it's more than half a brandy!" Or "If it had been dark, I would almost say that he had tried to remedy his mistake by crashing Hareton's skull against the rungs." In other cases, excessive literality is observed in the translation. Literality is characterized by fidelity to the words of a text or to the exact and proper sense; Thus, in the following example, we find an example in the expression "Hareton trembled, with mad terror of being the object of his bestial and savage affection, already of his insane rage". In addition, we observe an absence of equivalence for wholesome. One of the main characteristics of Popescu Dana (2008) is the lack of naturalness in the expression and an almost non-existent distancing of the old translation (as an excessive literality), which would be unacceptable at present, in contrast to other translations, which they are, in general, more current and far from the old one presented here. In addition, the following example shows the lack of naturalness in "the teeth, occasionally visible in a half smile"; in which we find the same stylistic problem. In other cases, excessive literality is observed in the translation, as a result of the interference of the translator. The colloquial record absent in the old translation also has a notable presence in the translation here. Another aspect in which the intervention of the translator is appreciated, is the appearance of ungrammatical structures.

Language analysis

After analyzing this translation, one of our purposes is to emphasize the need for new translations of the classics due to the aging of language over time. We have been aware of this phenomenon, since we also find expressions in disuse, such as "lives God" or "to faith that." The vast majority of the words that today seem archaic and that are used in the translation of Popescu Dana (2008) are typical and characteristic of the Romanian language that is still spoken. In particular, we consider it remarkable to mention the aging of the language in the lexical section, the impact that it can arouse in the current reader and the need for rejuvenation. As an example, we can cite expressions such as "imbecilul", "a cazut ca un fenicul" or "a privit lateral", which would create an impact on the contemporary reader, if the edition will be reissued today. Another conclusion to highlight is that the translator seems to intend to bring the old translation to the reader.

Description and analysis of translation solutions

In regard to cultural references, the translator opts for domestication. As an example, we can mention the terms "yard" for the word yard, words that might be strange to the contemporary reader. In addition, it should be mentioned that translation conflictivity does not have to be due solely and exclusively to cultural specificity, but that it may have its origin in a series of factors alien to it. Between these and, apart from those previously mentioned, we can detect a certain lack of preparation of the translator and use of reference books. In relation to cultural references, we find a certain derogatory nuance, for example in the case of "bazofia" for porridge. In my opinion, Popescu Dana (2008) does not transmit the style or the dialectal variety of the text and although the translator would have had that intention, his attempt would probably have been in vain, because at the beginning of the 20th century the translators and writers did not have access to the documentary sources available in the 21st century. As indicated, the translation of the proper names of characters that appear in the novel was the custom of the time during more than the first half of the 20th century. In addition to these nouns, verbs and expressions whose meaning or use has changed over time.

In this research it has been essential to document the life of E. Brontë and his environment in order to understand his work and emphasize the importance of cultural references. For this research, we devised an evolutionary transductological analysis with the objective of emphasizing the importance of retranslation in a classic Victorian novel that has been translated in Romania for almost a century. For this purpose, an analysis divided into three justified periods was proposed, taking into account the socio-political circumstances of the meta polisystem that affected the translation. From a translation and linguistic perspective, we have verified the existence of differentiated characteristics among the five translations, and we also perceive different methods and techniques. The fact that this happens makes us think that we are facing different ways of translating. The translation of Popescu Dana (2008) stands out for its use of archaic language and we clearly perceive an aging of language. So, we find, in his writing, enclitic pronouns and literal expressions that, nowadays, are old to the eyes of the target reader. In the second period, we witnessed a decrease in the use of an archaic language, although, as we have indicated, it is also possible to find enclitic pronouns. These archaic expressions can cause surprise or a distorted perception of the characters; therefore, if these translations continue to be published today, they will undoubtedly cause a surprise reaction in the meta- reader. The translation of Stahl (1985) is the first, so the translator had no other version to consult; also at this time access to sources of information, specialized monographs and dictionaries was much more limited than in later stages. The second feature of this first translation is the presence of literal structures, which result in expressions characterized by a lack of naturalness. So, one of the reasons why in his text we find omissions and simplifications and this fact may be due to the translator needing to perform numerous translation tasks in order to survive. The characteristics point to the existence of five different styles. These distinctive characteristics of each translator could be confirmed through the comparison with another part of their production, to verify that, indeed, there are solutions or techniques that are repeated in each translator.

