Teaching English To A2 Level Students

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PART I

LINGUISTIC PARADIGMS

Language teaching evolved through time. Therefore, to understand the different methodologies, it is essential to contextualize the corresponding linguistic paradigm in which they arose. Until the 1980s, paradigms were concerned to develop some language skills more than others. From this moment, to the paradigm of the Pragmatic, the primary objective would be the integration and development of the four skills, respectively listening, reading, speaking and writing in a foreign language as in one’s mother tongue, since communication must be real and effective in any context. Among the main features of this new paradigm are the following:

1) Use of real language, hence their interest in the language in action.

2) Its unit of linguistic analysis is the text (written) and speech (oral).

3) His main interest is the learning process rather than the result.

4) Its objective is communicative use of language: conversations, dialogues, functions, etc.

5) The interdisciplinarity of linguistics with other disciplines such as psychology, sociology and computer science.

The methods included under the paradigm of Pragmatics are characterized by using comprehensible input for students, because what matters is the message and not memorizing grammar rules. However, it is not obliged to speak to students until they feel ready to produce output. The results show that these methods are more effective than all previous ones.

Until the twentieth century, the method used for teaching languages ​​was the traditional method, also called "Gramatics Translation". Its main objective was learning grammar rules and vocabulary lists, to carry out the translation of literary texts of classical languages. Obviously, this method was not effective for learning modern languages.

This is the set of criteria and decisions that organizes didactic action in the classroom -paper students and teachers, use of facilities and resources, number and type of activities, organization of time and space, group play and teacher’s education style. Here we present an outline of the main methods and approaches used throughout history in teaching foreign languages, preferably English, then board.

METHODOLOGY OF TEACHING ENGLISH TO ADVANCED STUDENTS

Assuming that the teaching of a foreign language must be oriented students to acquire a thorough understanding of the same domain, the question is whether the methodology followed by our educational system is the most appropriate. What are your strengths and weaknesses? What should change and improve ? Traditionally, English teaching was purely deductive, carried out by certain grammatical rules through examples and techniques that complemented the approached explanations. These methods were largely based on grammar learning and did not give the necessary importance to oral skills.

The result of this methodology were unmotivated students to learn English, which was often seen as a matter devoid of practical use in the future both personally and professionally. However, with the new demands of society, from the 80s they have developed other approaches that use inductive techniques of presentation of vocabulary and grammar that make up the so-called natural methods, which present the teaching of the English language based on a balance of grammar, vocabulary, writing skills and oral skills. Another important aspect introduced by such methods is that the grammar rules are presented from the observation of the examples and their meaning is transmitted directly through based on demonstration and action techniques. This also represents an evolution in the methods of teaching EFL to acquire good communicative competence by students. Returning to the importance of grammar in the teaching of the English language, according to Ramirez. R (2008), one must be aware that grammar should never be a goal in itself, but a means to better control the use of a foreign language, being oriented towards communication. Teaching foreign languages ​​during the stages of education should focus on teaching students to speak and understand a language.

The communicative approach

The communicative approach (in English, Communicative Approach) is also known as communicative language teaching (English, Communicative Language Teaching). With this didactic model is to train the student for a -not only real communication in the oral side, but also in other written-foreign language speakers.

In the late 70s of the twentieth century some British linguists -Candlin (1976) and Widdowson (1978), among others believed that the aim in learning a foreign language should be the development of communicative competence and not just linguistic competence. At the request of the Council of Europe (1971), European scholars join forces to develop an alternative according to the social, economic, political and cultural reality of modern Europe; the fruit is called the communicative approach.

For the communicative approach, communication is not just a product, but rather a process that is carried out for a specific purpose, between a concrete partners in a particular situation .

Therefore not enough that students assimilate a wealth of data -vocabulary, rules, …- functions; It is also essential to learn to use knowledge to negotiate meaning . This requires engaged in real tasks , in which the language is a means to an end, not an end in itself. Its main goal is to help students create meaningful phrases instead of helping them build perfectly correct grammatical structures or to achieve a perfect pronunciation. So the communicative approach aims to work the language at the level of text or speech, beyond phrases, and the basic unit is the paragraph in written language and the oral statement. This means that care should be as important components in communication such as cohesion and coherence. Learning foreign language is assessed taking into account how students develop their communicative competence, which will be discussed in the next subsection.

The communicative method is characterized as a focus of general education and not a method of clearly defined teaching practices. As such, it is often defined by a list of general principles or characteristics. One of the best known is the list of the five characteristics of the communicative method, developed by Nunan (1996):

1. Emphasizes communication in the foreign language through interaction.

2. Enter authentic materials in the learning situation.

3. It provides students with opportunities to think about the learning process and not only in the language.

4. Give importance to personal experiences of students as elements. They are contributing to classroom learning.

5. Try to relate the language learned in the classroom with activities outside her.

Activities in the communicative approach based classes include activities in pairs and in groups where negotiation is required and the cooperation of students, activities focused on acquiring fluency that encourage students to increase their confidence, simulation games (role playing) in which students practice and develop language functions, and activities

focused on acquiring good use of grammar and pronunciation.

The presentation of grammar is usually inductive, but also give some brief grammar explanations when deemed appropriate. The foreign language is a vehicle for communication in class, not just the object of study. Therefore, it is used in both tasks and for explanations, clarifications, etc., reserving the mother tongue for special cases.

The repertoire of roles of the teacher is quite broad: to analyze the student needs, create communication situations, organize activities, advise, participate as an equal partner, observe the development of the tasks in the classroom, preparing materials, etc. In short, the role of the teacher is to facilitate learning, encouraging, while cooperation between the students, who are the true protagonists; it is therefore a learner-centered approach.

The background to the development of Communicative Language Teaching can be found in the critical linguist Chomsky (1965) to the structural linguistic theory, which made the mid-sixties in the United States and by the end of the decade in Britain were publicly respectively doubt audiolinguistic and situational methods. At the same time, British scholars like Candlin (1976) and Widdowson (1978), defend the functional and communicative potential of language based on work in the areas of functional linguistics, sociolinguistics and philosophy. Wilkins (1972) attempts to analyze the communicative meanings needed to understand and speak a language; describes two types of meanings: the notional categories (concepts such as time, sequence, place and frequency) and categories of communicative function (request, refuse, offer or complain). The Council of Europe joined this semantic-communicative analysis specifications Threshold English Level (1975). This publication was influential in the design of language programs and methods for teaching languages.

The work of the Council of Europe, the writings of various British linguists on the theoretical basis of Communicative Approach, the implementation of his ideas by the authors of manuals and acceptance thereof by specialists in language teaching, schools and even governments, national and international prominence given to what the Communicative Approach or simply Communicative Language Teaching be called.

The Communicative Approach comprises different versions of the same or complementary interpretations that define focusing on the integration of the functional and grammatical in work procedures or program description. Howatt (1984) distinguishes between a "strong" and a "weak" version and another of Communicative Language Teaching; Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) make a distinctive contrast between Audiolinguistic Method and Communicative Approach; others have framed the Communicative Approach in a broader perspective of learning is known as "learning by doing" or "experiential approach". Communicative approach also takes into account, as Halliday (1970) and Hymes (1971) argue, based on studies of Anthropology Malinowski (1922-1935), communicative and contextual use of language factors.

The communicative approach has wide acceptance during the decades of the 80s and 90s of the twentieth century and frequently used as a model to the methods and traditional approaches, focusing on grammar. In fact, constitutes an improvement of previous models, no longer denying the importance of language skills, but goes beyond, in search of an authentic communicative competence.

The communicative competence

Communicative competence, following Hymes, (1971) is the ability of a person to communicate effectively and appropriately in a given speech community; This means respecting a set of rules that includes both grammar and other levels of linguistic description (vocabulary, phonetics, semantics) as the rules of language use, related to the socio-historical and cultural context in which communication takes place.

In the words of D. Hymes (1971) communicative competence relates to know "when to speak, when not to, and talk about, with whom, when, where, in what form; that is, it is the ability to form sentences that are not only grammatically correct but also socially appropriate. It is this author who formulated the first definition of the concept, in the 70s, in his studies of sociolinguistics and ethnography of communication in the US. In a known article Hymes (1971) questions the concept of language proficiency developed by generative grammar, because in such development concept abstraction of sociocultural features of the situation of use is made. In order to develop an adequate theory of language use, and integrate linguistic theory and a theory of communication and culture, proposes four criteria for describing forms of communication, the application to a particular expression must allow the following:

it is formally possible (and to what extent it is); ie if it has been issued following certain rules, related to both the grammar of the language and the culture of the speech community.

it is feasible (and to what extent is) under the actuation means available; ie if the normal conditions of a person (in terms of memory, perception, etc.) allow casting your ballot, receive and process successfully.

is appropriate (and to what extent it is) in relation to the situation in which it is used;

it depends on the variables that can occur in certain communication situations.

it occurs in reality (and to what extent is given);

it is formally possible, feasible and appropriate, is effectively used by the members of the speech community; Indeed, according to Hymes, "maybe some possible, feasible, appropriate and that will not happen. "

Thus, the grammatical competence (first of the four criteria) is integrated into a broader competition. Canale (1983) describes the communicative competence as a set of four interrelated subcompetences:

Linguistic competence refers to the ability to produce and interpret meaningful conversations formed according to the rules of language and its conventional meaning. This includes phonics, spelling, vocabulary and formation of words and sentences.

Sociolinguistic competence refers to the ability to choose what kind language used by social context, ie, the receiver, the purpose of communicative act

The discursive competence is the ability to build and interpret the message globally, for what cohesion and coherence in discourse is required.

Strategic competence is the ability to use communication strategies verbal and nonverbal to compensate for deficits that may arise in the communication.

To these four subcompetences, J. Van Ek (1986) adds cultural competence. Cultural competence refers to the ability to use appropriate words and social strategies to achieve the communicative goals themselves. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages ​​(2002, chapter 5) speaks of communication skills integrated into the general powers of the individual language: knowledge (general knowledge of the world, sociocultural knowledge, intercultural) consciousness; know-how (skills and abilities); knowing how to be (on attitudes, motivations, values, beliefs …); and knowledge to learn.

The term "competition" has evolved to handle the definition actually. First it was Chomsky (1965) with the dual-action competition that Hymes (1971) amended by adding the social dimension of language use and adaptation to the context. Then Canale (1983) raised a description that integrated four competitions related: linguistic competence, sociolinguistics, discourse and strategic, this description may have been greater validity which has had for many years. Later, Van Ek (1986) and Widdowson (1989) added their contributions to the model of Canale . Bachman (1990) published a template having an organization of the components of communicative competence from another hierarchical structure.

At present, the most comprehensive definition is offered by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (2002). It can be considered that the communicative competence comprises several components: linguistic (vocabulary, phonology and syntax), the sociolinguistic (the rules of courtesy and relations between generations, sexes, classes and social groups, linguistic codification of certain fundamental rituals for functioning of a community) and pragmatic (production functions of language and speech acts, discourse, cohesion, coherence). (P. 13-14).

In language teaching, the concept of communicative competence has a very broad and profound influence, both as regards the setting of program objectives and practices of classroom instruction and assessment.

THE DEDUCTIVE / INDUCTIVE APPROACH DICHOTOMY

The grammar can be worked following two different approaches: deductive and inductive approach. In the deductive approach, first grammar rules are presented and then implemented, while the inductive approach examples are proposed and, from them, is that students derive the grammatical rule.

As one can observe, the deductive processing of grammar represents the general explanation of teacher individual practice, while the inductive presentation of grammar, on the other hand is a part of the individual examples of Gramatical rules.

The deductive approach is the most traditional and prevailing, as long as by means of the grammar presentation one may perform exercises such as gap-filling or processing, for implement the specific structures studied.

In the inductive practice, however, instead of a blind and mechanical learning, the emphasis moves to the scanning process that leads to a true understanding of knowledge. This practice is based on the General Theory of Learning , according to which all those things we discovered for ourselves, are more firmly rooted in our minds that we are given.

Throughout the history of the methodology of foreign languages, it has been happening a number of methods to facilitate, improve and solve educational and learning problems that arose inseparably in the educational process. Most methods take as a starting point for his reflections ideas, proposals, beliefs, techniques and procedures of previous methods that preceded them, so we can not speak of revolutionary methods, but rather evolutionary.

In each method or methodological approach grammar occupies a central, peripheral role, focused on the process, in the form of communication. In some methods grammar is totally deductive, in other fully inductive, or mixed.

The method that best exemplifies the teaching grammar through deductive procedures is the grammar translation method. For this method, language is a set of rules that must be observed, studied and analyzed. The usual procedures focused on deductive analysis of grammar, lexical, morphological and syntactic memorization, translation of literary texts, contrastive analysis, and others that are primarily focused on teaching grammar.

Regarding the treatment of grammar by the natural method, it stresses that it is carried into the background, giving more importance to vocabulary and situations, dialogues and oral interaction. No grammar explanations could be offered, but orally completed by students. The method of teaching is inductive, but with limitations. The grammar shown and presented in the communicative approach is a functional and useful instrument for students. There is no conceptualization of teaching grammar, but the form and use for students to use and communicate in English. The goal of communicative approaches is the teaching language for communication purposes for students in order to achieve communicative competence and grammar is essential for this purpose, as a fundamental part of communicative competence and linguistic subcompetence, which integrates grammar.

Communication and grammar are not contradictory terms, but converging, both part of the process of learning the language and communicative approaches use both deductive and inductive methods for teaching and learning. Grammar in communicative approaches evolves every day. It has advanced grammatical correction to the communicative effectiveness, structural and communicative activities closed exercise, and from the attention on ways to use them. It should be noted that the presentation of grammar rules in English classes, regardless of the procedure adopted, should address profitability, which greatly facilitate the generalization, transfer to other situations and allow self-correction.

Currently, many publishers have chosen to introduce in their books combination of both approaches, and you can see that sometimes there are gaps in grammatical tables for students to fill in the missing categories from the examples provided, or students to discuss the language works, etc.

One can not conclude that the inductive approach is better than the deductive in all cases. As we see in practice it does not always appear "pure" form. However, the implementation of a method or other strictly is not appropriate, but it should make a fusion of the aspects of each method more interesting for any given moment, and adjust to the demands of each content and educational context. In a study of Karen Grasel (2013), this dichotomy between deductive and inductive approach and how students can benefit from the combination of both approaches in teaching is presented. This study also assumes that students benefit most from discovering the rules that are being studied that if they are given from the beginning. In short, this means that the presence of inductive principles in the methodology of teaching English is beneficial for students. One reason for this superiority of inductive teaching could be guided discovery, which is an integral part of many inductive designs. This means that the instruction includes elements and activities during which students are actively involved in the analysis and discovery of language, guided and helped, but not dominated by the teacher. So important it is active participation of students in the discovery of "regularities and relationships of language" has been identified as a decisive factor in the learning process. As Tomasello and Herron point out, "passivity by the student goes against the findings of cognitive psychologists and researchers emphasize that language students should actively participate in their learning "

With regard to the teaching of grammar, Ishihara and Cohen (2010) suggest that "Generally it believed that the inductive instruction promotes higher-order thinking and can be more effective than a deductive approach”. Consequently, educational practices that allow a process of inductive discovery look very promising for teaching grammar. According to Martin Sanchez (2010), the choice of one procedure or another in many cases depends on the methodological approach, but in reality, teacher should decide one way or another depending on the needs and characteristics of their students as there are students who need more deductive teaching and other work best with an inductive, and experience shows that in most situations requires two procedures to learn and assimilate a certain grammatical content.

STRATEGIES OF LEARNING – THE MOTIVATION FOR STUDENTS

The vast majority of teachers are interested that our students are motivated to learn what they are taught or, even better, they are motivated to learn on their own. However, it is a concern to note that many students do not find that stimulus, that "gradient" or factor driving the interest in getting involved with the teacher in the teaching-learning process. Many, perhaps most, they are only motivated by pass the course, getting a good grade and finish the race as soon as possible, with a minimum of effort and complication. It is interesting that children are driven by curiosity to learn new things, not always seeking them to impose their own teachers. The child, eager to know the "why of things" is often discouraged by gradually and unmotivated passion to learn new things, this representing the point when the demotivation process starts. Learning tends to become a commitment and obligation, rather than enjoyment itself. At the professional level, many students leave the race before finishing the process. Titration terminal efficiency is often less than 50%. Even many students stop interns to get professional title presenting their written exam (thesis or similar mechanism) and oral, to be possibly motivated by other stimuli, such as labor. Graduate student in similar situations happen. It should be noted that often the teacher noted that in his class attend a certain number of students, apparently interested in the class, but several of them are mentally absent, reflecting on other topics of real interest at that time. In short, a challenge that is presented to the teacher is to achieve a genuine motivation of students to learn. And if he does not consider himself as a challenge, and more worryingly perhaps, it is that academics are unmotivated to teach.

What is motivating? internal state or condition that activates and directs behavior in a given direction: From the psychological perspective, some definitions are shown. It is also a wish that energizes and directs behavior toward a given objective or goal. Motivation influences on the needs and desires that affect the intensity and direction of behavior. Franken (1994) provides the following additional component in its definition: The Awakening, direction and persistence in behavior, but on the other hand, Pintrich (1994) has developed a model that identifies the motivation as an essential element of understanding the academic performance during language courses.

The motivational model of Pintrich is a psychological constructo used to explain voluntary behavior. Academic motivation implies a desire to perform "well" in the classroom and that desire is reflected in voluntary behaviors that eventually lead to a testable performance. Attendance is voluntary behavior, combined with others to reflect the level of academic motivation. Pintrich (1994) explained the academic motivation in class in terms of reciprocal interactions between three components:

a) The context of class

b) The feelings and beliefs of students about their own motivation

c) The observable behaviors of students. The first two determine the third: the observable behaviors in students.

According to Pintrich (1994), observable behaviors reflect the level of academic motivation on three different groups: making choices between alternatives, be active and involved in the work and have persistence in them. Students make many choices: decide to take a course, work on a task in charge, attend a class session or do something else.

What is student motivation? In this case, student motivation will be analyzed to participate in the learning process, in harmony with the teaching of the master; also it relates to the reasons (or reasons) for which the students are involved in their academic activities. Some students may be motivated and perform a task or job assigned by the teacher, but their sources of motivation may differ. Pekrun (1992) and Condry and Chambers (1978) studied the effects of positive and negative emotions on intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation of tasks , as following:

A) Intrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation can be defined as that which comes from the subject itself, which is under its control and has the capacity to be self-reinforcing. It is assumed that when running a task enjoys a positive intrinsic motivation is induced. Positive emotions that are not directly related to the content of the task can also exert a positive influence on intrinsic motivation such as the satisfaction of successfully perform an essay. In contrast, negative emotions can affect intrinsic motivation in two ways. The first consists of negative emotions like anxiety, anger, sadness, etc., which can reduce the enjoyment in the task. Second, it may appear negative to positive opposite extrinsic motivation leading to non-execution of the task (avoidance behavior) because it is linked to negative past experiences. Therefore, in addition to preventing the positive intrinsic motivation, negative emotions also produce negative intrinsic motivation. One of the negative emotions that leads to the non-execution or avoidance is "boredom". Negative emotions produce what is known as negative intrinsic motivation and lead to non-execution or avoidance of performing the task. They may be related not only with the results but also with the content of the task.

B) Extrinsic motivation is defined as that which comes from outside and leading to the execution of the task. All kinds of emotions related results are supposed to influence the extrinsic motivation of tasks. Within these emotions linked to results, Pekrun (1992) distinguishes the prospects of retrospectives. He believes that the forward emotions are those that are linked directly and immediately with the results of the tasks (notes, ratings, parental praise, hope, expectations of enjoyment, anxiety, etc.). Thus, expectations of anticipatory enjoyment produce positive extrinsic motivation, ie motivation to perform the task in order to get positive results. Instead, hopelessness can induce a state of helplessness resulting from the reduction or total cancellation of extrinsic motivation not to achieve positive results or negative ones. It can be assumed that the positive extrinsic motivation effectively contributes (together with the positive intrinsic motivation) motivation to complete the task. The case is complicated when negative results are related to extrinsic motivation, avoidance may produce anxiety.

One may distinguish two situations to avoid failure and negative results: "non-restrictive" and "restrictive". Class ordinary tasks, such as not restrictive, can lead to success suing the student solutions easier. In "restrictive" situations, for example, an examination can avoid failure giving the student teaching resources (techniques, skills, etc.) to address them successfully. A student who is intrinsically motivated assumes responsibility for a job or task "for its own sake, for the pleasure it provides him the satisfaction he finds in making it because it is aimed at a target (in this case learning) well defined and consistent with its own expectations".

A student may be extrinsically motivated in what he assumes as his responsibility, in order to get some recognition or avoid a punishment or negative consequences external to the activity itself, for example, a job or task. Ames (1992) defines motivation to learn as an attitude that is characterized by permanent long-term involvement and committing himself to maintain that attitude for life. It has been found that when students are confronted with complex tasks, those with an intrinsic motivation, use a process troubleshooting and more logical analysis of alternative structures. Instead, extrinsically motivated students prefer a more superficial analysis, adjusting to the absolute minimum required by the teacher. Intrinsically motivated students prefer to work following a certain degree of challenge to solve them. Extrinsically oriented lean toward work and problems with a lower degree of difficulty, using the minimum effort necessary to obtain the highest possible recognition .

Currently, there is much talk of emotional intelligence, a term that means knowing one's emotions and regulate both personally and socially (emotional self-regulation). Emotional intelligence is related to motivation, since a person is emotionally intelligent as they can improve their own motivation. There are few studies that have investigated the impact playing the emotional domain of student learning. Despite this research gap, in general, it is assumed that emotions are an important part of the psychological life of the school and have a high influence on academic motivation and cognitive strategies (acquisition, storage, retrieval of information, etc. .) and, therefore, learning and school performance. Of course, there are students who may tend to exhibit a degree of motivation apparent almost zero, partial or total indifference to his own stay in class or even your career. In the educational field only two types of emotions have received attention in the past 30 years, anxiety and mood. There are situations that may be associated with misinformation vocational career or even more serious problems of depression.

TEACHING STRATEGIES AND TEACHING-LEARNING METHODS APPLIED TO A2 STUDENTS

Didactics centered on students demands require the use of adequate strategies and methods, which consider learning as a result of the relationships between affective-cognitive factors, social interactions and communication. The conscious direction essentially characterizes the teaching-learning process. This means, among other things, recognizing the leading role of the teacher in identifying, planning and implementing strategies to achieve adequate training of student’s teachers. One may recognize the need for a teaching subject-centered learning, which requires focus on education as a process of learning orientation, where conditions are created for students to not only take ownership of knowledge, but to develop skills, form values ​​and acquire strategies to act independently, committed and creative, to solve the problems they will face in their personal and professional future.

All these involve the use of teaching strategies and methods that encourage an intentional, reflective, conscious and self-regulated learning, governed by its own objectives and goals, as a result of the link between affective and cognitive, and social interactions and communication, take into account the diversity of students and characteristics of the present generation in university classrooms, with the advent of Information Technology and Communications.

This gives to students some autonomy in the search for information, which is not always used by the teacher and, therefore, the teaching-learning process does not conform to the reality imposed by the new century. From the educational point of view, it is therefore necessary to use more and more in classrooms typical of this generation tools, to motivate and develop their skills from their styles and modes and learning ways.

The term strategy is used increasingly more often in the pedagogical literature, despite its multiple meanings and interpretations. They are indisputable advantages and its proper use can offer in education.

In a world in constant process of change, education remains the strategic educational response to equip students with intellectual tools that allow them to adapt to the incessant transformations of the labor market and the expansion of knowledge. Therefore, the need for planning and using teaching strategies that promote reflective learning and education to cope with change, uncertainty and dynamics of today's world today is based, inter alia by:

the rapid growth of information and the infinitude of human knowledge;

the rapid advance of Information Technology and Communications;

the projection of learning throughout life, which puts teachers to the need to prepare students so they can learn by themselves and are able to direct their own learning, through conscious control of their resources to develop strategies and define, use and evaluate the necessary procedures to solve problems, in response to environmental conditions and their own;

new ways of learning, based on the discovery and participation, with more flexible systems, which can incorporate technology tools for finding information and sharing problems, projects and tasks in everyday life.

In addressing the study of teaching strategies and methods of teaching and learning it is required from the outset conceptual precision, due to the lack of unanimous criteria in its conceptualization from science teaching. In this regard, we must consider briefly some of its meanings and explain the meaning that is given to each of them, without pretending to exhaust the diversity of positions on the matter.

In the literature there could be found the following denominations: teaching strategies, learning strategies, teaching and learning strategies, strategies or teaching techniques, teaching strategies, among others, which are used interchangeably. This is because its borders are diffuse and sometimes can be used with multiple meanings. Moreover, it not infrequently tend to use words like tactics, techniques, procedures, etc., to refer to strategies, which results in dissimilar problems of interpretation.

The above considerations make it necessary to clarify the relationships established between strategy and tactics. The consultation on the specialized literature on the subject can reach the following considerations:

The strategies are considered at macro or global level; while tactics are established in a micro or specific dimension.

