Terminologia Cromatica

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UNIVERSITY OF PITEȘTI

FACULTY OF THEOLOGY, LETTERS, HISTORY AND ARTS

SPECIALIZATION: APPLIED MODERN LANGUAGES

BARCHELOR DEGREE PAPER

Pitești , 2017

UNIVERSITY OF PITEȘTI

FACULTY OF THEOLOGY, LETTERS, HISTORY AND ARTS

SPECIALIZATION: APPLIED MODERN LANGUAGES

BARCHELOR DEGREE PAPER

Pitești , 2017

TABLE OF CONTENTS

§Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………

§Summary…………………………………………………………………………………..

§ Chapter I – Color language development…………………………………………..
§ Chapter II – A terminology of colors……………………………………………..
§ Chapter III – The importance of color in different areas (marketing, arts, web design)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

§ Chapter IV- Classification of color (popular chromatic)……………………..
§Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………………
§Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………………….

§Annexes…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

§Introduction

Rather than say that Terminology may stem from any or all of them, we take the position that Terminology is essentially a linguistic and cognitive activity. In this sense, terms are linguistic units which convey conceptual meaning within the framework of specialized knowledge texts. In the understanding of the nature of terms, tins process of meaning transmission is as important as the concept or concepts (hat they designate. Terminological units are thus subject to linguistic analysis. Since this type of analysis can be earned out in a number of ways, it is necessary to chixise the linguistic approach most in consonance with the object of study. Such an approach should be lexically-centered and usage-based. It should also have its primary focus on meaning and conceptual representation. As shall be seen, such is the case of theoretical approaches based on Cognitive Linguistics.

In the past. Terminology and Linguistics have mostly ignored each other. In its initial phase. Terminology was interested in asserting its independence from other know ledge areas, and creating a totally autonomous discipline. This goal led terminologists to go to great lengths to emphasize differences between Terminology and Lexicology even to the extent of affirming that terms are not words. In a parallel way, linguistic theory has largely ignored Terminology, probably because specialized language has been and is often regarded as merely a special case of general language. Thus, it was not considered worthy of serious study because anything pertaining to general language w as also presumed to be true of specialized language.

However, interesting conclusions about specialized language, scientific translation, and language in general can he obtained when terminology is studied in its own right. As such, it is most certainly susceptible to linguistic analysis w ithin the framework of a linguistic model. Oddly enough, some years ago this seemingly innocuous affirmation would have caused quite a hue and cry in terminological circles. The reason lor this was that the first approximations to terminology had normalization as a primary objective. Great pains were taken to strive for totally unambiguous communication through standardization. This signified univocity or one-to-one reference between term and concept. The fact that the majority of terms designate concepts that represent objects in a specialized know ledge Held meant that such an objective seemed possible to achieve. Nevertheless, it sum became apparent that this was more a desideratum than a realistic goal.

( Faber, Pamela, 2012, A cognitive lingustics view of terminology and specialized language, Huber &co, Berlin.)

§Summary

La tradition se souvenir thèse de recherche ethnographique qui soutient la perspective espacement et impartiale de nulle part. dans la lutte contre la culture (dans ce cas, la culture de la couleur) doit céder la place à un lieu désiré de connaissances et d'une façon de penser interpretative pluraliste et ouverte. Dans ce contexte, en fonction du rôle des descriptions denses et détaillées de la théorie est d'interpréter et donner un sens intelligible des situations locales. Originalité de la méthodologie de recherche est basée sur le transfert des concepts de plusieurs disciplines, il était donc possible de déterminer les similitudes et les différences chromatisme caractéristiques traditionnelles dans la région étudiée, il est déterminé genèse et l'évolution. Heureusement, ils ont été utilisés de nombreux témoignages sur l'ornement et la couleur de ses prédécesseurs, qui faisaient partie de la vie humaine depuis les temps anciens. En cours de route, des sources locales ont été achevées prêts de peuples voisins qui habitent en leur donnant aussi les éléments nécessaires du patrimoine culturel traditionnel. Genèse et évolution chromatisme traditionnelles dans la thèse, est un vecteur à la nouvelle méthodologie de recherche multidisciplinaire.

§ Chapter I – COLOR LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

In basic color terms, Berlin and Kay (1969, p. 104) propose that “there exist universally for humans eleven basic perceptual color categories, which serve as the psychophysical referents of the eleven or fewer basic color terms in any language. Subsequent work has not invalidated this claim, although their evolutionary “encoding sequence’’ has subsequently been modified. The “perceptual” and “psychophysical” component of their theory has been investigated in relation to ethnographic and other types of materials and synthesized by Kay and McDaniel (1978, p. 40). These studies have confirmed that the common human perceptual response to some wavelengths of light coincides with some category for colors and that in essence the Berlin and Kay color encoding sequence maps the progressive naming of potential color categories in a set of alternative orders.

Color can be used in various ways to represent different data. For example, we can use a color to distinguish one element of a figure from another. Color can also be used to call attention to a specific set of data as well as to group similar types of data or separate different types of data. You can also use various shades of one color to display the data differently. A different shade of a single color was used for each individual bar in each data pair. Using different shades of the same color suggests to the viewer that these data are similar in some way.

MacLaury (1997a) proposed that color term typology is explainable in terms of the varying perceptual distances between the universal foci, based on the hypothesis that people form color categories by making analogies with space and motion. However, it is not clear whether his theory really distinguishes correctly between which kinds of color term systems can and cannot evolve. Regier et al. (2005b) showed that if the foci of the color terms in a language are known, it is possible to predict the approximate denotational range of each term. However, Regier et al.’s model did not explain which universal foci are used in any particular language, so it did not fully explain the typological patterns. (Dowman Mike, 2005, Explaining Color Term Typology with an Evolutionary Model, Tokyo).

Berlin and Kay’s (1969) typological patterns concerned a special subset of color terms, named basic color terms. These are the most salient and commonly used color words, and in English they are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, pink, gray, brown, black, and white.

Berlin and Kay noted that basic color terms have the prototype properties; that is, there is usually a single color, the prototype, that is the best example of the color term, and colors become less good examples of the color term the more dissimilar they are to that color. Berlin and Kay were able to show that there was a remarkable degree of consistency in where the prototypes of basic color terms occur, both among speakers of the same language and across languages. They also found that almost all languages seem to have between 2 and 11 basic color terms, a finding that has been generally confirmed by later studies, although a few languages, such as Russian and Hungarian, appear to have 12 basic color terms. (MacLaury, 1997).

Chapter II – A TERMINOLOGY OF COLORS

MacLaury describes a process which he often found to operate in Mesoamerican cool categories. The changes begin with skewing, which may occur in a non-coextcnsive cool category with one colour term, and one focus located in either the green or blue areas. Skewing involves an increasing emphasis on the focal hue, in the context of increasing attention to difference. The process eventually causes a split from the other hue, and the latter then acquires a new colour term (1997a: 223-32). It was observed that skewing results in darkening of the hue which had contained the focus of the macro-category, and the darkening increases as division is achieved, and continues afterwards (pages 243-6). In MacLaury‘s survey, he found that at least three times as many cool categories w'ere skewed towards green as towards blue, and yet evidence front the earliest phase of the skewing and division process showed more cool categories skewed towards blue. He suggests that skewing towards green may be a ‘panhuman proclivity’, and that some societies carry out transference, that is. in the process of dividing the cool category, the focus is transferred from blue to green (pages 252-63).

For the historical scmanticist, MacLaury's theories on the div iding of macrocategories offer the chance of ascertaining the position of a language on the evolutionary sequence with greater precision than was hitherto possible. Instead of regarding a language as simply being in transition from one stage to another, it may be possible to decide howr far advanced it is in that transitional process. MacLaury’s data-collection methods are, of course, only applicable to liv ing languages, but the historical researcher may, in some cases, have sufficient textual evidence to attempt an assessment. s Other methods have been suggested for judging the relative age of colour categories in a particular society. For example, those categories denoted by opaque terms are. as a general rule, older than those denoted by transparent terms. Thus, ordinary speakers of English have no idea what the derivation of

Ollier methods have been suggested for judging (he relative age of colour categories in a particular society. For example, those categories denoted by opaque terms m. ax a gene nil rule, older than those denoted by transparent terms. Thus, ordinary speakers of [-tig I is li have no idea what the derivation of. The final step is a language which has been culietltow-H^MProio-l iuman or Pro to*-Sapiens. I t one believes mwwgfViesi.v, that is, a single original human language, then Pnoto-Wortd is the linal form of that language before it divided iEiio two or more language. Htgediis includes a very early phase in his schema which is appropriate for the study of gbssogentfics. This phase, dating to before about 40,1)00 lit’, is concerned with the emergence of speech in our species. Hum sapiens sapiens, and Hegcdiis regards linguistic reconstruction techniques us unsuitable at this date {1997; 67, 70). Monogenesis is a subject which divides historical linguists into two camps: some would argue either that it is au unlikely hypothesis under/or that we cannot, in any case reconstruct linguistic relationships over such a time-depth, while others arc convinced and optimistic, Note, for example, the confidence displayed by Ikngtson and Rjuhlen( 1994:292): Eln (belong mn we expect the evidence formonogenesistff e\iam languages lo become so compelling that the question will be not whether all the world's languages are related, but why it took the linguistic community so long lo recognize this obvious fad. ( C.P.Biggam, A semnatics of collour,Cambridge, 2012).

