Teaching Speaking In English

CHAPTER I

ENGLISH LANGUAGE SKILLS

1.1 Communicative language teaching

Communicative language teaching can be understood as a set of principles about the goals of language teaching, how learners learn a language, the kinds of classroom activities that best facilitate learning, and the roles of teachers and learners in the classroom. Communicative language teaching sets as its goal the teaching of communicative competence.

Communicative competence includes the following aspects of language knowledge:

– knowing how to use language for a range of different purposes and functions;

– knowing how to vary our use of language according to the setting and the participants (e.g., knowing when to use formal and informal speech or when to use language appropriately for written as opposed to spoken communication);

– knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts (e.g., narratives, reports, interviews, conversations);

– knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in one’s language knowledge (e.g., through using different kinds of communication strategies).

In the 1970s, a reaction to traditional language teaching approaches began and soon spread around the world as older methods such as Audiolingualism and Situational Language Teaching fell out of fashion.

The notion of communicative competence was developed within the discipline of linguistics and appealed to many within the language teaching profession, who argued that communicative competence, and not simply grammatical competence, should be the goal of language teaching.

Communicative language teaching derives from a multidisciplinary perspective that includes, at the least, linguistics, psychology, philosophy, sociology, and educational research. The focus has been the elaboration and implementation of programs and methodologies that promote the development of functional language ability through learners’ participation in communicative events.

By definition, CLT puts the focus on the learner. Learners’ communicative needs provide a framework for elaborating program goals with regard to functional competence.

1.2 Receptive and Productive Skills

Traditionally skills were classified into "active" (speaking and writing) and "passive" (listening and reading). This terminology is clearly misleading, since we cannot say listeners and readers do not do anything at all when they try to understand an oral or a written text. This is the reason why "productive" (in the sense that you "produce" something when you speak or when you write) and "receptive-interpretative" (you receive an oral or a written message and interpret it) seem to be more appropriate terms.

On the one hand, the oral register is shared by speaking and listening, whereas the written one is common to writing and reading. On the other hand, speaking and writing are affected by similar methodological issues because of their being "productive", while the same can be said about listening and reading on the grounds of their "receptive" character.

Receptive skills and productive skills feed off each other in a number of ways. What we say or write is heavily influenced by what we hear and see. Our most important information about language comes from this input. Thus the more we see and listen to comprehensible input, the more English we acquire, notice or learn. This input takes many forms: teachers provide massive language input, as does audio material in the classroom and the variety of reading texts that students are exposed to. Students may read extensively or listen to pod casts, they may interact with other English speakers both inside and outside the classroom. But students get other input, too, especially in relation to their own output. When a student produces a piece of language and sees how it turns out, that information is fed back into the acquisition process. Output – and the students’ response to their own output – becomes input.

Such input or feedback can take various forms; some of it comes from us, whether

or not we are language learners. We modify what we write or say as we go along, based on how effectively we think we are communicating. Feedback also comes from the people we are communicating with. In face-to-face spoken interaction, our listeners tell us in a number of ways whether we are managing to get our message across. On the telephone, listeners can question us and/or show through their intonation, tone of voice or lack of response that they have not understood us.

Teachers can, of course, provide feedback, too, not just when a student finishes a piece of

work, but also during the writing process, for example, or when, acting as prompters or as a resource, they offer ongoing support.

When speakers or writers use the language for communication, they are doing so because they want to say something, they have some communicative purpose, they select from their language store.

In the same way, when listeners or readers try to understand what speakers or writers say or write, they want to listen to /read something, they are interested in the communicative purpose of what is being said, they process a variety of language.

Listening and Reading are known as the 'receptive skills' whereby the reader or listener receives information.

Reading is a 'receptive skill' that should be done individually, as opposed to reading out aloud. It is however important to remember that students read at different speeds and in
very different ways.

1.2.1 Aproches to be adopted to receptive skills

There are two approaches to be adopted to the 'receptive' skills:

1. Reading and Listening for Gist: Here, students read or listen for an overall, general understanding of a particular text, story or tape-script. Students are encouraged to devote less attention to the individual meaning of words and phrases. With regard to reading, this idea is also referred to as skimming. Students may be asked to "speed – read" through a particular text in order to answer a general question.

Students must develop a tolerance for guessing. Give the students time limits in order to ensure that they skim. Listening to an entire tape-script, with the intention of acquiring an overall understanding of what it is about, may be referred to as "extensive listening" or "listening for gist."

2. Reading and Listening for Specific Information: Here, students read or listen for specific information. Students are encouraged to understand information or specific language items in more detail. With regard to reading, this idea is also referred to as scanning. Students may be asked to read through a particular text in detail in order to answer a specific question such as 'At what time did the train depart the station?" "Intensive listening" or "listening for detail" is where the students concentrate on a small part of the tape-script in order to understand some subtle points of detail. Moreover, it is important to raise student awareness that it is not essential to understand every word when completing either a reading or listening activity.

1.3 Teaching productive skills

The complexity of learning to speak in another language is reflected in the range and type of sub-skills that are entailed in L2 oral production. Learners must simultaneously attend to content, morpho-syntax and lexis, discourse and information structuring, and the sound system and prosody, as well as appropriate register and pragma-linguistic features. In an interaction that typically involves speaking and comprehending at the same time, L2 speakers need to self-monitor so that they can identify and correct production problems at the fast pace of a real conversational exchange. Research on the characteristics and

development of L2 oral skills has shown conclusively that communicating in an L2 is a cognitively demanding undertaking, not to mention that the success of an interaction often depends on production quality.

Communication between people is a very complex and ever changing thing. But there are generalizations that we can make which have particular relevance for the teaching and learning of languages.

When two or more people are communicating with each other, we can be sure they are doing so for they have some communicative purpose, they want to say something, they want to listen to something, they are interested in what is being said.

Therefore, if a teacher wishes to introduce a communicative activity to the students, he or she should bring in a number of the mentioned factors. The teacher must create the need and desire, in the students, to communicate. If these factors are not present, it is far less likely that the activity will be the success the teacher had envisaged. If the students don't see the point in doing something, they're far less likely to want to participate.

While speaking and writing are substantially different in many ways, they both are used for the same purpose- to communicate.