The term refers to the conscious strategy, employing reflective and regulatory actions and procedures – management, education, teaching and learning, as the case under specific conditions.

The tactics are often seen as procedures to achieve a purpose.

A tactic is a specific procedure that applies and that taxed the whole process, strategy in general. Ortiz stands out as the essential features of the strategies in the educational field presuppose action planning short, medium and long term; they are not static, but susceptible to change, modification and adaptation of its scope by the pedagogical nature of the problems to be solved; possess a high degree of generality in accordance with the objectives and pedagogical principles assume, as well as the possibility of being extrapolated to different situations; and allow to achieve the rationality of time, resources and efforts.

The issues raised can express the broader aspects of the strategies in the educational field, without an exact definition of the same. Specifically, when making the distinction between teaching strategies and learning strategies, it is necessary from the idea that the teaching-learning process is short, so it was a mistake divorcing each other. However, both types can be distinguished strategies taking into account that, in the case of teaching strategies, the emphasis is on planning, designing, sequencing, development and realization of content; while learning strategies relate to the actions of students that occur during learning and influence motivation, assimilation, interpretation, retention and transfer of information.

Diaz and Hernández expressed that research on teaching strategies has addressed aspects such as design and use of learning objectives, inserted questions, illustrations, response modes, advance organizers, semantic networks, concept maps and texts structuring schemes. Meanwhile, research on learning strategies has focused on the field of so-called strategic learning through design intervention models whose purpose is to provide students effective independent learning strategies.

Thus, learning strategies are decision-making processes, in which the student chooses and retrieves the knowledge you need to complete a personal tarea. These strategies are procedures that allow, on the one hand, control, selection and implementation of methods and techniques for information processing; and on the other, plan, evaluate and regulate cognitive processes involved in this process.

In literature, different types of learning strategies, including strategies that stand out are collected. All are complex processes making personal decisions based on a need and lead to permanent self-regulation based on predictions, anticipations, changes and reformulations, in close correspondence with the search for the achievement of the objectives in the most efficient manner.

It should be noted that learning strategies are likely to be taught by the teacher, thus learning is not only the acquisition of knowledge but also seeking "[…] the means that lead to the solution of the problems … " This comes to become a strategic learning because the student consciously choose, plans, coordinates and implements methods and procedures necessary to achieve a goal or learning.

Teaching strategies and learning are involved, under the unity between teaching and learning. So it is becoming increasingly frequent use of the term strategies of teaching and learning, which can be considered more or less extensive and complex, through integrated sequences of actions and procedures selected and organized that, based on all components of the process, achieve the pursued educational goals.

Under this criterion, the reflexive application of a sequential system of actions and procedures for teaching necessarily presupposes the conditioning of the student's actions. That is why it is inappropriate to focus on teaching strategies as independent learning strategies, it means conceiving a division that is contrary to the dynamics of the teaching-learning process. In another way, one can find sometimes ideas that reduce the concept of strategy teaching-learning a set of teaching methods, although these actions related to the selection are contemplated and the combination of various methods to promote learning, their actions must take into account the practical articulation of all components of the educational process. That is why, in this sense, Ortiz uses the term teaching strategy, which presupposes focus on how to teach the teacher and how the student learns through a process where the last learn to think and participate actively, thoughtful and creatively . In this sense, the teaching strategies are not limited to the methods and ways with which it is taught, but also include actions that take into account the repertoire of procedures, techniques and skills that students have to learn; which, as stated in the aforementioned author, conception is more consistent with current trends of Teaching.

Another expression used is that of teaching strategy, considered as a flexible and comprehensive plan that refers to the conscious, reflective and regulatory actions that are designed to achieve the objectives of the educational process employment. It also expresses the intent of the actions that guide the selection of the most appropriate methods to address learning, taking into account the conditions in which this process takes place, the diversity of students, content and processes.

The issues outlined above have a special meaning in the process of teaching and learning, it implies resuming the issues raised at the beginning of this article, which states that this is a management process, which presupposes the use of strategies by the teacher in order to respond to students social needs and demands.

From what has been analyzed, it is valid to use the term teaching strategy to signify sequences of actions that, based on all components of the process, guide the selection of methods and most appropriate for the direction of learning teaching resources, taking into account the conditions in which this process takes place, the diversity of students, content and processes to achieve the educational goals proposed. Among the essential qualities of teaching strategies emphasize contextualization, sequencing of actions and flexibility. That is why they are considered as inherent conditions to the strategy: the strict correspondence and the dialectical relationship between resources and actions, as well as the selection and sequenced combination of teaching methods and procedures, in correspondence with the components of the educational process and the double-checking to determine their effectiveness and to undertake the improvement.

Success and character of a teaching strategy depends largely on how you sequenced and therefore, what and how students learn. Furthermore, strategies are susceptible to be modified, from the transformations that will be operating in the process. This implies continuous appraisal of its results, in order to establish the adjustments and changes required to achieve the objectives.

Teaching strategies can be supported in different learning models (behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, constructivist and historical-cultural) and have different approaches (inductive, deductive and mixed). a trend toward seeking models and integrated approaches, which attempt to incorporate the most valuable of the amount contributed by previous conceptions and constitute undisputed pedagogical sciences with scientific results revealed today. Among the main contributions to the design of teaching strategies of these approaches are: customizing the process, the active nature of the learner, linking cognitive with the affective, consideration of the context in which learning occurs, the harmony between the individual and the collective, the teacher-student and student-student communication, the need to enhance self-learning and the teacher's role as manager of the teaching-learning process. Despite the diversity of views as to the terminology used and regardless of differences in nomenclature, as essential characteristics of teaching strategies for both a conception of learning as a strategic process to recognize the following:

Teaching actions are subordinated to learning and activity guide students to achieve the objectives.

The methods selected are aimed at encouraging the questioning, the attitude of search, information processing, recognition of identity, learning to self-regulate, develop critical thinking and problem solving.

The important value of metacognition, then the student should be able to take control of their learning process and identify their strategies, problem solving methods, as well as the knowledge you need for this.

The importance of communication and social interactions in the process of teaching and learning, where individual knowledge is socialized, enriching and empowering them in the collective knowledge that arises as a result of group activity, so it should encourage cooperation between participants and skill development groupware.

The development of positive attitude towards learning and respect for the autonomy of the student.

Finally a brief reference to the methods of teaching and learning is done, since they constitute the path, or the path, which is adopted in the implementation of the teaching-learning for making use of content, students can achieve the objective. They are the most dynamic element of this process particular the relation of subjects in each link through which passes.

The teaching-learning methods differ from teaching strategies for their practical and operational, while strategies are identified by their global nature and coordination of actions in the medium and long term. Teaching strategies are broader than the methods of teaching and learning, and as part of the teaching strategy is necessary to select harmoniously production methods involving learning actions to achieve the objectives.

However, in practice not always easy to clearly delineate the boundaries between teaching strategies of teaching and learning methods, neither of these with techniques and procedures that make up a method. For example, some prefer to use the term strategy for the teaching and learning methods of teaching and learning, others used interchangeably, which can limit the scope of the first, as has been argued. Methods of teaching and learning in recent times have been recognized and adopted by many teachers and they are, as following: the problem-based learning, project-based learning, case method, the dramatized through simulations or technologies, the method of situation, discussions, group dynamics and collaborative learning in the classroom, among others. All can be combined with participatory techniques, analogies, demonstrations, concept maps, graphs, and so on, to promote the development of training activities.

Problem-based learning is a method of active work, focused on learning, research and reflection to reach the solution of the problem, where students are constantly involved in the acquisition of knowledge, the activity revolves around discussion and learning comes from the experience of working on solving problems that are selected or designed by the teacher. Troubleshooting generates knowledge and promotes creativity, encourages self-learning, argumentation and decision making, encourages the development of interpersonal skills and teamwork. Project-based learning is a method that allows a permanent process of reflection, of confronting students to real situations that lead them to understand and apply what they learn as a tool to solve problems or suggest improvements in certain communities. With the project, students should discuss ideas, make decisions, evaluate the implementation of the project idea, always on the basis of a planning steps. In addition, it involves students in solving problems and other meaningful tasks, allowing them to work independently and favors a contextualized and experiential learning.

In the method case of describing a particular situation with pedagogical purposes, for a group that individually and collectively we submit to analysis and decision making it is proposed. By using the case method it is intended that students study the situation, define problems, reach their own conclusions about the actions to be undertaken and contrast ideas, defend and reprocessed with new contributions. The situation may arise through a filmed, drawn or computer or audiovisual support written material. Generally, it poses problems that have a unique solution, which promotes understanding of divergent issues and the adoption of different solutions by reflection and consensus.

In general, in addition to the above, the harmonica and combined use of the above described methods improves self-esteem and flexibility of students, promotes self-awareness, awareness of others and autonomy for learning, promotes motivation to work with real situations, promotes an environment of exchange and dialogue, with more individual and group responsibilities.

The conception of teaching strategies will be depending on: the objectives to be achieved, the characteristics of the content (this determines the mode of how you learn, according to science or the area in question), the characteristics of the group with which will work, space and resources with which account, and mastery of the methods by the teacher, skills or abilities to develop.

In teaching strategies necessary reference is made to how it organizes and directs the learning activity, for which it is required to determine at any time of the activity what actions must be performed by students and which by the teacher, in his role director. This means that the activity is structured following the steps of any human activity: orientation, execution and evaluative control, which takes place throughout the process.

Thus, in teaching strategies one should define general and specific objectives, planning actions for the selection of teaching resources, means, methods and activities that correspond during the learning process. Also, it explains the methodology to be followed; that is, the explanation of what is to be done and how, including activities and tasks to develop students to achieve the objectives. It must be planned evaluation and control for permanent assessment of them.

In designing the activities, it is important to note that several of them help to collaborative learning and group work and strengthen relationships among students, in order to guide and organize students feeling and needs for to solving the task, and thus strengthen the educational role of these actions in their comprehensive training.

It would be an endless list of specific strategies that could be conceived with the use of different methods and combinations of them, but by using teaching strategies focused on student learning, while traditional roles change for both students and teachers. The latter will help students to reflect, identify information needs and lead them to achieve learning goals proposed.

Profile of unmotivated students (with a lack of intrinsic motivation). Profile of demotivating teacher

In general, according to the authors, profile shows that students who lack intrinsic motivation have the following characteristics:

Unaware of the purpose or objectives of the career they have chosen, applications, jobs, an so on. Know the purpose of the subjects comprising the curriculum and the relationship between them unawares the objectives of the subjects in which they are registered, the purposes and goals that are expected to achieve through their learning.

Unknown sources of essential information to deepen, in addition to the text suggested by the teacher knowledge.

Simply copy what the teacher's own recorded on the board as the only source of reference for their own study.

Often they arrive late to class.

Usually they try to sit somewhere in the room furthest from the master, to avoid being involved in or called for him.

They are particularly concerned about maintaining the highest possible rating, with a minimum of effort.

If conditions allow them, they prefer to select teachers undemanding, rejecting those who are plaintiffs or strict, regardless of the quality of teaching them. In short, a student extrinsically motivated or unmotivated is one who only committed to learning your subject so far control ceases teacher.

Teacher motivates preferably using extrinsic motivators with students orientation does not provide the objectives of their subject, in terms of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values ​​to achieve (and / or) increasing profile.

He maintains an ongoing interest based on the factors determining obtaining the highest scores, where appropriate.

He establishes rules and percentage of attendance of students to class.

He qualifies his students, but does not evaluate their performance, encouraging feedback.

He prefers students who demonstrate higher performance in its class, ignoring others, less fortunate or require greater educational attention.

He is geared more to the teaching of knowledge that will set the agenda, without promoting the development of other factors (application) more motivating for students.

His main interest (in the best case) is to teach students as much as you can or permitted by the school calendar, but without checking their learning.

He provide grades, without further explanation given to students.

In addition to the above, a very powerful reason may be: The own teacher (if it is) is unmotivated to teach! This remark is derived from the experience of the first author in his more than 40 years of teaching research.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

There are several theories on motivation based on the individual's needs and demand answers to them. In humanistic theories, one of the most accepted is that proposed by Abraham Maslow. Maslow in his theory summarizes the results of extensive research of human motivation. He proposes a hierarchy of human needs. These have been classified into two groups: those based on the substitution of deficiencies and needs involving growth or progress. With regard to the temporary replacement of deficiencies, each level must be satisfied before boarding the next level of higher order. Once each of the levels are corrected, if in the future any deficiency is detected, the individual himself proceeds to eliminate or correct them. The first four levels of needs are as follows:

Level 1) physiological needs: food, health, clothing, comfort, etc.

Level 2) Need for security and protection against danger and fear

Level 3) Need for belonging, love, affiliation with others, acceptance.

Level 4) Need for recognition: Competition, approval, recognition and prestige. Self-esteem and relationship with others.

According to Maslow, the individual can only proceed to meet their growth and progress if and only if those relating to the primary needs are fully met. Growth needs, progress, higher order include, in progressive order level, the following:

Level 5) Cognitive Needs: Know, understand, explore

Level 6) aesthetic needs: Symmetry, order, beauty

Level 7) Need for self-learning : Fill your expectations and tap their own potential

Level 8) needs to transcend: Leaving the individualist scheme, helping others find their own development and realize their potential.

The basic principle of the theory of Maslow called Maslow pyramid states that to the extent that the individual becomes more important and fully managed and uses its own potential. It becomes wiser and automatically know how to respond to a variety of situations. It is, in short, a fully self-motivated person. Referencing this theory Maslow could raise the hypothesis that a good part of the students (and individuals, in general), are located on the first steps (below) of the pyramid. This is deficient in primary satisfactions, not only of lack of security, affection and recognition but, in some cases, more pressing basic needs such as food. That is why the average pupil requires extrinsic motivation (grades, secure approval of the course, explicit recognition of their teachers, etc.) as a main driver gradient to move forward in their educational process. In other words, they respond to all that stimulus teacher to provide more security and to strengthen their self-esteem and prestige among their peers and their teachers. Moreover, based on the experience of teaching research, many teachers assume that students motivators agents are oriented in the upper levels of the Maslow scale, considering that all students have fully met their first two stages.

Steps such as morality, creativity, spontaneity, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts, problem solving; self-recognition, trust, respect, success;  friendship, affection, sexual intimacy; physical security, employment, resources, morality, family, health, private property; breathing, eating, rest, sex, homeostasis include the higher-order learning, learning to learn, transcend, collaborate with others, etc., are not presented in reality.

SOME RECOMMENDATIONS TO ACHIEVE THE MOTIVATION OF STUDENTS LEARNING

As mentioned above, there are inherent internal motivations of the students themselves towards its realization and learning and extrinsic, external type, which the master himself and the environment can and should promote to achieve ultimately a student's own motivation. Here are some specific recommendations as Stipek (1988) presented in his research.

From the outset it should be clearly set the objectives and purposes of the subject addressed in simple language to students. Must be clearly defined what for, what it is to be taught. It is usual for the master neglects the above, focusing on the why of things. Engineering students is more sensitive to the effect before the cause. It is essential to keep the overview of the objectives, opportunities, challenges, threats, fields racing action itself. No more demotivating than uncertainty, especially if it permeates from the master himself. Motivation is an interest and the born of necessity and the student must realize that what the teacher is used to teach, he will apply and also allows one to learn on his own other knowledge that the student requires. The teacher must spread enthusiasm to students. They should appreciate a teacher who enjoys teaching and sharing their experiences. One should give a positive, stimulating and exemplifying image to his students. This should be a paradigma, both conduct and of winning attitude that motivates them to follow his path and guidance. An efficient teacher should seek to know about the satisfaction of primary pupils motivational needs as they affect their own safety, affection and recognition, avoiding threatening or encrypt its response to merely obtaining a passing grade or uncertainty of accreditation course . In this way, students will rise to the level of self-motivational satisfactions, as foreseen in the theories of Maslow, among others. A good teacher should encourage curiosity among students studying anecdotes from practical experience of the teacher's professional practice.

Interest should encourage students to take more responsibility for the challenges of teamwork, applied to solving real, practical problems; that they arouse interest and motivate students. This also promotes the development of leadership and with them the interest of one by the other (high level on the scale of Maslow, transcendence. A good teacher must maintain the highest possible communication with their students. He also must listen, hear their problems and talk or talk to them at every opportunity, as well as he must share with students the responsibility for their learning. The obligation of the teacher is not only to teach but to make students learn. It must lead to student contact with the real world, especially through visits to plants, research centers, discussions with experts in various fields, videos of real cases in the world of chemical engineering, etc. must maintain a great respect and genuine affection for their students, to motivate them to achieve the immense value confidence that motivate them to believe the teacher should ask their students at the beginning of the course reports on what their motivators are in his career. and work with them in such motivational expectations. A very important aspect is the care that the teacher must give traditional Extrinsic motivators: reward and punishment. The first, associated with excellent passing grades should be handled not only as an end in itself the reason for learning, but as a result of good performance objective. From childhood, student performance has been distorted, conditioning it to do well in order to achieve recognition or a "prize" task. This behavior orients the student to do the right things by getin something in return and not only self-satisfaction. Moreover, punishment (threats of failing the course, work sanction students, reducing their qualifications, etc.), the only thing is to feed leading student insecurity, fearing the teacher as an element of power and authority, which should definitely be avoided by its demotivating effect to a true and genuine interest in learning, to improve, to transcend. The "rating" itself has no more results to compare one student to another, to marginalize, create certain elitism. Motivating appropriate action will be to assess teacher to improve and correct and feedback to the student demonstrating a genuine interest and motivating for the student. Another important aspect is to recognize that this type of extrinsic motivators are only relevant while maintaining control of the teacher towards pupils and essentially contribute only to satisfy the primary elements of satisfaction of the student (security, recognition, prestige, etc.).

GENERAL INTELECTUAL CAPACITIES OF ADVANCED STUDENTS

Students identified in this category demonstrate or have the ability to demonstrate superior reasoning skills, curiosity persistent intellectual ones, using an elaborated language, extraordinary ability to solve problems, rapid acquisition and mastery of operations, concepts and principles, further demonstrations of creative and imaginative expression across a wide range of subjects of study that exceeds the level of peers of the same age.

A student with outstanding skills in the area of ​​ general intellectual capacity shows the following (non-exhaustive list):

has abstract ideas

process information complexly

is an observer

shows enthusiasm about new ideas.

formulates hypothesis

learns quickly

uses an extensive vocabulary

is curious or inquisitive

Starts projects independently

is identified as a Student:

Students who have been identified as Advanced Students involve in a Specific Academic area showing the following (list not exhaustive):

They have good capacity or memorization

have advanced understanding

acquire skills

basic skills

read a lot about the area

have a special interest in a certain domain

They achieve much success

They are academic in the area

Pursue their special interest with enthusiasm and vigor

They are identified as students with outstanding skills

They earn an advanced score on an assessment standardized nationally within a specific academic area

Students who have been identified as Advanced Students in the area of Leaderships demonstrate outstanding leadership skills or potential to lead projects, groups and activities.

Students who have been identified as Advanced Students in Leadership area show the following:

assume responsibility

set high expectations for themselves and others

they are expressed fluently and concisely

foresee the consequences and implications of their decisions

demonstrate good judgment when making decisions

prefer the structure

they are appreciated and well accepted by their peers

demonstrate self-confidence

they are organized

Talking about creativity, students who have outstanding skills in the creativity area show the following:

have independent ideas

produce original ideas in both oral and written

give several solutions to a problem occurring

possess a sense of humor

create and invent

Take creative tasks as a challenge

Improvise or frequently

they do not mind being different from others

Practical applications to motivate and develop in efficient students positive attitudes toward learning English as a foreign language

First, it is essential to make students aware of the importance of language in the environment of their lives, their large presence, the number of people who speak in the world, etc. To this end, teaching professionals can design and develop recreational activities and the teaching time such as:

• Suggest that students / as make a list of their favorite musicians or bands sing in English, cartoon, English titles of movies, names of athletes or acquaintances, etc.

• Bring the classroom examples of English words that are in technology, sciences and literature and make a mural they can go adding more words throughout the course.

• Conduct a brainstorming activity

• Make a list of professions where English may be necessary, for example. singer, doctor, hotel receptionist, secretary, computer scientist, journalist, racing driver, footballer, model, etc. and discuss about those professions

• Interviewing adults in the environment to see if they use English or not.

Another interesting activity to motivate learners and to develop in them positive and alternative attitudes is to create an English environment class . The best way is to organize the classroom, whether it is an " English laboratory" as a normal classroom, so that take students / as to feel safe, comfortable and to increase their interest.

Following this pattern, teachers can make use of visual resources, visual displaying some elements of which could be:

• Work done by students / as: drawings, posters, tables, phones, writing, crafts …

• Posters from English-speaking countries, from different domains (technological, scientifical)

• Posters or brochures of English films, cartoons, songs, houses, amusement parks

Along with the visual resources, teachers can organise different areas or corners. Areas and corners that can be included in the classroom are:

• Plastic Corner (Art Corner)

• Reading Corner (Book Corner). This corner can be formed by a shelf or cupboard for storing books, stories or magazines in English classified by level of difficulty for students to choose and pick up those who want according to their needs and learning pace.

• Audio Visual / Computer Corner. This corner, formed by television, DVD and computer can be used to watch movies, work with interactive programs, browse the Internet, etc.

• Corner for dramatization (Drama Corner). This corner can be used to to make posters announcing the time and place of the representation of a story, play, or dialogue (role-plays).

• Area English culture. This area can be designed to store all kinds of objects or things related to English culture such as flags, maps, photos, stickers, postcards, lyrics, movie titles, posters, brochures, labels, food packages, coins, tickets, souvenirs, etc.

Teacher should create a pleasant environment is a significant way to make students feel relaxed, at ease within the group-class and open to English. To achieve this, teachers can perform a "contract class" (class contract) signed by all children, in which a list of house rules (class rules) appears.

On the other hand, teachers can also provide them the same source of motivation, hence it should be:

• Fair, firm but kind.

• Show equal respect and concern for all students

• supportive of their efforts and progress.

• Praise and reward correct answers and attitudes.

• Try to find what is good at each student

• Know and use the names of the children

• Provide personal attention to each student according to your needs.

• Change classroom organization, the tables and the type of grouping frequently to avoid the appearance of fixed groups and make all children s they relate to all.

The teaching-learning activities obviously are themselves a useful means to stimulate and maintain motivation and positive attitude of all learners. However, teachers should note that not all alumni learn the same way or at the same pace, nor all the students like the same type of activities.

Finally, teachers must be prepared to face and manage a heterogeneous class, that is, treating a student with different abilities and skills. This means that you must deal with different levels of linguistic content, fitness, styles and rhythms of learning and motivation. Therefore, to ensure that all children are involved in the lesson is necessary to carry out a series of techniques and useful practical strategies:

• Use of sequenced tasks (grading tasks) of different level of difficulty.

• Use of free activities to be chosen (self-access activities).

• Use of activities with the possibility of several answers (open-ended activities), for example, complete diaries, personal questions, surveys, writing letters, etc.

• Dealing with different learning rates using both extension activities for the more advanced and reinforcement for those who may stagnate at some point.

Use of management techniques and classroom management to strengthen the participation of children

Put students work in groups and couples, as it is possible to sit down together at the most advanced with the least advantaged one

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CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 Methods and Approaches to Teaching Grammar

2.1.1 Inductive vs. Deductive

The grammar can be worked following two different approaches: deductive and inductive approach. In the deductive approach, first grammar rules are presented and then implemented, while the inductive approach examples are proposed and, from them, is that students derive the grammatical rule.

As one can observe, the deductive processing of grammar represents the general explanation of teacher individual practice, while the inductive presentation of grammar, on the other hand is a part of the individual examples of Gramatical rules.

The deductive approach is the most traditional and prevailing, as long as by means of the grammar presentation one may perform exercises such as gap-filling or processing, for implement the specific structures studied.

In the inductive practice, however, instead of a blind and mechanical learning, the emphasis moves to the scanning process that leads to a true understanding of knowledge. As stated by Bruner (1961: 25) and Hammerly (1975: 15-18), his practice is based on the General Theory of Learning, according to which all those things we discovered for ourselves, are more firmly rooted in our minds that we are given.

Throughout the history of the methodology of foreign languages, it has been observed a number of methods to facilitate, improve and solve educational and learning problems that arose inseparably in the educational process. Most methods take as a starting point for his reflections ideas, proposals, beliefs, techniques and procedures of previous methods that preceded them, so we can not speak of revolutionary methods, but rather evolutionary.

In each method or methodological approach grammar occupies a central, peripheral role, focused on the process, in the form of communication. In some methods grammar is totally deductive, in other fully inductive, or mixed.

The method that best exemplifies the teaching grammar through deductive procedures is the grammar translation method. For this method, language is a set of rules that must be observed, studied and analyzed. The usual procedures focused on deductive analysis of grammar, lexical, morphological and syntactic memorization, translation of literary texts, contrastive analysis, and others that are primarily focused on teaching grammar.