In this study, the aging of language and its rejuvenation are of special relevance for a more fruitful retranslation, where translators detect and correct errors made in previous versions. It would be interesting to know if the results obtained in the translatological analysis of Wuthering Heights are similar to the analyzes of other contemporary classic literary works that continue to be reissued. The trend, in view of the results analyzed, is oriented towards acceptability, that is, the will predominates that the general public continues to easily access the reading of classic works, without elements that may cause strangeness to the current reader. With this study, an attempt has been made to analyze to what extent some of the losses that occur in each of these translations could have been avoided, as well as to investigate the causes that have favored some of the options taken by the translators of the work in each case; In this way, it has been tried to point out some of the pitfalls with which those who face the translation of a literary work as peculiar as Wuthering Heights can be found, with the purpose of improving the translation, as far as possible. Finally, in relation to the author's cultural legacy, one could think of a principle that, despite their efforts, translators will never be able to obtain a definitive translation that matches the original on which they are based. On the other hand, this is not the conclusion that is obtained from our work, because if they reveal the various translations we have analyzed in our research is the great translatological heritage that exists in Romanian on Wuthering Heights, a heritage that we hope our study encourage to recover.

3.4 The choice of translation methods

Translation methods

In contrast to translation procedures, which are used for sentences and the smaller units of language, translation methods are related to whole texts. The central problem of translating has always been whether to translate literally or freely. Up to the beginning of the nineteenth century, many writers favoured some kind of “free” translation. Then, at the turn of the nineteenth century, when the study of cultural anthropology suggested that the linguistic barriers were insuperable and that language was entirely the product of culture, the view that translation was impossible gained some currency, and with it that, if attempted at all, it must be as literal as possible. Peter Newmark approached the following kinds of translation:

word-for-word translation (the source language word-order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context; cultural words are translated literally)

semantic translation (takes more account of the aesthetic value, that is the beautiful and natural sound of the source language text; is more flexible than the faithful method)

adaptation (is the freest form of translation mainly used for plays and poetry)

faithful translation (attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the target language grammatical structure; it attempts to be completely faithful to the intentions and the text-realisation of the source language writer)

free translation (reproduces the matter without manner, or the content without the form of the original; usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original)

communicative translation (attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership)

idiomatic translation (reproduces the ‘message’ of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original)

The communicative versus semantic translation

One basic difference between the two methods is that where there is a conflict, the communicative must emphasize the “force” rather than the content of the message.

In communicative translation, the translator is trying in his own language to write a little better than the original; he has the right to correct or the logic, to replace clumsy with elegant, to eliminate repetition and tautology, to exclude the less likely interpretations of an ambiguity, to modify and clarify jargon, etc. All such corrections and improvements are usually inadmissible in semantic translation.

Generally, a communicative translation is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer, more direct, more conventional, conforming to a particular register of language, tending to undertranslate, i.e. to use more generic, hold-all terms in difficult passages.

In theory a communicative translation is ipso facto a subjective procedure, since it is intended primarily to achieve a certain effect on its reader’s minds in the context of a language and cultural variety, while semantic translation is concerned with the transmitter usually as an individual, and often in contrandistinction both to his culture and to the norms af his language.

“Standardized language” must always be translated communicatively, whether a standardized equivalent exists or not, even if it appears in a novel or a quotation, unless the term is used descriptively rather than operatively in the original text.

