Studiu Comparativ

CONTENT

Argumentation……………………………………………………………………………………..2

Introduction…………………………………………………….…………………………………..4

History of education in general……………………………………………………….……6

History of the British educational system…………………………………………….….11

History of the German educational system……………………………………………….13

A comparative analysis……………………………………………………………………..21

Structure………………………………………………………………………………….25

Main aspects……………………………………………………………………………..27

State education……………………………………………………………………….…..29

Private education……………………………………………………………………………31

Education to the age of 18……………………………………………………………….34

Higher education……………………………………………………………………………36

Other types of education……………………………………………………………………37

The main differences between the British and the German Educational Systems…………………………………………………………………………………..….40

Positive aspects………………………………………………………………….……….42

Negative aspects………………………………………………………….………………43

The most effective system……………………………………………………………….44

Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………..……60

Webliography……………………………………………………………………………………..61

Argumentation

I have chosen this topic about education in two of the leading states, in terms of educational performance, for tree main reasons.

First of all, I consider education prior to other domains such as economy, law enforcement, justice or truisms, because it represents the very foundation of progress and civilisation throughout the entire World. History confirm that this consideration is true in the following manner; the nation or the state with the higher degree of education prospered and impose itself to other nations less educated and deductively less evolved. Such nations are the Greeks, the Romans from ancient history, the French during Napoleon Reign and the Germans under the rulership of Adolf Hitler. All of them became leading powers through education.

Secondly, it is considered that the United Kingdom and Germany have two of the most performant educational systems in the World.

The most commonly used factor to measure a country level of education is the “literacy rate’(indexmundi.com). “There are no universal definitions and standards of literacy’ (indexmundi.com) , but “all rates are based on the most common definition – the ability to read and write at a specified age’(indexmundi.com).

Considering this factor the United Kingdom and both Germany have each a “rate of literacy of 99%’ (indexmundi.com) of the total population from the age of 15 years. The literacy rate is “not a perfect measure of educational results’ (indexmundi.com) but “is probably the most easily available and valid for international comparisons’ (indexmundi.com).

“Low literacy levels can impede the economic development of a country’ (indexmundi.com) but is not an essential factor, as they are countries like Cuba, Estonia and Azerbaijan with levels of literacy of 99,8%, countries that develop an economy less evolved then the economies of both the United Kingdom and Germany.

Concluding this fact the educational systems from both the United Kingdom and Germany have notable results that inflict on their economies.

Thirdly, it is widely known that the United Kingdom has two of the most prestigious universities in the World : The University of Cambridge and The University of Oxford , first founded in the year of 1209 and the second in the year of 1167. Adding to this fact it also has the most exclusive form of private schools. The public schools from Britain are unique in their features and have a elaborated history. Among them are Eton College, Harrow School and Winchester College.

In contrast to this fact, in Germany except The University of Heidelberg, founded in 1386, we do not find forms of education we a history comparable to the ones from the United Kingdom. Despite this fact there is a tendency in the Educational System from the United Kingdom to copy the German Educational System. In my research I intend to explain this fact and to conclude witch of the two educational systems are better.

The present paper consists in a number of sections and subsections, each developing a certain topic regarding the topic.

After revealing the reasons for which I chose this topic, an Introducton regarding the education systems follows with three subsections developing education in general including the British and German one from a historical point of view.

The second section is focused upon our main interest which is the comparative analysis between the two European educational systems including seven subsections regarding the structure, main aspects, state education, private education, higher education and so on and do forth.

The last section concentrates upon ‘The main differences between the British and the German Educational Systems’ and their positive and negative aspects and also, it reveals the most effective system.

Introduction

The education system refers to all the institutions involved in the education of the people of a society in a certain historical period of time. As a subsystem of the global social system, it is called ‘educational institution’ which has evolved over time, both in terms of its dominant functions and in terms of the institutions involved (‘social courts’).

The education system has the purpose to make people socialize, so that they become members of the society, to fulfill significant roles in the complex network of social interactions. By learning the social roles assigned, the child is socialized, i.e. learns how to meet the expectations of others about him. As social roles that would be prepared and diversified and became more complex, due to the evolution of society, the education system has multiplied layers by socializing and extended social courts.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), considered one of the ‘founding fathers’ of sociology of education, revealed the ‘generic types of education’ (i.e. the types of education systems) the different ‘species of society.’

In tribal societies, for example, they have a diffuse character in education, in that it was given to all members of the clan, without any discrimination and there was no specialized educators.

In other advanced societies, the religious life began to be ruled by a priestly caste, for example in India and Egypt, education becomes an attribute of priestly power, being entrusted to the priests, and the training provided by these children only refers to knowledge related to religious beliefs.

In Greek cities, where there is a priestly caste and religious life was ruled by state young teachers which had a private secular character was predominantly oriented towards action and practice, and educators were ordinary citizens.