Regarding the treatment of grammar by the natural method, it stresses that it is carried into the background, giving more importance to vocabulary and situations, dialogues and oral interaction. No grammar explanations could be offered, but orally completed by students. The method of teaching is inductive, but with limitations. The grammar shown and presented in the communicative approach is a functional and useful instrument for students. There is no conceptualization of teaching grammar, but the form and use for students to use and communicate in English. The goal of communicative approaches is the teaching language for communication purposes for students in order to achieve communicative competence and grammar is essential for this purpose, as a fundamental part of communicative competence and linguistic subcompetence, which integrates grammar.

Communication and grammar are not contradictory terms, but converging, both part of the process of learning the language and communicative approaches use both deductive and inductive methods for teaching and learning. Grammar in communicative approaches evolves every day. It has advanced grammatical correction to the communicative effectiveness, structural and communicative activities closed exercise, and from the attention on ways to use them. It should be noted that the presentation of grammar rules in English classes, regardless of the procedure adopted, should address profitability, which greatly facilitate the generalization, transfer to other situations and allow self-correction.

Currently, many publishers have chosen to introduce in their books combination of both approaches, and you can see that sometimes there are gaps in grammatical tables for students to fill in the missing categories from the examples provided, or students to discuss the language works, etc.

One can not conclude that the inductive approach is better than the deductive in all cases. As we see in practice it does not always appear "pure" form. However, the implementation of a method or other strictly is not appropriate, but it should make a fusion of the aspects of each method more interesting for any given moment, and adjust to the demands of each content and educational context. In a study of Karen Grasel (2013: 8), this dichotomy between deductive and inductive approach and how students can benefit from the combination of both approaches in teaching is presented. This study also assumes that students benefit most from discovering the rules that are being studied that if they are given from the beginning. In short, this means that the presence of inductive principles (Sharwood, 1988: 173-198) in the methodology of teaching English is beneficial for students. One reason for this superiority of inductive teaching could be guided discovery (Crandall, Basturkmen, 2004: 38-49), which is an integral part of many inductive designs. This means that the instruction includes elements and activities during which students are actively involved in the analysis and discovery of language, guided and helped, but not dominated by the teacher. So important it is active participation of students in the discovery of "regularities and relationships of language" has been identified as a decisive factor in the learning process (Tomlinson, 1994: 20-26). As Tomasello and Herron point out, "passivity by the student goes against the findings of cognitive psychologists and researchers emphasize that language students should actively participate in their learning."( Herron, Tomasello, 1992:709).

With regard to the teaching of grammar, Ishihara and Cohen (2010:116) suggest that "Generally it believed that the inductive instruction promotes higher-order thinking and can be more effective than a deductive approach”. Consequently, educational practices that allow a process of inductive discovery look very promising for teaching grammar. According to Martin Sanchez (2010:15), the choice of one procedure or another in many cases depends on the methodological approach, but in reality, teacher should decide one way or another depending on the needs and characteristics of their students as there are students who need more deductive teaching and other work best with an inductive, and experience shows that in most situations requires two procedures to learn and assimilate a certain grammatical content.

2.1.2 PPP

The teaching and learning of languages ​​is currently one of the areas of study and research preferred in the broad field of applied linguistics. In fact, no references have been found to specific studies based on data on the sequencing of activities in teaching materials and their incidence on learning.

As Sánchez (2004a:56) suggests, the sequencing of activities is not an innocuous issue, a fact that converts the absence of empirical studies related to this subject, at least, surprising. Sequencing involves the establishment of a certain relationship between all the activities involved, which, in turn, introduces concrete patterns of work and class organization. Actually, the sequencing of activities is directly related to the following aspects:

A) The method followed by the textbook that applies one or the other sequencing model;

B) The cognitive sequence to which human beings tend to focus on the acquisition of new knowledge;

C) The variety in the didactic processes, that influences decisively on the motivation of the students;

D) The complexity that can enclose the development and application of a certain series of activities against another or other possible series.

The sequencing structure most frequently detected in teaching materials and in the classroom is the Presentation-Practice-Production model (P-P-P). This model follows a cognitive order composed by the processes of assimilation (previous explanation), practice, consolidation and final transfer. Therefore, it seems possible to assume that for P-P-P there is a single cognitive path of learning or linguistic acquisition, which is opposed to the concrete experience in language learning regarding the natural or non-formal aspect. On the other hand, the attractive and varied presentation of materials in modern manuals can easily distract students and teachers from the presence of repetitive action patterns in this model. Secondary aspects such as short interruptions, imperceptible breaks between sections, or activities with slight format variants tend to hide unchanging organizational structures, which imply a consequent absence of variety in the schemes of action. Consequently, it is presumed that this lack has negative repercussions on apprentices. For all these reasons, the PPP has been strongly criticized by some authors, especially from the perspective of the Lexical Approach (Lewis, 1993: 57) (Lewis, 1996: 22) or the TBLT (Skehan, 1996a, 1996b; Willis., 1996a, among others).

It is not my intention to focus especially on the positive or negative aspects that may underlie P-P-P. This pattern of teaching has been present in the traditional school system and has been favored by recent methods such as the Audio-Oral one. The fact that many students have learned languages ​​following this model makes it at least worthy of respect on the part of any researcher. However, it is also necessary to point out the shortcomings of applying the same pattern in order to answer the following question: Is it possible to introduce more variety of organizational models that are likely to have an effect on a more effective and pleasant teaching or, on the contrary, should teachers accept a single path of organization and sequencing in the presentation of materials in the classroom? The first step in answering this question would be to consider the flexibility or recognition of other cognitive learning paths other than the one proposed in the P-P-P.

Allusions to the sequencing of activities as discussed in this paper begin rather late. Brumfit (1979:85) is a pioneer author, since he analyzes the traditional model or PPP and an alternative structure that he calls post-communicative teaching model, which consists of Production-Presentation-Practice. Littlewood (1981) dedicates a section titled "Sequencing of pre-communicative and communicative work" to the sequencing of activities. It emphasizes two types of organization of activities: the one that goes from the "pre-communicative" to the "communicative" character or the one that follows the reverse direction. Byrne (1986: 71) explains some issues related to sequencing referring to the PPP model, while mentioning the sequence model presented by Brumfit (1979: 85), which defines as "the progressive vision of the three stages of learning ".

Other researchers approach sequencing as a material adaptation procedure and call it "content reorganization" (Richards, 2001: 102-110) or "rearrangement" (Islam, Mares, 2003). Some authors, such as Lewis (1996), D. Willis (1996a, 1996b), J. Willis (1993, 1996a, 1996b), for example, also refer to sequencing schemes, but fundamentally attacking the model PPP, which sometimes appears as the source of all ills in language teaching or as a symbol of attachment to outdated patterns. In this negative critique abound very especially those who confide followers of the TBLT and the Approach Lexicon or "content-centric"

The diachronic analysis of sequential models as they appear in textbooks used over the centuries does not provide a clear model for the consistent application of the PPP model (Howatt, 2004) . Phase 3 (P3) does not always appear clearly in textbooks of the past. For example, the materials analyzed by Criado (2005, 2008) do not include activities that aim for fluid and free production, the specific level of these manuals being elemental the justification the author argues for to explain this absence of P3. However, other materials from the Situational Method of lower levels do provide an explicit transfer or free production activity in the end. In this respect, Richard & Rodgers (2001: 249) expressly link the P-P-P to a "standard lesson sequence in Situational Language Teaching". In the face of these methods, a whole tradition of teaching "based on the natural method" coexists, in which the production by the student is stimulated from the beginning, with the conviction that from it the students will construct their linguistic scheme of form "Natural", without it being necessary to go through phases 1 and 2 (P1, P2), at least in the way systematically and explicitly intended by the teacher and the materials used.

The communicative methodology is far from having been monolithic. Howatt (1984: 95-110) speaks of a "weak" and a "strong" version of the communicative method. Sánchez (1993, 1997) proposes an "integrating" method, in which aspects and techniques of diverse methodologies, especially structural, communicative and natural ones, can or should coexist. In the so-called "weak" and "integrating" version, the presence of the P-P-P model has been more frequently encountered, although with more or less significant variations with respect to the canonical scheme.

Positive aspects of P-P-P

Positive psychological factors based on parameters of general knowledge acquisition

Sánchez (2001: 116) states that the five phases described in the "school model" are the result of the observation verified through history about the way in which human beings learn or build and consolidate their knowledge. Rosenshine & Stevens (1986: 379) seem to share this perception, following experimental studies of what constitutes "successful learning." These authors identified the following phases and procedures, on which a type of effective teaching revolves or sustains:

Review, check previous day’s work (and reteach if necessary)

Present new content/skills

Guided student practice (and check for understanding)

Feedback and correctives (and reteach, if necessary)

Independent student practice

Weekly and monthly reviews

The procedures outlined fit reasonably well with the P-P-P model and the skill acquisition models outlined by Anderson (1982, 1983, 1987, 2005). To all this can be added other positive aspects, but not insignificant.

Positive factors of a psychological nature based on the acquisition of second languages

The presentation phase is well suited to one of the essential functions of learning: to make students aware of the object of learning and relate the new to what they already know or have acquired. The practice phase also conforms to the principle that language is learned by using it, as can be seen in Swain's "Understanding Output" theory (1985, 1995, 2005). In this theory it is recommended that to speak is learned by speaking. In addition, the practice can be more or less controlled, allowing the less controlled to approach the phase that we could call production (or partially free production, at least).

Positive factors of a psycho-pedagogical nature centered on the learner as an apprentice

Swain (2005: 58) argues that the fact that the students perceive pre-designed and predictable action schemes end up giving them security and confidence in themselves. Knowing what can be followed, students are able to react more freely and promptly to the different phases of class development. In fact, the predictability of these phases also has the aspect of security and confidence, although at the same time it can also generate some fatigue. The novel is not always positive for the student: what is unknown can sometimes cause anxiety and fear, if not total or partial inhibition in the performance, whatever the characteristics of it.

Teacher-centered positive psycho-pedagogical factors

The aforementioned predictable nature of the PPP phases in terms of performance patterns makes teachers feel safe and confident, since on the one hand they do not require intense and continuous preparation sessions before each lesson and they face the daily class With greater confidence and security, due precisely to the fact that they do not need to resort to new and renewed ways of presentation and performance. Although continued variety can be welcomed in the classroom, the teacher does not always have at his disposal sources that provide him with resources to be innovative. Such lack of resources would be a possible source of anxiety and would be detrimental to the proper development of the class.

Negative Aspects of P-P-P

Along with the previous positive factors, it is necessary to point out certain less favorable features of the P-P-P. The changing cycles in the language teaching approach undoubtedly affect what is in fashion at one moment or in the preferred values of teachers and students. Since the late twentieth century, communicative methods have reacted rather negatively to all that was associated with structural-based teaching practices. P-P-P has been, in this respect, one of the objectives of criticism.

Negative factors of a linguistic nature

The proponents of the Lexical Approach find in the PPP model the most distant referent of what they consider as a fundamental value in the learning and teaching of languages: the emphasis on the transmitted message, instead of the protagonism given to the linguistic forms through which this message is transmitted.

On the other hand, another negative aspect refers to the way in which the materials are offered. Structuralism, centered on the importance of forms, presents them as "discrete" elements, atomistic in character, identifiable and easy to isolate, and therefore easy to analyze (Woodward, 1993: 48).

Negative psychological factors

As an association with structural methods, P-P-P is also the object of criticism because of the behaviorism on which it is supposedly based. The subjection to rigid sequencing procedures or patterns is one more factor that joins the "automatic" response expected of students in linguistic production, when subjected to certain "linguistic" stimuli. Language acquisition, moreover, is not a linear process according to which everything taught is learned immediately and automatically (teaching-equals-learning), nor a cumulative process in which the pieces are added One on the other independently. On the contrary, linguistic acquisition implies integration and relationship between the parts of the whole which is the language. For this reason, it is argued that a model like P-P-P is counterproductive, since it is characterized by the emphasis on forms as rather autonomous elements, learned according to a fixed scheme, which responds to a poorly integrating pattern. To this observation must be added the only directionality in the path identified in this model to acquire the linguistic knowledge: explanation, understanding, practice and consolidation.

Negative factors of a psycholinguistic nature

The P-P-P has been criticized for imposing a single style of learning, rational and academic and to ignore other styles such as visual, kinesthetic, etc. (Tomlinson et al, 2001: 82). In addition, the overemphasis on the forms pointed out earlier has repercussions on the negation of natural learning principles such as reaction to content and fluency, objectives that must be prioritized and prior to concentration in the accuracy of reproduction of linguistic forms ( Tomlinson & Masuhara, 2004; Willis, D. & Willis, J., 2007; Willis, J., 1993). On the other hand, the teaching-equals-learning perspective ignores certain fundamental principles in linguistic acquisition, such as readiness-to-learn (Pienemann, 1984: 20), the "retarded effect” and the "period of silence" (Duran & Ramaut, 2006, Islam, 2003, Krashen, 1982) and the "period of silence"

Negative factors of a psycho-pedagogical and pedagogical nature

The students' sense of security generated by the predictable nature of the patterns and ordering of the P-P-P phases constitutes a very important psycho-pedagogical danger to the learning process: the monotony caused by excessively repetitive patterns. The same observation concerns teachers.

As one have seen in the previous sub-sections, although there are several aspects in which the opposition to the PPP model materializes, it is possible to affirm that almost all of them derive from its rigid and unidirectional character (presentation-practice-production). This situation is directly opposed to pedagogical approaches aimed at creating a more open and more open-minded student-teacher atmosphere, both for the work of the teacher and for the work of the student. From this perspective we understand the criticisms and criticisms of authors such as R. Ellis (2003), Skehan (1996a, 1996b) and J. Willis (1993), among others.

One of P-P-P's strongest critics, Scrivener, claims that the P-P-P model is "fundamentally disabling, not enabling" (1994: 15). It is probably an excessively risky judgment, especially considering that the model in question has been and remains one of the most common schemes of action in the classroom and in teaching materials. Even the Common European Framework of Reference for Language Learning, Teaching and Assessment (2001: 143) excludes clear references to its use and presence in the classroom. The following quotation from Hopkins (1995; Harmer, 2001: 82), faithfully reflects one’s position on this point: Nowadays, the language courses offer an undiluted diet of the dry meaningless P-P-P structured lessons as many commentators like to set up a straw-man foe.

In my opinion, it would be unfair not to acknowledge the existence of a "contemporary version" of the P-P-P, which is much more nuanced and enriched than the present one in structural methods, and which on certain occasions admits a certain degree of flexibility and emphasis on content. This would be the case of the English File Upper Intermediate, published by Oxford University Press in 2001, used as the instructional material of our quasi-experiment, and whose objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of an alternative model of sequencing: CPM.

In any lesson, one can point out three main parts or stages: Presentation (or introduction of the new material), Phase of Controlled Practice and Production (or Free Practice phase).

PRESENTATION

The purpose of the Presentation is to give students clear information about the language they are learning. It is about giving them the opportunity to:

A) understand the usefulness and relevance of the material presented;

 B) concentrate on its meaning;

C) focus on pronunciation, accentuation, intonation, and of course, focus on grammatical form (morphology and syntax).

What can be presented? The presentation phase can be centred on one or several exponents of a function, for example, Can you …? Do you mind…? Or could you …? in order to ask a favor. It can also focus on a number of exponents of various functions, forming a conversation or micro-dialogue; the most typical example would be that of the sequence to invite, refuse and give an excuse, insist, and accept / refuse again. Or you can simply present the morphology and use a particular grammatical form.

The importance of context

We know that except on very rare occasions, communication occurs in real life situations or as a result of truthful information. In order for the student to understand, not only the meaning and the use, but also in what moments and situations these functions are used, it is necessary that the presentation has a clear context, and at the same time, that it is relevant and interesting for the type of Students we have. It does not have to be super-fun, but at least attractive and that learners want to hear / read. On this question, Mary Spratt speaks of two types of context, situational and linguistic. The first, the situational context, defines it as "the situation in which the exchange takes place", and give as examples, buying quantities of food, talking to a bank manager to ask for advice on economic problems or a marriage talking about a Little car accident they just had.

The second type of context, "the linguistic context is the language that surrounds a particular piece of language". Mary Spratt points out: "The linguistic context must be meaningful, clear and free of unnecessary language units, since the context must be simple enough to reveal the form, but rich enough to reveal the meaning and at the same time remain a sample Of authentic language." (2002: 10)

Usually textbooks, videos or cassettes provide the material needed for the Presentation, but if not, the teacher can use his imagination and make his own material by helping with photos of magazines, publicity brochures or information, or any type of authentic documents.

The role of the teacher in the presentation stage

At this stage the teacher has to do almost all the work, first selecting the material, then as an informant and finally, checking if the proposed objectives have been met, will have to see if the student has understood the use and the value of what you have presented. The ways in which the teacher works in this phase can be very varied and will depend in some cases on what he is presenting, but in general the procedures that are used are represented by the following steps:

1. Set the context. It is usually done by means of the drawings that accompany the text if it is written. If it is a recorded conversation, you can make a preparation for what you are going to hear, explaining the topic, developing the list of words or new expressions.

2. Second, elicitation is used. Almost always, it is more positive that the students are the ones who can guess the subject, the meaning of the words and expressions that appear, and even the use of a certain form. Elicitation is motivating for the student because it makes him realize what he knows or does not, and on the other hand, the teacher gives him information about what will have to work more in the next stage, that of practice.

3. Another step is the grammatical explanation, which will not always be necessary. For example, if in the elicitation phase, learners have demonstrated a perfect understanding of the use of the grammar, for example, it makes no sense for the teacher to explain anything. It is best to go directly to the practice phase.

4. Fourth, repetition. Depending on the material, it may be interesting for students to repeat the items presented, especially for beginners. It can be done individually or individually. For example, students have heard / read a conversation in a store, have seen new words and expressions, and then, with the book closed, between the whole class try to reconstruct the conversation while a student or teacher writes it on the board .

5. Finally, another fundamental procedure is the verification. The teacher should know if the students have understood the whole situation and the meaning of the presented. It is most common to ask open-ended questions about what they have read / heard and about the context.

CONTROLLED PRACTICE

Depending on the input, the form of controlled practice will vary markedly. It will not be the same to create an exercise to practice the functions that appear in "to buy a quantity of food" that to practice the use of the demonstratives, to put two obvious examples. So what is controlled practice? Well, what differentiates this stage from the lesson, from the last, the free practice stage, is not so much the type of exercises that can be performed as the level of correction required, the role of the teacher or the degree Of freedom available to students to make mistakes or not. Let's look at it with an example. Imagine that we have presented the forms and the use of the Past Indefinite Tense and to practice it we decided to prepare an exercise / activity of information vacuum.

We are, thus, with an exercise / activity totally focused on the grammar, since the students what they have to do is a simple transformation, but that has a form, communicative because we have introduced the component of "information vacuum", since none of the apprentices have complete information. Of course, it is arguable that this activity meets all the requirements that are required in a "really" communicative activity, but that is not the issue at this time. With this he wanted to demonstrate the possibility of using communicative activities for controlled practice. However, at this point in the lesson, exercises or drills are very useful, enabling the learner to use the language immediately after their presentation in a controlled and even repetitive way in order to help them memorize the forms and assimilate their meaning globally. The exercise models that exist are almost innumerable, we can all see them in any method, especially in exercise books where they have sometimes been relegated, these years ago. But a distinction that does seem to me important is that between mechanical exercises and significant exercises. Mechanical exercises, such as those requiring only a transformation, do not require the apprentice to know the meaning of what they are saying.

It is clear that it will not be necessary for the student to know exactly what a post office is in order to perform the exercise. These kinds of exercises have been much criticized, however, few teachers will deny me the evidence that they provide students with an opportunity to practice and assimilate what they have just learned. Meanwhile, meaningful exercises, in addition to achieving the objectives of the mechanics, require the student to manage and choose between different meanings. As an example we have one designed to practice the suggestions with the form why not …?

Excepting of what they are, the exercises at this stage must meet a minimum of conditions:

A) The phrases or exchanges to which they give rise must be real. Avoid taking students to practice sentences they will never have to say in real life;

B) they must be reproduced with the proper intonation, whether of surprise, enthusiasm, impatience, indifference, etc .;

C) they should be attractive to the student, related to topics that are related to their interests and ages;

 D) and finally, they should be brief. Depending on the difficulty of what is practiced, five or six examples will suffice.

Teacher’s role in the controlled practice phase

In addition to selecting and preparing the exercises, the teacher will act as a driver and corrector at this time. It should not be forgotten that one of the objectives of this phase is to assimilate the grammatical or functional form of the sample presented in the first stage and it is fundamental that the teacher is aware that the students produce their exercises with the due correction. The interaction will occur sometimes between teacher and student or students, and other times between students, grouped in pairs.

PRODUCTION OR FREE PRACTICE

It is time for the student to act independently, and this is one of the objectives of the production phase. But at this stage there are many other objectives to fulfill and I will briefly enumerate:

 A) to achieve fluency and, therefore, confidence in using the target language spontaneously;

B) to integrate what was previously known with what was learned recently;

C) to practice / rehearse real life situations;

D) to provide the teacher and learner with information on the achievement of the learning objectives.

In this phase of the lesson, the most commonly used exercises / activities are communicative games of all kinds, role plays, information void, problem solving, personal exchanges, among many others that can be found in any current textbook.

Teacher’s role in the production stage

At this moment, the teacher loses all his protagonism. Its main role is to give the instructions clearly, explaining what is the purpose of the activity, not the result. The results of activities will often be unpredictable, as in real-life communication. Once given the instructions, it is the students who must do all the work, divided into pairs, groups or any other possible combination.

The 'PPP' method is a very classic method and consists of three elements that together form the so-called three pes. The first is to introduce: the teacher presents a topic and explains the rules using terms of the grammar, and illustrates the use with the help of examples. The next part is to practice what students have learned. Often this is done with tasks such as 'filling in the gaps', where the students go to find the missing word in a sentence, conjugate it and add it in the right place. A second example is with tasks where students are going to replace for example phrases containing nouns with the appropriate personal pronoun. The third example is transformation tasks, for example when you have to change a whole text from present to future, or another time. This point is for students to automate grammatical structures. The last part deals with Production, meaning that the student will use what he has learned within the two previous points. This point is based on communication and serves for students to use and train more in grammatical structures that are already automated, and the goal is to create a link between grammar and "authentic language".

'PPP' is a method that is frequently used in school, but it is also criticized for some shortcomings. First, we criticize point number two, some tasks that are done to practice are very mechanical, because sentences do not have a global meaning, and would be atomized without forming a coherent textual set. Another part that is criticized is the third point, production. As has been said these tasks serve to create a link between grammar and authentic language, but the situation in which the student will use the forms he has learned is often very controlled and isolated, and therefore the language would be next to What we can call "pseudo-communication".

2.1.3 Engage – Study- Activate

The model engage-study-activate (ESA) stated by Harmer (2009) describes a sequence of stages in the lessons that expose learners to three different moments in the session where each of them aims and in which each one has a purpose.

First, in the engage stage, teacher engage students to the last topic by using a game, is necessary to highlight that each class games are different. Secondly, in the study stage students learn how the structures according to the topic. Finally, in the activate stage students activate their knowledge through a game, focusing on the speaking skill and at the same time working with the others.

The student faces knowledge, modifies his schemes and records the information semantically. There is a personal way of dealing with the environment. Generally each subject does it through their personal constructs and starting from representational models of the world with which it is programmed on a personal level to achieve its purposes. Based on his expectations, he builds his knowledge based on the environment and the variables that make up the family environment, degree of maturity and affectivity, socio-cultural environment, level of personal sensitivity, moral values ​​and cognitive level and, Student faces the knowledge and modifies it according to their personal schemes. In order for the student to perform a meaningful learning, it is necessary to reconstruct what the phrases mean, that is, to capture the idea of ​​the message and not to be limited to textual reproduction, since this learning is not significant or at least not Personal phenomenological product, that is, the ideas must be integrated within the individual and singular structure of the student.

The student uses people constructs and captures reality in a personal way. The student arrives at understanding and acting on the environment solving problems and discovering solutions due to the conceptual and procedural schemes that he has integrated from the object of knowledge that is proposed to him, but that the student himself develops through global and personal constructs and not only prior (Ausubel, 1967: 82), on which depends the cognitive process and the result of learning. The student captures the reality of the educational environment in a personal way and, therefore, relates the process to the student as a whole. At least, one should refer to knowledge and emotions and emotional components; this is why the student's interaction with his / her environment is part of the cognitive, affective and moral aspects that he / she uses when trying to achieve an educational objective or solve a problem. If this is true, and it is, we will deduce from it that the teacher transmits not only knowledge, but also values, emotions, etc., and all this conditions a climate that can be positive or negative for the student. If one of these fields is neglected (cognitive and axiological), an inhibition of the student's cognitive process can be caused by the loss of self-confidence, etc., and, consequently, rejection of the school institution. This can happen if the school environment or the teacher produces an aversive experience in the student that generates a rejection response to the school environment. If it is not possible to reinforce the student's confidence and improve his ability to motivate achievement, possibly the construction of knowledge is deficient because it requires the student's collaboration to build knowledge.