In colours study, brightness refers to the amount of light involved in a colour impression. This may affect the appearance of an object that produce light such as the sun or an electric light bulb, or it may refer to the reflected light from an object with a shiny surface or it can simply be an impresion on a pale (but not necesarly reflecting colour) wiewed in a well enviroment. The color light salmon is a color that resembles the color salmon, but is lighter, not to be confused with Dark Salmon, which resembles Salmon Pink but is darker than Salmon Pink and much darker than light salmon. Salmon pink. At right is displayed the pinkish tone of salmon that is called salmon in Crayola crayons. This color was introduced by Crayola in 1949. The color dark salmon is displayed at the right. This is a color that resembles the color salmon, but is darker. Like the web colors light salmon and salmon shown above, it is used in HTML and CSS.

Birjuzmyj “turquoise"

According to the RNC, the term birjuzovyj was already used in Russian in the mideighteenth century but originally meant only ’made of turquoise’ (in relation to “stone" “ring" "necklace", etc.). The mid-nineteenth century registered the usage of birjuzovyj predominantly in the sense of "turquoise-coloured”, as related to the colour of a "collar” or "skirt“ and. rarely, of "sky" or "sea” By the beginning of the twentieth century not only had the frequency of birjuzovyj usage increased significantly (by 50%) but also its combinability expanded – from nouns for artefacts (e.g. ’fabric" ’carpet*) to those for “eyes” and natural surfaces (e.g. “water”, “sky"). Ihc data from the list task indicate that currently birjuzovvj is among the most frequently used Russian non basic colour terms ranking eighteen .

In Russian language, a few exemple reveals how terminology evolve, relating colours; :Bordovyj "wine red ", "claret "

Thc Russian term boniovyj originates from Bordeaux "claret". According to the RNC, as denoting the colour, it was first used as the form ’red-bordo silk blanket” in l.eo Tolstoys Resurrection (1889). As the proper adjectival form bordovyj, it was used from the beginning of the twentieth century. For example, in the bordovajo kniictka ’wine- red little book", the term is used metonvmicallv to denote a document.' 1 lowcver, the term collocates exclusively with names for artefacts: the RNC reveals no combinations of it with nouns denoting natural objects. It is worth noting that, although taxonomi- cally constrained, bordovyj is one of the most frequent non-BCTs, ranking fifteen, and, along with the basic term fioktovyj "purple" is a member of a family of several terms refining Russian nomenclature for the purple category (Davies & Corbett 1994:).

Cerniinyj Ink-coloured"

In the nineteenth century the term Ccrnitnyj was used solely with the ‘non-colour* meaning, e.g “ink spol/drop/pencil" In the twentieth century the RNC shows its first rare usages with a colour descriptive meaning in literary, mostly poetic, texts or as part of compounds e.g {ernUno-fitiy ("ink-coloured, dark blue") related to "eyes/tongue/ window" (V. Nabokov) or Itmil>1 c>-<Vrny)/-fioletovyj “ink-coloured, blacUpurple” By the end of the twentieth century the colour meaning of àernHhyj became more Ire quent, expanding to natural objects and surfaces "mght/sky/darkness/watcr/bruisc*/ clouds/storm clouds", but the usage is still marked and restricted to poetic texts.(Carole Biggam, New Directions in Colour Studies)

Expressions containing names of colors (hues)
Ex .: to do or be) white as a sheet / the cake / like wax torch; ai is (one) yellow sight; see (or be made one) red (sight); ai is (one) green sight; to have (or be one of them) black heart; to make them one rainy day.      

The names of the colors are highly represented in the structure of elliptical comparatives equivalent semantic superlative absolute white as a sheet / snow, red as a lobster / fire lemon yellow / wax jetty / coal. Multifaceted character of chromatic terms
      Talking about the multifaceted character of chromatic terms, A. Bidu-Vranceanu stated that this category can be found "[…] not only general colors (white, black, blue, etc., but also ocher, designating both a variety of clay and paint and color used in painting natural hair and clothes) ". Multifaceted nature is much more evident when the general color.

Ex .: Yellow, engaged, yellow, -e, adj., S. N., S. M., S. F. 1. Adj. 1. color gold, lemon. – 2 blond. – 3. pale and discolored.

       (S. M. And f.) Gave 1.Name of domestic animals with yellow hair. – 2. Duchy, old gold coin, size and variable value. – 3 (S f.) Grape variety of origin of Odobești, the phrase yellow Odobești = vine variety of grape vines with yellow-green beans.

Over the hist decade, linguistic theory seems to be in the process ol undergoing a cognitive shift (Evans and Green 2(X)6), which has led it to increasingly focus on the conceptual network underlying language. The fact that linguistic form cannot be divorced from meaning has led linguists to begin to explore the interface between syntax and semantics (I aber and Mairal Usdn 1999>. This trend is also present in the area of Terminology.

Cognitive-based Terminology theories, though similar in some ways to the Communicative Theory of Terminology, also differ from it. It is not an accident that such theories have arisen largely in the context of Translation. Despite the fact that they also focus on terms in texts and discourse, they make an effort to integrate premises from Cognilive Linguistics and Psychology in their accounts of category structure and concept description. Relevant proposals in this area are Sociocog nit ive Terminology (Tcmmcrman 1997. 2000. 2(X)6) and Frame- based Terminology (Faber. Marquez Linares, and Vega Expdsito 2005; Faber et al. 2006, 2007: Faber and Lc6n Arauz 2010: l abor 2011).

Sociocogniliw Terminology: Insights from Cognitive Semantics (c.g. prototype structure and metaphor) began to have an impact on Terminology theory with the advent of Sociocog- nitivc Terminology as proposed by Tcmmerman (1997. 2<XX)). Sociocog nit ive Terminology concentrates on the cognitive potential of Terminology in domain- specific language and on terminological variation as related to verbal, situational. and cognitive contexts in discourse and in a w ide range of communicative environments (Tcmmerman. Kerremans, and Vandcrvoott 2005).

Tcmmerman <2(XX): 16) criticizes Genera! Terminology Theory, ami offers examples from the Life Sciences to demonstrate that the basic principles of the General Terminology Theory are unrealistic and incapable of describing or explaining specialized language as it is actually used in communicative situations, such as specialized translation. ( Faber, Pamela, 2012, A cognitive lingustics view of terminology and specialized language, Huber &co, Berlin.)

Composition board is the most widely available and has the least longevity. Usually, composition board is made up of three layers: a thin top paper sheet, typically colored; a middle core layer, made of chemically processed wood pulp; and a bottom paper backing. The core layer is the products weak ness, because it contains a collection of acids and chemical compounds that break down and produce additional acid. These acids arc transported in microscopic amounts of airborne water vapor onto the surface of your work. Here they begin attacking the image, often within a year or two, causing discoloration and fading. U V radiation from the sun and/or fluorescent lights can accelerate this chemical reaction. The same thing can happen when a work is backed with corrugated cardboard or Kraft paper. The acids in these materials invade the work from behind, and by the time it becomes apparent, the damage is irreversible.

Conservation grade board consists of thin layers, all of the same color, known as plies. One type of board is made from purified wood pulp and is simply known as conservation board. The other type is made from »00 percent cotton liber and is called rag board. Plain conservation board can he used for most archival operations, since it costs less, has equal longevity, and is easier to cut when making window mats. Most board is available in two, four, six. or eight plies. Four ply board is good for most standard photographic presentations.

Acid free board is recognized as the board of choice. Paper products having a pll of 7 or higher are considered to be acid free. The pi l scale measures the most acidic (pi 11) to the most alka line (pll »4), with pH 7 being neutral. The “acid free" label is an important criterion, but there are a number of factors to consider when making a selec tion. This is because the term acid-free can be misleading and at face value should not be considered the gold standard of a board's permanence. In fact, some manufacturers put only a piece of acid free paper behind the wood pulp of composition board and then label their product “archival." Others add regular wood pulp that has been heavily treated with alkaline calcium carbonate and rdcr to « as "archival." This is in spite of the fact that, over time, the impurities in the board deteriorate and form acids and peroxides, thus producing or returning to a highly acidic board. When selecting acid free board, be sure to find out if ail the materials in the board arc too percent acid-frcc, as this will offer your work the most protection, buffered and nonbutfered board is presently being debated in the conservation community. Since our physical surroundings arc slightly acidic, and because paper tends to become more acidic with age, manufacturers of premium mat board have been adding calcium carbonate to otfset this tendency. Current research indicates that certain papers may be affected by the presence of this alkali buffer, and that for longest life they should be mounted only on nonbutfered, acid-free board. This recommendation applies to all color chromog cnic prints processed in RA-4 chemistry, including Light )et prints.( Hirsch ROBERT , Exploring Color Photography, Focal Press, 2011)

Color is one of the most marvelous aspects of our existence. Even if one possesses a basic scientific understanding of the phenomenon of color perception—rooted in the absorption and reflection of impartial light waves as they meet objects and environments in the real world, striking the human retina by chance, subsequently setting off a chain of neural excitations—the experience of color loses none of its visceral nature, its emotional power, its potential for fascination.