Having brought increased rate of change in technology, capitalism requires a workforce trained and disciplined, which could not be properly socialized in the traditional institutions of family and church. It asks, for example, the workers’ knowledge of mathematics and other technological knowledge, which can not be transmitted by parents informally.

The solution to these problems was provided by the system compulsory education of the masses, the main factor becomes institutional education in schools, plus educational systematic influences and other institutional factors (media, non-school educational institutions).

The education system of a society is therefore broader than the educational system, which we include as an educational system, in addition to all the levels and types of education, all non-school education, such as functional literacy, training in enterprises and the labor retraining, industrial and agricultural propaganda etc.

Within an education system it operates several types of institutions and organizations, some of them are specifically designed to educate people (institutions in education), others, in addition to their main goals (permanent) to influence the education of their members.

The institutional system of higher education includes a variety of organizations: schools; institutions of the family; religious institutions; media institutions (print, radio, television, etc.); cultural institutions (theaters, museums, etc.), the military; political institutions or trade unions (which are concerned with the training of its members in the spirit of certain ideas, values, attitudes, inducing certain behaviors).

Within each institutional factor of education, educative action will have specific features. Specifics of education within each of the types of institutions specializing in this area are related to the following: educational aims envisaged: in this respect, for example, the educational aims pursued by a military institution will be different from those of a religious institution, or of a school, as it will follow the influence of specific behaviors likely to serve the purposes of major institution; education agencies will differ from one institution to another: for example, officers for the military, clergy, the religious individuals, teachers for schools and so on, each with a specific type of training, concerns, values ​​prevailing; the receptors for education will also be different from one institution to another, students, to the school for military soldiers, faithful to the religious and so on, each with specific personality characteristics and specific concerns – a ‘public’ more or less homogeneous and specifically targeted by education within an institution or another.The messages will also be specific in terms of both their content and their form.

The arrangements for action to influence education predominantly used carries a certain specific type of institution including military training, religious ceremony, systematic teaching, meetings, conferences etc.

Education as it is practiced, it helps man to live up to his true human nature.

HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN GENERAL

Regarding the actual term of “education’ oxforddictionaries.com explains the noun as “The process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, especially at a school or university’. A rather simple definition if we take in consideration what really this “process’ involves and the fact that nations world-wide spend considerable financial and man-power resources in order to sustain and perfect this process. A more restrain, but not less relevant, definition of the process of education is given by aussieeducator.org.au which stats that education is “an enlightening experience’.

“Education in its broadest sense has existed since the beginning of time. In many instances, if you did not “learn’ you may not have survived’ (quotation availbale on aussieeducator.org.au). When human beings evolved from the nomadic way of life to the inhabitation way of life they felt the necessity of learning new skills that enable them to survive. As those skills developed, the educational process developed with it.

A description about the first steps of educational process it is presented on education.jhu.edu, as followed:

Humans are a complicated species, and exact records of many aspects of our common development are not so well known. The development of writing systems around 3500 B.C.E. aided in recording these lessons and served as a concrete record, replacing reliance on purely oral history. Some of the earliest written records show that formal education, in which basic communication skills, language, trading customs, and agricultural and religious practices were taught, began in Egypt sometime between 3000 and 500 B.C.E. The earliest library known to man, in Babylonia, was built by Ashurbanipal, the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (685–627 B.C.E.). Texts in this library documented advances in math, reading, and writing, as well as common practices of warfare and hunting.

The evolution of writing consisted an important step in the progress of education. It had a major impact on the evolution of the first civilizations such as the Egyptian Civilization and thethe educational process developed with it.

A description about the first steps of educational process it is presented on education.jhu.edu, as followed:

Humans are a complicated species, and exact records of many aspects of our common development are not so well known. The development of writing systems around 3500 B.C.E. aided in recording these lessons and served as a concrete record, replacing reliance on purely oral history. Some of the earliest written records show that formal education, in which basic communication skills, language, trading customs, and agricultural and religious practices were taught, began in Egypt sometime between 3000 and 500 B.C.E. The earliest library known to man, in Babylonia, was built by Ashurbanipal, the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (685–627 B.C.E.). Texts in this library documented advances in math, reading, and writing, as well as common practices of warfare and hunting.

The evolution of writing consisted an important step in the progress of education. It had a major impact on the evolution of the first civilizations such as the Egyptian Civilization and the Babylonian Civilization.

The next important evolutionary step in terms of education took place in Ancient Greece, as the modern educational theorist Howard Gardner stated : “Greek philosophers may have been the first to raise questions about the nature of matter, living entities, knowledge, will, truth, beauty, and goodness. In recent centuries, however, philosophy has steadily been yielding ground, enthusiastically or reluctantly, to empirical science’ (quotation available on education.jhu.edu).

Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Hippocrates and Aristotle brought a new sense to the process of education by contemplating ‘how to influence human actions through formal education’ (quotation available on education.jhu.edu) and they turned the focus ‘to brain functions that can be manipulated to enhance the teaching and learning process’( quotation available on education.jhu.edu)

‘Starting in the 10th century, humanity gained a fundamental understanding about how sensorimotor perceptions are interpreted in the brain and translated into thought’( quotation available on education.jhu.edu). The development of sciences such as anatomy, astronomy, engineering, mathematics, medicine, ophthalmology, philosophy, physics and psychology led to a major improvement in the understanding of how the human body reacts and responds to the surrounding environment. For instance, the Islamic physicists Alhazen (or Al-Haytham; 965–1039 C.E.) established that learning is generated by our sensory perceptions of the world (even if only through memories of those perceptions and not actual perceptions themselves). Our senses feed information to our memory, and we compare new with old, detect patterns and novelty, and base new learning on past associations; new information is learned based on our past experiences (quotation available on education.jhu.edu).

The next major evolutionary step in terms of education it is considered The Renaissance , an intellectual movement that started in Italy, during the 15th and 16th century. The Renaissance “sought answers based in physical evidence“ (quotation available on education.jhu.edu)

“A fundamental assumption of the Renaissance movement was that the remains of classical antiquity constituted an invaluable source of excellence to which debased and decadent modern times could turn in order to repair the damage brought about since the fall of the Roman Empire’( quotation available on iep.utm.edu).

According to education.jhu.edu the 18th and 19th centuries was the time when formal education began to spread with the help of the “religious institutions’ which served as “locations for formal education’. This “common phenomenon’ has his origins in the 12th century when “catholic schools were the first formal educational institutions in Norway around the year 1152’ (quotation available on education.jhu.edu). However “it was not until the 1500s, that widespread education began ; some religious schools were converted into Latin schools (as in Norway and Denmark), and each market town was required to have a school’( quotation available on education.jhu.edu).

Later on in the 1600s was considered to be the period when “the universalization of education’ became a worldwide trend (quotation available on education.jhu.edu).

Throughout the 17th century Zen Buddhist temples served as the educational structures in Japan. Similarly, in India in the 18th century, schools and temples were physically one and the same. reading, writing, arithmetic, theology, law, astronomy, metaphysics, ethics, medical science, and religion were taught to students of all classes in these institutions. Most educational institutions in the United States that were founded between 1640 and 1750 were started by religious denominations. However, beginning in the 1600s, many religious institutions gave way to nondenominational formal education around the world. (information available on education.jhu.edu)

In the centuries to come considerable legislative and financial efforts were made in order to support the development of education all around the world, for instance :

In 1633 the Parliament of Scotland approved a tax to provide for public education; in 1837 Horace Mann managed to successfully create a tax to support public schools in the United States. In the 1880s public education became the norm in France, and by 1890 Japan also had full compulsory education. In 1919 compulsory and free education became standard in Imperial Russian and the current Soviet Union (information avilable on education.jhu.edu).

As the importance of education became more and more relevant to the society research were made in this direction in order to improve the art of teaching, the pedagogy. “The evolution of widespread educational access was paralleled by discoveries in neuroscience that formed new beliefs about learning that impacted in these more widely diverse classrooms’ (quotation available on education.jhu.edu). New beliefs and hypotheses emerged in 19th century when the scientific focus was “on deciphering the map of brain functions; where patterns were found, generalizations about the brain were made’ (quotation available on education.jhu.edu). Scientists such as Paul Broca (1862) and Carl Wernicke (1874) “established that most people (95% of right- handed people and 70% of left-handed people) have two main language areas in their left frontal (Broca) and parietal (Wernicke) lobes’ (quotation available on education.jhu.edu).

Another important discovery regarding brain mapping was made by Korbinian Brodmann (1909) which “devised an elegant system for charting primary visual motor and auditory pathways in the brain’ (quotation available on education.jhu.edu).

The next major evolution in terms of education was made in the first half of the 20th century by Donald Hebb which “made a daring link between brain science and learning through his groundbreaking book The Organization of Behaviour (1949)’ where he described the now-famous Hebbian synapse rule: “Neurons that fire together, wire together’ (education.jhu.edu) His research represents our current fundamental “understanding of plasticity and learning as a whole’ (quotation available on education.jhu.edu).

Another major breakthrough in the science of teaching was made in the same period by “one of the most renowned developmental psychologists of the 1900s’ (quotation available on education.jhu.edu) ,Jean Piaget. His research “was instrumental in defining four stages of cognitive development (sensory–motor stage, preoperational period, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage) and also recognized the individual differences in reaching these milestones’ (quotation available on education.jhu.edu).

Most of the research mentioned it is considered the very foundation of the modern education and it applies in educational systems worldwide. The development of pedagogy, the science of teaching, represents a significant step in the evolution of the modern education and trough this to the contemporary society, it allow the humans to evolved and improve their way of life in the last decades considerably. They achieved in decades what their ancestors did not managed in centuries.