In many ways writing is the most neglected skill in the TEFL world " teaching English as a foreign language", as many teachers don't like to see the classroom hours devoted to what is often 'quiet time'. Writing, therefore, is often relegated to homework, which in turn is frequently not done so the skill is never developed. It is true that most students prefer to focus on their speaking skills but this doesn't mean that writing should be ignored. In many ways writing is the more difficult skill, requiring a greater degree of accuracy. When speaking, any misunderstanding can be cleared up' on the spot', whereas this is not possible in writing. Speaking, on the other hand, requires a greater degree of fluency as the speaker will rarely have time to think and plan an answer.

Communication between people is a very complex and ever changing thing. But there are generalizations that we can make which have particular relevance for the teaching and learning of languages.

When speaking, there are a number of factors that help make the task easier for a foreign language speaker: speaking usually takes place in a certain context and other pre-existing knowledge is often assumed so that not all information has to be clear and precise; immediate feedback is possible and speakers can adjust as the conversation unfolds. Conversation is often informal in everyday life and easier for an ESL student to become involved in and practice.

Writing, however, is a much more formal process. ESL students will most likely have to use their writing skills for formal and professional reasons. This can be very stressful and downright handicapping if they have never learnt to write in English.

Written texts are fixed and must be explicit. Feedback is virtually impossible and the lack of it can be serious if the written text was for a job application or tax return. Writing skills need to be taught, they cannot be learnt through osmosis and immersion like speech can.

1.4 Integrated Skills

Commonly accepted perspectives on language teaching and learning recognize that, in meaningful communication, people employ incremental language skills not in isolation but in tandem. For example, to engage in a conversation, one needs to be able speak and comprehend at the same time. To make language learning as realistic as possible, integrated instruction has to address a range of L2 skills simultaneously, all of which are requisite in communication. For instance, teaching reading can be easily tied to

instruction on writing and vocabulary, and oral skills readily lend themselves to teaching pronunciation, listening, and cross-cultural pragmatics.

The four language skills are rarely used alone in everyday life. The writers, therefore, aim to put them together in integration for the sake of teaching reading which is generally neglected in textbooks, course books and/or reading classes and hope to avoid the traditional classroom models of reading instruction whereby teachers dominate classroom talk andeasons. This can be very stressful and downright handicapping if they have never learnt to write in English.

Written texts are fixed and must be explicit. Feedback is virtually impossible and the lack of it can be serious if the written text was for a job application or tax return. Writing skills need to be taught, they cannot be learnt through osmosis and immersion like speech can.

1.4 Integrated Skills

Commonly accepted perspectives on language teaching and learning recognize that, in meaningful communication, people employ incremental language skills not in isolation but in tandem. For example, to engage in a conversation, one needs to be able speak and comprehend at the same time. To make language learning as realistic as possible, integrated instruction has to address a range of L2 skills simultaneously, all of which are requisite in communication. For instance, teaching reading can be easily tied to

instruction on writing and vocabulary, and oral skills readily lend themselves to teaching pronunciation, listening, and cross-cultural pragmatics.

The four language skills are rarely used alone in everyday life. The writers, therefore, aim to put them together in integration for the sake of teaching reading which is generally neglected in textbooks, course books and/or reading classes and hope to avoid the traditional classroom models of reading instruction whereby teachers dominate classroom talk and students respond during text-driven question-and-answer sessions.

Of the 'four skills,' listening is by far the most frequently used. Listening and speaking are often taught together, but beginners, especially non-literate ones, should be given more listening than speaking practice.

Speaking lessons often tie in pronunciation and grammar (discussed elsewhere in this guide), which are necessary for effective oral communication. Or a grammar or reading lesson may incorporate a speaking activity. Either way, students will need some preparation before the speaking task. This includes introducing the topic and providing a model of the speech they are to produce.

Finding authentic reading material may not be difficult, but finding materials appropriate for the level of your learners can be a challenge. Especially with beginners, you may need to significantly modify texts to simplify grammar and vocabulary.

Good writing conveys a meaningful message and uses English well, but the message is more important than correct presentation. If you can understand the message or even part of it, your student has succeeded in communicating on paper and should be praised for that. Grammar is often named as a subject difficult to teach. Its technical language and complex rules can be intimidating. Teaching a good grammar lesson is one thing, but what if you're in the middle of a reading or speaking activity and a student has a grammar question?

Pronunciation involves far more than individual sounds. Word stress, sentence stress, intonation, and word linking all influence the sound of spoken English, not to mention the way we often slur words and phrases together in casual speech. English pronunciation involves too many complexities for learners to strive for a complete elimination of accent, but improving pronunciation will boost self esteem, facilitate communication, and possibly lead to a better job or a least more respect in the workplace. Effective communication is of greatest importance, so choose first to work on problems that significantly hinder communication and let the rest go.

However, the writers believe that the integration of skills is not the only type of integration teachers should aim at.

They believe that there exist three areas, which should be integrated with each other during textbook writing and while developing other materials.

These areas can be entitled as grammatical integration, functional integration and thematic integration. It is suggested that all three types of integration should be put together as far as possible.

1.4.1 Teaching integrated skills

It is generally observed that in an authentic setting, the use of any skill may lead on very naturally to the use of another.

Teaching integrated English skills requires an interactive form of learning between the teachers and students to ensure mastery of both oral and written skills.

In order to teach integrated skills teachers should consider the following:

formulate a lesson plan to develop fluency in the language and incorporate activities in which your students participate. Alternatively, include additional activities to a preexisting curriculum that is aimed at addressing specific areas. Establishing a friendly atmosphere in the classroom makes the students feel comfortable speaking with their classmates;

identify weak areas that require your special attention or ask students to list the various areas they need assistance;

prepare teaching aids to make the lessons interactive and interesting;

distribute essay topics to the students and ask them to pick subjects that they are comfortable reading, researching and writing about;

conduct an oral presentation session whereby the students deliver their papers in front of their classmates.

The amount of attention given to each skill area will depend both the level of the learners as well as their situational needs. Generally beginners, especially those who are non literate, benefit most from listening and speaking instruction with relatively little work on reading and writing. As fluency increases, the amount of reading and writing in your lessons may also increase. With advanced learners, up to half of your lesson time can be spent on written skills, although your learners may wish to keep their focus weighted toward oral communication if that is a greater need.