Red = stop. Green = go. Our use of color is sometimes as simple and unambiguous as a traffic light, but more often we use it to communicate on a variety of levels. Almost without exception, the use of color as a language means fabrication of some sort or another, interaction with the natural world of plants and minerals, the control and modulation of light and surface.

Red = stop. Blue = go. Yes. simple, but not quite so simple. The ambiguity of color as we use it lies in the difficult)' of quantifying it, and we usually rely instead upon the perception of relauve differences. And this is why learning the terminology of color as used in a different culture can be equally fascinating and maddening. Upon learning that what is called a "green” traffic light in the West is called a “blue" one in Japan, or that “green” onions are called "blue" onions, one might begin to question whether or not these colors are being perceived in the same way. and if not. why not? In fact, those with a more resistant attitude will simply consider the Japanese way “wrong." especially when most other green things—grass, honeydew melons, pine tree needles—are called “green" by the Japanese as well. But after enough tune and questioning, one might determine that though the physical color experience is indeed the same across cultures, colors might be named in ways which highlight their locally significant aspects. The cool bluish-green color of a traffic light is being differentiated from the alarming and hot-red one. and cool and moist vegetables arc being differentiated from dry reddish brown ones. Through this and similar instances, a window into a vast and rich color language bursts open.

The notion that Japan possesses a highly evolved and unique color language is exciting to Western artists and designers, and fascinating to nonspecialists as well. That the use of color is "evolved" implies that meanings and associations have been assigned and expressed in the distant past, handed down, and that subsequent uses of color as signification have necessarily acknowledged these earlier meanings, even if they might supersede them. Many Japanese colors have poetic names , and these poetic associations tend to be more sophisticated than our own rather descriptive "sky blue," "mint green," or "blood red." For the visitor or student of culture, the notions of “appropriateness" that color associations have in Japan might seem in some occasions like a minefield to be traversed with delicacy. Knowing that white is a funereal color, for instance, might make a guest think twice before offering a bouquet of white chrysanthemums; and the sense of appropriate clothing colors depend-

mg upon tile wearers age and gender may be a treacherous double sword indeed. If one presents a kindly neighbor with a sober-hued shawl, she might take it as implying that she looks old, whereas one too brightly:( Tabao Sibi, The colours of Japan, London , 2000, page 16).

In more open systems of social relations, among the middle classes, a wider repertoire of interactional styles is used. The protagonist's mother belongs here. This sociolinguistic contrast can offer another insight in the conflict between the protagonist’s parents, Walter and Gertrude Morel, often described in the novel as an opposition between flesh and spirit. This is clearly reflected by differences in speech. The initial attraction of opposites which joined them together was pervaded by this contrastive way of speaking (“Walter Morel seemed melted away before her. (…) When she spoke to him, it was with a southern pronunciation and a purity of English which thrilled him to hear” (Sons and Lovers', 17; henceforth SL). Very soon, however, the conflict will set in. In the following continual clashes throughout their married life, it is all too clear that communication at the same sociosemantic level seems not to be possible, as Gertrude herself foresaw: “Sometimes when she herself wearied of love-talk, she tried to open her heart seriously to him. She saw him listen deferentially, but without understanding. This killed her efforts at a finer intimacy, and she had flashes of fear” (SL, 20). Their upbringing in distinct modes of communication and more specifically, in opposed speech communities, is the cause of their inability to connect. They engage in different subsystems of meaning, thus showing the relativity of linguistic meaning as studied by Gumperz (in Gumperz & Levinson, eds. 1996).

In spite of everything the Icelanders have written about him. Harald was a practical king with a great sense of foreign politics. The raids of his Viking countrymen were a constant source of problems for him, so as a part of his foreign policy he looked for the support of other kings who were experiencing the same difficulties. Ethelstan, ,king of Wessex and Mercia, was the most important among those who were suffering the Viking raids in those days, and to his court Harald sent an embassy with a magnificent ship as a present. The high point of their political relationship, however, was .Ethelstan’s fostering of Harold's son, Hhkon, remembered to posterity as Hikun A5al$teirt$f6srri, L e. /Ethelstan’s foster son. Hilton stayed at the Anglo-Saxon court until (he age of fifteen, when, after his father's death and aided by his foster-father, he relumed to Norway and expelled Erik Blocdaxe from the throne. Erik fled to York where he was soon proclaimed king in 948.

As this brief account of the first years of Aithelstan's reign makes dear, AngloSaxons and Scandinavians were not on friendly terms during the first half of the tenth century. Ailhelstan's short reign (925-939) was not only marked by the instability caused by his Viking foes, but also by an increasing interest in the political affairs of the continent1.

The period H&kon Adaisteinsfdstri spent at his foster-father's court, where he in all likelihood received a Christian education, offered the Norwegian prince the possibility of becoming familiar with the power structures of a much better organized kingdom than the one which was awaiting him in Norway, At the AngloSaxon court he Ioann the fundamentals of administration and promulgation of law. which he later tried to put in practice at home.(Iglesias, 2009, 40).

Chapter III – THE IMPORTANCE OF COLOR IN DIFFERENT AREAS

A. MARKETING

Red color meanings in business: Red is a warm and positive color, a very physical color which draws attention to itself and calls for action to be taken. In color psychology red means energy, passion, action, strength and excitement. Red stimulates the physical senses such as the appetite, lust and sexual passion.

Although it is often used to express love, it really relates more to sexual passion and lust pink relates more to romantic love than red. Red represents masculine energy, whereas its softer version, pink, is associated with feminine energy. Red, a universal sign of danger and warning, can also show and create aggressiveness and anger, particularly if used to excess in the wrong applications.

Physiologically, red stimulates and energizes the physical body, including the nerves and the circulation of blood, raising blood pressure and heart rate. It is stimulating to the appetite and therefore a great color to use for any product associated with food and its service, including restaurants and take-away businesses.

Red excites and motivates but in excess it can cause anxiety and tiredness. It also has negative connotations associated with blood, war and violence. The color which most complements and balances red is turquoise, although green or blue will also create balance. (Cerrato Herman, The meanings of color, ebook, p. 5).

The psychology of color as it relates to persuasion is one of the most interesting — and most controversial — aspects of marketing.

At Help Scout we believe the problem has always been depth of analysis. Color theory is a topic of complexity and nuance, but splashy infographics rarely go beyond See ‘n Say levels of coverage. s research shows, it’s likely because personal preference, experiences, upbringing, cultural differences, and context often muddy the effect individual colors have on us. So the idea that colors such as yellow or purple are able to evoke some sort of hyper-specific emotion is about as accurate as your standard palm reading.

But there’s still plenty to learn and consider if we humbly accept that concrete answers aren’t a guarantee. The key is to look for practical ways to make decisions about color.

The importance of colors in branding:

First let’s address branding, which is one of the more important issues relating to color perception and the area where many articles on this subject run into problems.

As mentioned, there have been myriad attempts to classify consumer responses to different individual colors:

The truth is that color is too dependent on personal experiences to be universally translated to specific feelings. There are, however, broader messaging patterns to be found in color perceptions.

In a study titled “Impact of color on marketing,” researchers found that up to 90% of snap judgments made about products can be based on color alone, depending on the product. Regarding the role that color plays in branding, results from another study show that the relationship between brands and color hinges on the perceived appropriateness of the color being used for the particular brand (does the color “fit” what is being sold?).

A study titled “Exciting red and competent blue” also confirms that purchasing intent is greatly affected by colors due to their effect on how a brand is perceived; colors influence how customers view the “personality” of the brand in question. Who, for example, would want to buy a Harley Davidson motorcycle if they didn’t get the feeling that Harleys were rugged and cool?

Additional studies have revealed our brains prefer immediately recognizable brands, which makes color an important element when creating a brand identity. One journal article even suggests it’s important for new brands to pick colors that ensure differentiation from entrenched competitors — personally, I think we’re getting into minutiae without additional context, such as how and why you’re positioning against a direct competitor, and how you’re using color to achieve that goal.

When it comes to picking the “right” color, research has found that predicting consumer reaction to color appropriateness is far more important than the individual color itself. If Harley owners buy the product in order to feel rugged, colors that work best will play to that emotion.