As in all times and in all civilizations school education and teaching have been and are the object of appreciation, pride and research. Men of state, great scholars, philosophers, artists and art school people were bent carefully on such a topic with implications for the development of society and future requirements. A historical truth is present, objectively showing the significance and its size, development of educational institutions and education as an integral part of economic and social development from the early forms to the full institutionalization of education, marking main periods of its evolution: old age, medieval to the present day.

The first known Latin school is presented in ‘The Legend of Saint Gerard’ which operated in Cenad (Banat County) since 1028. It was established to worship and train missionaries having about 30 students. In this school, the youth was under the guidance of a ‘master’, in a building designed specifically for this purpose in reading, writing, teaching basic grammar of the Latin language and church music.

With the start of the Tartar invasion (Dinan 1241), the school gates were closed. Also in Banat, the Burgundian monastery of monks founded at Igriș (Timis County) and Carta (Fagaras) had organized, in addition to school, one library that contained, in addition to theological and religious writings the works of Latin Classics: Cicero, Seneca, Quintilian and others.

The number of young Episcopal schools rose quickly because seeing them useful, many noble bishops have obtained approval for the admission to school of their children. In Transylvania similar schools functioned in Sebes (1352), Oradea (in 1374), Arad, Baia Mare (1337), Medias (1392) etc. In these schools, education was provided by ‘canonical lecturers’. The Romanian village and town regarding its schools are proliferating sensitively in the seventieth century in Transylvania with religious schools and state schools in Moldova and The Romanian County.

The Royal School in Bucharest, built by Prince Grigore Ghica involved middle school pupils learning Slavonic and Romanian, exceeding the schools organized around monasteries. Knowing the great number of books that appear in this period, the activity of the state officers trained here, lead to the conclusion that the school had two levels of training. One preparation dioceses, and other officers of grammars and for the training of clergy. In the first section it emphasized the study of grammar needed in drafting documents, the knowledge of the four arithmetic operations that the officers from Customs and merchants needed. Disciples of the second section, in addition to reading and writing, were forced to memorize religious texts and religious music.

The Romanian State and Moldova were held in the lower level schools that ttaught concepts of reading, writing and arithmetic, and middle schools where the emphasis on Romanian and Slavic grammar, the study of arithmetic, geometry and calligraphy for written papers. There were senior schools (academies) which studied grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, geometry and music. We have descriptions of schools that were organized and functioning monasteries around monasteries, bishops and church staff to prepare not only in the general cult of priests. Schools met the prince who, by name, were organized and supported by a caring reign, which had job preparing for the prince, customs and teachers.

1.2 HISTORY OF THE BRITISH EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

The very first signs of systematic education in the British Islands were present during the Roman Occupation during 43 and 409 A.D. The Roman Civilization brought education to the British Islands trough his systematic colonization policies as it did to other regions of Europe. But when the Roman reign over Britain came to an end so did civilization for the next centuries. As educationengland.org.uk describes it “whatever other institutions of Britain, if any, survived its conversion into England, churches and schools did not“ .

For a better understanding of the evolution and development of systematic education in the British Islands it is best to describe the historical periods that market this process.

The first historical proof of education in Britain, after the collapse of the Roman Empire in the region, was in 597 A.D. “when St. Augustine arrived in England’ (quotation available on educationengland.org.uk) According to the same source St. Augustine “needed priests to conduct church services and boys to sing in the choir’, consequentially he founded schools and churches in England. “He and his successors established two types of school: the grammar school to teach Latin to English priests, and the song school (which some cathedrals still have today) where the ‘sons of gentlefolk’ were trained to sing in cathedral choirs’ (quotation available on educationengland.org.uk).

An year latter after his arrival in England in 598 A.D. St. Augustine “endowed by King Ethelbert “ St. Augustin founded the first Grammar School at Canterbury “which still flourishes under the name of the King’s School, not from its original founder, Ethelbert, but from its re-founder, Henry VIII “(quotation available on educationengland.org.uk).

Grammar schools and songs schools were “distinct foundations, completely differentiated in function as they were in their teaching, and generally in their government’ (quotation available on educationengland.org.uk) In essence songs schools were special or professional schools created for those “engaged in the actual performance of the services’ (quotation available on educationengland.org.uk) whereas grammar schools provided the theoretical part of education, meaning they comprised “ the seven liberal arts and sciences – grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy – which were regarded as a preparation for the study of theology, law and medicine’ ( quotation available on educationengland.org.uk). In that period of time this kind of general education was much needed for both cleric and laic personnel, and provided the foundation of the development of the society in the centuries to come.

One important aspect of the curriculum from that time was that even if it comprised facts such as mathematics, astronomy, law, logic and natural history they were all centred on the Church interests of that time. But this fact did not meant that their students did not developed in the laic part of the society as statesmen, lawyers and civil servants providing the foundation for a civilized society.