The student links his learning to a series of motives and discovers the hierarchical and organized structure of knowledge. For meaningful learning to be a full reality, the student must be linked to the learning motives and this linkage is complex and difficult, since it must combine three very different but complementary and essential fields: the cognitive field, the Affective field and the moral field. If we achieve a balance between the three fields the development of the educational process we consider that it has a correct approach. Focusing only on one of the above fields and neglecting others can be detrimental. The student also makes his approach to learning and if he does so from a positive attitude, learning is good and he develops cognitive relationships, that is, the student thinks and possesses a positive self-concept of himself. When the approach is superficial, the student is limited to studying what the teacher commands, is afraid of failure and memorized even if he does not understand, it is estimated here that the concept that the student has of himself is low. Finally, if the student adopts a strategic approach, it means that it is driven by the need for achievement and seeks to maximize its effort by obtaining good grades and in competition with its peers. In any case, we must conclude by saying that any of the cases cited can be modified by the intervention of the teacher and by the learning environment and this gives us the solution so that a student is integrated into the tasks and is intrinsically motivated.

In order for the student's intellectual activities to discover knowledge, he must have a hierarchical structure organized in his mind; otherwise, there will be no significant assimilation. It is necessary to take into account the organized nature of the knowledge and the contents to be given, because it depends on it that we establish a relationship with the previous organizers that allow to structure the new contents and, on the other hand, allows the assimilation is significant if the contents Are significant and functional. This process known as the intellectual development is the one that originates the cognitive adaptation of the subject and, through it, new assimilations and a more evolved organization of knowledge are produced, thus achieving a structural modification through the mechanisms of accommodation and taking into account Says that the organization is not static but dynamic. All of the above is derived from the studies of Cognitive Psychology carried out after 1970 and that, in short, pretend to know the characteristics of the student's thinking with which he arrives in classrooms and detect their conceptual errors and their preconceptions. For this, it must be taken into account that the mental representation of reality has a hierarchical structure and, in addition, that the process of organization of information makes possible the reconstruction and application of the contents.

The student builds higher cognitive structures and successfully confronts the environment. The intention is to use constructivism as the spearhead of the student in order to build higher cognitive structures, which will result in the student organizing the relationship between what he knows and new knowledge through positive activity with a view to achieving an understanding of reality and to address the medium adequately and fully satisfactorily. Learning by discovery occurs when the student perceives that the theories that he discovers when carrying out the study are better than the previous concepts and he verifies or intuits that these new conceptions are more useful to intervene on the reality and, therefore, the change takes place Which turns out to be a learning by discovery, since it implies breaking with the previous one and positioning itself before a new qualitative change of the cognitive development. It is the consciousness of the student himself, who perceives the incompatibility between the known and the new, which causes modification and discovery.

Jeremy Harmer in How to Teach English (Longman Publishing 1998) proposed an alternative to PPP called ESA: Engage, Study, and Activate. In an article written in The Guardian Weekend, March 15 1997, Bridget Riley complained about the treatment she and her fellow students received at the Royal College of Art. We were abandoned when what we needed and what we hoped for was help toward independence in teaching rather than having independence thrust down our throats. Jeremy Harmer responded to Ms. Riley’s complaint suggesting a consideration of his ESA teaching methodology. He stated that ESA stands for Engage, Study, and Activate. He used the example of a computer and suggested that in teaching trainees to teach that the ESA should be considered as the computer default mode.

During the Engage phase, the teacher tries to arouse the students’ interest and engage their emotions. This might be through a game, the use of a picture, audio recording, video sequence, a dramatic story, or an amusing anecdote. The aim is to arouse the students’ interest, curiosity, and attention. Over the years the PPP model has always assumed that students come to lessons already motivated to listen or engage. The results of many years of PPP teaching do not support this assumption.

The Study phase activities are those which focus on language or information and how it is constructed. The focus of study could vary from the pronunciation of one particular sound to the techniques an author uses to create excitement in a longer reading text. It could vary from an examination of a verb tense to the study of a transcript of an informal conversation. There are many different styles of study, from group examination of a text, to discovery related topic vocabulary, to the teacher giving an explanation of a grammatical pattern. Harmer considers that successful language learning in a classroom depends on a judicious blend of subconscious language acquisition (through listening and reading) and the kind of study activities we have looked at here. (Harmer, 2009: 31)

In the Activate stage the exercises and activities are designed to get students to use the language as communicatively as they can. During the Activate, students do not focus on language construction or practice particular language patterns, but use their full language knowledge in the selected situation or task.

In Harmer’s response to Bridget Riley’s complaint about the short comings of her training program, he once again returns to the computer analogy. The ESA model is a macro default setting, almost (to extend the metaphor) a teaching program. All three elements need to be present when it is in use. But what makes it useful as a macro default is that the order of these elements is not fixed.

Harmer describes the variations which can be used with the ESA model. He names his default level E.S.A the Straight arrow approach. The first variation is the Boomerang approach: E.A.S.A. It is a task based approach. The Boomerang approach after the Engage (E) phase, gets students to perform a task (A) using all and/or any language they know and only then does the teacher go back to the language Study (S). The Study phase is then undertaken based on what the teacher witnessed in the students’ language performance. The teacher in short will fill in the gaps of the students’ knowledge. To check that learning has taken place the students are then re-activated.

Harmer, in conclusion, states that teachers need clear models, just as computer users rely initially on a default setting. I have suggested a macro default ESA as a general proposal, which provides three micro default settings: Straight Arrow sequences, Boomerang sequence, and Patchwork sequences. I believe that these will be of use to a teacher preparing for a life time as a teacher. Sooner or later the teacher will be able to break away from them, emerging as diagnostically creative as anyone might want. (Harmer, 2009: 142)

2.1.4 Grammar Production vs. Grammar Reception

The idea of ​​this work arises when reading Carroll (1966: 104, quoted by Donough 1989), when he states: "Let me clarify that neither the theory of the habits of audio-lingualism nor the theory of cognitive-code learning are Closely related to any theory of contemporary learning. The theory of habits of audio-lingualism has a vague resemblance to the early view of Thomdike's theory of association, while cognitive-code theory is reminiscent of contemporary Psychology that emphasize the importance of perceiving the structure of what is to be learned, without actually believing in such movements. "

Traditionally, in this field, a body of scientifically verified theory or a series of procedures, general means or techniques used in a systematic way to achieve a goal has been known as method. It is also referred to as a set of actions led by the teacher and with the purpose of organizing the cognitive and practical activity of the students in the achievement of the goal. The Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, in its 1997 edition, defines method as a way of teaching a language that is based on systematized principles and procedures which in turn represent the conception of how language is taught and learned. According to the Longman Dictionary, the methods differ from one another in their conception of the nature of language and its learning, teaching purposes and objectives, the type of program it promotes, the techniques and procedures it recommends, and the role it plays Teacher, apprentices and instructional materials. In the teaching of languages ​​they distinguish between general and specific, traditional and contemporary methods; More without making valid these distinctions – among other reasons by vague and inaccurate , the literature has documented a number of methods that have classified according to: logical categories (synthesis, analysis, induction, deduction); The aspect of the language in which it focuses (grammatical-lexical, phonetic, etc.); Skills that are trained (translation, oral, written, reading); (Conscious, suggestive, structural, etc.) and are also called according to their most prominent inventor or figure (the method of Comenius, Gouin, Berlitz, Palmer, Lozano , Jorrín, etc.). Of course, it would also be necessary to distinguish between methods designed to teach the mother tongue (auditory, alphabetical or phonic, linguistic, prayer, word, sight, etc.) and those designed or used particularly to teach languages Foreign or second languages ​​(reading method, TPR or total physical response, audiovisual, etc.) that are sometimes confused. Given this situation, we consider it more practical to analyze only those who have had a long history of influences in the teaching of foreign languages ​​and who still keep alive their roots in contemporary methods.

The Grammar-Translation method(G-T)

 This is the oldest and orthodox language teaching methods that reigned during the eighteenth and part of the nineteenth century, and owes its origin to the Latin schools where it was widely used to teach the "classical" languages ​​(Latin and Greek) Although later it was also used to teach some modern languages ​​(French, German and English). In it he pays attention to the assimilation of grammatical rules, for this he assisted the presentation of a rule, the study of a list of vocabulary and the execution of translation exercises. The translation from one language to the other served as the main technique for explaining new words, forms and grammatical structures, and as an optimal way to reach the domain of the language in general. For followers of this method the best way to say a sentence in the foreign language (LE) was to start a sentence in the mother tongue (LM), analyze its grammatical components and then find its equivalents in the LE. This analysis was done in terms of the grammar of (LM) from the mistaken principle that grammatical patterns are universal and can therefore be passed from one language to another. Explanations were made in the mother tongue, taking away the opportunity to develop auditory and oral habits and stimulate thinking in the foreign language (Antich, 1986); Nevertheless, here it was demanded tremendously from the memory because it was necessary to recite all the structural patterns and to learn hundreds of thousands of words as well as unnatural and decontextualized prayers for the purpose of training and to develop abilities. A single glance at the almanac lets us know that the influence of psychology (speaking in terms of learning theories themselves) was not felt. However, the influence of more or less intuitive notions belonging to protopsychology, such as the psychology of the faculties mentioned by Carroll (1966) cited by Donough (1989), can not be ruled out.

The Direct method

The direct method (very popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries) emerges as a reaction to the G-T and becomes a minor child of practical methods; Within which they stand out: the natural method; The psychological; The phonetic; And reading. It is undeniable that the accelerated industrial growth, the intemacionalización of the commerce and the colonial expansion were prerequisites of its emergence. It is called a direct method because it tries to establish a direct connection between the foreign word and the reality it calls it; In other words, to associate the forms of speech with actions, objects, gestures and situations, without the help of the mother tongue (LM). Here the teacher repeats a word pointing to the object it denotes and does it as many times as necessary until the student can reproduce it. This method focused on the development of the 4 skills, starting with oral skills, where oral expression becomes the basic skill. The existence of the (LM) is ignored, assuming that the learning of (LE) and (LM) are similar processes, only beginning at different ages. The translation is eliminated as a teaching procedure; the same goes for reading; Stimulates the inductive teaching of grammar and the use of visual means, oral and written exercises. Errors are avoided at all costs, assuming that an error generates an incorrect habit. There are criteria that this method stimulated the curiosity of the apprentices to learn and to progress. It is also said that with it one can learn in 200 hours (Pekelis, 1987: 21). On this method it is said that the pedagogy, the linguistics and the apperceptive psychology, played in him a singular role and that he gave rise to multiple variants. But it was between the two world wars that his principal principles were revived and experimental studies were carried out with the new discoveries of linguistics (Ferdinand de Saussure) and of psychology (Thomdike). Then we can talk about the influence of orthodox behaviorism and other psychologies that helped to clarify that language learning is a psychological rather than logical activity where there is a need to awaken and sustain the interest of students. We speak of orthodox behaviorism and the presence of stimulation as a way to elicit a verbal reaction in apprentices and care in not forming incorrect habits serve as elements to confirm our beliefs.

The Audio-lingual Method

This method, which is also known as aural-oral and mim-mem, dates from the Second World War. The expansion of imperialism, political and strategic needs, as well as research successes accelerate the development of this methodology (unquestionable heir of the direct method). It gives priority to the spoken language (oral expression and hearing) considering it as a sound system used for social communication. Linguistic correction is sought and it is a question of the individual learning the new vocabulary by association of the spoken word and visual image, mainly through repetition. It emphasizes mechanical exercises and imitation of native patterns using advanced technological means (audiogramphones, tape recorders) and a well-detailed study guide that models all possible situations where the individual should use the language to serve as example; All this in order to achieve a model as accurate as possible.

The presence of Skinner and neo-behaviorism is evident, as language is treated as a set of habits and as a form of social behavior, a form of reaction of the organism to the environment. The rational and conscious part of learning is not given importance. In spite of these shortcomings, here we are talking about a coherent theory of learning that succeeded in certain contexts; Particularly with the military. Skinner and his followers understood that those who learn language as a form of verbal expression could not come to an understanding of native speakers. For him, knowing a language was more than knowing what they are talking about and how their natives talk or talk.

The behavioral theory E-R and reinforcement adopted in the teaching of languages ​​has resulted in mechanical repetitions of certain linguistic patterns, and an excessive and extensive use of imitation to the level of obviating creativity and spontaneity. To this end, the language laboratories and the programmed teaching have been designed, although the results have not been satisfactory.

According to Bolinger (1972: 99), the invasion of behaviorism reached linguistics. One of its most prominent authorities, Harol Palmer and representatives of American structural linguistics (ie Bloomfield) drank and borrowed from behaviorism the idea that language was a set of habits and that learning was essentially a conditioning process. It is thus easy to understand the need for mechanical and reinforcement exercises. The learner is led through a series of stimulus-response situations that gradually lead to the desired goal and minimize the possibility of error. Learning occurs as the link between the stimulus and the response to which it is associated is formed. When the learner can give the desired or corresponding response to the stimulus, it is assumed that he has learned that connection (Markle 1969: 3-12). The behaviors learned consist of a new chain of conditioned responses. For behaviorists, too, the notion of time was very significant. Two recurring events are associated if they are close in time. That is why the AL relied heavily on realia and figures to achieve first identification of the word and its visual representation and then a lasting association, also sought to stimulate the learner immediately after having responded correctly and censored and corrected errors in the act. The notion of force is also related to Skinner and the method A-L. His theorists insist that new structures must be practiced until automation before being contrasted with others or being used in dialogues or free conversations. They also insist on the idea of ​​segmenting the content to be learned in order to ensure that it was only small portions of content to associate, to learn and to automate.

The conception of the behavior that the conductistas conduct, is to say, is mechanistic since the mind has not been assigned a role in this process of conditioning. Of these, it is important to emphasize (although not the only) the importance of learning by doing and the idea of ​​individualization of learning that is generally not recognized.

Some Unpopular Methods

 The second half of the twentieth century was prosperous in the appearance of teaching methods and although they did not mark milestones in history it is worth reviewing some, especially for what they contribute or others of more importance.

Lozanov's suggestion

This method dates from the 60's and is closely related to the emergence of intensive and "effortless" methods of language learning, starting from the idea of ​​exploiting the great reserves of human abilities (Morales and Pérez , 1989). For this method and its variants it is important the thesis that the individual reacts consciously and paraconscientemente to any stimulation and that pedagogy has failed to exploit this phenomenon. Lozanov (cited in Morales and Pérez, 1989) defines sugestopedia as a system of instruction that seeks to achieve internal freedom and self-discipline based on communicative psychotherapy and other psychotherapeutic disciplines.

With the sugestopedia students are placed in comfortable furniture, listening to baroque or instrumental music, given new names and listening to extensive dialogues, assuming that this leads to a more rapid and lasting assimilation. According to Pekelis (1987:58) sugestopedia emphasizes the development of a meager memory and exposes the learner to a set of psychic effects with the aim of immersing him in the context of the new language and making him feel more free to speak. Even poorly, with errors and a poor articulation, students begin to speak their hitherto unknown language as early as the third day. In the opinion of this author, a three-week course generates such a command of the language that it is only compared to three months or more of a conventional training.

This methodology focuses on students and their mental states, paying attention to their desires, their affective states (avoidance of fear and anxiety of the student), solving ordinary problems and daily necessities, and their relaxation as important factors in The learning. Some variants of the suggestion are: hypnopedia, rhythmopopedia, relaxopedia, suggestion, etc.

The silent path of Gattegno:

Here the teacher offers a limited input, modeling the language to be learned and indicating to students what they should do through signs, gestures, visual media, sheets, wooden pointers of different sizes and colors and other silent means. The teacher does not censure students or reward them, their position is to tell them to do it again and to try harder. This method is said to lead students to rely on their own resources, even under the guidance of the teacher.

The Total Physical Response (TPR) method:

 This method, developed by James Asher, favors Krashen's theory of the entry of comprehensible information that specifies, among other principles, the need for an advance in listening as a prerequisite for learning to speak. In it, the teacher gives the instructions to the students, they do not speak but do what they have been told (ie, they dance, move, jump, etc.). When the students are ready, they will start giving orders to other students as well. Here you learn through physical actions and responses rather than mechanical exercises. This method allows preparation phases for oral expression where students do not speak until they feel confident and willing to do so.

I think the most important thing to note here is that sometimes these methods have been called humanistic methodologies in some circles because of their relation to this psychological theory of departure. For the humanist theory the student is an integral person; So the goal rather than learning the language is to help him in his personal growth, to develop human values, the movement toward self-recognition and understanding of others. For the humanists, the learner's experience, his beliefs, his perceptions, his values, the development of his personality, the stimulation of positive feelings and the sensitivity to the feelings and emotions of the others. A constant in these methods is the realization of activities of relaxation, of self-control, of self-esteem to achieve a climate of trust, of solidarity, that favors a positive environment; In short, so that the apprentice feels happy and can contribute better to his self-development. In this method is also seen the slight influence of cognitive psychology, but not in the form of a psychological school that makes an approach to learning; The influence of the cognitivists is noted in hypotheses that handle these methods as the theory of the imputable imput that Krashen handles.

The communicative approach.

 The 1970s have brought to light a proposal for a new method of teaching languages. Actually it is not a method but an approach that understands the learning of languages ​​as a process where the most substantial are not the linguistic forms, but the communicative intentions (the functional aspect) and their property. This methodology uses many of the procedures and even some of the basic ideas of the methods that preceded it (read, sugestopedia, translation, total physical response, etc.) as its procedures, in this sense it is very open, and Oriented to the achievement of communicative competence. The communicative approach, according to Richards (1997), has been developed by British applied linguists as a reaction to approaches based on grammar. This approach does not escape the long claws of behaviorism, assimilates its successes while inheriting some of its mistakes, and manifests in practice a high dose of cognitivism and humanism. It is worth noting that this approach synthesizes the best of cognitivism, which by the way, at least in the teaching of languages ​​there is no known methodology that is based strictly on the cognitive theories or the works of Chomsky associated with them. Attention aside it deserves the proposal of the Soviet psychologist B.V. Beliayev with his practical, conscious method that sought automatism through practice demanding understanding as a basic component of work with skills. This method, although intranscendental, conceived the use of active procedures and significant exercises that forced the students to participate actively in the process of communication.

For the communicative methodology language is more than a system of habits that can be formed through mechanical exercise. This is a specific system and the learner must know how this system operates in real communication as a means to an end. Their materials, basically with a notional organization, often illustrate the language needed to express and understand different functions, and emphasize the use of language appropriately in different types of situations and to solve different types of tasks.

The communicative proposal seems to be a more finished and sophisticated creation of the GT method, although in reality, this approach tries to integrate the behaviorists' "doing" from the point of view of doing with meaning and meaning, the cognitive "thinking" "Feel", the affection, the empathy and the relaxed atmosphere of the humanists. For cognitive psychology, learning is an active process and proposes that teaching facilitates active mental processing by students. Cognitive processes involve the recognition of form, perception of meaning, relationship of universals and individuals, generalization and analogization. The influence of this psychological current, as opposed to behaviorism, generalizes the use of exercises designed to guarantee an understanding of the introduced grammatical concepts, through a deductive explanation prior to any practice of the structure. The ideas of the cognitive-code approach, which certainly did not become in any particular method of language teaching, are in total harmony with the basic ideas of cognitivism.

Some of the theories of cognitive psychologies have a neuropsychological basis that considers learning as a mental process and thus is emphasized. Ausubel (1963) states that explanations of behaviorism to learning (ie, laws of the Thomdike effect (1913); Skinner reinforcement principles (1938)) fit the simpler levels of learning. But they can not explain complex processes like representative learning (the ability to symbolize the world through words). Cognitivists propose meaningful learning; For them the information acquired memoristically (arbitrary and verbal) is of little use and is quickly forgotten. For the linguist Noam Chomsky (1965) it is clear that the multitude of communicative intentions of the repertoire of a native speaker can not be learned based on an E-R chain.

The most important criterion is whether the new knowledge can be incorporated into the cognitive structure already existing in the learner. For this to be the new material must be related to the previous cognitive structure of the learner in a non-verbal and non-arbitrary way so that it can be transferable to new contexts. Ausebel declares the total impossibility of acquiring large nuclei of information in the absence of meaningful learning.

Future projections

The futuristic vision of language teaching moves in the direction of approaches; The idea of ​​the ideal method has remained utopian and unattainable. I believe that in the future we will have to link more the formal instruction that generates learning with the informal instruction that allows the acquisition of the language – speaking in Krashean terms. Instead of teaching grammatical elements, students will be asked to solve problem situations using the language. There will be no "hunt" for errors, because it will end up understanding that they are part of the process. The learning will focus on the task that may well be to find a route, on a map in situ, or to make reservation of tickets for a train trip from the discussion of the itinerary, etc. They will also have a lot of strength activities that focus on values, attitudes, feelings, self-esteem, interpersonal communication, and so on. Emphasis will be placed on meaning, learning strategies and incidental learning. Students will learn to be good language learners, to make the most of their own resources, to make their own decisions about what to do and how to study better. The program would be a mixture of classroom work and self-study and where the input guided by the teacher will be reduced daily and will increase opportunities for the student to work on his own and the teacher to serve as supervisor. The idea would be to teach students to take charge of their learning and take responsibility for their learning. Students can not be taught everything, especially when the most important thing is to create a positive attitude towards all learning and to equip them so that they can face them. Experiments have already been carried out at the University of Essex (England), Bangalore (South India), Columbia University (USA) and in France with remarkable results (Oxford, 1990).

2.2 Teaching Grammar Creatively

The games awaken creativity and give us a resource students "forget" that they are working with the language and participate in a situation of real communication. They are entertaining, interactive and communicative, and are attractive for all learning styles. The universality of play activities during the growth and development of human capacities leads us to think of their primary function in the learning process. Since the nineteenth century, psychology has addressed the study of game activity from opposites, such as Spencer's (1855) "energy surplus theory" in which play would be the channel by which we use the excess of Accumulated energy and, on the other hand, Lazarus' "theory of relaxation" (1883: 28) in which he proposes that the individual seeks to relax in the game of weight caused by his daily labor activities and his stressful responsibilities. Groos (1898, 1901) proposes that play is a way of exercising or practicing the instincts to fully develop them, a preparatory exercise for the development of necessary functions in adult life, having the game as the end of the activity, by the mere fact of performing an activity that gives us pleasure. In the twentieth century, in the framework of his theory of maturation, Hall (1904) comes to associate play with the evolution of human culture: and says that "through play the child returns to a summary experience of the history of mankind ". Freud proposes that the game is the need to satisfy instinctive impulses of erotic or aggressive character. It is his theory that the game helps man to free himself from conflicts and solve them through fiction. More recently, Piaget (1932, 1946, 1962, 1966) draws a parallel between the development of cognitive stages and the development of play activity, proposing that the different forms of play that we can observe throughout child development are a direct consequence Of the transformations that suffer in parallel the cognitive structures of the child. The student, through the game, both assimilate and accommodate, since the game is an indispensable activity through which the child interacts with a reality that overflows. Sternberg (1989:96), commenting on Piaget's ideas, points out that an extreme case of assimilation are fantasy games in which the physical characteristics of an object are mutated or simply ignored and the object is treated as if it were something else entirely, Sometimes even a person. The game is fundamental to provide the child with the scaffolding that Bruner (1984) and Rogoff (1993) talk about to facilitate its growth and its passage to the next stage of development.

As we can see, many authors have given the game a preponderant role in human development and have treated it as an effective tool that accompanies it in the process of learning and growth, sometimes in a more "regulated", as In the school environment, and sometimes more "free" during spontaneous games in which children embark when they are with their peers or even when they are alone. But the game is not limited to the age of the child and the period of schooling, on the other hand, is an activity that lasts until adulthood and even in old age. The adult games market is huge and games tend to occupy a social role of interaction and entertainment in everyday life. During the language class, the games allow us to reach our students in a more natural way and give us the possibility to recreate role plays, as they have been doing in their own language during their lives as learners, allow us to contribute a Instance of communication with a clear communicative purpose: win the game and to reach this end, an effective and relevant tool, language.

TYPES OF GAMES

Below are a number of advantages and disadvantages of using games in the language class, these are general for most games, however we could dedicate ourselves to discuss the specific advantages and disadvantages of each game, since there are many types Of games: skill games, personal challenge, competition, collaboration, simulation, association, riddles, inventions, board games, those involving movement and those that do not. From the point of view of language, there are those who focus on the form or meaning of words, those who work on grammatical structures or lexicon. Also, there are games in which certain socio-cultural, historical or geographical information must be handled; Are those that focus on oral or written interaction, those that require skills such as inferring meaning, paraphrasing, finding synonyms or antonyms, deducing rules, building word families, exploring placements, and many, many more.