A semantic translation attempts to recreate the precise flavour and tone of the original: the words are “sacred”, not because they are more important than the content, but because form and content are one. Thus a semantic translation is out of time and local space, where a communicative translation is ephemeral and rooted in its context. In communicative translation, the “message” is all important, and the essential thing is to make the reader think, feel and / or act. There should be no loss of meaning, and the aim, which is often realized, is to make the translation more effective as well as more elegant than the original. A communicative translation works on a narrow basis. It is “tailor-made” for one category of readership, does one job, fulfils a particular function. A semantic translation is wide and universal.

Communicative translation assumes that exact translation may be possible and may be perfect. It always reads like an original and it must, as Nida stresses, sound “natural”.

We have opted for the communicative translation due to the fact that our text is an informative text containing “standardized language”.

3.5 Comments on translations

3.5.1 Establishing the two translations problems

This chapter deals with translation problems and translation difficulties encountered during the translation process.

First, we shall establish the distinction between translation problems and translation difficulties. A translation problem is an objective problem which every translator (irrespective of his level of competence and of the technical conditions of his work) has to solve during a particular translation task. Translation difficulties, on the other hand, are subjective and have to do with the translator himself and his specific working conditions. A particular translation problem which seems very difficult to the beginner will remain a translation problem, even when the translator has learned to cope with it. It can turn into a difficulty again, though, if the translator has to solve it without the necessary technical resources.

Translation problems can be classified in four categories:

pragmatic translation problems

cultural translation problems

linguistic translation problems

text-specific problems

Pragmatic problems

Every source text can be translated into different target languages aiming at different translation purposes. Thus, the first set of translation problems arises from the particular transfer situation with its specific contrast of source text versus target text recipients, source text versus target text medium, motive for source text production versus motive for translation, source text function versus target text function, etc. since these problems are present in any imaginable translation, they can be generalized irrespective of the languages and cultures involved or of the direction of the translation. Pragmatic translation problems can be identified using the extratextual factors of the text-analytical model.

By analysing the extratextual factors of the text-analytical model we could find the following pragmatic problems:

The difference between the sentence structure, namely, sentences are created according to the Romanian language rules and norms. The text has to “sound” Romanian, to be easy to read and understand.

Another problem arising from the analysis of the extratextual factors of the target text was the Romanian readership who cannot find the needed information from British publications, it must turn to Romanian ones. In this respect, we helped the readership providing some additional information about Romanian publications.

Cultural translation problems

These problems are a result of the differences in culture-specific (verbal) habits, expectations, norms and conventions concerning verbal and other behaviour, etc.

Basically, these problems are also present in every translation task, but in depending on the particular cultures or culture groups they may have to be dealt with differently.

Linguistic translation problems

The structural differences between two languages, particularly in lexic and sentence structure, give rise to translation problems which occur in every translation involving the pair of languages, no matter which of the two serves as source and which serves as target language.

Text specific translation problems

Any problems arising in a particular text specimen which cannot be classified as pragmatic, cultura or lingistic, have to be classified as “text-specific” translation problems, which means that their accurrence in a particular text is a special case. In our case we did not identified any text-specific translation problem.

3.5.2 Solving the two translations problems

Previously, we have identified the translation problems of the text and now we are solving these problems through the following translation procedures.

Translation procedures

The difference between translation methods and translation procedures is that translation methods relate to whole texts, while procedures are used for sentences and smaller units of texts. Within a single a single sentence several of the procedures may be used simultaneously and some translations depend on a highly complex technique that is difficult to define.

Borrowing

Borrowing is the simplest translation procedures of all in case of a lacuna.

Calque

A calque is a loan translation of a particular kind: a complete syntagma is borrowed, but its individual elements are translated literally.

Literal translation

Literal, word-for-word translation is defined as the one where the resulting TL text is grammatically correct and idiomatic, but where the translator has not needed to make any changes other than those that are obviously required by the TL grammar itself.