“The development of schools in England was interrupted by the long series of Viking invasions which began around 866’( quotation available on educationengland.org.uk). The immense impact that the conflicts with the pagan people known as “ the Norsemen’ .’(educationengland.org.uk) brought the educational system developed by Saint Augustine to his knees. The Vikings brought devastation to almost every part of England excepting Wessex where “Alfred became king in 871’ (quotation available on educationengland.org.uk).

King Alfred is considered an important figure in the preservation of education in English territories according to educationengland.org.uk because he was one of the most educated rulers until then and this very fact reflected on his decisions and ruling capacities. According to the same source King Alfred “showed concern for education and it was under his influence that England’s system of schools began to be reconstructed.’ He also manage to drove the Norsemen out of Winchester, Southampton, London, Oxford, and Chichester, but the invasion continued for another century or so. His contribution on the preservation of education in England it is seen as decisive and by this King Alfred ensured that the British Islands had not fallen again into a dark age such as the one after the Fall of the Roma Empire.

The next invasion was that of William the Conqueror and the Normans in 1066. According to Leach (1915:96), one of the worst effects of the Conquest was ‘the foisting of the Italian adventurer Lanfranc into the See of Canterbury’ (quotation available on educationengland.org.uk).

The same source stats that Lanfranc “seems to have been remarkably uninterested in schools’ and his 107 pages Constitution it imply “no learning whatever beyond knowing the psalms and services by heart’ as a single aspect regarding education in his entire content. However, the Norman Conquest brought with it his secular schools and education suffered some changes, the most notable being the replacement of the English language with French. Despite Lanfranc’s Constitution “education was still largely about vocational training and most pupils were still intending monks or priests’ (quotation available on educationengland.org.uk) .

HISTORY OF THE GERMAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

Somme educational issues are never-ending such as reform of the final years at Gymnasium, the importance of the Abitur with regard to university entrance, and reduction of the time spent studying. It constantly becomes apparent how closely education and society are related. There was particularly lively public participation in the great debates on educational reform during the sixties and seventies. Beyond Laender and federal parliaments parents and parental associations, teachers and teachers’ organizations, political parties, churches, employers’ groupings and trade unions, and industrial circles and research institutes devoted attention to educational issues at that time. Their opinions were widely reported in the media. Today the political emphasis is on such topics as overcoming unemployment, environmental problems, and European unification.

Parental participation in education finds expression in a large number of legal regulations. The Basic Law lays down that bringing up children is the natural right and highest obligation of all parents (art. 6, para. 2). The state’s duty to provide education has the same status as parental rights within the school system. In its judgment on sex education, the federal constitutional court ruled (21.12.1977) that the state has the indisputable right and duty to determine curricula, learning objectives and contents, whilst taking parental rights into account. The state was also held to be obliged to pay heed in schools to parents’ responsibility for their children’s overall upbringing, and to be open to the diversity of views on educational issues to the degree that is compatible with an orderly state school system. The previously mentioned dispute over the federal constitutional court’s ‘crucifix judgment’(16.5.1995) makes clear that parents can get the country’s highest court to reach binding decisions on aspects of educational policy.

The co-operation of schools and parents is regulated in detailed Laender legislation. All the parents of children in a specific class elect a parents council, and all such class councils constitute the school parents council, which together with other such bodies provides delegates for similar institutions at the local, district, and regional levels. Regional or national councils have differing participatory rights, and their advice is sought in basic issues within school policy such as the planning of curricula. The Hess constitution (art. 56, para. 6) even accords the Land parents council a right determination. At the start of the seventies, the dispute over new curricula(such as the Hesse guidelines for German and social studies), the introduction of mixed-ability levels, and the establishment of integrated comprehensives resulted in unusual mobilization of parents. Both the advocates and opponents of integrated comprehensives formed parental associations. There are also church parental organizations. The National Parents Council links Laender associations at the federal level.

When in 1977/78 the North Rhine-Westphalia Land government attempted to replace the tripartite school system by a comprehensive-style co-operative school with an earlier orientation level, ‘A Civic Action Group for a Referendum against the Co-operative School’ was established. This campaign attracted an astonishing response. 3.63 million peoplealmost30 % of those entitled to vote supported a cause where 20 % would have been sufficient. The Land government and parliament in North Rhine-Westphalia then amended the disputed law on school administration, paying heed to popular wishes. This demonstrates the extent to which parents can be mobilized in response to educational developments, and how they can gain influence over school legislation and administration by way of the limited possibilities offered on the various levels of parental organization. In other Laender too, referenda have been employed by oppositions to corrector block governmental decisions on school policy.

The political parties are of crucial importance in the organization and further development of the education system. Article 21 of the Basic Law says that the political parties should assist the development of the nation’s political will. The constitution mainly assigns the power to take political decisions about education to parliaments in the Laender and city-states. However, debates on educational policy also occur in the federal parliament and the upper house to the extent that their sphere of competence is involved. Since1969 the federal authorities have taken on greater powers in educational policy. Local, town, and district councils reach educational decisions within their spheres of reference.