The most relevant types of games when speaking about the language class are those that give the possibility to deal with themes related to the language, whether its structure, its lexicon, its phonetics or the socio-cultural world. Also, it is important to take into account the skills that will be used to play the game and get to fruition, that is: to win it.

SOME ADVANTAGES OF USING GAMES IN TEACHING

Are funny

Give classes more life, color, new sensations

Games help to "forget" working with the tongue

The incentive of a prize or recognition to the winner motivates them to play

They serve to review and re-review issues that we have worked until weary

Games are good for working fossilized and fossilizable errors

The play material is different from the printed for the class and the novelty, it is attractive

Games appeal to students with visual, kinetic and auditory memorization strategies

Games appeal to all styles of students. (Active and reflexive, intuitive and sensitive, visual and verbal, sequential and global, inductive and deductive)

Teamwork connects students and puts them in a position to dialogue to agree on team games and this helps to create an atmosphere of familiarity where they are more likely to act with less inhibitions

They are a personal challenge

Encourage the student to be active and take responsibility for their own learning

Generate real situations of need to obtain information and negotiation

Some disadvantages of using games in the class and their solutions

The pressure to win can be too stressful. SOLUTION: Some games can be made without scoring. Changing couples or class equipment in class also helps students not feel too much pressure to win or win their team.

 If students are too competitive, games can separate the group. SOLUTION: In these cases it also helps to constantly change teams and give prizes to everyone from time to time, only bigger or important to the winner.

Some students may see the game as a waste of time. SOLUTION: Teachers know why we play games: to practice vocabulary, to set grammatical rules, to improve fluency, to work some sociocultural content, to eradicate fossilized errors or to avoid fossilizable ones. It is good to make this goal explicit to students to see that play is an integral part of the learning process, not just the time to relax and have fun.

Some students may feel underestimated or are being placed in too childish situations. SOLUTION: Let's talk about the game, the games they play in their languages, that they see that in previous slogans in previous classes they were playing when they guessed a verb, when they included a lie, when they played a role, when they had to join two sentences or two Parts of a word and that so and so, were doing a useful job with the language.

 The teacher has to prepare them too much to be useful, attractive and of good quality. SOLUTION: It is true that there are no good games specifically designed for the ELE class, and that producing them takes a lot of time and effort, but it's worth it, a game can usually be used for more than one objective and for many levels, Time, but then we use them many times.

Also, the good news is that specific games are appearing on the market. For the moment, most publishers have some book with ideas for creating games, but different issues are launching games created and produced specifically for the ELE classroom and surely this is just the beginning.

I will enumerate the advantages that have motivated these considerations:

1. "Games provide an opportunity for real communication, although within artificially defined boundaries, so they constitute a bridge between class and the real world" [Hadfield, 1987, III].

2. They are activities that stimulate the acquisition of a foreign language because they increase the degree of motivation and create an immediate need for a response.

3. They favor a positive climate, relaxed, relaxed, trustworthy and mutual exchange.

4. Encourage participation. During the time the game lasts all are actively involved in the process.

5. They decrease the time of intervention of the teacher.

6. The element of fun they provide motivates that, in a pleasant way, "serious" content can be practiced.

7. The very structure of the game makes students exploit their knowledge of the foreign language with flexibility and are more focused on the content of their preferences than on the structure of the game (the teacher is in charge of controlling them).

8. According to Alejandro Castañeda, "(…) the exercises proposed in game form are especially favorable for the communicative practice of different grammatical points, since the acceptance of its rules allows to reduce the notional field and, thus, to practice Communicative, centered on very few linguistic exponents "(1990: 70).

9. They allow us to recreate different contexts and, in turn, to vary linguistic registers.

10. Its use is very versatile. The teacher can use them as: – a preliminary check on certain aspects to be introduced – a check of what has been learned – a revision – a needs assessment.

Once we accept the fact that the activities programmed as games entail in themselves, for what we have just described, enough elements of interest that justify their use within the classroom, we need to clearly define our field of work, because not in In a few cases, aversion to games is no more than a terminological problem.

Types of games.

 There are so many types of games and activities, so there are games of movement, intellectual, imagination, affective, skill, social and a long etcetera, but in general, we can divide them into two great sections: free or imaginative and regulated or systematic, Whose realization constitutes a triumph. The games, according to The Curriculum Plan, enable both controlled practice within a significant framework such as free practice and creative expression, as well as covering both linguistic and sociocultural knowledge, being classified as follows:

• Observation and memory games: it indicates them as well indicated for a controlled practice of lexicon. Example: putting objects on a table, covering them and remembering or describing their names.

• Deduction and logic games: points them as appropriate to practice the past and points as an example to give the end of a story for students to complete by asking questions. In reality, we think that this is more a technique of creativity, to which we could add others as giving the beginning of a story and to complete it, to present a story and to change the ending, to name the characters in another way, that Propose professions for them, that change the history of time …

• Games with words: the Plan proposes them for oral and written activities, and introduces, as we said before, tongue twisters, jokes, riddles.

To these examples we could add the games that Rodari poses in his Grammar of the fantasy, among which we emphasize the fantastic Binomio and the stone in the pond and those we have just mentioned of variation of histories. The game with words can be taken as the basis of a linguistic learning because in it are present the motivation, the goals, the confrontation, the creativity, the traps and tricks and the pleasure of winning.

Role of the teacher in the game

The teacher has to take into account, among other aspects, the level of knowledge of the students, age, their interests and needs and the context when planning play activities, these can be done inside and outside the classroom and will be encouraged Situations that the students will have to face in their daily activity (presentations). It is important that the student knows the practical use of play activity in formal communicative situations, so that it is a meaningful learning and avoid the feeling of loss of time that is sometimes generated. Many teachers consider that once given the instructions of the game the students can already operate alone and this is not our criterion. In the same way that the teacher takes a secondary role as a guide, facilitator … in many of the communicative activities that take place in the classroom, during games, the teacher must adopt the same secondary role, guiding, encouraging and guiding To the students to achieve the proposed goal and even explaining some game they do not know. Our experience has taught us that while students play, they often fall into discouragement, checking their mistakes, especially when performing exercises in the multimedia classroom in an individualized way, and, on many occasions, we have to remind them that they are playing and playing Is learned from error. The teacher should make them understand that group tasks involve a natural human relationship as simple as any other in everyday life. More and more teachers practice very varied forms of interaction in the classroom that tend to play dramatization and theater … the practice of which, leads to communication.

The teacher has to take into account, to implement games in the classroom certain physical aspects such as:

space for good communication

the lighting

Ventilation

decoration, color etc.

the furniture

The teacher will determine the best technique or tactics according to the circumstances and participatory goals of each group, select the specific objectives, give directions will take into account the timing and evaluation criteria, instruments and means. The success or failure of the game depends to a large extent on the teacher's abilities and the characteristics of the group, not the techniques, tactics or approaches themselves as the possible causes of failure generally lie in:

Lack of teacher training in specific technique

Erroneous selection of technique

Inadequate driving

Group awareness

2.2.2 Songs

Numerous authors point out the benefits of including songs for teaching English grammar as a foreign language. The use of songs as a tool within the classroom is fundamental to awaken curiosity and interest in the language (Sánchez, 2009). Within this same line, songs facilitate motivation (Falioni, 1993 and Murphey, 1990, Barrera, 2009), memorization (Mol, 2009: 99-111) in addition to activating both brain hemispheres (Thain, 2010).

On a daily basis, students' lives are full of music as this is a fairly common pastime within society. Currently, there are a variety of English-speaking singers which generates a great resource for teachers in the classroom (Barrera, 2009). Because of this, the importance of working with music in the classroom is relevant since it offers a variety of benefits and contributions. For example, for children, music is mainly a means of expression and motivation (Ruíz, 2008). As well, a tool for physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development, among other attributes (Mol, 2009).

Lynch (2005:78) notes that there are nine clear reasons why one should teach English through songs, rspectively:

the songs almost always contain authentic language or natural language,

there is a variety of new vocabulary,

songs are usually easy to find,

they can be selected according to the needs and interests of the students,

grammar and cultural aspects can be reviewed,

duration is easily controlled,

students can be exposed to a wide variety of accents,

lyrics can be used in relation to transcendental themes,

students believe that songs are fun.

That is why teachers of English as a foreign language and / or second language should consider the songs in their classes.

On the other hand, Mol (2009:112) points out important contributions of music in the classroom in his article Using Songs in the English Classroom. There are some positive contributions from which we can derive benefits through the use of songs, for example, in the socio-emotional growth of students, as they share the songs they like by talking with friends or by some social network. Music love is not likely to be spontaneous in the classroom, however, songs allow the student to participate within a group and express their feelings.

In addition to this, the use of songs is related to the physical development of the students, since they provide opportunities in which students can move around the room, applaud, dance and even play instruments. With those songs that are easy to remember and repetitive, students develop the skill called "automaticity" which allows students to produce language quickly and without pause. To this contribution, Mol (2009) called it, cognitive training. Thanks to the fact that music is increasingly accessible and we can listen to it anytime and anywhere, you can get information, learn about other cultures or know different traditions around the world, called cultural literacy. Finally, the songs help students become more familiar with the intonation, rhythm, stress in words, memorization and typical expressions. In this context, Jolly (1975) and Thain (2010) point out that using songs is beneficial in learning languages ​​since in this process both hemispheres of the brain are activated. For example, pronunciation, comprehension, rhythm and musical performance correspond to the left hemisphere. While the expression melodic, tone, emotions and artistic expression correspond to the right hemisphere. The reference point of this article is the teaching of grammar and the use of songs that facilitates the possibility of observing grammatical points in a real context in the English class among other qualities. As Larraz (2008:85) points out, the songs serve to learn the grammar and vocabulary of the authentic language and its direct relationship with culture. Since in all songs there are verbal tenses, the songs can be used as an exercise to activate previous knowledge in relation to some grammatical point and then continue with the explanations and contents (Barrera, 2009). According to Falioni (1993:24), practically all grammatical points can be found in the lyrics and the texts offer a great variety of vocabulary, which can be used to practice the 4 communication skills, making learning more meaningful. When selecting a song, you must also take into account the type of activity to be developed with the chosen grammatical structure. Some possibilities are that the students have to underline all the verbs in simple past, the teacher writes them on the blackboard and based on the students' previous knowledge can be reviewed or introduced the explanation of the simple past in English. Other ways of working grammar points are to transform sentences, select sentences from the songs, correct errors, continue sentences, complete a table with different grammar points introduced in the song, etc. (Barrera, 2009).

MUSIC AND SONG AS A RESOURCE OF TEACHING / MOTIVATING LEARNING

As one should consider, motivation is a decisive factor in the teaching-learning process, so I have decided to research on songs as a motivational method for teaching foreign languages. I will expose the benefits that music brings us, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of this and the criteria for the selection of these songs. On the other hand, the promotion of motivation entails the implementation of teaching-learning strategies, that is, if the student is motivated, he will develop strategies to learn; If you already have them, use them and if they work your motivation grows even more.

The music has an affective component, since its evocative power can change our mood according to the type of melody that we are listening or according to the letter of each song. It is a trigger and a way of expressing our own feelings. It has also been known that musical knowledge is processed globally in several parts of the brain, but not only in the areas of sound processing and language, but also in other centers, such as those intended for vision. Hence music has an evocative power that stimulates the visual imagination, the linguistic environment, memory, etc. On the other hand, a property that the songs have, is the scarce use of space-time and personal references, which facilitate their appropriation by the listener: "We make them ours and we get them to tell us about our world and, from this Way, connect with our emotional plane, have the ability to act on our emotions. This affective charge and experiential nature of the songs make them a motivating and meaningful material to exploit in the language classroom. " (Gil Toresano, 2001: 41)

To achieve a more lasting learning, the implication of emotions is fundamental, and songs are a way of expressing feelings difficult to express, since music has a great power for the stimulation of emotions, sensitivity and imagination without forgetting The consequences that derive from the ability of the songs to catch and remain in our memory. The work of Gatbonton and Segalowitz (1998) shows that this fact is totally beneficial for the learning of a foreign language. Thanks to the songs you can practice repetition exercises without the students perceiving them as such, but as a necessary practice in the song, therefore in a communicative and natural context. It is a fact that music is present in the most important and happy moments of our lives (such as weddings, communions, etc.) and it is obvious that in all that makes us happy, motivation is the determining factor. Hence this concept is the fundamental element in educational practice and especially when addressing the task of learning a language. In addition, the songs are a reflection of the culture that has permeated our interior, that is, are a form of expression and communication. In order to be aware of the role that music has played in our lives, June 21 has been declared "The Day of Music" 5 worldwide, celebrated in over one hundred countries. On the other hand, according to Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences (1983, 1993, 2004), including linguistic and musical intelligence, it is positive for the education of people to encourage the development of all Intelligences. There are many students who need visual stimuli to learn, but others who need stimuli of another type, whether tactile, kinetic or auditory. The latter type of pupils especially benefit from learning through songs, since people whose learning style is primarily auditory learn better by listening to texts, conversation in class and especially through songs. Abundant in this, Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences distinguishes between various types of intelligences: visual or spatial, verbal or linguistic, logical-mathematical, kinetic, musical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Working with songs motivates and stimulates the students with verbal, musical, interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence, since a song implies both the lyrics (verbal), music (musical), sharing with others learning and even singing ( Interpersonal) and also the reflection and introspection (intrapersonal). Therefore, you can work almost all types of intelligence through songs. Also, for students with kinetic intelligence, you can also include activities with movement, such as choreography. As for the students with a great logical-mathematical intelligence, it is possible to consider problem solving activities such as rhyme prediction, fault detection, etc. Which are motivating for them. Another solid theory underlying the use of songs in the language classroom is the Krashen Affective Filter Hypothesis, S. (1983). According to this author, the process of acquiring learning is achieved in a climate of safety and trust for the student, and it is the teachers who have to provide our students with a pleasant and positive atmosphere in which they feel comfortable and motivated. In this ideal context of learning, the songs have a very important role for teachers and students, since, as Varela (2003) points out, the songs develop all the linguistic skills and put into operation the two cerebral hemispheres. This author points out that songs can be used to:

teach vocabulary

practice pronunciation

remedy frequent errors

stimulate debate in class

teach culture and civilization

study the linguistic varieties of the language being taught

encourage creativity

develop oral and reading comprehension

develop oral and written expression

review morphosyntactic aspects

motivate students to learn the foreign language

develop rhythmic and musical sense

CHAPTER 3. LINGUISTIC PROFICIENCY

European Levels of Performance (according to the CEFR)

The CEFR describes six broad levels of ability, with A1 being the lowest and C2 the highest. Learners are classified in three distinct groups: the Basic User (levels A1 and A2), the Independent User (B1 and B2) and the Proficient User (C1 and C2). As these titles suggest, learners develop not just in terms of the actual language they have available, but also in terms of their strategies for communicating. For example, in moving from basic to independent, learners will gain compensation strategies, enabling them to make the most of the language they already know; proficient learners will be operating at a higher level, where they can be both fluent and spontaneous, and able to draw on exactly the language they need for a specific situation.

The levels used are the six main levels presented as following: A1, A2, B1, B2, C1 and C2 . The levels of the middle of the scale often have a subdivision represented by a thin line, as mentioned above. Where this occurs, the descriptors below the thin line represent the level of criterion that corresponds. The descriptors placed above the line define a level of domain of the language that is significantly superior to that represented by the level of criterion, but they do not reach the model of the next level. The basis for this distinction is empirical gradation. Where there are no subdivisions of A2, B1 or B2 , the descriptor represents the criterion level. In these cases no formulation was found that could be placed in the middle of the two levels of criterion involved. Some people prefer to read a scale of descriptors from the lower to the higher levels; other people prefer to do otherwise. For consistency, all scales are represented with C2 at the top, and A1 at the bottom. Each level is assumed to subsume the scale levels below it. That is, it is considered that someone who is on B1 can also do everything stated in A2 ; in this respect, it is better than who is in the A2 . This means that the conditions attached to an action at level A2 – for example, "provided the speech is clear, slow and articulate" – will have less force or can not be applied to a performance at level B1.

Not all elements or aspects of a descriptor are repeated at the next level. That is to say that the specifications of each level selectively describe what is considered main or new at that level. They do not systematically repeat all the elements mentioned in the lower level with a small formulation change to indicate that the difficulty increases. Not all levels are described on all scales. It is difficult to draw conclusions from the absence of a specific area at a specific level, as this could be due to one motive among several, or a combination of motives:

The area exists at this level: some descriptors were included in the research project, but were discarded in quality control.

The area probably exists at this level: possibly the descriptors could be written but not written.

The area may exist at this level, but the formulation appears to be very difficult or impossible.

The area does not exist or is not suitable for this level.

Here one can not make a distinction. If users of the Framework wish to use the descriptor bank, they will have to consider what to do with the gaps in the provided descriptors. It may be that by further processing the gaps can be completed with a more complete explanation of the field in question or by the fusion of materials from the user's system. On the contrary, some gaps may remain in their own right. It could be the case that a particular category had no relevance at the top or bottom of a set of levels. On the other hand, the existence of a void in the middle of a scale might indicate that a significant distinction can not easily be formulated. Users of the Framework can take into account and, where appropriate, determine:

To what extent their interest in levels of mastery is related to learning objectives, program content, teacher orientations and continuous assessment tasks (centred on the person responsible for the development of the tests).

To what extent their interest in levels of mastery is related to a progressive increase in the consistency of the assessment, using criteria defined by the degree of skill (centred on the examiner).

To what extent is their interest in levels of mastery related to the reporting of results to employers, other education sectors, parents and students themselves (user-centred), by providing criteria defined by the degree of skill (centred on the examiner).

To what extent is their interest in levels of mastery related to the reporting of results to entrepreneurs, other education sectors, parents and the students themselves (user-centred)

Description of language proficiency levels to facilitate comparison of tests and exams

The scales of the Common Reference Levels are intended to facilitate the description of the level of linguistic proficiency achieved in existing diplomas and certificates and thus allow comparison between systems. Measurement studies recognize five classic ways of relating separate evaluations:

equalization;

calibration;

statistical moderation;

reference point,

social moderation.

The first three methods are traditional: production of alternative versions of the same test (equation), relation of the results of different tests to a common scale (calibration), and correction according to the difficulty of tests or the requirement of examiners (statistical moderation). The last two methods involve getting a certain understanding through discussion (social moderation) and comparing work samples in relation to standard definitions and examples (benchmark). Supporting this process for the achievement of an understanding is one of the objectives of the Framework. For this reason, the descriptor scales used for this purpose have been standardized with a rigorous development methodology. In the field of education, this approach is increasingly being described as a level-based assessment; It is generally assumed that the development of a level-centred approach takes time, as the participants acquire a sense of the meaning of levels through the process of exemplification and exchange of views.

It can be argued that this approach is potentially the most consistent method of relationship because it involves the development and validation of a common view of the construct. The fundamental reason why it is difficult to relate linguistic assessments, despite the statistical witchcraft of traditional techniques, is that evaluations generally value radically different elements, even when they are intended to cover the same fields. This is partly due to poor conceptualization and activation of the construct, and partly to interference derived from the evaluation method.

3.2 Grammar Structures per Level (according to English Grammar Profile)

The goal of EGP is to capture the grammar that learners are using appropriately and correctly at each CEFR level.

The English Grammar Profile allows us to see how learners develop competence in grammatical form and meaning, as well as pragmatic appropriateness, as they move up the CEFR levels. This provides us with typical, world-wide grammar profiles for each level.

Like vocabulary, grammatical forms often have more than one meaning. For example, the modal verb 'may' can be used with various meanings at different levels. The EGP teases apart these meanings, and tells us at which level we see learners of English using them correctly and appropriately – here's a sample of the results for 'may':

A2 Weak possibility: "The weather may be hot."

B1   Formal permission: "May I borrow your bike?"

C1   'May well': "You may well find that this is not the case."

C2   'May as well': "We may as well go home."

In the following table, one may observe the main grammatical categories:

Grammatical Categories

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4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Questions

General objectives

Explore new teaching techniques giving priority to the student as the center of the learning process

To exercise in the student the development of the basic skills of communication in the English language, through the interpretation of codes and ways of expressing information of daily life and the correlation with the fundamental areas, in order to unify criteria and globalize the educational processes.

To promote the need of the English language for the personal and professional development of the student.

Specific objectives

Stimulate through dynamics such as songs, games, lotteries, bingos etc.

Allowing a greater interest in the language.

To promote almost real situations of dialogue that allow the student to handle diverse contexts of communication.

Use everyday expressions in a foreign language.

To seek a better use of free time by using themes extracted from the English class.

Develop skills to analyze, synthesize and integrate information and ideas in a foreign language.

Research Methods and Instruments

The research problem has origins of an empirical nature because it occurs in an Educational Institution, in a specific degree of schooling and in a specific sociocultural context that requires a theoretical treatment on authors who have worked on this research topic. In the same way, it requires precise characterization of the actors involved. According to the nature of the problem it is not only analytical empirical, it is necessary an integral and explanatory management of the problem through a qualitative treatment of the data. All of the above, state that the use of qualitative methods were used in the course of research and are within educational ethnography.

The methods of ethnographic research offer the teacher multiple possibilities for the exercise of reflective teaching; Among them, observing classroom behaviors, exploring the subjects 'beliefs, teaching context and interpreting the discourse by placing themselves in the participants' position (the emic principle) and relating the observed to the overall set of that culture (holistic principle ) (Van Lier, 1988).

To measure this variable, information was collected on the following instruments:

Questionnaire addressed to English teachers, the observation sheet in the classroom and a questionnaire addressed to students

These instruments made it possible to measure whether English teachers are truly able to help students to develop communicative skills, specifically the skills that are investigated in this work, namely Grammar expression, Oral Expression and Listening Comprehension.

Data Collection Techniques

The collection technique applied was the self-administered survey, in which:

Pre-coded questionnaires to be applied to the different information subjects, including the students;

the teachers of English

On the other hand, the observation technique defined as „Systematic, valid and reliable record of behaviors or behaviors that manifest" was accomplished by the researcher to the teachers as well as the students of the tenth and eleventh year. Here the researcher was classified as an open participant observer.

Questionnaire

In order to develop the survey technique, the questionnaires that were addressed to each of the different groups of information subjects were used, namely: Teachers and Students.

Observation sheet in the classroom

It was used as a guide for the visit to the classroom in order to observe the teachers teaching the English lessons, specifically developing the skills of oral expression and listening comprehension of the students. It was divided into four sections, one for each variable being worked, which is called observation units and these, in turn, in categories and subcategories; A fourth column was to note other observations that were made.

Characteristics of data collection instruments

Although the instruments in their structure are very similar by the type of information that needed to be obtained, all are structured in four parts, one for each variable to be investigated. Also by the same nature of the investigation all present questions of the three types: open, closed and mixed.

Questionnaires: Each questionnaire is introduced by an information guide that allowed the person interviewed to have a clear idea of what was being pursued and how to answer the questions that were being asked. At the end of each, a space for observations was left in case one wanted to add, clarify or suggest some aspect that was important to point out

Observation sheet in the classroom: It was made in order to guide observation in the classroom and was divided into four sections, corresponding to each of the variables to be investigated: Didactic activities, Didactic resources, Assessment techniques and Teacher training.

The heading allowed to write down the name of the Institution, a number to identify the teacher being observed, the level of the group and the date on which the observation was made. Each variable or unit of observation was treated with the categories corresponding to the indicators or specifications that were to be observed, both for the development of oral expression and for listening comprehension; one worked on a third column that was precisely where the subcategories were noted, which allowed the observer to quantify the observed data for each aspect indicated, as well as when questions or conversation were made with any of the subjects involved in the process. It was the axis during the 4 hours that was made observation in the classroom to each group of the sample, as well as when the researcher sat down to converse with them and them in the hour of the recess or at the end of the lesson. For this short period of observation, it can be said that it was a brief observation and with a general or holistic approach because, as already mentioned, all variables were considered. Basically this observation was intended to verify the answers given in the questionnaires by both teachers and students.

Validation process of questionnaires for teachers and students

The questionnaires in question were subject to the criteria of 10 experts who were asked to read the questions, make comments and suggestions and eliminate or add items. After incorporating the experts' suggestions, a pilot test of the interviews of 20 teachers and two sections, one tenth and one eleventh, of schools not belonging to the study population was applied.

Procedure for the collection of information

The information was collected by applying the instruments to the populations under study; once this was collected, coding and typing were done to design the databases for both teachers and students. The data obtained by the questionnaire for the Advisers were worked on separately since they were only two people and the data obtained through the observation guide in the classroom were quantified by variable to add them to the analysis that was done of the data obtained from the questionnaires.

Steps for analyzing and interpreting the data

In order to analyze and interpret the data obtained, a review was first made by the teacher of the group surveyed in order to verify that the questions had been answered. In relation to the questionnaire applied to teachers, it was the researcher who checked that everything was answered. When something was left blank or the answers were not accurate, the doubts were noted and were taken up at the time of observation or when talking to them and them. The data were then coded and processed using the statistical package SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences), with the purpose of designing statistical tables and graphs for each study population. For the analysis of the data the descriptive statistic was used with sum of frequencies, percentages, average and standard deviation.