1.5 Active learning and teaching

Active teaching involves the use of instructional techniques designed for meaningful student engagement in the discovery of knowledge. Philosophically, the approach has a long history, from Socrates to John Dewey to the teaching case method refined at Harvard University. The conscious selection of goals for the classroom and methods for teaching helps create a sense of purpose in the educational process. It also represents collaboration – a commitment on the part of instructors and students to enliven the educational environment. Active learning means that students are working together, and with the instructor, to achieve educational objectives.

Active learning is a process where students are engaged in activities, such as reading, writing, discussion, or problem solving that promote analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of class content.

The teaching techniques are intended to make the students active (rather than passive) participants in learning. Learning important health knowledge and skill is not unlike learning many new skills, be it physical skill, mental or social. Many individuals learn best and become proficient in skills by practicing tem rather than merely being a spectator to the skill, such as listening to teachers talk about the skill, reading about the skill or watching others perform the skill.

Active, hand-on teaching strategies and learning activities are designed to make students out of their books, sometimes out of their seats, sometimes out of the classroom and sometimes out of their familiar way of thinking. Active teaching strategies and learning activities are intended to make students active participants in their own learning.

The teaching strategies refer to structure, system, methods, techniques, procedures and processes that a teacher uses during instruction. These are strategies the teacher employs to assist student learning. Learning activities refer to the teacher-guided instructional tasks or assignments for students. One of the primary benefits of active learning is the opportunity for the integration of reading, writing, listening and speaking. Some active learning activities may involve all four of these language and communication skills in a single activity. As with many teaching techniques, practice and repetition often result in greater teacher skill in delivering the technique. Planning and implementing active learning activities is no different. Early on, many students often need practice to become more proficient at active learning.

Active learning is almost any learning experience other than independently and passively reading, completing a worksheet or listening to a lecture. During active student learning, the role of the teacher changes from leader and presenter to coach and facilitator. Active student learning implies that students are doing most of the work and that they take a greater responsibility for their own work and learning.

Active student learning starts with the teacher. It is essential that teachers establish the classroom and instructional tone, environment and excitement that provide opportunities and encourage students to become active learning participants. With careful planning, teachers can create a learning environment that is conductive to active teaching strategies and learning activities. This environment would include a safe physical environment, accessible resource materials, fairness by the teacher to all students, effective class management and academically supportive student rapport.

CHAPTER II

METHODS FOR EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES OF TEACHING SPEAKING

2.1 Authentic Materials or activities to improve speaking skill as a foreign language

Authentic materials have real communicative values rather than language for the classroom and they have specific purposes which are more communicative for language learning.

Authentic materials are not limited to native speaker`s newspaper and magazine, but they can be derived from a variety of sources. In general, sources of authentic materials are: literature, computer software, books, magazines, newspapers, TV, radio, internet, videos, movies, songs, brochures, pamphlets, catalogues, menus, phone books, cartoons, ticket, notices, cards, time-tables, pictures, currency notes, letters etc.

Authentic materials have several advantages such as students can get much information about what is happening in the world and they can gain knowledge about real English use because most textbooks do not include incidental or inappropriate English. In fact, some authentic material such as books, articles, newspapers, etc. contain many kinds of text type that sometimes we couldn’t find in conventional teaching materials.

Another advantage of authentic materials is that they effectively bring the world into the classroom. In addition, authentic materials are effective because they can motivate learners to increase their vocabulary and language structure mastery. Using authentic materials is an easy and suitable way to improve students` general skills and their confidence in a real situation.

Authentic materials must be used in accordance with students’ ability. The text should be used to serve its original purpose as if it is used outside the classroom. For example, if students are working with health brochures, they must look for information they need, rather than a list of new words chosen by the teacher. In this respect, Taylor (1994) states that “authenticity is not a characteristic of a text in itself: it is a feature of a text in a particular context. Therefore, a text can only be truly authentic in the context for which it was originally written.”

Arguments for Using Authentic Materials:

authentic materials have a positive effect on learner motivation;

they provide authentic cultural information;

they provide exposure to real language;

they relate more closely to learners ' needs and interests;

they support a more creative approach to teaching;

they provide a wide variety of text types, language styles not easily found in conventional teaching materials;

unlike traditional teaching materials, authentic materials are continuously updated;

they have a positive effect on comprehension and learner satisfaction.

2.1.1 Topics for conversation including pronunciation lessons

The usefulness of teaching pronunciation is a widely debated subject in the language teaching world. Some of the current research would suggest that teachers can make little or no difference in improving their students pronunciation. In contrast, there is research that indicates that the teacher can make a noticeable difference if certain criteria, such as the teaching of supra-segmental and the linking of pronunciation with listening practice, are fulfilled.

One of the best ways to improve communication skills is to become familiar with the language by reading, building vocabulary, and discussing what you study in daily conversations. Too often, ESL/EFL students spend time reading about topics that they normally wouldn't use in daily conversation.

When choosing a topic teachers must make sure that pupils have something to say about the subject; the topics used should be familiar to the children, they should present situations which can be applied in everyday life.

One of the principle benefits of getting ESL students to communicate using specific conversation topics is that each topic typically comes with its own vocabulary. The topics students communicate about can be chosen based on their interests.

Some excellent conversation topics are listed below.

Weather – In any culture, talking about the weather is a great way to pass the time, to get to know someone, and to make polite conversation. Even though talking about the weather has become synonymous with making idle chit chat, important information can be shared between two people who are seemingly discussing nothing but the weather. Students can practice weather related vocabulary and also work on framing questions about a future time, as in, "Is it supposed to rain tomorrow?"

Sports – In societies where sports are an important part of life, conversing about them is an important bonding ritual. Based on the sport that the students are interested in, the vocabulary they will need to learn will vary accordingly. Another benefit of communicating about sports is that students get the opportunity to practice using action verbs like kick, throw, tackle, slide, run, and jump.

Love and Relationships – If the universal language is love, it certainly should make a great conversation topic for ESL students. Vocabulary lessons can focus on the different terminology for defining romantic relationships. Students can talk about their girlfriends or boyfriends, their first date, their worst date, etc.