The six parties at present represented in the federal and Laender parliaments SPD, CDU, CSU, FDP, Alliance 90 / The Greens, and the PDS have differing and sometimes antagonistic views about the structure and organization of the education system, despite often similar objectives with regard to European unification, integration of foreigners, and some other aspects of education. The often tough struggle over the course taken by education makes clear that such issues are also questions of power, which must be determined by political means. The parties each have their own policy commissions and study groups, determining an educational programme. The viewpoints of the six parties can only be considered very briefly here.

Particularly disputed is the organization of secondary level I inclusive of the orientation (mixed-ability) level. The CDU/CSU advocates a humanistic and achievement-oriented school system which differentiates according to ability. The intention is to implement the highest possible degree of equality of opportunity. In such a structured system each school type serves a particular educational purpose and should thus develop an autonomous profile. Only in such a system do parents retain a clear-cut right to co-determination of their children’s progress at school. A pupil’s abilities and parental expectations rather than state planning are thus seen as the decisive factor in decisions about the education a child receives. When in early 1996 the CDU group in the Saarland parliament went against party policy and expressed support for a SPD initiative to abolish secondary moderns and, in order to do so, change the Saarland constitution, Kurt Reumann sarcastically remarked: ‘The SPD has failed in its policy of having comprehensives swallow up all types of school, including grammar schools. The CDU is equally stranded and now lacks any clear-cut policy’.

The SPD has a long tradition of commitment to education. Mention need only be made of the 1891 Erfurt Programme and the first large-scale schools programme at the 1906 Mannheim party conference. Since its 1964 policy guidelines the SPD views ‘educational policy as the most important shared task facing our people’, and has called for merging individual school types as within the organizational unity of the comprehensive school. A recently published SPD pamphlet, ‘Education 2000’, states: ‘We want the younger generation to have an education system implementing the right to the best possible education and training while taking into account social demands’. Objectives include increasing all-day schooling and further development of vocational training.

As early as the fifties the FDP advocated federal responsibilities within education as were partially implemented in 1969. In the seventies the FDP also supported comprehensives as an ‘open school’, usually conceived as involving all-day activities. Even in the sixties liberal education policy proclaimed ‘the right to education’ and that objective is still asserted. Liberals call for greater emphasis on values with training in tolerance and humanity, capacity for coping with conflict, and readiness for non-violent solution of discord. The FDP would also like to improve possibilities of taking the Abitur after twelve years at school. In recent years the demand for an ‘open school’ has strikingly diminished. Today the emphasis is on assistance for anyone of ability and on compensating for social disadvantages. The party declares that only early assistance for socially deprived children makes achievement possible. Outstandingly able children, no matter what their social background, should therefore receive differentiated and additional support. Unhindered development of personal potential is ultimately best assisted by a wide range of educational opportunities. What is needed believes the FDP is free competition between ideas, diversity of types of school, more opportunities for independent sources of education, and the provision of competition by private colleges.

Alliance 90 / The Greens see their main task as involving reform of schools from within. They want to make schools places of real life experience and ecological learning. They oppose the pressure of grades, competition, and general stress at school. They fear that current school and university education promote conformist citizens and therefore advocate equivalence between all schools (particularly between state and alternative schools), unified and integrated schooling up to the tenth class, and education in ecologically aware social and democratic behaviour. Special schools for children with learning problems are thought unnecessary.

The educational policies of the PDS (Democratic Socialist Party)postulate integrated comprehensives and all-day schooling. The tripartite school system should be abolished. The party advocates amendment of the University Outline Law with the objective of parity of co-determination for all groups represented. Democratic processes within the public education system are to be extended.

The Protestant Church in Germany has around 28.5 million members (c. 35 %of the total population), and the Roman Catholic Church 28 million (c.34.4 %). On-going secularization has led to a decline in those numbers from year to year particularly in big cities. Today’s Germany also has 370,000adherents of the Christian Orthodox faith, some 200,000 members of Evangelical churches, around 50,000 in Jewish communities, and some 2.3million Muslims, mainly of Turkish origin.

The Basic Law retains the 1919 Weimar Constitution’s separation of church and state but took into account specific historical developments. In both Protestant and Catholic territories the education system was mainly in the hands of the church until the 19th century and only largely came under the state during the past hundred years. It was not until the 1960s that the remaining denominational distinctions among primary schools were abandoned. Links exist between the education system and the churches. The churches have a special say in the organization of religious teaching, which in accordance with art. 7, para. 3 of the Basic Law – is a regular subject at general schools (except for a few non-denominational schools) with pupils free to participate or not. They also influence appointments to chairs of theology at universities and colleges.

Religion is taught at the great majority of schools in accordance with the basic principles of the churches, which take responsibility for seeing that content and presentation accord with their dispensations. In order to guarantee such uniformity, churches are allowed to inspect religious teaching, but their powers vary from Land to Land. Unfortunately in recent decades religious instruction has often become a form of ‘social studies’. But anyone who wants to bring up young Germans as Europeans must impart basic knowledge about religion and its history, necessary for understanding German and European history and the present day.