Psychologist and Stanford professor Jennifer Aaker has conducted studies on this very topic, and her paper titled “Dimensions of Brand Personality” points out five core dimensions that play a role in a brand’s personality.

ne of the more interesting examinations of this topic is Joe Hallock’s work on “Colour Assignment.” Hallock’s data showcases some clear preferences in certain colors across gender (most of his respondents were from Western societies). The most notable points in his images are the supremacy of blue across both genders and the disparity between groups on purple.

It’s important to note that one’s environment—and especially cultural perception—plays a strong role in dictating color appropriateness for gender, which in turn can influence individual choices. Consider, for instance, this coverage by Smithsonian magazine, detailing how blue and pink became associated with boys and girls respectively, and how it used to be the reverse.

Here were Hallock’s findings:

Figure 3.

Additional research in studies on color perception and color preferences show that when it comes to shades, tints, and hues, men generally prefer bold colors while women prefer softer colors. Also, men were more likely to select shades of colors as their favorites (colors with black added), whereas women are more receptive to tints of colors (colors with white added).

Although this is a hotly debated issue in color theory, I’ve never understood why. Brands can easily work outside of gender stereotypes — in fact, I’d argue many have been rewarded for doing because they break expectations. “Perceived appropriateness” shouldn’t be so rigid as to assume a brand or product can’t succeed because the colors don’t match surveyed tastes.

The psychological principle known as the Isolation Effect states that an item that “stands out like a sore thumb” is more likely to be remembered. Research clearly shows that participants are able to recognize and recall an item far better — be it text or an image — when it blatantly sticks out from its surroundings.

Two studies on color combinations, one measuring aesthetic response and the other looking at consumer preferences, also find that while a large majority of consumers prefer color patterns with similar hues, they favor palettes with a highly contrasting accent color.

In terms of color coordination, this means creating a visual structure consisting of base analogous colors and contrasting them with accent complementary (or tertiary) colors.

( https://www.helpscout.net/blog/psychology-of-color/)

According to CCICOLOR – Institute for Color Research, the average person makes a subconscious judgement about a product, another person, or the environment within 90 seconds. Between 62% and 90% of that judgement is based on color alone. So, we know color is a key factor. People associate colors with different emotions and meanings. As a designer/marketer, having this knowledge is important. Below are a few brief meanings of colors:

Red:

The color of love, seduction, violence, danger, adventure, magic and religion. Red creates a sense of urgency; you often see red at clearance sales.

Yellow:

The natural world (flowers, egg yolks, lemons, birds, bees, etc.), happiness, optimism, youth, enlightenment, sunshine and spring. Yellow often grabs attention of window shoppers.

Blue:

Also signifies the natural world (water and sky). Different shades represent different things. For example, dark blue signifies trust, authority, intelligence and dignity, hence, is why it is a popular shade used in corporate logos. Light blue signifies peace and serenity.

Green:

This color now exists as a verb in our vocabulary, relating to ecology. It signifies growth, rebirth, fertility and wealth. It’s universally associated with nature and the environment. Green creates a relaxing environment, which can be used in stores to reduce the stress of shoppers.

Purple:

It’s a very sci-fi color, relating to a supernatural aura. It symbolizes mystery, spirituality, creativity and royalty. Purple is also used to soothe and calm, so often used in beauty or skin care products.

Now you have the basics, but there is so much more to the background of color and how it affects consumers. The following infographic will give you a bit more knowledge. (https://www.nuvonium.com/blog/view/the-importance-of-color-in-marketing)

B. ARTS

Toulouse-Lautrec was known for his bold use of color and daring compositions. A regular patron of the night-club shown in the painting, the Moulin Rouge, he used his keen powers of observation to create a dramatic group portrait of other frequent visitors. The woman with the flaming-red hair in the central is the entertainer Jane Avril. The woman fixing her hair and reflecting in the sickly green mirror in the background is the dancer La Goulue. In the foreground, the shocking acid-green face of the dancer May Milton, which extends beyond the picture plane, dominates the composition. Toulouse-Lautrec’s Post-Impressionist style is a highly personal combination of the Impressionists’ interest in contemporary subject matter and his own expressionistic color and powerful line.

How do you feel when you look at this painting? What are the predominant colors? Do the colors give you a sense of the space and people in that space? What type of lighting would produce the colors present in the painting, and why is this significant? Do the colors seem real to you, or does it seem that the artist is using them to express some emotion? Compare Toulouse-Lautrec’s use of color to create space, atmosphere, and light to that of Turner’s (http://www.artic.edu/aic/education/sciarttech/global_pages/g3.3.html). The reason most art and photography classes begin with studies in monochrome is because color saturation distracts from value scale and colors have values of their own in relationship to black and white. Color images can fool one into believing they have good value relationships in an image, when in fact, they may not.

See how close yellow is to white and how close blue and purple are to black? Red and green are mid-value colors, with red generally higher altitude than green, though lime green and magenta can alter the order, again because of the influence of yellow and blue.

Placing yellow, red and blue on both high and low-key backgrounds makes it easy to see how color value relates to the order in which we see them. In low key, we see yellow first, red second and blue last because yellow is close to white which is the furthest value away from black.( https://www.breathingcolor.com/blog/color-as-value-in-art/).

In photography, the amount proportion of visible colon in a light, which includes the wavelengths ol red. orange, yellow, grey, blue, and violet, on be measured as color temperature. Color temperature is expressed on the Kelvin scale. An absolute scale based on the laws of thermodynamics, the Kelvin scale starts at absolute zero, which is —273.15 (usually rounded to —z73) degrees and is the temperature at which all molecular motion theoretically stops. The Kelvin temperature (which isn't expressed with a degree symbol) of a particular color is determined by adding Z73 to the number of degrees Celsius to which a black metal radiator must be heated before turning that color. A black body is used as the standard gauge since it ideally does not reflect any light failing on it and emits radiation only when heat is applied to it. Just as the ISO scale expresses the sensitivity of an image sensor or film, the Kelvin scale describes the color temperature of light.

A color temperature meter can measure the photographic color temperature of a light source. The most reliable and expensive meters compare the relative amounts of red. green, and blue energy m the light. They work well with sunlight and incandescent light sources, but are not as accurate for measuring fluorescent light. This is because some artificial light sources, such as fluorescent light, do not radiate color continuously and evenly throughout the spectrum, and cannot be given an exact color temperature. Consequently, such discontinuous sources are assigned color temperatures on the basts of the color sensor's or film's visual response to the light. Sometimes the designated value includes measurement with a color temperature meter, though not always.

To operate a digital color meter, set the film type (daylight or tungsten), position the meter near the principal subject and point it at the camera and/or main light source, and read the temperature and filtration recommendations the meter’s display window. Its suggested filtration should work with negative film, though transparency film may require test exposures for accurate results, due to fluctuations or differences between the same film emulsion (type) or processing (see Testing for a Critical Neutral Color Match section later in this chapter).

The Color of Light- Although wc think of daylight »1 being “white. its < olor varies according to the time of day. the tune of year, and atmospheric conditions. Nor is artificial light usually white. Our brain remembers how things are supposed to look and often wilt recast a scene tor us. tooling our eyes into believing that light is white, even when it is not. However, photographing a non-white scene can be another matter. While digital cameras often will make the desired color adjustments through electronic means, untiltered color film, on the other hand, will record only the actual light, forgoing the reconciliation of color differences that our brain frequently supplies.

Digital White Balance- cameras have built-in white balance control, which compensates tor variations m the color of common types of light so that white and gray objects appear to have a neutral color balance. The color of a light source is described in terms of its color temperature, measured in degrees Kelvin (K). If the » olor temperature of the light does not match the white balance setting, the final image will have a color cast to it. The white balance control as a built-in group of electronic tillers that allows you to alter the color temperature of each frame. Typically, the white balance can be set automatically, based on a variety of fixed values, or can be measured and manually set.

Red is one of the fundamental color sensation „with normal vision. It is not. however, sii and physiological phenomenon, but also has ui tural significance. This significance derwes Iron bolic representation of blood and fire. For mar ritual and the waaling off of evil, of prayer and cally speaking, it is a warm color; the color, too, In Japan as elsewhere, red is also the color of structures of the Itsukushima Shrine seen reflect ways of tlu* Inari Shrine in Kyoto; the oxide red ' in the service of the gods—all tell of its age-old s this color that ancient Japanese expressed their pi prosperity of state and family.