Food – Eating is important no matter where you are in the world, so food is universally used as a daily conversation topic. The possibilities for how you situate ESL conversation topics relating to food are virtually infinite. Students could practice ordering food in a restaurant or shopping for food at a market. They could also use the terminology of the kitchen to talk about cooking and preparing food. They could also talk about particular foods from particular parts of the world, which is a fun way to work a geography lesson in as well.

Animals – Most people have some level of interest in animals. ESL students could talk about animals in a variety of ways. They could talk about keeping different kinds of pets or about the many other ways in which humans rely on animals to exist.

2.1.2 Idioms and Phrases for conversation

An idiom is an expression, word, or phrase whose sense means something different from what the words literally imply. It can be mistakenly interpreted if the listener does not know the meaning of the expression. It became popular because it gives communication ease in conveying the actual message in a concise manner instead of using several words to explain the message.

2.1.2.1 Samples of Idiomatic expressions:

Forty Winks – colloquial for a short sleep or nap taken during the day.

A Greenhorn – colloquial for a raw, inexperienced person.

A Herculian task – a work requiring very great effort for its accomplishment, a work which only Hercules could perform.

A left-handed compliment – one of doubtful sincerity, or ambiguous meaning.

A queer fish – a colloquialism for an eccentric person.

Alter ego – a very close and intimate friend. It is a Latin phrase that literally means ‘other self’.

A screw loose – an expression that means there is something wrong, usually mentally wrong.

A small fry – colloquial for children or insignificant persons.

A bed of thorns – a very uncomfortable situation.

Bare your heart – If you bare your heart to someone, you tell them your personal and private feelings.

Sail under false color – to pretend to be different to mislead somebody.

To the letter – to do exactly what is written or per detailed instruction.

2.1.2.2 Idioms useful for non-native English learners

Ben: Hi Jill! I haven’t seen you for ages.

Jill: Yeah, long time no see! (I haven’t seen you for a long time)

Nancy: Hey, what happened to your plan to go on holiday with Ken?
Rita: Oh, it’s a long story. I’ll tell you next time I see you. (It's all complicated and difficult to tell).

Bernard: How long do we normally have to wait till they give us an answer?
Malcolm: (laughing) How long is a piece of string? It could be three days or three months! (That’s an impossible question to answer. Used in answer to questions beginning 'How long …?')

Karen: But how did it happen? I don’t understand.

Laura: Well, to cut a long story short, Peter fell in love with the restaurant owner, married her and now he is the manager. (Tell the main points, but not all the details).

Sandy: Did you write down the names of everyone who complained?
Elsa: Yes, I’ve got a list as long as your arm. (very long list indeed)

2.1.3. Describing pictures

Pictures are all around us everyday, in the street, at work, at home and even in our leisure time, so why not in the classroom as well? They are enjoyable, they set the scene or context, they inform us, they interest us and they are a key resource. To be even more specific, picture stories are also common in everyday life. Look at the cartoon strips in newspapers or comic books and the enjoyment which we derive from them.

Picture stories are often neglected or used in a very predictable way in the classroom, usually as a starting point for a narrative speaking and ultimately writing activity, but they can also be of key importance in the communicative and interactive classroom.

As well as enjoying pictures they also form a key resource for accessing the different learning styles that each student has. Using pictures really appeals to visual learners who may suffer in a speaking and listening based classroom. They also offer an opportunity for movement and a multi-dimensional perspective which will reach our kinaesthetic learners.

As they say "a picture speaks a thousand words" and what more could we want from a resource in our English speaking classrooms?

Pictures really help to reduce preparation time. Sets of pictures can be re-used, especially the laminated ones, and can be used at any level in classes for kids, teenagers, exam classes and adults following general or business courses.

When it comes to using picture stories in class, the key point is not to limit to typical class activities and writing exercises. Students need as much spoken English practice as they can get.

Picture stories will help you and your students enjoy more dynamic classes while limiting teacher preparation.

2.1.4 Asking and Answering Questions

Since ESL students are not able to speak English proficiently, many of them tend to shy away from taking part in English conversations. Nonetheless, once they are able to overcome their apprehension, they may find that they can actually communicate considerably well in English. By encouraging them to converse more often in English, teachers are actually helping them gain the confidence they need to improve their spoken English. During the course of a conversation, students will learn to pronounce words correctly, gain a better understanding of basic sentence structure, and improve their ability to express their thoughts. All these can contribute significantly to their overall proficiency in the English language over time. With enough conversation practice, they will soon be able to engage in conversations with native speakers, and they will be able to express more complicated ideas and concepts in English.

Conversation practice for ESL students can be done in many different ways. Some ESL students can converse better in English than others, and teachers have to find the correct methods to meet the learning needs of every student. One of the most effective ways to improve the conversation skills of ESL students is to get them to ask questions. ESL conversation questions do not only train the students’ ability to reason and express themselves in English; it also enables them to find out more about their classmates’ personalities, interests, lifestyles, cultures, and families. Getting students to ask conversation questions is an excellent way to make an ESL lesson fun and effective.

With all the fantastic ESL teaching strategies that are available for helping students become engaged in using the English language, it might seem surprising how posting simple signs on classroom walls can make a difference: ESL Students Ask Questions; ESL Students Ask for Directions; ESL Students Ask for Help.

In any learning situation, knowing what questions to ask can be complicated. With beginning level ESL students, a good place to start is to practice asking for directions.

Begin by introducing some common terms for courteous interruption; for example, "Excuse me" or Pardon me." This shouldn't be taken for granted. Some ESL students will hesitate approaching someone to ask for directions for fear of being impolite. One of many useful ESL teaching strategies is to have students practice these phrases with each other until the laughter begins and will be much more comfortable taking part in exercises in which they actually ask for directions.

Now introduce some key phrases such as "Where is the ______?" or "Can you tell me where the _______ is?". Have the class practice these phrases by referring to items that are close at hand in the classroom. For example, "Can you tell me where the door is?" or "Where is the desk?" After that, suggest combinations of the phrases together for your ESL students like, "Pardon me, where is my ESL teacher?"

You want your students to know the answers to their questions before they ask so that they can focus on hearing a response.