The voluntary nature of participation in religious education is ensured byte fact that art. 7, para. 2 of the Basic Law accords parents the right to determine whether children participate or not. They can thus also withdraw their children from such classes. From the age of 14 pupils have a right to decide for themselves – as laid down in the Reich’s law on religious education for children (15.7.1921). The Standing Conference of Ministers of Education report dated 7/8.5.1992 provides information about ‘The Situation facing Protestant and Catholic Religious Education’ in the old Federal Republic.

Religious instruction has been the subject of fierce discussions during restructuring of the school system in the five New Laender after 1990.Religious teaching was banned in schools after 1945 in the Soviet occupied zone and later in the GDR. The churches organized denominational instruction on a voluntary basis, but that only reached a few per cent of school pupils, exposed as they were to the anti-church pressure of the ruling Socialist Unity Party. The reintroduction with adoption of the Basic Law of religious instruction as a ‘normal subject’ at state schools in the majority of the New Laender was met with widespread incomprehension and even rejection. Here it becomes apparent that secularization in the former GDR(as the outcome of totalitarian rule and atheistic upbringing of the young since 1933) went much further than in the West. In 1950 92 % of the population in the East still belonged to a Church, but today in the New Laender, traditionally predominantly Protestant, only 25 % still belong to the Protestant Church and 3 % to the Catholic Church. (In the old Federal Republic around 39 % of school pupils are Protestant, 41 % Catholic, and some 5 % Muslim). The social preconditions for (voluntary) religious instruction at state schools are thus completely different in the East.

There has been much discussion about whether the ‘Bremen Clause’ (in article 141 of the Basic Law) is applicable in the New Laender. This runs: ‘Article 7, paragraph 3, clause 1 is not applicable in a Land where another legal regulation applied on January 1, 1949’. This only refers to Bremen and Berlin where the churches and other religious communities are themselves responsible for the provision of religious instruction at schools. The Bremen Clause does not apply to the New Laender. Different regulations applied on January 1, 1949, in Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia but the New Laender established in summer 1990 on the basis of GDR law are not identical with the territories existing at that time.

The reintroduction of religious instruction at state schools already faces difficulties because of lack of teachers. School laws lay down that religious instruction or ethics (for pupils who do not take part in religious instruction)is an obligatory subject. Only Brandenburg has introduced ‘Life-Choices, Ethics, Religious Studies’ as a school subject, but that concept was rejected by the Protestant and Catholic Churches. A constitutional court judgment on the acceptability of this Brandenburg initiative is awaited. The triumph and headline of the pro-PDS ‘Neues Deutschland’ (which used to be the main SED newspaper) on 29.3.1996, after the new Brandenburg school law had got through parliament, revealingly ran: ‘End to Biblical Omnipotence’. In Brandenburg religious instruction can now only be provided by the Church.

Church study centres, offices, and commissions for religious education develop curricula and provide further training for teachers. The churches also run free schools (private schools see section 13), colleges and polytechnics (see section 15.8.9) where theologians, teachers of religion, educationists, and social workers receive training.

The church academies play an important part in public discussion and adult education. Church synods time and again express views on educational issues. Relations between church and state are partly regulated by way of concordats (with the Catholic Church) and partly by treaty (with the Protestant Churches). In the sixties in Laender where denominationally separated primary and secondary schools existed, discussions with the Churches led to establishment of the legal preconditions for transforming these into mixed-community schools as had long been the rule elsewhere. Denominational teacher training for state schools was also abandoned at that time.

After a pause of eight years, discussion of issues in Protestant and Catholic Laender, traditionally predominantly Protestant, only 25 % still belong to the Protestant Church and 3 % to the Catholic Church. (In the old Federal Republic around 39 % of school pupils are Protestant, 41 % Catholic, and some 5 % Muslim). The social preconditions for (voluntary) religious instruction at state schools are thus completely different in the East.

There has been much discussion about whether the ‘Bremen Clause’ (in article 141 of the Basic Law) is applicable in the New Laender. This runs: ‘Article 7, paragraph 3, clause 1 is not applicable in a Land where another legal regulation applied on January 1, 1949’. This only refers to Bremen and Berlin where the churches and other religious communities are themselves responsible for the provision of religious instruction at schools. The Bremen Clause does not apply to the New Laender. Different regulations applied on January 1st, 1949, in Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia but the New Laender established in summer 1990 on the basis for law are not identical with the territories existing at that time.

The reintroduction of religious instruction at state schools already faces difficulties because of lack of teachers. School laws lay down that religious instruction or ethics (for pupils who do not take part in reli0ous instruction)is an obligatory subject. Only Brandenburg has introduced ‘Life-Choices, Ethics, Religious Studies’ as a school subject, but that concept was rejected by the Protestant and Catholic Churches. A constitutional court judgment on the acceptability of this Brandenburg initiative is awaited. The triumphant headline of the pro-PDS ‘Neues Deutschland’ (which used to be the main SED newspaper) on 29.3.1996, after the new Brandenburg school law had got through parliament, revealingly ran: ‘End to Biblical Omnipotence’. In Brandenburg religious instruction can now only be provided by the Church.