However, if a literal translation is felt to be unacceptable, the translator then has to turn to another translation procedure. By unacceptable we mean that the literally-translated message

has another meaning

has no meaning

is structurally impossible

does not correspond to anything in the metalinguistics of the TL

does correspond to something, but not at the same linguistic level

Transposition

Transposition means the replacing of one word-class by another, without changing the meaning of the message. The tramslator must thus be prepared to carry out a transposition if the resulting version fits better in the sentence or allows a particular stylistic nuànce to be retained. Transposition does not only occur between verbal and nominal expressions, but between any two word-classes.

Modulation

Modulation means a variation in the message due to a change in the point of view: seeing something in a different light. It is justified when a literal or transposed translation results in a form which is grammatically correct, but not quite natural, going against the feeling of the target language.

Total syntagmatic change (Equivalence)

The change involved is usually syntagmatic, affecting the whole of the message. Idioms are perfect illustrations of the procedures. We have tried to obtain the same effect on a potential target text readership, as it was obtained on the source text readership.

Adaptation

It is used in cases where the situation to which the message refers does not exist at all in the target language and must thus be created by reference to a new situation which is judged to be equivalent.

Synonymy

We use the word “synonym” in the sense of a near target language equivalent a source language word in a context, where a precise equivalent may or may not exist. This procedure is used for a source language word where there is no clear one-to-one equivalent.

A synonym is only appropriate where literal translation is not possible.

A translator cannot do without synonyms.

To justify the statements mentioned above we shall give some examples. The word “opportunity” has been translated by “perspective” because if we have translated it by oportunități it would not fit the marketing register. In marketing the word “pespective” is used.

Equivalence of terms

An important linguistic unit that we have frequently encountered were the terms from the marketing field. A term can be a letter, a graphic symbol, an abbreviation, an acronym, a group of words, a word, etc.

Terms make up the register of a subject field, that is in our case the marketing field.

Reduction and expansion

These are rather imprecise translation procedures, which a translator practises intuitively in some cases, ad hoc in others.

3.6 Analysis and valuation of correspondences between original text and translations

Next, the translation of the dialect represented by the character of Joseph in the original novel Wuthering Heights of 1847 is analyzed through the translations into Romanian.

These two translations into Romanian can be a sample of the reality of translation solutions and, at the same time, introduce the factor of temporality. In the same way, two translations separated by fourteen years can shed light on the solutions provided by translators regarding the dialectal variant in different decades (and therefore, different rules in terms of translation, such as the translation of names). From the original comparison and translations, some conclusions are drawn about the data they provide. These data will be an example to categorize and describe the consequences that occur at the macrostructural level of the work. In this way, it is possible to discern whether the translation through the linguistic and extralinguistic code used fulfills the function of the original text in terms of the dialect used by Joseph, how local changes in the translation affect the whole of it.

Below we select some stylistic features important for our purpose, and through the comparison of these in TO and translations, we describe how they are treated in the translation. These features will exemplify if the changes that occurred in the translations suppose a loss or not of the intended effect in Spanish, or if, as a minimum, said effect was or was not blurred. The elements to be analyzed are some of Joseph's dialectal features. One of the words that characterize Joseph's speech and that are repeated continuously is the modal verb must (muh / mun / mud). This verbal form is used to mark the author's character and is one of the features that make up his idiolect. The translation of this element is important because this same characteristic of Joseph's character should be obtained in translations. Of the twelve translations of the verb found, only on three occasions and in both translations (cases in which Joseph's authoritarian tone is clear), the solution in Romanian expresses the same sense of obligation and consequent intensity that the verb in English has. However, the aspect related to the Northern dialect is not reflected in the translations. Thus, we see how the verb is translated by not missing more than having to endure / if I have to put up with it, I have to talk / I want to talk or it will be worth more than / I want to.