Here are some examples of ESL conversation questions.

1. Tell me about yourself.

2. What makes you happy?

3. Do you have a hobby?

4. Do you like western food?

5. What is your favorite TV show?

6. Are your parents strict?

7. Are you having problems with school work?

8. What languages can you speak fluently?

9. Do you miss your hometown? Why and why not?

10. Do you celebrate Christmas in your home country?

2.2 Learn Vocabulary

Learning English as a second or foreign language takes time, and building your vocabulary is an important key to improving your communication skills. Thus, students need to learn how to understand and use vocabulary in everyday situations. Each teacher should focus on building communication skills, with a Listening and Discussion activity. As the students learn the vocabulary, they will try to use it in other situations.

Learning how to use new vocabulary in context is a very important step in improving communication skills. Each listening activity introduces key vocabulary along with a definition and a sample sentence. Coming up with more sample sentences will help students use the words in different situations.

Learning vocabulary is a very important part of learning a language. The more words a student knows, the more he will be able to understand the language; and the better he will be able to say what he wants to when speaking or writing.

Every day we hear or read many new English words. Students can also find them in the dictionary when translating from their own language.

Some suggestions for learning vocabulary:

– learn the words that are important to the subjects you are studying

– learn the words that you read or hear again and again

– learn the words that you know you will often want to use yourself

Some of the most popular methods for learning vocabulary are: vocabulary trees, vocabulary themes, using the technology for help, specific vocabulary lists, word formation charts, visual dictionaries, learn collocations, use a corpus etc.

2.2.1. Learning vocabulary by reading

There are many ways to improve students` vocabulary. When working to improve vocabulary it's important to know the goals in order to best choose the way in which to learn. Reading can be a great way to improve vocabulary.

The way students learned very many of the words in their own language was by meeting them in the books and magazines they read. The context of a new word in a sentence or story was often enough for students to guess the meaning. Meeting the word again and again in your reading helped them learn it for use in their own speaking and writing. Doing lots of extra reading for pleasure – both fiction and non-fiction – is an excellent way to learn new English words, too. Encourage your students to choose books that they find quite easy to read, such as stories or tales in the case of beginners. Difficult stories or texts that they struggle to understand will not help them to develop their vocabulary the natural way. But in order to learn new words from reading students must be encouraged to read a lot!

CHAPTER III

THE TEACHING OF SPEAKING

3.1 Teaching stages for speaking

A speaking lesson is a kind of bridge for learners between the classroom and the world outside.

In order to build this bridge, speaking activities must have three features. They must give the learners practice opportunities for purposeful communication in meaningful situations.

The stages of simple speaking activities are:

a) Setting up – This introduces the learners to the topic.

Explain clearly: Break instructions into small steps.

Demonstrate: It is especially important in speaking activities, when learners are often working in pairs or small groups, that they know exactly what to do.

Double check that everyone knows what to do.

Practise the language with the whole class.

Practise pronunciation.

Give them support with speech bubbles

b) Speaking practice – This is the main part of the activity. The learners communicate with each other in pairs or groups.

Give clear signals to start and stop

Circulate and listen: go round while learners are speaking and listen

Don‘t interrupt but carry a piece of paper with you and note down mistakes and problems

Control the activity: Make sure it‘s not too noisy

Make sure English is spoken

c) Feedback – The learners come back as a whole class. A few of them may report to the rest of the class on things they have talked about in their pairs or groups. The teacher gives feedback on the language practised, and deals with any problems.

Bring the class back together

Ask a few learners to report back

Give feedback on the language practised = correct mistakes

– take notes during practice-do not interrupt the activity

– write mistakes on the board

– learners try to correct them

– explain again if necessary

focus on pronunciation if necessary

3.1.1 Classroom organization

Use pairs or groups

Introduce pairwork or group work gradually

Tell the learners who to work with-divide them yourself

Give clear instructions-clear signals to show when you want learners to begin and when to stop an activity

Introducing pairwork

If your class are new to pair and group work, you will need to introduce these ways of working carefully:

Begin by using very short activities at the ends of lessons.

Make sure the learners are confident with the language and don‘t have to think too hard what to say while they are getting used to a new way of working–one new thing at a time is enough! So:

Begin by getting them to read very short dialogues in pairs.

When they are happy doing this, go on to the ‘half-dialogue‘ technique with pairwork posters.

When they are confident with this, go on to an ‘ask and answer‘ type exercise, but practice the language well first and put the question and answer in speech bubbles on the board so they know what to say.

Then go on to the more demanding information gap exercises.

3.1.2 Speaking micro-skills

It is probably true to say that when developing the speaking skills of lower level students (beginners to intermediates) teachers should spend most of the time getting students to practise the following:

1. Being able to use the language in real time (fluency).

2. Being able to pronounce the language sufficiently correctly to enable communication to take place.

3. Being able to use a range of vocabulary and grammatical structures (in the early stages, the range of grammatical structures students will use will be relatively small).

4. Talking about a range of common topics (eg family, school, hobbies, etc)

5. Expressing a wide range of functions.

6. Using different exponents to express the same function.

7. Selecting the appropriate exponent depending on the situation, their social status with regard to the person they are speaking to, the degree of formality/informality required, etc.

8. Knowing a range of basic scripts (how to start and finish a conversation, how to buy things in a shop or order in a restaurant, etc).

9. Being able to cope with insufficient language resources, by paraphrasing, simplifying, inventing a word, using the L1 as a resource, miming, using hesitation devices, etc.

10. Being able to cope with communication breakdowns, eg when they simply don't understand (by asking for repetitions, etc).

11. Using intonation to convey meaning.

3.2 Styles of speaking

An important dimension of conversation is using a style of speaking that is appropriate to the particular circumstances. Different styles of speaking reflect the roles, age, sex, and status of participants in interactions and also reflect the expression of politeness. Consider the various ways in which it is possible to ask someone the time, and the different social meanings that are communicated by these differences.

– Got the time?

– I guess it must be quite late now?

– What’s the time?

– Do you have the time?

– Can I bother you for the time?

– You wouldn’t have the time, would you?