In the seventh and eighth centuries, indigene under Chinese influence. The custom of red-pa official buildings, which symbolized the authorr adopted by the Japanese court for their own offi of this practice is the aforementioned Itsukushm stark contrast to usually unpainted Shinto archie

Learning how to adjust and control the white balance is the best initial method tor achieving the desired color balance of the final image. PSLRs can automatically or manually adjust the color balance of each frame electronically according to the color temperature of the light coming through the lens. Begin with Auto White Balance for general light sources of jjoo to Sooo K. If the desired results are not achieved, then try one of the following settings Incandescent, for use with 1000K incandescent.(Robert Hirsch, Exploring Collor Photography, 2011)

Von Luschan’s Chromatic Scale: at the turn of the 19th century. Austrian physician and anthropologist Felix von Luschan created a chromatic scale in an attempt to classify various regions of the world by race. Von Luschan’s Chromatic Scale is based on 36 glass tiles that reflect skin tones of every ethnicity (Figure 5-1). It gives an accurate depiction of the variety of skin tones in darkly hued populations. In the 1950s, when scientists began to explore the physiological causes of pigmentation, this system was abandoned as being too subjective. However, a modified six-point version of von Luschan’s scale is still used by anthropologists today.

Pigmented lesions take on a different appearance in darker skin (see Chapter 4). The Skin Tone Color Scale offers a chromatic scale to assess the degree of hyper pigmentation in solar lentigines, melasma, and Pill in otherwise healthy skin

The system includes five plastic hue bars labeled 1YR, 3YR, 5YR, 7YRf and 9YR.

Normal skin color is matched to one of these hues. Fach bar has 19 different value strips that increase in increments of 0.25 from 4.0 to 8.5. Once exact skin color is established, a numerical value is assigned to the lesion as well. The difference between the normal skin color and the lesion represents the level of dyspigmentation. Like other chromatic scales, this method may be useful in evaluating how rapid and effective various lightening therapies are. Other systems attempt to classify skin by phototype. This system draws a relationship between the way that skin color responds to UV.( Aliesh D. Pierce, Milady aestician series, treating diverse pigmentation, 2012).

C. WEB DESIGN

Colors often have different meanings in various cultures. Certain colors tend to invoke a similar reaction from most people – the overall difference being in the shade or tones used. Colors determine the psychological effect on viewers.

Neutral Colors include white, black, gray and colors that contain a significant amount of gray.

White :Innocence or sterility.

Black – Elegance or Evil.

Color is one of the primary keys to good web design. Colors should be chosen wisely as it affects the mood of the viewers. It should be chosen in such a way which suits the subject of the website.

Choosing colors for website involves more than deciding which colors you like. Your favorite colors are not as pleasing when they are used together. Achieving color harmony is a science, and knowing how to arrange colors is an art.

The browser-safe palette of 216 colors gives consistent and predictable results across the MacOS, UNIX, and Windows platforms. But it just limits to 256 colors. The only reason to use browser-safe palette is if you feel your website will be viewed from a 256 color (8-bit) computer system. Or else, most computers today can render thousands or millions of colors. But rather than the number of color choices, it’s more important to know how to combine colors in pleasing and effective ways.

It’ll be effective if you limit the color palette to 2 or 3 major colors (with shade variations). Limited colors on web and in color palette of graphics means smaller file sizes, faster loading.

Color is a powerful weapon. Color is the first thing we notice and often is the last thing we remember. The same two sites done in different colors will yield different results. So, we need to give serious thought to color selection.( http://www.designgraphics.org/article22.html)

As a designer, when you create a website your primary concern is how to capture the viewer’s attention without compromising the usability. The only way to do it is by pushing up your creativity level and in order to create something truly impressive.

Colors acts differently and there is a strong concept of chromatic psychology in web design. Red, green, purple, orange…all of them stimulate the viewer’s feelings and emotion, so when you choose your color scheme you need to make a little research. A colorful website is a great choice when it comes to deliver a positive message or spread the word about an upcoming event.

These types of colors are good to raise the awareness and to capture the attention, so use them wisely because the downside can go as far as mistrust, especially when these colors are trying to promote an apparently sober idea, such as a law firm or a government campaign.( http://www.topdesignmag.com/the-importance-of-color-in-web-design-30-brilliant-examples-of-colorful-schemes/).

We got the more technical tasks out of the way, let’s look at how the color wheel can be a practical resource in choosing colors for a design project. We can pull a number of classic palettes from the color wheel that painters have been using for centuries to create balanced and visually pleasing (or high-contrast and striking) compositions. In most design applications, these color schemes will need to be split into one dominant color — dominant either because of how much it appears in the design, or because of how it stands out in comparison with other colors — and one or more accent colors.

1) Monochromatic: various shades, tones, or tints of one color; for instance, a range of blues varying from light to dark; this type of scheme is more subtle and conservative

2) Analogous: hues that are side by side on the color wheel; this type of scheme is versatile and easy to apply to design projects

3) Complementary: opposites on the color wheel, such as red/green or blue/orange; complementary colors are high-contrast and high-intensity, but can be difficult to apply in a balanced, harmonious way (especially in their purest form, when they can easily clash in a design)

4) Split-Complementary: any color on the color wheel plus the two that flank its complement; this scheme still has strong visual contrast, but is less jarring than a complementary color combination

5) Triadic: any three colors that are evenly spaced on the color wheel

6) Tetradic/Double-Complementary: two complementary pairs; this scheme is very eye-catching, but may be even harder to apply than one pair of complementary colors, since more colors are more difficult to balance. If you use this type of scheme, you’ll want to choose one of the four to be the dominant color and adjust the saturation/value/etc. of some or all the colors so they work well in different parts of your design like the text and background. (https://designschool.canva.com/color-theory/)

Chapter IV- CLASSIFICATION OF COLORS IN POPULAR CHROMATIC

In Romanian culture, the variety of color names is fully captured by the first works devoted to this issue occurred since the beginning of the twentieth century (many of which are regional variants). T. Porucic (Terminologia cromatică în Basarabia, Viața Basarabiei, nr. 4, 1932,:43-51) identifies the following shades of yellow:

Gălbăgior – Cam yellow. With yellowish (published Gălbăjios – over another color) well pronounced.

Galbani – Yellow. "" As paiu – as light yellow barley straw or wheat. "" Ask – "matt sheen to wax fat and weak. ""

Lut – "dark tinted matt all-earth metals and flower ,, -" glaring.

Leaf (dry), that is faded and dull, with uneven tone. Gălbăngior – With yellow hue.

Gălbănjos – Yellow mixed with another color faded. Gălbănjoc – Gălbiu pronounced. Gălbănusiu – Yellow as gălbenușu egg. Galbanum – Yellow slowly, that is, the other is mixed and the yellow color, which differs well    colorful field.

Gălbăjoc – Yellow faded. Yellow – yellow color type is the egg yolk sunflower or pumpkin. Gălbicios – Gălbăjos. Gălbinel / Gălbiniu / yellowishGăibioriu – Cam yellow. Tinted gâlbicioasă poorly pronounced. Gălbiu – Cam yellow: yellow with well pronounced unanță.      

    Besides these nuances must be mentioned whose name comes from the plant or animal material or natural products. The author himself noted that: ,, […] much of chromatic terms appointments am derived from flowers or birds or animals or even plants. For example: stejăriu, șoriciu, violet, curcudușiu, etc. "(ibid.:44)

Aguziu yellow – yellow mulberry fruit color. Alămâiu – Light yellow like lemon. Hazel – Dark Yellow weak earthy as hazelnuts. Canariu – canary yellow feather eyes. Cănuriu – combings color, ie yellow faded greyishCerium – Dark yellow mat as wax, fat luster. Colburiu – Yellow mat weak earthy. Corcodușiu – Light Yellow ripe corcodușei it. Duziu yellow – yellow as white mulberry fruit (mulberry).

Epuriu – Yellow bruniu unequal rabbit coloring the hair. Granguriu – Yellow grangurelui it.

Lămâiu – as lemon yellow.

Mestecăniu – yellow birch as a dry leaf.

Năhutiu – Light Yellow and mat it năhut baking parchment. Yellow.

Nucăciu- Nuciu as walnut shell.

Oloetic – Chartreuse as oloiul hemp.

Dark – tinted yellow rumeniu very strong

Negros, Rădaciniu – Yellow as the core root. (49) Samaniu – Yellow as paiu of ripe wheat.

Sarge – Yellow pale yellow as the color of horses.

Slpichiu – Yellow flower open as sipică (called bărburel plant).

Sofrăniu – Light Yellow on. Sulfiniu -Light yellow as the flower melilot.

Șăfrăniu – Yellow gold. Undeiemniu – Yellow-green oil. Viniii yellow – Yellow white wine. Zarzariu – apricot-yellow fruit (apricots small). (Porucic 1932: 44-51)

To this is added a number of other colors with tint / shade yellow / yellowish:

Albușiu – Transparent as egg white with yellowish tint. Bala- Balan. Weak yellowish white.

Bălăior Bălăel – Cam Balan.

Balan – White with a touch weak Griese or other colors, but especially yellow.

Bîlăoach Balan something dark.

Balan pronounced ie Balan pronounced hue. Bălăunc
Balan pronounced ie Balan pronounced hue. Băliu – Balan. Bel – Blonde. Balan, slightly yellowish. Brown – brown with yellowish tint hard. Căpriu / Brown – Coffee with yellowish tint. Gray – white light or weak

Gălbiu Sur. Lemniu – White gălbiu as wood. Plavi – beating whitish-gray white yellow.