One of the peculiarities of the West Yorkshire dialect is the irregularity in the participles or in the past forms of the verbs. The analysis of these forms in the translations shows us how none of the translators has taken into account this dialectal feature in their texts. The result is, then, the corresponding verb forms in standard Romanian: I getten summut else to do (… I have other chores / As if I had nothing else to do!), To tie a few porridge in (… you can eat a plate of porridge … / … to eat a plate of porridge …) or I seed (Vi …).

In the phonological plane, the glottal occlusion in the t and in the k is another characteristic of the mentioned dialect (i 't' fowld, th 'end or' t 'laith, mista'en,' count). The solutions given for these examples are: you are low with the chickens / you have gone to see the cattle, go around the barn / walk around the farm, Ø / I'm wrong and you care / care. It is possible that an alternative to these phonological features would have been practicable in translation, however, neutrality has also been preferred in this case.

Finally, the characteristic vocabulary of the Northern dialect used by Joseph, such as lad / lass (boy / a), nobbut (only), gaumless (thin, emaciated) or nowt / naught (nothing), becomes the Romanian standard in both translations. Although the Romanian reader does not know these dialectal words, which is the most probable, it would not have been more, especially when they are words that Joseph repeats throughout the work, that the translators identify in some way the characteristic words. For this, they could have used some of the techniques I quote, such as the use of incorrect words or the use of certain words that Joseph repeats and that only he would use.

These are just some examples that show that the translation techniques used by translators do not consider, in general, the linguistic variation as an important element that should be conserved in the target text. However, the linguistic varieties are an element of equal importance as the rest of those that make up the work in question and for this reason should be translated into translation. The priority in this task would be to create the same effect that the original author achieved in the original readers to whom the work was directed in the foreign language.

After collating and analyzing the TO and two of the translations of the novel, it can be said that both translators have taken the less committed path and have opted for the variable without marks. With this technique, the dialect of Joseph in all its dimensions, geographical, temporal, but above all, social, disappears, and the illiterate and impolite servant happens to express himself in the same standard language as the rest of the characters, including their masters. Both translations use a register that is often adequate for a character such as Joseph and, in fact, an informal register is seen that must be intentional and may be used as a compensation, but only occasionally is there any incorrectness in both versions that could be differentiating feature of the character. Even so, it is not known to what extent these inaccuracies are intentional. For this reason and according to the dynamic equivalence that Nida pointed out a few decades ago, in order to achieve the adequacy of a translation, readers of it should be able to appreciate it in the same way that readers of the original work did, and obtain the same response from some and others. Well, the analyzed translations do not fulfill this basic premise, since the same response from the average Spanish reader will not be obtained, since the same reader received the same stimulus as the original reader did.

The consequence of these translating decisions is that the dialogues in which Joseph intervenes do not reproduce his dialect in any of the two translations, either because the character is considered as little relevant to the story that tells the work (it is a secondary character although crucial in the development of the facts), or because the authors, aware of the difficulty of any attempt at dialectal translation, opted for neutralization as the most suffered resource.

The first reason, if we take into account that any literary translator must carry out an exhaustive analysis of the work to be translated, is less likely, since both translators would surely be aware of the role of the dialect as a descriptor of the context of the novel. However, the balance leans more towards the second possibility, and the difficulty of pouring dialectal features into another language may have weighed on their translation practice. In the case of Joseph, a character whose interventions are not abundant, the translators might have thought that perhaps the scarce appearance of the character would not compensate the effort to invest; but looking at it from another prism, the attempt of a dialectal translation by any linguistic mechanism would not have brought very well-known consequences such as comicity or estrangement on the part of the reader, being a secondary character. Therefore, the negative effects that could have caused the marked translation through any of the techniques would have been less than if it had been another character with more presence in the novel. One of the solutions that I think could have made this character stand out in some way in the Spanish versions might have been to use the time factor, knowing that it is not the most important in Joseph's dialectal characterization. Perhaps, by making Joseph's statements obsolete or outdated, he might give the reader a clue as to the characterization of the elderly, reactionary character anchored in the tradition of rural England.