Lexical, phonological, and grammatical changes may be involved in producing a suitable style of speaking, as the following alternatives illustrate

– Have you seen the boss? / Have you seen the manager? (lexical)

– Whachadoin? / What are you doing? (phonological)

– Seen Joe lately? / Have you seen Joe lately?

Different speech styles reflect perceptions of the social roles of the participants in a speech event. If the speaker and hearer are judged to be of more or less equal status, a casual speech style that stresses affiliation and solidarity is appropriate.

If the participants are perceived as being of uneven power or status, a more formal speech style is appropriate, one that marks the dominance of one speaker over the other. Successful management of speech styles creates the sense of politeness that is essential for harmonious social relations.

3.3 Functions of speaking

Numerous attempts have been made to classify the functions of speaking in human interaction. Brown and Yule made a useful distinction between the interactional functions of speaking, in which it serves to establish and maintain social relations, and the transactional functions, which focus on the exchange of information. Brown and Yule designed a three-part version framework for speaking: talk as interaction, talk as transaction and talk as performance. Each of these speech activities is quite distinct in terms of form and function and requires different teaching approaches. We shall focus next on talk as interaction and talk as transaction.

3.4 Talk as interaction

Talk as interaction refers to what we normally mean by “conversation” and describes interaction that serves a primarily social function. When people meet, they exchange greetings, engage in small talk, recount recent experiences, and so, on because they wish to be friendly and to establish a comfortable zone of interaction with others. The focus is more on the speakers and how they wish to present themselves to each other than on the message. Such exchanges may be either casual or more formal, depending on the circumstances, and their nature has been well described by Brown and Yule (1983).

3.4.1 Main features of talk as interaction

The main features of talk as interaction can be summarized as follows:

– Has a primarily social function

– Reflects role relationships

– Reflects speaker’s identity

– May be formal or casual

– Uses conversational conventions

– Reflects degrees of politeness

– Employs many generic words

– Uses conversational register

– Is jointly constructed.

We can see some of these features illustrated in the following authentic example of a segment of conversational discourse (from Thornbury and Slade). Two women are asking a third woman about her husband and how they first met.

Jessie: Right. Right, and so when did you – actually meet him?

Brenda: So we didn’t actually meet until that night.

Judy: Oh, hysterical. [laughs]

Brenda: Well, I met him that night. We were all, we all went out to dinner. So I had champagne and strawberries at the airport.

Jessie: And what was it like when you first saw him? Were you really – nervous?

Brenda: – Well, I was hanging out of a window watching him in his car, and I thought “oh God what about this!” [laughs]

Brenda: And he’d combed his hair and shaved his eyebrows – and

Jessie: Had you seen a photo of him?

Brenda: Oh, yeah, I had photos of him, photos . . . and I’d spoken to him on the phone.

Jessie: Did you get on well straight away?

Brenda: Uh, well sort of. I’m a sort of nervy person when I first meet people, so it was sort of . . . you know . . . just nice to him.

Jessie: – [laughs]

The conversation is highly interactive and is in a collaborative conversational style. The listeners give constant feedback, including laughter, to prompt the speaker to continue, and we see the examples of casual conversational register with “nervy” and “hanging out of the window.”

Examples of these kinds of talk are:

– Chatting to an adjacent passenger during a plane flight (polite conversation that does not seek to develop the basis for future social contact)

– Chatting to a school friend over coffee (casual conversation that serves to mark an ongoing friendship)

– A student chatting to his or her professor while waiting for an elevator (polite conversation that reflects unequal power between the two participants)

– Telling a friend about an amusing weekend experience, and hearing him or her recount a similar experience he or she once had

(sharing personal recounts)

Some of the skills involved in using talk as interaction involve knowing how to do the following things:

– Opening and closing conversations

– Choosing topics

– Making small-talk

– Joking

– Recounting personal incidents and experiences

– Turn-taking

– Using adjacency pairs2

– Interrupting

– Reacting to others

– Using an appropriate style of speaking

3.4.2 Choosing topics

Mastering the art of talk as interaction is difficult and may not be a priority for all learners. However, students who do need such skills and find them lacking report that they sometimes feel awkward and at a loss for words when they find themselves in situations that require talk for interaction. They feel difficulty in presenting a good image of themselves and sometimes avoid situations that call for this kind of talk. This can be a disadvantage for some learners where the ability to use talk for conversation can be important. Hatch (1978) emphasizes that second language learners need a wide range of topics at their disposal in order to manage talk as interaction. Initially, learners may depend on familiar topics to get by. However, they also need practice in introducing new topics into conversation to move beyond this stage.

They should practice nominating topics about which they are prepared to speak. They should do lots of listening comprehension for topic nominations of native speakers.

They should practice predicting questions for a large number of topics. . . . They should be taught elicitation devices . . . to get topic clarification. That is, they should practice saying “huh,” “pardon me,” “excuse me, I didn’t understand,” etc., and echoing parts of sentences they do not understand in order to get it recycled again. Nothing stops the opportunity to carry on a conversation quicker than silence or the use of “yes” and head nodding when the learner does not understand (Hatch).

3.5 Teaching talk as transaction

Talk as transaction is more easily planned since current communicative materials are a rich resource of group activities, information-gap activities, and role plays that can provide a source for practicing how to use talk for sharing and obtaining information, as well as for carrying out real-world transactions. These activities include ranking, values clarification, brainstorming, and simulations.

Group discussion activities can be initiated by having students work in groups to prepare a short list of controversial statements for others to think about. Groups exchange statements and discuss them, for example: “Schools should do away with exams.” “Vegetarianism is the only healthy lifestyle.” “The Olympic games are a waste of money.”

Role-play activities are another familiar technique for practicing real-world transactions and typically involve the following steps:

– Preparing: Reviewing vocabulary, real-world knowledge related to the content, and context of the role play (e.g., returning a faulty item to a store).

– Modeling and eliciting: Demonstrating the stages that are typically involved in the transaction, eliciting suggestions for how each stage can be carried out, and teaching the functional language needed

for each stage.

– Practicing and reviewing: Assigning students roles and practicing a role play using cue cards or realia to provide language and other support.