Salcâmiu – matte white, light gălbiu as acacia flower.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmon_color)

Names of colors (shades) created are based on place names.     Some colors indicate the genesis, origin, their specification or where they have been widely used.
Ex .: Blue-de-Berlin-blue of Bengal, oriental blue, blue-English, blue for India, imperial blue, Paris blue, blue-to-Prussia. (Cf. Șofransky, op. Cit .: 73-74)

The whole issue of black and white in reference to race is a very delicate matter, and the most important reason why this is so is precisely the additional meanings that arise in type modification. The close relation between social, political, economic, cultural and racial issues creates a situation in which white and black have absorbed a great many attributes which may be important in certain contexts. This example serves to illustrate that the figurative use of color terms appears to presuppose a process similar to that of type modification.

In the case of figurative usage, a color has to co-occur with some object or some other quality to the extent that a reference to the color can suggest the object or the other quality. It seems that there are other similarities between figurative use and classifying use of color terms. Quite often, it appears, the function of the figurative expression is to classify a subtype. Consider examples such as blue movie, purple prose, yellow journalism, black magic, and white lie. They all refer to subtypes: a type of movies, a type of prose, a type of journalism etc. (Steinval Anders, 2002, p. 126)

Some scientific French terms were mathematical, physical, chemical, and tcchnotogicai in nature. With regard to the mathematical ones, we find, for instance, at this time, extrapolation (“the action or method of finding by a calculation based on the known terms of a scries, other terms outside of them, whether preceding or following", from interpolation, from French interpolation, by the substitution of extra- for inter-. 1878: C. A. Young in Newcomb Popular Astronomy), tub-surface ("in five-dimensional geometry, a three-dimensiona] continuum". PDE subsurface, from Latin sub, "under", and French surface. 1973: Cayley. Mathematical Papers) and symeentre (“in geometry, a centre of symmetry", from symfmetry) ("exact correspondence in position of the several points or parts of a figure or body with reference to a dividing line, plane, or point", from French symmetric] and centre ("the centre of a circle, of revolution, of centripetal attraction", from French centre]. 1893: Halsted, Elements of Synthetic Geometry)

In physics, some Gallicisms referred to efcctricty. such as conductor (“a substance having the property of conducting or permitting the passage of beat, electricity, or other form of energy", from Old French conduitor. 1754: W. Watson in Philosophical Transactions), dyne (“the unit of force in the centimetre-gramme- second system, i.e. a unit equivalent to that force which, acting for one second on a mass of one gramme, gives it a velocity of one centimetre per second”, from French dyne, 1842: Mechanics Magazine), and galvanism (“electricity developed by chemical action", from French galvanisms. 1797: Monthly Magazine).

Some other Gallicisms referred to physics were of a thermodynamic nature, such as calorie (“the French conventional unit of heal; also applied to the English unit", from Modern French calorie [GuiUemin]. 1870. T. L. Phipson, translation of GuiUemin‘s Sun), calorique ("the name given to a supposed elastic fluid, to which the phenomena of heat were formerly attributed", from French calorique [invented by Lavoisier|. 1791: E. Darwin, the Botanic Garden) and centigrade (“having a hundred degrees; usually applied to Celsius's thermometer, in which the space between the freezing and boiling points of water is divided into 100 degrees", from French centigrade. 1812: Edinburgh Review), as well as those concerning the units of measurement as a result of the creation of the metric system, a "gift" of the French Revolution to modern science.

These were first registered :n English in the Naval Chronicle (1810): e.g. dlcigram (“the tenth part of a gram”. PDE decigram, me. from French diagram), decimetre ("a tenth of a metre", from French decimetre), hectar ("a hundred ares or ten thousand square metres", PDE hectare, from French hectar), hectogram ("a hundred grammes". PDE hectogram, me, from French hectogram), etc.

Chemistry also had many French loanwords: e.g. the organic compounds tn -ic (from French “-ique") nitric (“of or pertaining to. derived from, nitre”, from French nitrique 1794: Philosophical Transactions), phenic ("pertaining or related to phenyl or to benzene", from French phene, "benzene". 1852: The Chemical Gazette), sulphuric (“in sulphuric acid, a highly corrosive oily fluid”, from French sulphurique. 1790: Kerr, translation of Lavoisier's Elements of Chemistry), etc AsT. Nevalainen states. ‘There is a noticeable increase in political and scientific.( IGLESIAS Elvira, AMANDO Carmen, 2008, Multidisciplinary studies in language and literature :English , American and Canadian)

. Terminology: Three Different Meanings. In the course of past decades. Communication in specialized .irc.is has spread con side rabfy, due to the growing relevance of science and technology in general, C onsequcnily, specialized lexicons have increased significantly, making die command

Specialized languages a key element in auxlern professional Itle. Very frequently, there are misunderstandings between non-specialists, although problems of understanding among specialists are also common Ihat is why ihe registration of new specialized terms becomes so important in these specialized lie Ids. in order to clarify and determine their exact meaning and promote their appropriate use in a particular area of specialization This sort of communication problems becomes even mote noticeable in situations where uc find interlocutors w ho speak different languages These situations are very common nowadays because of the inc reasing need tor international collaboration in specialized fields.

Thus, the specialized translator, who combines the knowledge of a particular area w ith the understanding of specialized languages, has also grow n in importance in the last years. Tire number of texts to translate and their degree of difficulty increases constantly: yet specialized dictionaries are often unable to cope with this constant expansion Be it as it may. transiting ,mdA»r understanding a specialized texi is ont>' possible if we know the vocabulary of that particular area that is, if we are familiar w ilh Us Terminology.

In «enter to full)’ understand the field of Terminology, it is important to distinguish three different meanings that the word Terminology , per *e. can possess:

The group of terms that belong to a specialized field

An activity: the work of ihe icrmmologist

V A theoretical discipline

In the first sense, wc can talk, lor example, of Internet Terminology. Chemistry Tcrmmok>gy. Pdatcs Terminology, legal Terminology, etc. As is usually the case, the tcrtnirvok»gy of the different areas is typically githercd in dictionaries, gk*ss.irtes. vocabularies, lexicons, etc All these terminological repertoires can also take the form of databases or other electronic media.

The use of specialized lexical units. that is lo say. a Tcrmlno4ogy of their i*wn

A «y>(emulK u«c of those lexical uni»*», something ih.ii implies a greater coltcnfiue in iIk lexical use than that exhibited in standard language-. For example, fewer synonyms are used in specialised languages, even if this may account lor a wider lexical repetition.

There is a frequent use of terms w ith Greek and Latin prefixes and suffixes

An important number of notions are expressed through phrases and not through single words, lor example rental payment. dmwttdurjg returns, feiel of pnvfuflum. equity of rnirm/Xton. etc.

Abbreviations, acronyms and symbols arc very common

There is a preference for nominallzaMon» instead of the corresponding verbal forms (e g. ipuuliodtltm inarad i*f xpet udiy).

ShoTt sentences arc very frequent and there is little complex subordination.

Drgres.sx.ms jtul expLinatory sequences, are also quite common when information is presented.

Some spec tali red languages incorporate other semiotic systems into the text, such as the language of Fhotielics. which makes use of the phonetic alphabet (an artificial language)

Othrrspcctatizcd langu.igesproduce thcirowntypc oldocumcnislh.it possess a series of linguistic convent ions anti a spccilic design and organization of the information: a clear example *s Administrative language, with ils contracts, certificates, etc

Finally, there is a clear tendency towards impcrsonuhzation and objectivity, that is achieved through strategies such as the use all the passive voice, impersonal sentences (.third person singular it), etc (Noan Tolovan Zanon; An university handbook on terminology and specializated therms, 2011).

Hair contain rings of pigments in three colors: black, brown (tan) or yellow. All of the coat colors and patterns that can be seen in dogs are due to the amount and varying arrangements of pigment rings which produce different optical effects. The pigmentation may be uniform throughout the hair or it may vary. White results when there is no color pigment present.

Most coat colors of wild animals evolved for camouflage. With such a wide variation in past and present environments, it is not surprising that dogs have developed numerous coat colors. Coat colors as specified in Breed Standards have been developed by man for both camouflage and artistic appeal. In some breeds, coat color changes from birth to maturity and in other cases throughout the entire life span of the individual.

Terms used to describe color in dogs are often confusing and not scientific. Color definitions are in many cases breed specific. In many cases, the same color is called a different name in different breeds. Sometimes the Breed Standard lists the color for the particular breed, but does not define the color. The same coat color is often called different names for different breeds, for example Bluetick in the Coonhound and blue Belton in the English Setter.

Afghan Hound color. All colors are permissible, but color combinations should be pleasing. White markings, especially on the head, are undesirable.