Operationalization of the object of study

The operationalization of the object of study is presented in the table below, according to the specific problems of the investigation.

Research Stages

During the diagnostic phase on the conceptual framework, three types of comparisons were made; the first were the data, the second methodological and the third a triangulation of results. Three phases were developed:

– Phases of the investigation: Phase 1 was developed with the purpose of establishing the evolution and the current state of the problem. For the development of this phase, the following were taken into account: study of national and institutional documentation, Basic Standards of Language Competence: English and Educational Projects in terms of teaching grammar production in English. As an instrument, the evaluation grid was taken into account.

– Phase 2 was called Analysis and triangulation of information on the state of teaching practices of grammar production in English: This phase consisted in the analysis of information found in national and international documentation. When performing a critical analysis, it is coherent to highlight the general structure of the grids and how they relate to the main research topics, as well as to identify a theoretical reference that was not taken into account in the project and manifests in the documents, as an important reference, of the oral production in English.

– Phase 3: consisted in the design of the didactic proposal, which arises from retaking the factors that favour the development of oral competence and the gaps and difficulties that oppose its development from the referents used in the analysis.

Data Collection

Since it is the personal interests of the students who have interested me, it is the students themselves who have participated in my study, together with a group of 10 teachers.

Population

The examined group consisted of a total of 100 pupils, boys and girls, all studying at the ………. School in Prahova county, A2 level. The other part of the examined group is represented by 10 teachers in our school.

Sample

100% boys and girls, students at the ………. School in Prahova county served as sample for the study. Subjects have normal intellectual development and different academic results. Questionnaire for students was attended by 100 students.

The sample is contained therein the school age 16-18 years old whereas in terms of psychosocial development, “the growing independence leads first thoughts on identity” (Cosmovici 1999: 46), and in terms of cognitive development view, at this age "increases children’s mental ability to analyze and to test deductive assumptions”. (Cosmovici, 1999: 46).

Besides these purely psychological reasons, there was taken into account the fact that students’ classes in discussion are studying English since the IInd grade, having, at the moment, a total of four hours a week.

Data Collection

The questionnaire was personally administered to A2 level students of …….School in Prahova county. Data were collected back after respondents’ completion.

Data Analysis

Collected data were tabulated, analyzed and interpreted and presented at the end of the present research.

Questionnaire with opened, closed and mixed questions represented the main instrument of the present research, being used for collecting the data. The questionnaires were validated by specialists and the first one was developed for A2 level students of ……..School in Prahova county, while the second one, for teachers of the same educational unit.

The questionnaire is characterized by anonymity and it was applied to the whole group at once, not individually, to give subjects a setting where they feel protected at this age – own entourage.

Development of oral expression and listening comprehension as part of the competences

Considering as source all that provides information or data about the object of study, different theorists of the research classify them in primary and secondary sources.

Primary sources

Among the primary sources used in this research are the statistical tables provided by the Department of Statistics of the Ministry of Education, which were used in the definition of the population to be studied; The Regulations, Manuals and Procedures as well as different Programmes of teaching English and the Educational Policies towards the XXI Century. Already for the development of the following parts of this research report, are also as primary sources the teaching population, the student population who provided all their information through the questionnaires applied and throughout the period of observation in the classroom.

Secondary sources

Secondary sources include journals, online articles, books and other documents that provide information of interest for the development of research. Both types of source constituted the informative corpus that gave support to the elaboration of the present investigation.

Definition of variables

According to the theory, four variables were formulated with the problem and the objectives proposed for the present investigation:

Variable No. 1: Didactic activities for English according to the Grammar Approach

Conceptual definition

They refer to the "how to" practice in class what is taught in content related to grammar expression and comprehension, with previously designed and planned activities, since according to the content this must be the activity that is executed, always taking as a starting point the subject that will develop them and trying to promote creativity, criticality and reflection. Therefore, it is emphasized that at present it is not possible to adhere to traditional didactic activities, but must be appropriate to the social and cultural environment.

Canale and Swain (1996) support this conceptual definition when they say that if the adopted Communicative Approach to Language Pedagogy is essential for class activities to reflect as directly as possible the communication activities with which the learner to be found in life, as well as being impregnated with the characteristics of real communication such as social interaction and the unpredictable nature of statements.

Operational definition

The activities for Grammar Comprehension can be developed in the classroom in four different ways:

a) individually,

b) in small groups,

c) with teacher's guidance,

d) in a masterly way.

Repetition and various practical activities are applied in concrete learning contexts, as well as the work with discourses of daily life in the different practices and communicative styles.

All expressive and understanding procedures will be the most active part of the lesson and will have activities for clear purposes and a continued exercise of strategies, techniques and skills that will lead to a know-how.

The activities, according to the communicative approach can be of four types:

to. Activities for knowledge setting

B. Activities for knowledge integration

C. Activities for research of knowledge

D. Activities for application of knowledge

The response will be considered significant when at least 70% of the respondents are in one of the indicators:

A. Fixation

B. Integration

C. Investigation

D. Application

When the response rate for each indicator is less than 70%, it will be considered regularly relevant and when percentages will be below 31, it will not be considered as low. The following table presents an interpretation summarizing the above.

Instrumental definition

To measure this variable information was collected in the following instruments: questionnaires to teachers of English and questionnaire for A2 students, these two corresponding to the population under study and the observation in the classroom Guide. These instruments enabled display if they are performing in the classroom, educational activities directed towards the development of the skills of listening comprehension and oral expression from the communicative approach.

Variable N. 2: Educational resources used by the teachers of English

Conceptual definition

They are basic resources (material and human) that the teachers selects in response to the needs of the class, to help and facilitate the development of the grammar classroom skills and for this selection should be considered factors such as the discipline, the objectives being pursued, the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents, the physical environment, materials, knowledge of the teaching techniques by the teacher as well as the experience that has led to the application of the technique and the tools selected in connection with the pedagogical model. Its use may vary according to the level of learning of each student.

Operational definition

There were taken into account:

a) material resources (recordings of audio, video, objects, instruments, television and radio programmes, printed material, among others) and

b) human resources (exhibitions improvised, planned, dramatizations, role-plays, speeches, techniques in small groups, individual techniques, among others) as well as the experience which has been generated in selected tools (initiatives) in connection with the teaching model and its application all focused on real and specific situations students may face that in their daily lives, both in the field of grammar.

The response shall be considered relevant when at least 70% of the surveyed people who respond to each questionnaire will score at least 70% of material resources and human resources, or combination of both. When that proportion answer contrary to the one described, it will be considered not relevant and when they are less than 31 percentages not will be taken into account by Netherlands.

Instrumental definition

To measure this variable, one collected information with the following instruments: questionnaire addressed to teachers of English and questionnaire to A2 students, the latter two correspond to the population under study and the observation in the classroom Guide. These instruments allowed to measure whether actually employed teaching resources are those recommended by the communicative approach and allow the development of grammar study skills.

Variable N.3: Evaluative techniques used by the English teachers

Conceptual definition

They are all those that used the teachers to evaluate the apprehension of knowledge by students both inside and outside the classroom and strategies at the same time serving to improve the instructional materials, determine the domain of the content, establish criteria or development standards for courses, among others. The term "assessment" includes meanings such as rating, prosecute, compare, control, monitor, hence from technical conception it is also an essential instrument of aid; the information provided must respond to two fundamental edges: how is developing the process? and how you can improve? His real contribution is to the promote and facilitate decision-making with regard to the educational goals raised to the teacher and the student.

Operational definition

They are all those evaluative strategies used by the teacher in the classroom to evaluate the apprehension of knowledge both in the area of oral expression, as the listening comprehension and throughout the grammar process; one must contact towards the elements of the program and the methodology used, documents which are handled, the degree of motivation of the students, to the relationships between students and teacher and the dynamics of the group, so it is a continuous interaction.

Indicators of this variable are as following:

a. directed interview (between students, between teachers and students, the person outside the Group and the Group)

b. Observation (between students, between teachers and students, person unrelated to the Group and the Group)

c. discussion groups (between students, between teachers and students, person unrelated to the Group and the Group)

d. Auto Report (personal or group)

The response shall be considered relevant when at least 70% of respondents who responded to each questionnaire indicate that they use at least three of the four indicators, allowing you to visualize that actually the evaluative techniques employed will chords with the didactic activities and used in the classroom and with the grammar approach teaching resources; at the same time, teaching facilitates decision making in pursuit of a more comprehensive assessment.

When that proportion answer contrary to the one described, it will be considered not relevant and when they are less than 31 percentages not will be taken into account.

Instrumental definition

To measure this variable was collected information in the following instruments: questionnaire addressed to English teachers and addressed to the A2 students; the latter two correspond to the population under study and the guide of observation in the classroom.

The results of these instruments are measured if the techniques used to evaluate the process are ideal according to the grammar approach and allow the development of activities and teaching resources.

Variable 4: Training of the English teachers in the development of the skills of oral grammar expression and listening comprehension of A2 students

Conceptual definition

Chomsky defines it as the preparation given to the teachers so that they can play better against students, understanding back to training for the professional degree that confirm them as teachers. The content of the training should be as broad as possible, holistically speaking, to complement and reinforce the knowledge necessary in the consolidation of communication skills required for the proper exercise of the office and must take into account the quality, innovation and high sense of commitment to the needs of the country and all its regions in face-to-face and virtual modes.

Operational definition

The training of teachers and professors in the field of grammar skills, specifically from the grammar approach in the areas of oral expression and listening comprehension should develop holistically in three dimensions:

a. The staff (relates to being) it is that the teacher will look and be held for personal interest.

b. The Professional (related to doing) and refers to which the teacher should do because your employer requires it be (specific institution).

c. The context (related to the living). It is what the teachers do when they arrive to the schools where they work, either when they attend conferences of the different associations and provided training on the subject in study.

The response shall be considered relevant when at least 70% of respondents who responded to each questionnaire indicate that they have been trained in at least one of the dimensions referred to in the preceding paragraph, allowing you to visualize that they actually have training in the communicative approach which allows them to contribute to the development of the skills of oral expression and listening comprehension in the student body; in pursuit of a more comprehensive communicative competence. When that proportion answer contrary to the one described, it will be considered not relevant and when they are less than 31 percentages not will be taken into account. The foregoing in accordance with diagram 20 of interpretation of results, appearing pages back.

Relating Language Examinations to the CEFR

The use of the CEFR as a system of reference standards for comparability of certifications is not without problems: to the multifunctionality of the document, adds the degree of generality with which it is formulated, which is supposed to make it apt to be applied to different Contexts. This implies that test results can be related to different purposes, from different languages, by assimilating the grades to one or several levels of the CEFR scale. The scales of the Common Reference Levels are intended to facilitate the description of the level of linguistic proficiency achieved in existing diplomas and certificates and thus allow comparison between systems.

The assimilation of test results to one or more of the levels of the CEFR scale requires the deployment of an argumentative apparatus with which to justify this kind of statement. In the current paradigm of evaluation by means of examinations for certification purposes, this type of demonstration needs the contribution of evidence that provides theoretical and empirical bases to the arguments. The achievement of the guaranteeing requirements and the overcoming of the problems and difficulties, mentioned above, requires the collaboration between the members of the evaluation community, the provision of tools and resources that measure between the CEFR and the evaluation instruments and , above all, the professionalization and responsibility of the agents involved in the development of the exams, in addition to their commitment, especially in the case of high profile exams. In the context of linguistic certification of English, the following questions are unavoidable: Is the group of professionals of English as a Foreign Language able to take on this challenge? What skills should be developed?

In the area of certification assessment, and in particular in the field of reference of the results of examinations to external systems, the concept of 'standard' is used profusely and with different meanings, so it should be started to delimit it . First, we consider the idea of a standard that refers to a model of linguistic performance (of reception or production), described in qualitative and quantitative terms, that is required in a given context – for example, the minimum degree of dominance that Is required to study a program of studies at a university – and with which the actions of candidates of a given examination are compared. Standards are usually presented on scales of performance descriptors, which show degrees of capacity development or partial aspects of performance.

The desired harmonization of the results of the different test systems requires that these samples can be compared to content standards, which is ultimately what is offered in the Common European Framework of Reference in the form of descriptions of the Action and the use of the competencies and strategies that underlies it. In this way, each of the exams that are developed in the different contexts will be able to select, group, summarize, etc., the relevant aspects for each context of the content standards that the CEFR provides in its 52 scales. The use of exams to evaluate candidates' productions and to evaluate them in relation to an absolute standard or a content standard corresponds to what is traditionally referred to as criterion-referenced evaluation.

From this perspective, each of these examinations will have to be able to place the candidates in the different points of this common reference level scale of the CEFR. This is done by means of a procedure called fixing of cut-off points. Setting one or more cut-off points means setting the boundary between two categories , so that candidates for the exams are distributed accordingly. When these authors speak of categories they refer to what is traditionally understood as the notes of an examination, which are transmitted either in quantitative or qualitative terms, through labels (apt, unsuitable, suspenseful, remarkable, outstanding, etc.) . Thanks to the cut-off points, by means of the examination, candidates who are above or below that point can be discriminated and who will determine, either the aptitude, or each of the degrees that are established above or below East. The apt may or may not match one of the content standards, ie it may correspond to one of the common reference levels (A1, A2, B1, etc.) or be some distance from them. The number of cut-off points and resulting categories are determined by the purpose of the examination. The fixing of cut-off points involves determining the minimally acceptable performance for a candidate to achieve a certain degree of mastery within the scale; this is called domain standards.

5. DATA ANALYSIS

5.1 Grammar Structures in the English Curricula for A2 Level of Performance

-Teaching oral English production. Oral English in the curriculum guidelines (1999) production referred to in the natural method of teaching which was the result of the application of Krashen's theories regarding foreign language acquisition. On the standards of foreign languages English teaching and oral production are processes in which teachers prepare, plan, investigate and impart their knowledge to students so that they develop all their competencies and skills in the acquisition of a foreign language. In high school and in the media, the teaching of English has an average of two to four hours per week. This time intensity reach the standards and therefore it is crucial to make the most of class time by proposing appropriate pedagogical activities and using multiple resources that respond to the needs of students and the objectives proposed by the teachers. Guidelines (1999) argue that: communicative language teaching, as its name implies, favours the use of language as a basic element in communication through interaction. Through the appropriation of the language, the learner is located somewhere within a complex network of relationships that define it both to him and to the society. The location in the network depends on the degree of development of the communicative competence". (p.16).

Similarly, regarding didactic activities proposed for the teaching of English grammar and oral production, one found:

-They are interesting and meaningful activities focusing on the student, since if the student is the center of the learning process, it is just logical that selected for the teaching-learning activities reflect interests and needs; in this way they will be significant for them and will relate to concrete experiences of everyday life. (Curriculum guidelines for foreign languages, 1996, p.15)

-Allow the development potential of each student: in order to allow the development potential of the student, activities must be appropriate to the ages and grades. Selected activities to promote the learning of foreign languages in children process should develop a system of support or scaffolding ("scaffolding", according to Bruner: 1975). By this system, the activities are divided and organized sequentially, to facilitate the learning process. The pedagogic exploitation of the chosen activities requires taking into account the State of cognitive and linguistic development current of the learners mother tongue and adults (teachers and/or parents) contributions. In the same way, to enable children to reach their potential development.

In this process, as stated above, the teacher assumes a role of counselor, using strategies that allow the student the discovery of their own and learning styles. These strategies should take into account the training and development of the child and allow you to do, feel, observe, reflect, discover, organize, suppose, verify, decide, resolve, propose, and above all to take responsibility for their actions to the extent possible. (Curriculum guidelines for foreign languages, 1996, p.15)

– Competition as a proposal of teaching English grammar . The General Law of education (1994, cited in curricular guidelines, 1999, p.1), it emphasizes a conception of curriculum focused on processes and skills, with flexible, participatory and open that tends to the integral development of people. Also according to the curriculum guidelines (1999) highlighted that the development of communicative competence have been the work of Canale and Swain (1980) and Canale (1983), sociolinguistic competence is knowledge of the socio-cultural rules of the language. (p.10)

" At the institutional level was found, that is considered relevant to show interest and motivation needed to put game knowledge, know-how, the make and the poise". (Curriculum of English, 2010, p.8), according to the standards in foreign languages (2006, cited in curriculum of English, 2010 p.13) the communicative competence is the set of knowledge, expertise, skills and individual characteristics allowing a person to perform actions with the use of its orality in a given context (English curriculum).

– Development of oral English production . Standards in foreign languages for English oral production has stipulated as the basis for the oral production of monologues or conversations (basic standards of competence in foreign languages; English, 2006, p. 15). At the institutional level, it was identified that teachers aims to improve motivation and learning for students so that they are competent in English and be a leading institution in communicative competence in foreign language, this through of monologues and dialogues, and production contest of english song and English day (curriculum of English, 2010 p.28).

-Organization of the contents for the teaching of English . It is clear that the Organization of the contents in the teaching of English, if related to the concept of communicative competence assumed, because in grade VII to VIII, the standards have different competencies that make up the communicative competence. Additionally, we identified that the contents proposed for the teaching of oral production in objects of study grades are: a) daily routine, (simple present) that talk about your daily routine; (b) biography (simple past) on the famous recordings; (c) analysis and understanding of texts. (d) future.

According to the information provided in the interview, the teacher prepares classes before coming to the classroom; materials and tasks are based on the theme; in this sense, it was sometimes used readings, games of cards and dialogue. In addition, the teacher argues that language which is always used in class technical English. He listens to music in this language and that helps a lot to improve your pronunciation, emphasizes that speak in this language to students much helps the interaction and understanding of the foreign language studied and says that the environment in its class, said that it was nice, because he always comes in a good mood and exercise a warm up to his explanation It may be a joke, a game, talk about an anecdote, but in English , this motivates students to receive the kind of a nice way. He argues that facilitates to the majority of the students speak English and that in all the activities it interacts in this language fluently.

However, in observing the class, the teacher at the beginning of the class, did not carry out activity of warming that mentioned in the interview; Equally, it failed to hold a coherent conversation through the interaction with students, some students did not understand that they were talking about because they didn't know the context to which referred, other trainees had not read the material and did not know anything about; others, do not understand the teacher perhaps because sometimes it not well pronounced, not handled the vocabulary in English, not interested in the subject, or simply gave them fear participate.

Accordingly, is that few students answered questions asked by the teacher, because the strategy used by the teacher, since they were organized by groups and one of them represented, although the educator invited them to all involved, students are excused with the representative and delegated him the function of answer, some produced coherent phrases and other incoherent as "": "makes hot"-"does it rain very much?". According to the above, it is considered that the use of English in class by the teacher not encouraged all students to speak in this language, in cross purposes of the formulated objectives.

With the application of the Speaking to the observed class managed to identify that teachers want their students to develop oral production in English, but the process of interaction not can be seen clearly, since it has no sufficient information, materials, and strategies to manage a communicative event, which we reaffirm a model where we find the teacher to feel enthusiasm for talk and teach English you know that the subject is important to the interaction and although practice was controlled, with the selection of participants straight there was mechanical interventions, confusion of information, mispronunciation of part of the students and the teacher.

5.2. Assessing English Textbooks for A2 Students

The panorama of the language teaching of the last decades is characterized by the progressive implantation of the new technologies in the classroom. However, it is undeniable that the textbook continues to occupy a predominant place in everyday teaching practice. Its popularity lies in its usefulness to teachers and pupils; to the first, the book provides a set of materials difficult to be replaced without a great investment of time and money; the second gives him an overview of the subject, and allows him to prepare and review classes (O'Neill, 1982, p.25).

In relation to the learning and teaching English language, the English textbook reflects a vision of the language and culture of its speakers and a certain teaching approach that can influence positively or negatively in the learning of that language by part of the students (Richards, 1993, p.16).

With regard to the assessment of materials for learning and teaching of non-maternal languages, we can bring together different research trends:

evaluations of curriculum design (Dubin, Olshtain, 1986, p.15), (Johnson, Johnson, 1989, p. 22), (Alderson and Beretta, 1992);

the creation of models for the analysis of textbooks and teaching materials (Cunningsworth, 1998, p.32), (Ellis, 1997, pp. 36-42);

analysis of courses for English self-learning (Roberts, 1995, pp. 513-530);

large-scale assessments of language learning and teaching materials (Fitzpatrick, 2000, p.12);

small- scale analysis of some aspects of textbooks, and of different materials;

For example, in relation to textbooks, we find an analysis of vocabulary (Miranda, 1990, pp. 111-119), speech acts, reading activities , sexism and transverse themes ( Jacobs and Goatly, 2000, pp. 256-264).

As a document of utmost importance in fleshing out the contents of education, textbook are specific to a series of functions listed and analyzed by several authors. For example, Nicola I. (Nicola, 1996, p. 372), addressing this issue believes that the main functions of the English textbooks are:

information function justified by the fact that every textbook is an important source of knowledge for students; perhaps 70-80% of the knowledge acquired by them in the teaching-learning originated in this document, while a much smaller percentage teacher comes on the channel or means of mass communication;

formative function, explained by because of the operand contents develop students a range of intellectual work skills, develop their operators structures adapted to different types of content, they can become familiar with a series of algorithms that apply to certain categories of documents;

stimulating function is explicable in terms of English textbook’s quality can enhance student motivation for learning-training activity, can stimulate curiosity, interests and concerns may widen to know;

self-assessment function because manual self-education can prepare students for helping to form an individual work style thanks to whom the future can acquire a range of knowledge and information through personal effort.

Another author, R. Seguin referring to the English textbook’s functions considered that among the most important are (Seguin, 1989, pp. 22-24):

1) information function

Select knowledge must be made in order to avoid overloading;

when selection is done, knowledge must bear in mind certain reductions, simplifications, reorganizations.

2) structuring the learning function. Learning can be done in several ways:

from practical experience to theory;

from theory to practical applications by controlling acquisitions;

from practical exercises in developing the theory;

from exposure to examples, the illustrations;

from examples and illustrations to observation and analysis.

3) guiding the learning function which can be achieved by:

repetition, memorizing, imitating patterns;

opened and creative activities of students who can use their experiences and observations.

To successfully fulfil the functions of the specific manual must honour a number of requirements which are grouped into three categories, namely:

a) Requirements of psycho-pedagogical nature of the observance which require that the textbook knowledge and information is presented so that students can assimilate, understand and apply it;

b) Requirements regarding the quality of paper and printing ink, text readability and so on;

c) Aesthetic requirements (quality illustrations used to-drafting, binding and so on.).

If, as we have previously shown there have been advances in recent decades both in curriculum development and in designing the syllabi, it was normal for textbooks to benefit of the same attention and thus to introduce innovations in their development.

This was accomplished and is currently the most notable innovation focused on the one hand, on the development of special textbooks for teachers and special textbooks for students and on the other hand, the development of alternative textbooks for the same discipline that is taught by a class or education level.

Developing special English textbooks for teachers and students is a win, because each of them is related somewhat different from this tool that materializes contents of the educational process. For example, manual teacher or teacher's book is distinguished primarily in that it includes a larger amount of knowledge and information, and this is natural because the teacher must have a surplus of knowledge and information that appeal only in cases namely special when students face some misunderstandings, or when ask about a theme or topic, more examples and more embodiments. Also, the English textbook for teachers includes a number of methodological indications about the way they have to teach certain content.

Teacher's textbook includes types of exercises and problems that students must solve in order to demonstrate the degree of understanding of the contents that were the subject of training activity.

Regarding the textbook for students, it is distinguished primarily by lower volume of knowledge and information with a variety of larger exercises and problems that students will have to solve them by including independent work sheets and instruments through which students can assess themselves.

The second major innovation in the field of published textbooks is the alternative to the same discipline that through a certain education level. This innovation is productive and it can be easily justified in terms of psycho-pedagogical if we start from the premise that, since students are different between them both by cognitive, affective, motivational potential, then it seems natural that the textbooks for them to be different and to be designed so that it can be made compatible with certain categories of students. (Riasati, Zare, 2010, p.54)

For example, a student with greater possibilities for discipline, better motivated, it could opt for a more elaborate and sophisticated manual that corresponds to a greater extent to its psychological characteristics; on the contrary, a pupil less equipped and less motivated to a certain discipline can opt for a manual better illustrated, less complicated, that it favours and it advantages him to solve problems or specific activities at that discipline.

On the other hand, one must clearly indicate the alternative that textbooks prove their effectiveness as long as it still provides training unit, students in the same discipline, which means that each version of the manual should provide the core of the discipline, and the differentiation between variants to refer mainly to the presentation of contents, iconographic material and the variety of exercises proposed to the students. If this requirement is not respected some variants of textbook effectively penalize students who opt for them. (Riasati, Zare, 2010, p.66)

If the curriculum, syllabus, textbook are the main documents that materializes contents of the educational process, one must not forget that there are other curricular supports which have a negligible role, such as monographs on certain topics, journals, collections and chrestomathies, atlases and albums, educational software, tape, which can be appealed in certain contexts training to overload students, but to make them more effective and enjoyable learning.