An issue that arises in practicing talk as transaction using different kinds of communicative tasks is the level of linguistic accuracy that students achieve when carrying out these tasks. One assumption is that form will largely look after itself with incidental support from the teacher. As students carry out communicative tasks, the assumption is that they engage in the process of negotiation of meaning, employing strategies such as comprehension checks, confirmation checks, and clarification requests. These are believed to lead to a gradual modification of learners’ language output, which over time takes on more and more target-like forms.

Despite these optimistic claims, others have reported that communication tasks often develop fluency at the expense of accuracy. For example, Higgs and Clifford reporting experience with foreign language teaching programs in the United States, observed the following:

In programs that have as curricular goals an early emphasis on unstructured communication activities – minimizing, or excluding entirely, considerations of grammatical accuracy – it is possible in a fairly short time . . . to provide students with a relatively large vocabulary and a high degree of fluency . . . These same data suggest that the premature immersion of a student into an unstructured or “free” conversational setting before certain linguistic structures are more or less in place is not done without cost. There appears to be a real danger of leading students too rapidly into the creative aspects of language use, in that if successful communication is encouraged and rewarded for its own sake, the effect seems to be one of rewarding at the same time the incorrect strategies seized upon in attempting to deal with the communication strategies presented.

Similar findings have been reported in more recent studies of task work (Foster, 1998; Musumeci, 1996).

The following example of the quality of language that is sometimes produced as students practice transactional functions of language. This example was observed during a role-play task in a Spanish secondary school English lesson. One student is playing the role of a doctor and the other a patient, and they are discussing a health problem.

S1: You how old?

S2: I’m thirty-four . . . thirty-five.

S1: Thirty . . . five?

S2: Five.

S1: Problem?

S2: I have . . . a pain in my throat.

S1: [In Spanish] What do you have?

S2: A pain.

S1: [In Spanish] What’s that?

S2: [In Spanish] A pain. A pain.

S1: Ah, pain.

S2: Yes, and it makes problem to me when I . . . swallow.

S1: When do you have . . . ?

S1: Since yesterday morning.

S1: [In Spanish] No, I mean, where do you have the pain? It has a pain in . . . ?

S2: In my throat.

S1: Ah. Let it . . . getting, er . . . worse. It can be, er . . . very serious problem and you are, you will go to New York to operate, so . . . operation . . . the 7th, the 27th, er May. And treatment, you can’t eat, er, big meal.

S2: Big meal. I er . . . I don’t know? Fish?

S1: Fish, you have to eat, er, fish, for example.

This example shows how low-level students, when carrying out communication tasks, often rely on a lexicalized system of communication that depends heavily on vocabulary and memorized chunks of language, as well as both verbal and nonverbal communication strategies, to get meaning across.

Several methods can be used to address the issue of language accuracy when students are practicing transactional use of language:

1. By pre-teaching certain linguistic forms that can be used while completing a task.

2. By reducing the complexity of the task (e.g., by familiarizing students with the demands of the activity by showing them a similar activity on video or as a dialog).

3. By giving adequate time to plan the task.

4. By repeated performance of the task.

Willis (1966) suggests using a cycle of activities with task work using a sequence of activities in a lesson. These activities create interaction mediated by a task and then build language awareness and language development around task performance.

3.6 Pre-task activities

Willis (1966) suggests using a cycle of activities with task work using a sequence of activities in a lesson. These activities create interaction mediated by a task and then build language awareness and language development around task performance.

She proposes the following sequence of activities: pre-task activities, task cycle and the language focus.

3.6.1 Pre-task activities

Introduction to topic and task

– T helps Ss to understand the theme and objectives of the task, for example, brainstorming ideas with the class, using pictures, mime, or personal experience to introduce the topic.

– Ss may do a pre-task, for example, topic-based odd-word-out games. T may highlight useful words and phrases, but would not pre-teach new structures.

– Ss can be given preparation time to think about how to do the task.

– Ss can hear a recording of a parallel task being done (so long as this does not give away the solution to the problem).

– If the task is based on a text, Ss read a part of it.

3.6.2 The task cycle

Task

– The task is done by Ss (in pairs or groups) and gives Ss a chance to use whatever language they already have to express themselves and say whatever they want to say. This may be in response to

reading a text or hearing a recording.

– T walks around and monitors, encouraging everyone’s attempt at communication in the target language.

– T helps Ss to formulate what they want to say, but will not intervene to correct errors of form.

– The emphasis is on spontaneous, exploratory talk and confidence building, within the privacy of the small group.

– Success in achieving the goals of the tasks helps Ss’ motivation.

Planning

– Planning prepares Ss for the next stage, where they are asked to briefly report to the whole class how they did the task and what the outcome was.

– Ss draft and rehearse what they want to say or write.

– T goes around to advise students on language, suggesting phrases and helping Ss to polish and correct their language.

– If the reports are in writing, T can encourage peer editing and use of dictionaries.

– The emphasis is on clarity, organization, and accuracy, as appropriate for a public presentation.

– Individual students often take this chance to ask questions about specific language items.

Report

– T asks some pairs to report briefly to the whole class so everyone can compare findings, or begin a survey. There must be a purpose for others to listen. Sometimes only one or two groups report in full; others comment and add extra points. The class may take notes.

– T chairs, comments on the content of group reports, rephrases perhaps, but gives no overt public correction.

3.6.3 The language focus

Analysis

– T sets some language-focused tasks, based on the texts student read or on the transcripts of the recordings they heard. Examples include the following:

– Find words and phrases related to the topic or text.

– Read the transcript, find words ending in “s” and say what the “s” means.

– Find all the words in the simple past form. Say which refer to past time and which do not.

– Underline and classify the questions in the transcript.

– T starts Ss off, then students continue, often in pairs.

– T goes around to help. Ss can ask individual questions.

– In plenary, T then reviews the analysis, possibly listing relevant language on the board. Ss may take notes.

Practice

– T conducts practice activities as needed, based on the language analysis work already on the board, or using examples from the text or transcript. Practice activities can include:

– Choral repetition of the phrases identified and classified

– Memory challenge games based on partially erased examples or using lists already on blackboard for progressive deletion

– Sentence completion (base sentence set by one team for another)

– Matching the past-tense verbs (jumbled) with the subject or objects they had in the text

– Dictionary reference with words from text or transcript

Practical part

The first lesson Phase

The stages of this class were carried out in the natural environment of the learner, i.e. the classroom. I wanted to work with classroom activities that promote success in language acquisition while maintaining student well-being, enthusiasm for learning, and opportunities for critical thinking.