Agouti. Banded hairs. Hair with alternating bands of light and dark color. This pattern is named after a rodent, the agouti. One form of agouti banding, called “wild boar,” imparts an overall grizzled effect which is most often seen on Wirehaired Dachshunds, but may also appear on other coats. Variations include red boar, chocolate boar and tan boar. The hair shafts are banded black and white in the case of the Pepper and Salt colored Standard Schnauzer.

Alaskan seal and white. Black or black tipped guard hairs with a white or cream undercoat. The dog appears black at a distance, but it is not true black because of the light undercoat in the case of Alaskan Malamutes.(Gilbert, 2009)

CONCLUSION

Quickly answer the following two questions: Whal -color is the sky on a clear day? What Color are the leaves of a palm tree? Host likely, you responded ’‘green" to Ihc second question and "blue'1 (o the First, Yet speakers of many languages would use the same word to answer both oF these questions, si nee many languages utilize a "gruc’ category that encompasses the portion ol (he color spectrum subsumed by English "green" and "blue". One question that has long fascinated lhose curious about the effects of language on thought is whether such disparate representations of the color spectnim impacts the actual perception of such colors, so that speakers ol languages with a ’grue" category actually do not distinguish between blue and green hues in the same manner that speakers of other languages do. in an attempt to answer such questions, researchers have provided experimental and anecdotal data from a host of cultures. As il turns outs, the investigation of the existence ot such language-mediated perceptual effects has played a major role in the more general investigation of linguistic effects on norlingulstic cog nil iun, Match of this work is contentious and has paradoxically resulted in some of the strongest claims for and against ihe presence of linguistic effects on low-level cognitive and perceptual processes.

It Is in some sense puzzling that debates surrounding color terminology and color discrimination came to play such a prominent role in discussions of relativistic effects, since color terminology plays a rathor peripheral role in grammar. While cnosslinguislic data suggest that nearly all languages have terms dedicated to color reference, color is not generally a category indexed in morphological paradigms. Tills is in sharp contrast to Ihe semantic domains discussed in the preceding chapters, namely those associated with spatial, temporal, and numerical distinct ions. Morphological systems are generally replete with aFEixa! and ad positional resources For specifying things like Ihe location or orientation of referents, the time at which an event occurred, or whether the number ot referents being discussed is singular or plural. Such systems do not, however, provide means to systematically denote the hue ot given referents. There is for example no suffix denoting "purple" in the world’s languages. Given the lack of centrality of color to the world’s grammars, some have suggested that color terms have played an out sized role in the literature on linguistic relativity (Lucy |1997|).

Two significant pragmatic factors render possible this line of linguistic inquiry: (l) the availability of extensive anti reliable textual and lexicographical sources for several ancient members of this language family (for example, Akkadian, Hebrew, Ugaritic, Aramaic, Arabic and others); and (2) the striking cultural and linguistic conservatism of several modern Arabic- and Aramaic-speaking communities in the Near Hast, which often display Striking instances of formal and semantic continuities with ancient usage.3

Anthropological and ethnographic research on the peoples and cultures of the Near Hast has yet to take cognizance on an adequate scale of the cognitive and functional centrality of language to many pragmatic domains subsumed within these disciplines^ Hence the need for systematic linguistic study of this region’s multifaceted human landscape, with its intricate and fragile cultural ecology as currently exemplified inter alia by numerous endangered or moribund ethnic languages and related traditions often dating back to antiquity

Not unlike the situation just described in relation to modern bedouin, the lexical heritage of Old Arabic transmitted to us in the oldest literary texts (sixth to eighth century) presents the observer with a relatively small basic colour system of five categories (white, BLACK, RED, GREEN and YELLOW) along with an impressively rich word stock of non-basic terms whose most salient cognitive function is a categorization of the desert landscape. As will be shown below, the rich lexificalion of unsalurated hues is of particular significance for the present inquiry into the green-ulue continuum seen as a cognitive outcome of the paradigmatic focus on light-dark contrasts in the colour systems of Arabic-speaking nomads.^ This semantic link is evident in some cases, from the etymological meanings of Arabic colour terms referring, for instance, to camel hues. As indicated in Borg (1999,136}, light-colonred camels among the Negev bedouin are commonly designated by means of the terms nwSah and akal, both oi which refer essentially to blight ness values: compare Old Arabic watfah “gleam of dawn”10 and sacai “to light (a fire)” A systematic survey of the lexica fixation of

Within the Afro-Asiatic language continuum., a striking case exempli lying blurring ol the distinction between dark colours is that noted in berber (basset 1896,81): Tuareg zäwziiw "bluish green" (Prasse 1999,169),

Actually, Arabic also has distinct terms for white and black encoding brightness categories par excellence: abyad “hell, leuchtend, weiß” (bright, luminous, white) and aswad "dunkel, finster, Schwarz1' (dark, gloomy, black), respectively (Fischer 1965, 243,273). The structuralist assumption of sharp functional roles for basic categories is liable to misrepresent the actual evolutionary process that yielded the present situation in Arabic Colour semantics, for inclusion of black within the green continuum, here raises the question as to the systemic contrast of axdar with aswad in actual usage, bischer offers the following explanation: ecological hues applicable to fauna, livestock, topography, and so on, would correspond fairly closely to the hue range represented in the Mttnsdi Soil Color Charts.(Carole Biggam, Color studies, Amsterdam, 2014, page 67)

Berlin and Kay’s (1965) seminal work on color categories in the world’s languages was motivated Ln large measure by skepticism towards relativistic claims. .More specifically, the authors were skeptical of seme claims in the literature that the spectral referents designated by color terms were essentially arbitrary, varying unprcdictably from language to language, Such strong claims of variability had clear implications tor the study of language and cognition, since some interpreted them as meaning that people's low-level perceptions and groupings of color types were determined by arbitrary linguistic conventions that varied in an undetermined manner. In addition, some psychological research of that era (Brown and Lenncberg |t9Vi], StetRre, Vales, and Moricy 1196613 suggested that the colors encoded in a given language are more readily recalled by its speakers. This claim imbued greater import to the notion thal color terms vary unprcdictably across languages. Berlin and Kay’s (1969) skepticism was motivated in large measure by their first-hand experience with some unrelated languages, experience which suggested to them that color terms ware too easily translatable for such extreme claims ol variability and determinism to be accurate.

In order to more systematically address this issue, Deri in and Kay (1969) elicited color terms from speakers of twenty languages, and examined semantic data gathered by field researchers in ait additional seventy-eight languages.(Coleb, 2013, p.173).

early records, even though they are unlikely to be close in date to the last period of their prehistoric ancestor. If certain trends and patterns can he discerned in surviving records, it is reasonable to ‘track back' the process of development and acquisition of categories according to the priorities known to be extremely common around the world.

The semanticist is fortunate that a considerable amount of colour evidence from modern and historical languages has already been retrieved and processed in the form of the model’s evolutionary sequence coupled with diachronic vantage theory. The sequence offers a set of predictions that certain basic colour categories will be developed before others. It is not necessary to believe that the sequence is a linguistic universal, only to believe that its principal findings arc commonly found in all language families. Those principal findings can be listed as: firstly, all societies appear to distinguish between dark and light; secondly, if they distinguish any hue at all, it is most likely to involve RED; and thirdly, if they have a second hue category, it is most likely to involve green or YELLOW or both. If the reader is uneasy about referring to the sequence for guidance, it may help to know that the combination of prototypes with the relative chronology of crucial socioeconomic developments, appears to support the order of acquisition suggested by the sequence (Biggam 2004: 28-32; 2010: 239-49; Section 11.4).

Although this section may seem concerned solely with basic categories, it involves non-basics by implication. It should be remembered that, before a colour concept becomes basic, the researcher can be confident that it has passed through a period of dev elopment towards basicness, provided it was not a relatively sudden introduction from another society.

Another fonn of brightness is reflectivity which depends on the various abilities of surface materials to reflect the light produced elsewhere. Reflectivity can be described by means of the range ‘shiny’ – ‘lustrous’ – ‘matt’, with tile addition of ‘constant' or ‘intermittent’ if required. Tile middle category here is described us ‘lustrous', while ‘shiny’ indicates un eye-catching effect, und ‘innlT indies Lies the nOn-reflecting (non-shiny) quality.

Another form of brightness is surface illumination. This is described with Ehe terms ‘well-lit’ or ‘poorly lit’, with medium illumination being taken as the norm. This range relates to entities which do n<n produce their own light, and are not made of reflective material, degree of illumination falling on (heir matt surfaces. For example, an object may appear vivid yellow 3it ihe daylight, but it will not have tile same quality ill dusk.

Yet another form of brightness is Space illumination, This cun re ler to daylight (or lhe lack of it) Outdoors, or to an enclosed space such as a room iliuminuted by a fire or artificial light- The range for this description is ‘brilliant’ – ‘dim’ – 'an lit', in which a medium illumination is taken us tile norm and does not require comment. ‘Dim’ indicates a low lighting level, and ‘unlit* indicates darkness (a lack Of both daylight and artificial light). Finally, the researcher may wish to comment or transparency; in which case s/he etui use the terms ‘transparent’ or ‘translucent’. (Biggam, 1997, p.128).