Since ancient times, people have tried to find a method to make life easier. Thus, whether made tools to build a home or that hunted to eat, they themselves initiated activities to satisfy basic of needs. Today, however, with the evolution of society, the same man who once was building a house and hunt to survive, is the one who discovered that in education, regardless of age, plays a special role manual. So the question arises: Is it true that the textbook is a creation that serves no purpose for which it was designed – to educate, shape, help?

The textbook is an official document that provides curriculum concretization in a form that relate to the knowledge and skills systemically through various teaching units, operationalized and structured chapters, subchapters, group lessons, learning sequences.

The first argument in favour of the idea that by following content is reached to educate stems from the fact that any manual highlights the system of knowledge and skills fundamental to the field of study concerned, this means teaching appropriate images, diagrams, drawings, photos, symbols.

Moreover, any manual reflects the benchmarks and skills in the school curriculum and guidelines, theories, standards and conventions in relation to which they are presented, explained and applied contents reflect the recent acquisitions of the domain in the school curriculum. Thus, students are given the possibility of receiving, as actual images about the world and avoid some stereotypes formed as a result of seclusion in obsolete structures – elements that help also in a good and lasting education students.

All of the educational function of the school textbook links and the idea that the concepts of structure content of any textbook are presented, interpreted and applied in accordance with the meanings and scientific principles, accompanied by alternatives for interpretation, which indicates the opening it propose any textbook, within the maintenance purpose for which it was proposed. For example, textbooks of English language and literature does not provide unique solutions to solve the items, but encourages both students and coordinators discipline to propose alternatives for interpretation and resolution, in other words educates students, on the basis of theoretical principles and compliance, to adopt a personal point of view.

Another argument for the usefulness of school textbooks is that it acquire through its training function. This is closely related to the function of education previously mentioned, and refers to the stimulation of individual, independent and autonomous students. Textbook structure, complex or simple, provides models of inductive reasoning, deductive or analogue, to maintain its role of encouraging an open pedagogical project.

Another argument claims that English textbook achieves its purpose for which it was designed from the fact that it helps in two important ways: on the one hand, to stimulate the operations triggering activation and support attention and motivation of students and learning and, on the other hand, to stimulate internal mechanisms reverse connection, existing in teaching activities.

One possible option for evaluating the English textbook is to use a list that can be provided by the author. Experts generally present detailed listings and place special emphasis on important things such as methodology, language content, assessment, activities, book components and so on. Another good option is to make own lists according to what the school is looking for. (Cunningsworth, Kuse, 1988, p. 128-139).

There are several things to keep in mind before selecting the English textbook. First, special attention must be paid to the type of students who are in school. It is important to know their age, their economic status and their educational level. It is necessary to know the policies of the school and its objectives so that the approach that supports the book fits into that learning community. It is also relevant to know the profile of English teachers. They must know their training in the area of ​​language teaching, whether or not they have experience, if they have experience managing such students and so on. In addition one must know about the availability of equipment.

When evaluating the English textbooks, teachers must intervene because they are going to implement them in the classroom. Also, they should feel at ease with the book enhancing a careful review of it. However, it is generally the authorities who select the books and teachers are limited to use them even though the election does not seem appropriate. If teachers participate in the process it is easier for them to accept change in the institution. Publishing houses may also support selection because they are the ones who know the product best and can explain the approach on which the book is based in detail.

In each country, one of the strongest investments in education systems has always been to increase the percentage of literate population. However, contrasting the numbers of literate population with those of books read per inhabitant, we find that there is a significant poverty, because who knows how to read, does not. Reading grows the importance of textbooks.

For this reason, today there is an additional challenge to literacy, that of getting the literate population to become a reading population. This task is no longer an exclusive task of the school system; teachers, librarians, bookstores, publishers and, above all, parents should strive to make children capable of reading and becoming effective readers.

If this were not enough, the television and other media that mainly handle the information through images, have collaborated to give priority to the same image that uses a perceptive and concrete language, very simple to assimilate, in front of the word and the concepts, which involve a conceptual and abstract language and that require a creative process of thought.

For this reason it is very important to consider that having the different educational tools (books, CD-ROM, videos, Internet) within reach does not guarantee learning and acquiring knowledge and skills by itself, but the factor that makes them really useful and transcendent is the reading of its content; this is why developing the habit of reading in their children becomes one of the main qualities with which a person must count in order to successfully face the challenges of the world to come.

It is fundamental for parents to know all the benefits that reading provides and the conditions conducive to creating in their children the habit of reading:

• How to promote a positive attitude of people, especially children, towards reading.

• What family activities, type of readings and exercises make the development of the habit to be pleasant.

• How to fully and intelligently take advantage of technological tools.

Characteristics of A2 school textbooks

Not every book that has been used in school is a "school handbook" in the strict sense. It is only those works that are specifically conceived with the intention of being used in the teaching-learning process, an intention indicated by its title, its subject, level or modality, its internal didactic structure, and its content, sequence of a school discipline.

The main characteristics that an English textbook contains in a strict sense would be: intentionality on the part of the author, systematicity, in the exhibition of the contents, sequentiality, adequacy for the pedagogical work, expository text style, text and illustrations combination, content regulation, their extension and the treatment of them and state administrative and political intervention. (Siegel, 2014, pp. 363-367)

The apparent simplicity of English textbooks often obscures a complex series of interventions, whether personal, institutional, technological or business. The contents and their organization usually respond to previous normative regulations, exposed in curricula and programs that conform the so-called "prescribed curriculum", of more or less obligatory fulfilment.

Regarding the English textbook, a socializing factor of first importance, may have been the type of written text that for a longer time was exposed to state control and prior censorship of its contents. As support for knowledge, it imposes a distribution and hierarchy of knowledge and contributes to forming the intellectual armour of students. As an instrument of power, the English textbook contributes to linguistic uniformity, to cultural levelling and to the propagation of dominant ideas. (Siegel, 2014, p. 375)

The English textbook is in many ways the true manifest curriculum of the school, which the school truly teaches, being the most used teaching resource in practically all educational systems. The school texts, being one of the most characteristic products of the school institution, have become an object of study of great interest, as testimonies that can reveal aspects that until now have been neglected or opaque, whether related to the inner life of the school institution or about the ideological influences and political motivations that gravitated over disciplines and curricular contents. Through them, the English textbook intends to recover and analyze also pedagogical theories and methodological principles, both those that were predominant and had massive diffusion in determined periods and countries, as innovative pedagogical experiences or reformist, minority or individual ones. English textbooks offer a very rich material for the analysis of the different social and political conceptions that influenced its elaboration. They were shaped by the different ideologies and currents of thought that happened in the course of history, but above all contain the most outlined expressions of the dominant ideas in each epoch. They are not a description or a photographic record of that society and culture, but they express, rather, an idealized horizon of knowledge, purposes and valuations, a set of interpretations and positions that express subjective visions of the social world, susceptible, in turn of being analyzed to try to understand the school history and the processes of culture transmission. (Kim, 2001, pp. 219- 243)

Criteria regarding A2 textbooks analysis and a good learning in teachers’ and students’ opinion

This part of the analysis consisted of examining eight criteria to be met by texts to create a learning process similar to what is “recommended” in all teacher-training institutes (but rarely implemented), from teachers and students point of view. Again it is worth remembering that a good teacher can meet these criteria without the need for texts, but that when used, they must also meet at least eight criteria:

Stimulate free writing, since only a systematic thinking process is completed when it is put into writing. The text should clearly indicate, in each activity or module, the moments of free writing in which the student must necessarily think in a systematic way (for which may include pertinent questions). This requires that the teacher devote his time to reviewing the students' work rather than dictating subjects;

Facilitate the socialization of personal work. Students can prepare, in groups of four or five, a version that integrates the work of several of them (for example, a written version of an observation), so that the teacher only revises a more elaborate one which, in turn, allows self-evaluation of work in each). Therefore, the texts must ensure that each activity includes both personal and group work.

Give opportunities to make a decision within well-defined alternatives. Every time a student makes a decision he must think, and therefore acquires a greater commitment / interest with what he decides to carry out. That is why the text should offer you the opportunity to choose the specific situations that allow you to learn the same educational goal;

Achieve local adaptation through instructions that lead the student to identify the alternatives that exist in the local situation. The text should indicate to the student how to identify the examples-situations that exist in their reality, related to types of work, mobilization, health, production, history, geography, stories, legends, flora, fauna, minerals and other topics that include the national curriculum. Once identified, each group can select a situation on which it will work;

Provide a method to learn from the context and develop a permanent ability to systematize observations. Local adaptation of each activity requires including observation, oral and written description, integration with peer observations, but should also include self-assessment with respect to a model (and corresponding revision of the entire sequence of stages) so that the final version can be reviewed later by the teacher. In this way, the essential elements of the scientific method and of technology are integrated, which will, in later stages (perhaps in the middle level), become familiar with other methods;

Create community participation through the process of identifying and selecting local context examples used in the learning process. An important part of learning experiences should use everyday information about health, remedies, work, family, food, plants, seeds, animals, crafts, stones, maps, games, songs, anecdotes, local history, cardinal points, radio and TV. Much of this information requires the collaboration of parents and, in that process, they discover the vital contribution that their culture makes to the school;

Inducing a modular assessment that allows students to move at their own pace. Each sequence of activities should include, at the end, the description of a similar activity (even if it corresponds to a situation that is very different from the local context) with which students can compare the results of their work to identify ways to complete or improve their own work. This self-assessment also reduces the amount of time the teacher must spend to correct, since you do not have to review everything that students write. In any case, evaluating objectives in short periods (from one to two weeks) allows students to systematically complete each sequence (module) before moving on to the next, or the teacher decides if other activities are necessary before continuing with the following module

Finally, avoid extra work to the teacher that obliges him to sacrifice his family life or his rest time. The text should include all instructions necessary for the student-group to participate in the learning situation, even if the teacher can modify them at any time. The teacher should not create new learning situations at each opportunity, but use the best experiences accumulated until that time, without prejudice to improvise when circumstances require.

There are many other aspects and questions that we must ask ourselves when designing materials or we limit ourselves to selecting and adapting existing ones. Breen and Candlin (1987, pp.14-28) offer a very useful and complete guide. Its frame of reference and key aspects includes the following categories.

1. Objectives and contents of the curricular material: objectives of instruction that are proposed, what gives the apprentices and what they omit.

2. Tasks that they propose for the learning: sequence of work that they establish, type of tasks that suggest: variety, clarity and adequacy.

3. Requirements of the materials to the teacher who carries them out: identification of the teacher with the lines of work proposed, degree of professional competence required by the tasks.

4. Variety of resources and didactic materials: adaptation of the materials to the needs and interests and expectations of the students.

5. Adequacy of materials for learning English at the desired level: sequencing, structure and continuity.

6. Adequacy of materials to generate the desired learning processes: autonomous learning, discovery learning, learning construction, content-based learning, cooperative learning.

The relationship of criteria proposed by Breen and Candlin (1987, p.25) is useful and can help us, but it is not enough. We must deepen in other aspects related to the type of learning that we want to facilitate and to propitiate through the materials. In this sense, it is advisable to explore other areas and consider to what extent certain materials can contribute to its development. Littlejohn and Windeatt propose the following (Littlejohn and Windeatt, 1989, pp. 156-175):

1) knowledge of general facts or related to specific academic disciplines (general and / or specialized training);

2) teachers’ vision of what knowledge is and how it develops;

3) teachers’ conception of language learning;

4) roles of the teacher and students in the classroom;

5) opportunities for the development of cognitive abilities;

6), and finally, the values and attitudes that reflect the materials and meta-cognitive instruction: learning to learn.

A few years earlier, Cook (1983, pp. 229-237) proposed:

a) knowledge about academic subjects,

b) the content that the student can contribute,

c) the language studied,

d) literary texts,

e) culture and

f) the subjects of interest of the students.

The characteristics and criteria suggested by Littlejohn and Windeat (1989, p.185) for curricular materials include the following aspects:

General culture and specialized training

The materials should contribute to the general training of students, to the development of their general knowledge, and to their specific training in certain subjects or areas of knowledge. As we will explain in the following pages, one of the approaches that can best meet those objectives is what is commonly called content-based approach.

Materials reflecting appropriate theories about teaching and learning

The most appropriate curricular materials will be those that best reflect our conception of teaching and are consistent with the theories of learning that are most appropriate in each context. At present, learning is seen as an active and dynamic process that involves selecting information, processing and organizing it, relating it to previous experiences and knowledge, using it in appropriate contexts and situations, evaluating it and reflecting on the effectiveness of results, etc. The materials must facilitate the progressive "construction" of knowledge through "significant" learning that will enrich the students' complex cognitive structure. In addition, Littlejohn and Windeatt (1989, pp.200-210) emphasize the importance of materials and tasks that favour reflection on the processes of learning and metacognitive instruction, the fact that students learn to learn.

Materials and resources based on an adequate conception of the language and its learning

When using materials, it must be taken into account that a language is not only a system of forms, structures and words, but also from the pragmatic point of view it is also a system of communicative acts and it is expected that the media and Resources used favour the development of communicative competence of students, understood as the integration of five sub-competences: linguistic, sociolinguistic, discursive, cultural and strategic (Canale, 1983, p.78). The learning of languages ​​takes place through personal and creative processes, global and cyclical, meaningful and in close relation with the interests, needs and mental schemes of the subjects who learn it. Sometimes it can be done intuitively and subconsciously because of the "input" used in curriculum materials or by the teacher.

Role distribution

We believe that the materials we use to teach and learn English (or any other language) must be designed and used in accordance with the above approaches and in a way that favours the development of:

a) oral and written communicative competence, both of linguistic and communicative activities and of skills, strategies, strategies and procedures that promote the adequate use of oral and written English;

b) attitudes and values ​​that favour some autonomy and self-regulation of learning and

c) self-evaluation of teaching and learning processes. To fulfil all these objectives there must be certain alternation of roles on the part of teachers and students in the use of materials for teaching and learning. Teachers may use the materials as a source of information that the student will receive, select, organize and assimilate according to their individual characteristics. Other times, the teacher will act as mediator or facilitator of learning and it will be the students who, autonomously, and with the help of the curricular materials employed, will regulate and be responsible for what they learn.

Developing problem solving skills

The educational resources and resources should also provide opportunities for students to solve issues and problems similar to those they will need to solve in real life when they practice. This is achieved through the resolution of tasks that relate to the world of education: planning of educational work, analysis and commentary on teaching and learning situations, etc.

Values ​​and Attitudes in Materials

  When we use the curricular materials, we can use them in a "referential" way, acting the teacher as an informant and the student as content receiver or in a more "experiential" way, when we invite the students to experiment with the selected resources. As we will see later, the "experiential" approach is more effective because it is often more meaningful and relevant to students. To the extent that materials provide more experiential situations, the greater the internalization of the values ​​and attitudes that transmit these materials. As Littlejohn and Windeatt (1989, p.220) affirm, there is a relation between the values ​​that are transmitted in the texts that we use in class and those that are forged the students: "recent studies claim a direct relationship between the values ​​and attitudes learners express and those found in texts with which they work”. In this respect, it is fundamental that the material used reflects the plurality of races, religions and beliefs that exist in contemporary society.

5.4. Students' Levels of Performance

It is necessary to identify that in this society of mobility of culture and access to knowledge, foreign languages become a primary tool for entering contact and social and cultural integration to acquire learning, for the use of new technologies and the construction of knowledge. Likewise knowledge is closely related to the language, which is the richest source of communication between human beings who relate the different thought processes to the mastery of skills both linguistic cognitive and motor.

Raises the benefits of the knowledge of a second language, after having reached certain cognitive in a first language level, the individual develops a greater degree of met lingual awareness, has the ability to appreciate the linguistic symbols and have communicative competence in their mother tongue.

The fundamental purpose is to ensure that students acquire and develop their communicative competence in such a way to use the foreign language to relate knowledge, to understand and interpret reality and to share ideas, feelings and opinions in situations of communication.

Theoretical approaches related to the level of performance, proposed the following components:

1. Competition in the language: Covers various types of knowledge that we use in communication through language. This competition is described as the knowledge thereof and includes two types of skills: organizational competence and pragmatics.

2. Organisational competence: It refers both to the domain of the formal structure of the language (grammatical competence) as to the knowledge about how to build speech (textual competition)

3. Grammatical competence: Includes control of vocabulary, morphology, syntax and phonetic and graphitic elements

4. Textual competence: Referred to the cohesion and the rhetorical organization.

5. Pragmatic competence : Refers to the functional use of language, i.e. competition and the knowledge of its own use, according to the context in which is used, i.e. the sociolinguistic competence.

6. Competition Palmer: Includes the control of functional features of the language such as the ability to express ideas and emotions (additional functions), to ensure that it takes place (manipulative functions), to use language, to teach, learn and solve problems (heuristic functions) and to be creative (imaginative functions).

7. Sociolinguistic competence: Aspects considered sensitivity towards types of dialects and registers, naturalness or proximity to the characteristic features of the language and the understanding of related cultural and idiomatic figures.

Strategic competition: Is developed as a component system integrator combining the interrelations between the knowledge of the world, knowledge of the language, the psycho physiologic mechanisms and context of the situation to take decisions on the use of communicative language. Corresponds to the form as "manipulate" the language in order to achieve the aims of the communication. Also refers to how the apprentice speaker manages to overcome linguistic and situational difficulties in a certain situation.

5.5 Enhancing Grammatical Accuracy

Analysis of the results regarding the research developed for students

Analyzing the results of the present research, starting with the first question, one could observe that 80% of the respondents gave a positive answer, while 20% of them said that they do not like how the English class unfolds.

Talking about the possession of an English textbook, of the 100 respondents, only 5 gave negative answers. In this respect, one may consider that those five respondents either do not have financial possibilities or they are not interested in English class. In order to improve this aspect, the English teacher will make five photocopies to her textbook from her own funds and she will give them to those five children.

Being questioned about the way students get along with their colleagues, 70 of them considered that they have a good relation, 9 of them said that they have best friends among their classmates, while 8 children recognized that they fight sometimes. At the opposite pole there were 4 respondents saying that they do not care about their colleagues and 2 of them do not even know the names of their classmates. Also, there were 7 students who did not give an answer.

Being interviewed about the most enjoyed activity during the English class, 50 students preferred to watch documentary movies without subtitle, 35 respondents said that they would like to listen to audio tales, while 10 of them enjoy completing worksheets. Of all respondents, only 5 enjoyed to correct the homework.

Regarding the collaboration between students and their English teacher, 66% of the respondents agreed its level is a good one. At the opposite, 2% of them considered that they have an unsatisfactory collaboration.

Being interviewed about what they would like to improve, 52% of students considered that school’s material basis needs a melioration, while only 6% agreed that their English teacher’s behaviour towards them should be improved. In this regard, both school and teacher will make efforts in order to offer students a more effective pedagogical framework, also including an effective manner of using the English textbook.

At activity level, in students’ opinion, there are many types of activities that the English teacher should organize. This way, children would prefer a trip to England (36%), thematic days (28%), smart board activities (15%), training for different English contests (12%) and bingo games (9%). In pupils’ opinion, is essential the English teacher to be very creative and close to their needs.

On a scale from 1 to 10, 94 respondents evaluated at the maximum values (9 and 10) their English teacher’s efficiency in teaching grammar, while 6 students evaluated at medium values (7 and 8). In this respect, one may observe that the English teacher is effective, but sometimes, he needs to improve his manner of teaching.

When A2 level students were asked about their textbook, 70 of them considered it is complete and very useful regarding aspects such as listening and comprehension, grammar and so on, but 23 of them said that it has both interesting stories and difficult exercises. Of all 100 respondents, 7 of them considered the textbook to be hard to understand, having a lot of pages.

In A2 level students’ opinion, the best aspect about teaching- learning English with all its particularities is that the English teacher uses innovative methods (55%). Also, 23% of the students agreed that they can learn English, a percentage of 13% considered that English exercises in the textbook stimulates their creative potential and only 9% think that they can learn about new cultures.

The majority of interviewed high school students (41) considered that nothing is worst about teaching- learning English with all its particularities. Different from them, 35 students agreed that time is too short and 24 complained about the multitude of grammar exercises in the textbook and about the existence of noise in the classroom.

Among the given aspects, the one considered to be the most positive about the English teaching- learning process was that of the use of new and varied teaching methods (25 answers), followed by that regarding the fact that students are involved in evaluation (18 answers). 16 answers were given for methodically well-trained teacher and for optimal conditions for lessons. 14 students appreciate the existence of come extracurricular activities, while 11 responses were given for scientifically well-trained teacher. Neither of the students gave another option.

Analyzing if students consider that their communicative abilities and grammar skills were improved on the strength of English class activities, including the work with the textbook, 48 of them agreed that they improved to a very great extent, 35 – to a great extent, 10- to a satisfactory extent, 5- to a small extent and 2- not at all. In this context, the English teacher will try to integrate those 2 children in other groups where they can achieve important information as others can do, while for the others, the professor will improve their abilities by means of different class and extracurricular activities.

Regarding students’ English knowledge after doing exercises and learning grammar aspects in their textbook, most of them appreciate it at a very good level (60 respondents). The rest of them consider to know English at an excellent level, 18, at a good one, while 9 of them, at a satisfactory one. At the same time, one student does not know English language. For him and for those who know English language at a satisfactory level, the English teacher will propose a thorough study, aiming them to achieve an improvement in their knowledge.

For a percentage of 52% of students, listening and conversation seem to be the most interesting exercises of an English class. Also, grammar and vocabulary exercises are preferred by 44% of A2 school students, while 4% do not know what answer to give about the most interesting part of the English class.

Analyzing the most appropriate teaching methods in A2 level students’ opinion, educational games are the winner with 30 answers. At the opposite, there is dictation with only 8 answers. In this respect, one may observe that children prefer innovative methods instead traditional ones.

Talking about English teaching, most of the students considered that their English teacher do not have outdated methods (86%). So, it is clear that the English teacher from the ……. School in Prahova county has an innovative style of teaching, based on creativity and students’ centered.

60 of the interviewed respondents are 16 years old, 25 of them are 15 years old and 14 of them are 18 years old. In this respect, one may observe that they study in VIIIth and IXth grades.

58 students who were interviewed during the English class study in the VIIIth grade, while other 42 respondents study in the IXth grade.

Talking about interviewed student’s gender, 54 of them were girls, while 46 were boys.

ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS REGARDING THE RESEARCH DEVELOPED FOR TEACHERS

Evaluation on textbook regarding aspects of listening, comprehension, grammar

Regarding the evaluation of the textbook, the layout and design are attractive and easy to read in the perception of 9 of the 10 teachers. The content will be embodied in a textbook that will combine theory with practice, which will allow teacher to instruct, develop skills and contribute with ideas, through the applied methods during classes.

Regarding the instructions in the textbook, they are always clearly stated in the perception of 7 teachers, while three of them consider this aspect only sometimes. The instructions one observe in a textbook are not the same as those of a magazine, much less that of a catalogue. Addressing different topics depends largely on how information is organized to reach the learner.

Evaluating of the textbook, all of the interviewed teachers consider that topics and tasks are interesting and motivating. The content requires punctuating the clear and direct ideas that are in the theme of Editorial Design, reviewing simple concepts that start from a general idea. The content aims to reach learners with ideas focused by throwing brainstorms that allow them to visualize it and put it into practice. This way, teachers can ensure a much better job for later review and make proper use of the textbook’s elements.

In the opinion of 9 teachers, the subjects and content are always relevant to students’ needs. A fundamental aspect to be taken into account in a needs analysis is the specific situation to which the analysis is directed and the possibilities offered by it. In this context, external factors such as available resources (teachers, classrooms, time), materials and means of support, characteristics of teaching groups and the leeway of the language teacher within a given institutional context should be considered.

All of the interviewed teachers consider that there are periodic review and test section provided.

30% of the interviewed teachers consider that there is no plenty of the authentic language. The use of materials with authentic language is favorable for both students and teachers themselves. The teacher makes fun the way to learn from his students using new resources, which in traditional teaching, were unthinkable. Communication, interaction between students, as between student and teacher, the great diversity in the classroom, are prime factors to learn; and the materials consisting in authentic language make it easy for them.

Evaluating the textbook used at A2 level, 8 teachers consider that there is an appropriate balance of the four language skills. These skills are also called "communicative skills." The use of the language can be made in 4 different ways depending on the role of the individual in the communication process, such as acting as the sender or receiver and also, according to the channel of transmission that we use, representative is the oral channel or the writing.

Regarding the pronunciation explanation and practice, they are suitably presented in the opinion of 7 teacher, while the rest of three consider this aspect to be non valid.

100% of the teachers consider that vocabulary explanation and practice are clearly presented in the present textbook. Each individual uses in his daily communication a number of habitual words, would be his personal vocabulary. The language has a complex classification of words: verbs, names, articles, prepositions, adverbs, etc. On the other hand, every day new ideas and tendencies appear that turn into words. And so it is in all languages. The vocabulary is not something fixed and static, since it is constantly renewing and expanding. Using a broad and precise vocabulary is a good recipe for everyday life. It is not about knowing words as if students collected them. It is something simpler: vocabulary is the great tool of communication to deal with life.