The absence of translation of the dialectal elements in Spanish is not very noticeable for the Spanish reader, since he will simply accept the work he reads as something given without questioning whether there has been any loss. However, the dialect of Joseph in the work written by Emily Brontë has a clear intention and is to create an effect of physical, cultural and sociolinguistic atmosphere in the readers of the time. The effects of both TO and translations are not, in accordance with the above, comparable. The intention pursued by Brontë, whose adoration for the “we stopped” in which he was born and grew wanted to manifest in his work, is not respected in translations. The reader of the Spanish versions will understand the existence of an old protesting and impolite servant, obsessed by religion, but will not capture the idiolectal features that make it special and especially the way of being of the people of these lands that he It represents. It is quite possible that Brontë wanted to make known to the world the lands where he lived, and through his characters, the character of its inhabitants. In the Romanian versions studied, the effect vanishes until leaving only some inevitable traces.

The repercussion that does not create some dialectal in the translations into Romanian affects the global function of the character, its characterization in our language and the effect it creates on it and, consequently, readers capture.

CONCLUSIONS

20th century has opened the way for mass communication, through Internet. Nowadays, perhaps more than ever, communication is the phenomenon that allows us to connect with people speaking different languages. This is largely possible due to the high technology ensuring online communication. The great need to communicate in different languages gave birth even to free multilingual statistical machine translation services, widely used around the world. Still, if we are to read a poem, a story, a novel, a movie subtitle or a technical guide we need a good translation, one that overcomes the gasps of electronic devices. That is why the importance of a good translation is highlighted by researchers and appreciated by common readers.

The present paper aims to present long time endeavors to achieve good translations, through translation studies. The first milestone is marked in the 3rd century BCE, when Septuagint was translated from Hebrew into Greek. The legend tells that all the 72 translators provided identical versions, so there was a comparison, marking the beginning of translation studies, too. Still, beyond legend, the first known translation theories are to be found in Marcus Tullius Cicero’s De optimo genere oratorum, more than 2000 years ago. From those times till now, the field of translation studies has been continuously developed and I approached Wuthering Heights as an example in this context.

Wuthering Heights is a classic of English and world literature, one of the novels studied in university curricula not only as a literary masterpiece, but also as a subject of translation studies. This last approach has been the centre of my study.

I have started my work on the premise that Henriette Yvonne Stahl provided a good translation, two factors being decisive: her wide translating experience (she translated at least eight other titles from great world literature) and her writing experience (she is author of poems, novel and short-stories, many of them written in Romanian). Still, there was a third factor that could have diminished the value of her work: she is not a native Romanian speaker, though she lived in Romania since early childhood.

The comparative reading of the source target, in English, and of the target text, in Romanian, and the continuous reporting to the Romanian language and culture reveals the very good translation provided by Henriette Yvonne Stahl. In my opinion the target text manages to render Emily Brontë’s mastery of language and literary devices. Moreover, Stahl proves very good knowledge on Romanian culture and language; there is to be noticed the usage of expressions such as: “am pus totul la cale”; “și peste toate să mai și gonești până să-ți iasă sufletul!”, “nu-mi găsesc locul!”, “arpacaș”, “și doar ai simțit pe pielea dumitale…”, “arăți ca un câine plouat”; and so on. Showing her own writing skills, Stahl chooses powerful words, both in the sense of meaning and phonetics, like Scaraoțchi and mișel.

The analysis of the target text through the means of the translation procedures reveals that the translator uses many adaptations, transpositions, word changing, explicitations, modulations etc.

All these means are skillfully used by Henriette Yvone Stahl who, in my opinion, manages to create a proper literary frame for the reader of La răscruce de vânturi, a literary frame respecting the one imagined by Emily Brontë in Wuthering Heights.

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