Colour semantics in Old English has proved a relatively popular subject, mainly because of its intransigence. Strite analyses 19 studies, ranging in date from 1889 to 1986. and. in scope, from comprehensive studies of the whole field to papers on individual texts or lexemes.' It is. presumably, the number of these studies which prompts Strite to say that no update is required for this semantic field, in spite of the fact that most scholars are still puzzled by the use of Old English colour words.*’

It is noticeable in discussing colour with linguists and non-linguists alike, that most English speakers regard the present Modem English classification of colour as the only possible system. I suspect that our colour terminology is an aspect of our language which is among the most difficult to question in our own minds. When colour semantics is investigated, however, through comparative linguistics, it is seen to consist of a large collection of variables or features which combine in different ways in different languages, and at different periods in the history of the same language. As many of these variables and features as I have found to be valuable in trying to understand early texts are listed in the remainder of this section. Some of them appear in earlier studies of Old English colour, but others arc better known to anthropologists, who have been in the forefront of colour research in language. The list includes features from the study of optics, from linguistic classifications imposed upon the colour sensation by various languages, cultural features which societies may associate with colours in an apparently illogical fashion, and diachronic considerations, since colour systems are not static.

Individual languages may make use of one or more of the optical variables listed above bul, in addition, they will operate some of the following linguistic variables.

Compound colour terms may combine two BCTs. such as red-brown, or a BCT with a secondary term, such as burgundy-red. There can also be compound colour terms with the names of objects or substances, such as leaf-green and snow-white. Although the linguistic structure is the same in all these examples, they express different semantic concepts:

red-brown indicates brown with an apparently large element of red.

burgundy-red indicates the type of red which is called burgundy.

leaf-green indicates the type of green which is the most typical colour of leaves.

snow-white indicates extremely white.

Knowledge of other languages can introduce a new semantic concept to certain individuals. This can result in slightly different colour systems between those who are familiar with the contact language, and those who are not. These two systems will exist synchronically in the same language, and make the studies of anthropologists and comparative linguists even more problematic. Berlin and Berlin show, for example, that the Aguaruna speakers of Peru have a Stage III or Stage IV BCT structure, but those among them who also speak Spanish, which is a Stage VII language, have a Stage V BCT structure in their Aguaruna.15 They have not borrowed a Spanish lexeme, but use Aguaruna colour terms differently from their fellow speakers.

Added to the complex mix of the above variables, there are, in any language, elements of semantic association, symbolism, taboo, and prestige, which originate in the religion, natural environment, or economics of a particular society.

A language may associate a non-colour semantic element so strongly with a particular colour that usage of the word may sometimes contradict objective reality. Conklin's study of Hanunoo, a language of the Philippines, reveals that, to speakers of Hanunbo, the brown colour of a newly-cut bamboo is malatuy green'. The reason for this apparently perverse defiance of reality is that the concept of edibility in plants is always linked with the concept of green, so a brown edible plant must be described as ’green'.(Biggam, 1997, P.21)

Colour quality is me specific character of colour that arises from the attributes of hue (chromoiic colours) degree of lightness (or volue), purity (or saturation), intensity and ennotional effect- Hue is that attribute of a colour by which it con be distinguished from another of Ihe same lightness and purity. Often, based on the arrangement of the colours on a wheel analogous to a compass, a colour's hue Is termed its 'direction'. Lightness refers to the degree of difference of the colour from block as the 'darkest', and white at the 'lightest1 end of the spectrum. Colour purity (or saturation] is that attribute which determines the degree of aifferenoe between a certain tone and neutral grey. Colour intensity is the sirenglh or power of a colour, where the saturated colours of the colour wheel are perceived to be the most intense. Both intensify and saturation are diminished by the addition to a colour of white, black or grey. This moons that each colour reaches its highest point of Intensity ana saturation at a different degree of lightness, e.g. yellow ot a higher degree of lightness than blue. Oil saturated colours affect the eye with equal strength: no saturated green, for example, con approach the intensity of saturated red.

Apart tram the emotional value of a colour arising from the psychophysical effect it ihas on us. working with colour in buildings or in the urban landscape can exploit certain visual expressiveness resulting from the inherent properties unique to each colour [Schmuok 1968):(Derek, 2002, p.89).

While debates about the slale and future af English were taking place, it oonlinued to become established in overseas territories, often as the language of conquesl, displacing native languages father as French had displaced OE after 1066. Inevitably, Ihese versions of English in different places diverged ever lime, so lhat we now regard American English, Australian English, British English, Indian English, and so on, as different varieties of the language traceable to a common ancestor. Following political independence from Britain, many Americans were keen to establish the independence of (heir English. Notable among mem was Noah Webster, who published treatises on many aspects or fanguage, culminating in An American Dictionary of the English Language of 1328. which promoted such distinctively American spellings as color, center, traveler and check [cheque). Lexical differences between American and British varieties grew over the years, though not to the extent of making ihe two languages mutually Incomprehensible as has sometimes been predicted. Compare, for example British film, lift, lorry, luggage, petrol, post with American movie, elevator, truck, baggage, gas, mail, many of which art at least known if not used on both srdes of the Atlantic. Other Americanisms have filled gaps in British English, far example escalator (formerly called a moving staircase) and a university campus (formerly not really called anything at all in the UK). Similar patterns can be observed in other world Englishes, with distinctive vocabularies being developed and words being imported .(Kay,2015, p.176).

Historical colour scmanlicists have a useful resource in what is usually referred lo as the evolutionary sequence. Based on some earlier work, it appeared in its more modem form in a highly influential book published in 1369 Sasic Color Terms: Their Universality ar\d Evolution. by Brenl Berlin and Paul Kay (see 1969: 4 for the original evolutionary sequence). Aspects of Itic sequence have always been controversial, and it has been revised and discussed many limes since that dale. References in this chapter will be to me current version as il appears in Kay and Maffi (1999: 748) and Paul Kay ct al. (2009: ft).

The sequence claims to display the order in which LiCCs may develop in various languages, as revealed by their BGTs. The controversy menlioned above resulted from early claims that Ihe sequence represents a linguistic universal, that is a feature that we can expect to find in all languages. Its current version, however, is intended lo show the acquisition of basic categories by (hose languages studied in (he Wold Color Survey, a research project at the University of California at Berkeley, which investigated Ihe colour systems of 110 languages from around the world (see Paul Kay et a I. 2009 and wwwi.icsi.berkeiey.edu/wcs7), Even though there remain many languages whose BCCs have not yet been investigated, (here is row a great deal of data on this subject, since there have been other multi-language projects, such as Robert MacLaury's Mesosmencan Colour Survey (MacLaury 19S7), and countless studies of individual languages and language families.

Findings from these studies strongly suggest that, although there are differences in the numbers and extent of basic categories in various languages, tbo historical order of acquisition of Ihe categories is remarkably consistent. There is a small number of different trajectories (routes) which individual languages have tpkqn along the sequence but, when compared with the theoretically possible number of Irajectonies, the actual number used is minimal. This suggests that, rather than having no guidance at all on the early history of colour category acquisition researchers are justified in considering me iraiectories on Ihe sequence as being by far Ihc most likely routes taken by communities of speakers in Ihe cognitive development of their colour systems. Let us now consider these most likely routes.

The two earliest categories acquired involve, firslly, white and the so-called 'warm' hues such as red and yellow, and, secondly, black and the cod hues such as green and blue. Because the sequence 1$ concerned only with hues and a chromatics (white, black and grey). Itierc is cunrerlly no facility for accommodating tone, saturalion or brightness In the sequence These two earliest categories ane simply labelled WRVY' (white/red lye How) and Bk/Gieu1 (black/gneenfblue). often referred to as macro- white and macro-black. It scorns highly likcty, however, that these two concepts represent the epposilior of categories such as LIGHT/BRIGHT/PALE/WHITEWARM. and DULL, BLACK/COOl, probably be si summarised as brighluess versus darkness, and based on the prototypes of day'and 'night'. As shown below, macrowhite at this stage (Stage i o( the sequence) involves me so-called 'warm' colours (red and yellow) and those colours elosety related to them such as pink and orange, white mac no-black involves green, blue and scmetriTies grey and violei. The classic example of a stage 1 language is Dam, spoken In Indonesian New Guinea (Biggam 2012: 74). Apart from some apparently rare exceptions, a Stage I language can accommodate all colour impressions in these two basic categories.(Kay, 2015, p.75)

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ANNEXE I

Source:

ANNEXE II.

The Peter Pan painting relies upon color to distract attention away from the sky and onto the subjects and the foreground, in this case, yellow and blue.

People see yellow before blue, so blue fades into the background while yellow asks for our attention. This is because yellow is a high altitude color and blue is low altitude.( Source https://www.breathingcolor.com/blog/color-as-value-in-art/)