Being an important part of students’ language development, grammar presentation and practice are clearly presented for all ten interviewed teachers. In this respect, teachers should take into consideration the following aspects:

textooks that addresses some of the central areas of language education in high school

grammar as necessary content in the achievement of communicative and linguistic skills

the current curriculum, which sets and guides the type of language education expected in schools

the plurilingualism present in the curricula, which places the centers in the situation of having to simultaneously teach different languages to the same students

textbooks, as mediating instruments between the learner and the object of learning.

The textbook is accompanied by good audio cassettes, CDs, Supplementary materials and Teachers’ Guide, as all the teachers consider. To the textbook and supplementary material correspond the following didactic functions:

Informative. Presentation of all the information indicated by the program of the respective subject.

Transformer. In two senses: 1) didactic re-elaboration of the contents; 2) conversion of the purely cognitive activity of students into transformative activity

Systematizing. Exposition of the teaching material in a rigorous sequence systematized, so that the student dominates the procedures of the scientific systematization.

Consolidation and control. Contribution for the students to orient themselves in the acquired knowledge and to rely on him to realize the practical activity.

Self-preparation. Training students in the desire to learn and the ability to learn for themselves.

Integrator. Helping students to assimilate and select knowledge as a single whole.

Coordinator. Assurance of the most effective and functional use of all means of teaching and the use of mass media.

Developer and educator. Contribution to the active formation of the essential features of the harmonious and developed personality.

II.Roles of textbooks in the context of an A2 level collective of students

As a primordial role, the textbook always serves as a syllabus for 6 teachers, while at the opposite pole one teacher disregards it.

80% of teachers consider that the textbook is an instrument that helps planning daily instruction.

The textbook serves as a source of assessment items, as 7 teachers consider.

Also, in the opinion of all teachers, the textbook serves as a source of homework.

9 teachers consider the textbook to be an essential source for teachers. The textbook thus becomes for teachers the main source of their explanation, so that sooner or later their preparation is reduced to consulting one or another manual. The textbook is the front of basic information from which the teacher elaborates the scheme that serves as the basis for developing the explanation. This can be interpreted by saying that, ultimately, the teacher comes to be a manager of the information contained in the textbook. Something that happens not without the resistance of the own teachers who, in competition with the interests of the students, seems to see in this phenomenon a significant bankruptcy of their professional identity and their position in the class.

8 teachers consider the textbook to be an essential source for learners.

All interviewed teachers consider that textbooks help teachers to teach English in an efficient manner.

Considering the textbook as a tool for exams preparation such as Bacalaureat, five teachers think that it is suitable in this respect.

Considering the textbook as a tool for other exams preparation such as IELTS or TOEFEL, eight teachers think that it is suitable in this respect.

III.Teachers’ perceptions towards textbooks:

Regarding teachers’ perceptions towards textbooks, most of time 8 of them teach exclusively from this teaching material.

8 teachers use the textbook as the only source for teaching materials.

All teachers fully understand the content presented in the textbook.

CONCLUSIONS

8. Conclusions.

The present work has focused on analyzing the grammar level provided in the textbooks studied, the skills presented and the visual composition of the samples. The English textbook has been used as instruments of analysis. After carrying out the research, it can be concluded that:

The analyzed textbook present, in a general way, a lexicon appropriate to the level published by its front and back covers, to a greater extent thanks to the publication of European standards in the knowledge of Foreign languages ​​such as the Common European Framework of Reference.

Most of the activities offered in the analyzed textbook show the practice of lower order skills, specifically understanding and applying skills, even though higher order skills are the most recommended to enhance student intelligence .

The most common visual composition of the lessons studied shows a high development around the horizontal axis, where the information already known by the student is located on the left side and new information on the right. In considerable numbers the mixed composition appears between the horizontal and vertical axis, the latter places the elements representing the ideal in the upper part and the real in the lower part. It is possible to emphasize the absence of compositions center-periphery due to its low frequency in certain countries.

Bearing in mind the impossibility of establishing generalizations based on the observation of the use of classroom texts for a number of such specific cases, few without representativeness, it is possible to state that for the purposes of this section of this study, the weakest performances regarding the use of textbook do not seem to be related to the institution, because deficient performances in this sense are transversally distributed, without being related to the dependence of the establishment or presence of the guide teacher of the course in the room. It is not possible to pronounce on the possible influence of the education cycle or subsector given the low number of cases. In contrast, the first cycle and subsector Language are more related to better uses of textbook in classroom, although it is necessary to consider that also in this subsector and cycle was represented by the largest number of observations.

The content of the textbook appears as conceptual input for the realization of the class and support of the reinforcement of teaching and learning, a type of guideline of action of these novice teachers.

It is interesting to note the fact that all cases in which it was possible to appreciate a more creative and appropriate use of the study text corresponding to the Language subsector and to the first cycle, a case of each institution.

The characteristics of the observed classes considered successful, given their pertinent and profitable use of the textbook had a clear structuring of the phases of the lesson and a planning according to the desired objectives. There was creative use of the textbook, with selection and modification of contents and activities in order to adapt to the educational context; without using the text throughout the class, only at the end and interspersed with other activities.

To illustrate the characteristics of a class with a little pertinent and scarcely profitable use of the textbook, three common factors are observed: total lack of planning, or planning based exclusively on school text, without selection, modification or inclusion of own or innovative elements; A tendency to use the text in its entirety and in the same sequence proposed in each unit. And a frontal-type physical arrangement. The textbook is used from beginning to end during the class, using only the sequence of activities proposed by the text or completely disconnected from the learning context of learners. These cases are not associated with any subsector or cycle.

It does not seem to be determinant in the success of the class the purpose of the use of the textbook, as used both to work contents and activities and to promote the participation in classes, or with purpose of reinforcement of contents worked in class, were observed successful classes. Also, regardless of the purpose, classes were observed in which this purpose improperly implemented resulted in disorganization and low probability of learning.

Diversity is observed in the types of use of the text and its frequency. Some teachers are associated with a need to acquire security in content or knowledge that they perceive as deficient in their initial training, but also seem to associate their use with an intention to integrate with the dynamics and pedagogical routines of the school. Few students claim to appropriate the textbook to reconstruct their purpose in their own intentions and didactic actions.

By means of classroom observation, two types of text use are fundamentally identified, one more creative and the other closely related to the proposal of the text. In the use of more creative type, the teacher in practice successfully inserts other strategies or activities to those already proposed by the text of studies, even altering the sequence of this, and include games as a strategy for the achievement of learning. Uses are oriented to work contents, activities and encourage participation in classes, reinforce contents and assign tasks to perform at home. Undoubtedly, it is not possible to affirm that by itself the creative application of the textbook is a guarantee of success in the achievement of learning, nor of the assumption of a class as successful, however it does seem to be a determining factor for learning the planning carried out In agreement with the achievement of the objectives, since it was precisely this factor that was absent in cases in which the class in general was not considered successful, despite the creative incorporation of the use of school text. There is not a clear trend in the subsector, educational cycle, when creative use is observed.

In the use that follows the text proposal, the action refers to the implementation of activities using the exact sequence of the book, with the sole purpose of working the contents and activities and encourage the participation of students. There were also isolated cases that used the text in a way completely disconnected from the learning context and needs of the students or exclusively as reinforcement of the eventual learning. Which correspond to the types of tight and unbound use, with a type of class scarcely structured or planned in its entirety based on the textbook, and with the use of most of the resources of this one. There is no clear trend in the subsector or in the education cycle, but in the university (Universidad Andrés Bello, daytime and evening programs), always considering the impossibility of generalizing given the low number of cases, and insisting on the need to Assume it only as a reference based on a coincidence.

The most commonly used time of use for use of the text is before the class, to plan and prepare it and as a source of personal consultation. Most use it during the class, to facilitate the development of activities, or to facilitate the explanation of contents. These same uses and moments also appear as those most intended by practice supervisors, when there is an intention. In classroom observation, there is a tendency to use text throughout the class, making use of most of the classroom resources, and the second most frequently encountered moment is the end of the class. This could be interpreted as a discrepancy between speech and action, however the number of cases observed does not allow to indicate it only as a reference applicable only to the group observed.

There is a slightly higher reported use of textbook before and during class among students in a certain cycle of basic practice than those who practice in the middle or superior level, while first category use substantially more text after class, as homework, than middle level practitioners.

There is no difference in frequency of use before and during the class according to the practice sub-sector, except in the case of English, where the frequency of use is lower than in the other subsectors, although the significant number of cases studied in this subsector.

The vast majority uses only a few text resources, to the extent they are relevant to what they are dealing with, and / or that combines the use of texts with other resources. The proportion of students in practice who declares to follow the sequence proposed by him or to rely completely on the text to do his classes is observed very little, however, observed cases point to the opposite situation. This contradicts what was observed in the classroom, however, it is not possible to make generalizations based on the small number of cases observed.

One may observe heterogeneity in the declared modality of use of the text (individual work, pairs or group), and indicate that the modality of use is not associated with the availability of texts in the classroom, a situation that is corroborated in classroom observation.

There is no consensus regarding the use and effective use of the textbook by teachers. They divide between those who mention using only the text of the student and consider that the use of the teacher's guide can be dispensable, and those who value the use of the text. In the classroom observations for a third of the cases consultations were observed in the teacher's guide.

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APPENDIX

STUDENTS’ QUESTIONNAIRE

Choose one response or complete the empty spaces with an appropriate one. The questionnaire has anonymous and the data below are necessary to a study. Thank you for your kind cooperation!

Do you like how the English class unfolds?

Yes

No

Do you have an English textbook?

Yes

No

What type is the relationship between you and your colleagues?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Which is the activity that you enjoy most during the English classes?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

How do you appreciate the collaboration between you and your English teacher?

Very good

Good

Satisfactory

Unsatisfactory

You would like to improve:

Your English teacher’s behaviour towards you

School’s material basis

The collaboration between you and the English teacher

The manner your teacher uses the textbook

What are the activities that you would like to be organized by your English teacher, different from the class ones?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

On a scale from 1 to 10, how do you appreciate how effective your English teacher is in teaching grammar?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

What do you think about your English textbook concerning aspects such as listening and comprehenson, grammar and so on?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Which is the best aspect about teaching- learning English with all its particularities?

The English teacher uses innovative methods

I can learn English

I can learn about new cultures

English exercises in the textbook stimulates my creative potential

Other………………………………………….

Which is the worst aspect about teaching- learning English with all its particularities?

There are a lot of grammar exercises in the textbook

Time is too short

There is noise in the classroom

The textbook we use is not effective

Nothing

Other…………………………………………………

Among the aspects listed below, choose one that you believe is positive about the English teaching- learning process :

Well-trained teacher

The use of new teaching and varied methods

Students are involved in evaluation

Optimal conditions for lessons

The existence of some extracurricular activities

We use an efficient textbook in order to develop our creative potential

Do you consider that your communicative abilities improved on the strength of English classes’ activity, including the work with the textbook?

To a very great extent

To a great extent

To a satisfactory extent

To a small extent

Not at all

How do you appreciate you English knowledge after doing exercises and learning grammar aspects from the textbook you actually use during classes?

Excellent

Very good

Good

Satisfactory

I don’t know English language

Which seems to be the most interesting part of the English class?

Grammar and vocabulary

Listening and conversation

I don’t know

In your opinion, which seems to be the most appropriate teaching methods? (multiple choices)

Dictation

Summarizing

Educational games

AEL (e-learning)

Documentation sheets

Practical works including exercises in the textbook

Do you consider the current English textbook is an outdated teaching material?

Yes

No

I don’t know

How often do you use English language during leisure?

Daily

Often enough

Rare

Never

How old are you?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

What grade are you in?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Are you a boy or a girl?

Boy

Girl

Thank you!

Teachers’ questionnaire

The aim of this questionnaire is to find out your views about the use of EFL textbook for intermediate level students. It is made up of 23 questions. Please note that there are no right or wrong answers. The information will be used by the undersigned, Osiac-Nedelea Carmen-Maria, in the paper The role of the textbook in teaching English to intermediate students. Please, write your name at the end of questionnaire, if you agree with this terms. Thank you very much for your time and cooperation.

I. Evaluation on textbook

1. The layout and design is attractive and easy to read.

a) yes b)sometimes c) no

2. The instructions are clearly stated.

a) always b)sometimes c)never

3. The topics and tasks are interesting and motivating.

a)always b)sometimes c)never

4. The subjects and content are relevant to learners’ needs.

a)always b)sometimes c)never

5. There are periodic review and test sections provided.

a)yes b)no

6. There is plenty of authentic language.

a)yes b)no

7. There is an appropriate balance of the four language skills.

a)yes b)no

8. Pronunciation explanation and practice are suitably presented.

a) yes b) no

9. Vocabulary explanation and practice are clearly presented.

a) yes b) no

10. Grammar presentation and practice are clearly presented.

a)yes b)no

11.The textbook is accompanied by good audio cassettes, CDs, Supplementary materials and Teachers’ Guide.

a)yes b)no

II.Roles of textbooks

12.The textbook serves as a syllabus.

a) yes b) sometimes c) no

13. The textbook helps planning daily instruction.

a) yes b) sometimes b) no

14. The textbook serves as a source of assessment items.

a) yes b) sometimes b) no

15. The textbook serves as a source of homework.

a)yes b) sometimes c) no

16. The textbook serves as an essential source for teacher.

a) yes b) sometimes c ) no

17. The textbook serves as an essential source for learners.

a)yes b) sometimes c) no

18. The textbook helps teachers to teach English effectively.

a) yes b) sometimes c) no

19.It is suitable for exams preparation – Bacalaureat.

a)yes b) maybe c) no

20.It is suitable for other exams preparation : IELTS, TOEFEL etc.

a)yes b)maybe c)no

III.Teachers’ perceptions towards textbooks:

21. I teach exclusively from the textbook.

a) always b)most of the time c) very rarely

22. I use the textbook as the only source for teaching materials.

a) yes b)sometimes c) no

23. I fully understand the content presented in the textbook.

a) always b)not all the time b) never

LESSON PLAN

NAME:

DATE:

CLASS:

LEVEL: A2

TEXTBOOK: World Class

STAGE OF COURSE:

Module 6: Learning to learn

Unit 1: Learning English

TIME: 50 minutes

MAIN TOPIC: -Finding about the book

-Organising vocabulary

TYPE OF LESSON: consolidation

SKILLS: Reading:-Skimming the book, learning habits

Speaking:- Questionnaire

Writing:- Learning habits

AIMS OF LESSON: by the end of the lesson students will be able to:

organise vocabulary

develop and practice their productive skills and receptive skills (writing, speaking, listening);

reinforce vocabulary in order to promote discussion and to practice language in a particular context;

ask and answer about the book

Objectives:

A.Cognitive objectives:

to check and improve vocabulary;

to encourage students to talk freely;

to give students more practice on pronunciation, vocabulary and the structures previously taught.

B.Affective objectives:

making students confident in their ability to use the language;

creating interest in the topic of the lesson;

creating a relaxed atmosphere, proper for studying;

foster learner independence and cooperative learning;

stimulating students’ imagination and creativity;

having fun.

TEACHING AIDS: textbooks, workbooks, worksheets, handouts, pictures, cards.

TEACHING TECHNIQUES: conversation, dialogue, exercise, game, explanation

METHODS: Communicative approach

RESOURCES: textbook – World Class, Activity book, different internet resources

LESSON PLAN

SCHOOL:

ENGLISH TEACHER:

DATE:

STUDENTS’ LEVEL: A2

TYPE OF LESSON: Teaching grammar

TOPIC: Passive Voice

LESSON LENGTH: 50 minutes

SKILLS: listening, reading, speaking, writing

LESSON AIMS:

Students will inductively review passive form structures.

Students will be aware of the difference between active and passive voice.

Students will practice the use of the passive voice.

Students will understand when and why passive voice is used.

OBJECTIVES:

By the end of the lesson students will be able:

to identify a passive voice form;

to transform sentences from active voice into passive voice;

to produce passive sentences in meaningful situations;

to use passive voice (all forms) in context.

METHODS: conversation, explanation, dialogue, exercise, didactic game.

CLASSROOM INTERACTIONS: individual work, group work and pair work.

TEACHING AIDS: blackboard, worksheets, posters and video projector.

Worksheet 1 – Discover!

Directions: Complete the crossword puzzle by filling in the correct answers to the definitions below. Then, write your answers in the puzzle.

1. A person who paints.

2. A little insect that lives in the ground.

3. A big amount of water.

4. It is in the sky and it is hot.

5. Ifit is not boring, it is………?

6. Helps us to communicate and is heard by the ears.

7. It is made by the hen.

Worksheet 2 – Remember!

Read and observe the following proverbs with the passive form of the verb-predicate used in the present, past and future. Underline them.

A.

The road to hell is paved with good intentions.

A man is known by the company he keeps.

Old birds are not caught with chaff.

Never ask pardon before you are accused.

A liar is not believed when he tells the truth.

Danger foreseen is half avoided.

Little thieves are hanged, but great ones escape.

What is done cannot be undone.

B.

Rome was not built in a day.

Fingers were made before forks.

Acorns were good till bread was found.

C.

Youth will be served.

Ask no questions and you will be told no lies.

Worksheet 3 – Reviews

Fill in the blanks with a participial adjective form of one of the verbs in the list. Some of the words will be used more than once.

confuse embarrass frighten shock

depress excite humiliate surround

disgust fascinate interest

A Walk in the Clouds is an______________ movie starring Keanu Reeves. The movie takes place after World War II in the wine country of California. The characters are______________ by beautiful scenery. Keanu’s character is married to a woman he met before he went overseas. They don’t really know each other, nor are they ______________in the same things. He is a traveling salesman, and on his first trip after returning home he meets a ______________ woman on the train. Every time he runs into her, he gets into trouble. She is ______________ to have caused him so many problems, but he notices that she is very ______________, and finally she tells him that she is pregnant and unmarried. This is an especially ______________ position to be in because her parents are very strict and will be ______________ by this news. She is very and doesn’t know what to do. Keanu’s character offers to pose as her husband, who will then have a fight with her and leave the______________ woman. Her family, however, will believe she is married and that the husband is a ______________ person. They will feel sorry for her. Before the two can carry out this somewhat ______________ plan, they start to really fall in love. Watch the movie to find out the ______________ ending!

Annex 4

TEST PAPER

THE VERB

Name ………………………….

I. Fill in the blanks with the correct verb tense: (0,40×10=4p)

1. When I (enter)…………………………the living room, John (play)……………………………………. the guitar.

2. The Celts (settle) ………………………………………………….in many parts of Europe centuries ago.

3. We (not/see)………………………………………………….……..our cousins for five years.

4. Dear Jane, I(just/receive)…………………………………………………………………………..your email.

5. We (go) …………………………………………………………………to the opera tonight.

6. If people (not/care) …………………………………………so much about money, the world would be a better place.

7. I will help them if they (ask)…………………………………………………………..me.

8. I (not/accept) ………………………………………………………..their invitation if I were you.

9. They (not/play) …………………………………..chess at four o’clocklastSundays.

II. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences: (0,25×8=2p)

1. Tom has just been doing his homework.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

2. Andra and Paul are swimming every weekend.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

3. Anna cooks dinner now.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

4. My cat ate cat food since last year.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

5. Bill has sleeping at this time yesterday.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

6. His friend don’t got o the market ten minutes ago.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

7. Tom haven’tlived in London sinceDecember.

………………………………………………………………………………………………….

8. Theywillnot come withusunlesstheirparentsdon’tletthem.

………………………………………………………………………………………………….

III. Put thewords in thecorrectorder: (0,50×6=3p)

1. on / Kate / often/ at / Saturdays/ restaurant / the/ eats/.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

2. learn/ brother/always/can/my/poems/long/ .

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

3.students/waiting/ teacher/their/ the/ for / are / .

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. a / boys/playing/ the/the/ are /with/ moment / at /ball/ .

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

5. Lary/busy/ in /often/the/is/mornings/ .

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

6.homework/the/little/ in /does/sister/her/evenings/ .

TEST PAPER

Name / Surname:_________________________ Date:__________________ Form:

Choose the right form of the pronoun:

1. My brothers and (I, me) helped Dan in the garden.

2. Mary gave my sister and (I, me) candies.

3. Mother told (we, us) to feed the rabbits.

4. (They, Them) were very hungry.

5. (She, Her) is our cousin.

5 points.

Replace the underlined words with the right pronouns.

Maria is a nice girl.____________

My mother loves me and my brother.__________

The cat is sleeping.___________

Tom is my little brother.__________

I hear Jim and his father speaking. _________

5 points

Fill in the correct possessives.

Many people understand (their, theirs) pets.

(My, Mine) cat is very beautiful.

Linda loves (her, hers) mother very much.

I have a dog. It is (mine, my).

What is (your, yours) name?

5 points

Match the word to its definition:

It is used for typing information. A) News

It is used to give commands to the computer. B) Keyboard

It is used to print out the information you need. C) Channel

Information about what is happening in the world. D) Printer

A television station. E) Mouse

5 points

Use the verb in brackets in Past Perfect Tense:

He went to school after he __________________________ (eat) breakfast.

He went to bed after he ________________________ (finish) his homework.

Maria played computer games after she _______________ (write) the essay.

Bill entered the class after the school bell ___________________ (ring).

They __________________(drink) coffee before they watched the movie.

10 points

Points_______

Mark________

=== 528cc150020cf3286a8f775a4830118403d18f80_78298_2 ===

INTRODUCTION

The Aims of the Paper

I have been teaching English for many years and during this time I understood that the selection of a textbook is one of the most important decision that a teacher will make in shaping the content and nature of teaching and learning to A2 level students. Still, unfortunatelly, in the Romanian educational system little attention is paid to this issue due to various reasons ( up to 10th grade the school has always provided textbooks and therefore the teacher will take what the school has since there are no money to buy every year other textbooks if it is necessary – this is the most frequent situation with which any teacher faces ).What is a constitutional righ mentioned in the Education Law number 1/2011 became reality this year: all students incuding thoes who are in 11th and 12th grade receive textbooks from school.This success has two sides: it is good that efforts are made to fully respect the right to free education for all students but on the other hand there is a big question in what concerns the selection of the textbooks.That is why I strongly believe that my paper presents aspects which are part of the reality. In some cases teachers and students find themselve stucked with each other in a school where there is not time for a detailed analisis of the class’s needs.

The great majority of the debates and researches that have been generated both at national and international level about the textbook coincide in defining it as a fundamental factor in the formation of subjects and, therefore, as an indispensable element for the transmission of knowledge . What do we mean by textbook? Without defining a rigid definition, it is worth noting that there is a multiplicity of responses: a materiality, a curricular proposal, a bearer of meanings, a high circulation periodical, a teacher-student mediator, among others. Thus, it is worth noting that the concept of textbook refers to a great complexity and it is clear that there is no consensus about its definition. If we make reference to the daily language of the school it is possible to find a great variety of denominations with respect to the textbook. Thus, terms such as: school textbook, school textbook, guide book, school textbook, etc., are used, making an indistinct use in their definition.

Textbooks are very useful especially for novice teachers and students because they:

offer guidance in what concern course and activity design

assure a measure of structure and consistency

assure logical progression in a class

are essential for those students who want to have soemthing concrete to work home and take home for further study

provide multiple resources like :CDs, self-study woorkbooks etc.

The aim of the present paper is related to the desire of being a starting point for all teachers, including me, who have not thought too much about the importance of the texbook for the success of the teaching process regarding the A2 level students. In some cases the use of the textbook to A2 level students to its best advantage seems to be overlooked when we prepare for the teaching activity. There is also another aspect : at the begining of our teaching activity, recently garduated teachers, do not know what to do without a textbook in the classroom. Others are on the other extreme: they do not know what to do with a textbook since they have concentrated more on learining about using technology in the classroom, how to design rubrics and so on. Therefore, I think there should be an equilibrum amoung everything we do in the classroom during the teaching process.

1.2. The Structure of the Paper

The idea of this paper came to me when , after many school inspections often the same question was put several times to our school teachers: How did you select this textbook and why? Even if it seems to be a simple, logic question, the answers were complicated and some teachers even got puzzled. In fact, I have been carrying this ideea in my head since my first teaching year but never had the possibility to develop it in an academic way. Therefore, I have decided to have a close look overe this topic and divided my paper into three parts:

The first chapter provides a general presentation regarding the aims of the paper, being reprezented, in this respect, by the present Introduction. It also highlights the structure of the paper.

The second chapter offers a perspective over a theoretical framework, including methods and approaches to teaching grammar and teaching Grammar Creatively.

The same manner, chapter number three highlights aspects related to the linguistic proficiency.

Chapter number four consists in the research methodology, respectively: research questions, research methods and instruments, research stages, data collection and relating language examinations to the CEFR, while the last chapter presents the data analysis.