The objectives of the lesson were that students read and understood the new lesson, understood the meaning of the phrases, constructed sentences related to our vocabulary topic, learned and used new vocabulary. A good communication between students and teacher, team work between students were also expected and encouraged.

I had the opportunity to teach this lesson because I was in my student teacher practice period, so this fact also offered me the chance to interact with the participants and observe their reactions to the way I taught this lesson.

The students were on the 5th grade, intermediary level. It was a mixed lesson covering

reading, speaking, listening, writing skills.

Starting the lesson and checking attendance

I started the lesson I introduced myself:

‘Good morning, my name is Ligia and today I will be your English teacher’ and the children answered back to me.

I checked attendance: ‘Who’s absent today?’ children answered back to me.

Warm-up

I introduced the lesson with a warm-up activity that was meant to prepare for the new lesson, to introduce the topic of the new lesson, to refresh words from the same semantic field and finally to motivate the students to be as active as possible.

I made a short conversation with the students for warm up in order to make students feel comfortable in the class and to prepare them for the reading lesson: ‘How are you today?’ children answered back to me.

Phase 1: The pre-testing stage

Introducing the title of the lesson

I asked the children to open their textbooks at page 82

Before listening

I prepared students for a reading lesson, introduced and wrote on the blackboard the title of the lesson: What are you going to wear?

I wanted to make students focus their attention and I started a discussion about the lesson: “What do you think the title means?’ and the children answered. I wrote on the blackboard the translation of the words: (colours and clothes) and asked them: ‘Can you name some clothes?’ They noted in their notebooks.

I asked them to look at the picture and to tell me what the persons in the picture wore and what was the color of their clothes: ‘Look at the picture. What do you think they wear and what is the colour of their clothes? There is a list of clothes at page 82; let’s go through it; are there any unknown words? Which do you like most?

I elicited from Ss items of clothing the children in the picture were wearing and I revised the clothes by using images. Students looked at the picture and answered: ‘The boy is wearing black jeans, a white T-shirt, a belt, trainers. The girl is wearing a dress, a black jacket , tights, black high-heeled shoes and silver earrings’’

I revised the clothes by using images and the students said the unknown words.

ESL learners need a reason to read and activating their prior knowledge is extremely important.

Listening

In order to have a more interesting way of understanding I asked the children to listen to the tape and examine the clothing and the colors: ‘Now listen to the tape; and well’’ se if you were right regarding their clothing’’.

We passed to practice pronunciation and I asked the students to repeat after me boot, book, blue, look, cook, good, mood. According to an exercise from their text book I told them I needed two people to come in front of the class to describe each other’s outfit. One of them analyzed the outfit of his/her colleague and then he/she closed his/her eyes and described the outfit of his colleague. And the rest of the class asked:’’ What’s Robert wearing? (the name of the pupil): ‘’Now please look at point b from exercise 3. I need two people to come in front of the class to describe each other’s outfit. One of them we’ll analyse the outfit of his/her colleague and then he/she we’ll close his/her eyes and will describe the outfit of his colleague. And the rest of the class will ask:’’ What’s Robert wearing?(the name of the pupil)By doing this I tried to get them all involved in the activity. Students analyzed the children and brought ideas.

Introducing vocabulary (Silent reading)

In order to make the learners interact and generate as much information as possible about this topic, I divided them in two groups of four students, and gave each group two tasks. At the vocabulary introduction stage I divided the students into two large groups and told them that one group would silent read the first text, while the other group would read silently the second text. They had to guess the meaning of the words from an exercise.

Students read the text, translated it and they went to the blackboard to write the unknown words.

Check comprehension

In order to check comprehension, at the next exercise I asked the questions and then asked every student what kind of clothes she/he wore and the students answered the questions: ‘’What sort of clothes do you like wearing to school? Do you like tight clothes or baggy clothes?…. ‘’

Phase 2: The experimental stage

Before reading (picture exploitation)

I asked them to look at the picture from the textbook and to tell me who was in the picture and what are were doing: Look at the picture on page 84; Who is in the picture and what are they doing? Students answered the questions.

Listening and Reading

Another activity was to ask students to listen to the tape and read in the same time in order to make them focus on the dialogue.

Role-play

After listening to the tape I asked them to role-play the dialogue, first in English, then in Romanian; some students offered to role-play the dialogue: ’Who wants to be Kristy and Emily?’ I invited the children to come to the blackboard to write the unknown words from the text.

Check comprehension

We passed to exercise 7/ 84 and I told them: “Here you have some questions that you must answer from exercise 6’’. ‘Who would like to read the first question?’ and they answered the questions.

Introducing these/those

Grammar

I informed the children that we would also do some grammar and introduced these/those. I wrote on the black board four examples: Do you like this top? That top looks great! Do you like these jeans? Those jeans look great!

Students paid attention to the explanation and wrote the examples in their notebooks. I asked them what the difference between the words was and tried to elicit the answer from them, trying to make them understand what they had to do. After that I asked them to write the definition in their notebooks: Generally speaking, we use this/these to refer to people and things, situations and experiences that are close to the speaker or very close in time. We use that/those to refer to people and things, situations and experiences that are more distant, either in time or physically.

Practice

We passed to an exercise from the text book, looked at the pictures and commented upon them: ‘’Look at exercise 8 / 84. Here are six pictures. We see there some people who are wearing wrong outfits’’ Let’s comment upon them! Students answered.

Ending of the lesson

I asked the children I they understood the lesson and if they had any questions.

At the end of the lesson the students understood the colors and they were able to use correctly the pronouns I taught.

Participants
The lesson was interactive, and besides clear and specific tasks there were a lot of free discussions between students, and between the teacher and the students about the topics of the lessons.

The modes of interaction were: Teacher – Whole Class (T-Ss), Role play (Rp), Individual work (Iw), Student – Student (S-S).

Instruments
The teaching aids that I use during the lesson were: audio tape, blackboard, handouts, personal objects (I brought pictures with different clothes and styles) and the textbook.