Church study centres, offices, and commissions for religious education develop curricula and provide further training for teachers. The churches also run free schools (private schools see section 13), colleges and polytechnics (see section 15.8.9) where theologians, teachers of religion, educationists, and social workers receive training.

The church academies play an important part in public discussion and adult education. Church synods time and again express views on educational issues. Relations between church and state are partly regulated by way of concordats (with the Catholic Church) and partly by treaty (with the Protestant Churches). In the sixties in Laender where denominationally separated primary and secondary schools existed, discussions with the Churches led to establishment of the legal preconditions for transforming these into mixed-community schools as had long been the rule elsewhere. Denominational teacher training for state schools was also abandoned at that time.

After a pause of eight years, discussion of issues in Protestant and Catholic teaching took place at Mainz (on 30.11.1995) between the executive board of the Conference of Ministers of Education, the German Protestant Churches Council, and the German Bishops Conference. The Churches were concerned about lack of expert delineation of the tasks involved in religious teaching within the Conference’s guidelines on work in primary schools, the status of religious studies at the senior level in Gymnasium, and religious instruction at vocational schools. Church representatives stressed: ‘Provision with religious instruction as laid down in article 7 of the Basic Law is not guaranteed in all Laender for various reasons. The training of teachers of religion should be assured by the state with the necessary nationwide provisions’. Reports by Ministers of Education, particularly from the New Laender, showed increases in participation in religious instruction and ethics lessons, but that only involves a minority of pupils.

The Churches presented a memorandum on religious education to the Conference. This stated: ‘The constitutionally assured status of religious instruction as an established subject signifies that the religious education thus mediated is an element within the general education offered in school under state supervision. It is therefore part of general basic education and also of more advanced general education and specialization’.

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS

During the last decades, returns to education in the labour market have been a focus of a lot of studies on social mobility. From a number of studies, two important results can be summarized. First, the relatively strong effect of educational credentials on occupational achievements has been observed in most countries and this effect seems to have increased. Second, despite the striking effect of education, the association between educational credentials and occupational achievements varies considerably across countries. It has been explained that these differences result from the different institutional arrangements of each country, which have been structured through the idiosyncratic development of national educational and occupational systems. The second finding stands against the neo-institutionalistic view on education which argues that the educational system – including organizations, school structure, curricula and the like – has converged towards a more or less universal educational regime across the world, and thus encourages further investigations on how these differences between nations are to be explained.

Most previous studies on educational returns have concentrated on the relatively generalized secondary education or vocational training. On the contrary, this paper is concerned with tertiary education that has experienced a substantial expansion during the last three decades (OECD) but its implications for the labour market outcome of college graduates have rarely investigated in comparative research. This paper will in particular address two factors that influence educational returns; fields of study in higher education and the gender difference. The fields of study have been neglected as an important factor for determining educational returns in most studies, despite the usual assumption that they may mediate the link between the participation in higher education and the educational outcomes. A number of studies have dealt with the gender-specific choice of study fields in higher educational institutions, but its relationship with the labour market return has seldom been explored.

Given their different institutional characteristics regarding the educational system and the labour market, we chose the United Kingdom and Germany for the comparative analysis. Based on the generally close linkage between the educational system and the labour market in Germany and the rather weak signal function of educational credentials in the UK, we expect that these institutional differences will bring different patterns in the placement of college graduates on the labour market. Using the Labour Force Survey 1996 for the UK and the Micro Census (Mikrozensus) 1996 for Germany respectively, we investigate the effect of fields of study and gender differences in higher education on the “university-work’ link.

Approaches to the relationship between educational systems and labour market outcomes are generally divided into two categories. On the one side, the human capital theory directly relates the investment in the education with the outcome (mainly the earnings) on the labour market, based on the presuppositions of neo-classic economics. On the other side, the more sociologically oriented approach that can be named as ‘status-attainment approach’ investigates the extent to which educational credentials affect the achieved status in a given social structure, considering social origins of individuals. According to the assumptions of human capital theorists the educational returns might be determined easily by measuring the invested years for educational credentials. However, the relationship between the education and outcomes on the labour market has often proven to be non-linear, which shows the complexity of that linkage and has driven researchers towards the consideration of institutional settings in which the educational systems are shaped and interact with the labour market.

A seminal study of Maurice et al. (1986) on the recruitment mechanisms in French and German firms suggests two revealing concepts in order to grasp the national differences in the school-work linkage: the qualification and the organizational mobility space. While in Germany the recruitment of new workers takes place on the basis of qualifications the job candidates have achieved, the French modus of recruitment tends to be determined by rather firm-specific factors, namely by the requirement of specific skills or by the preferences of employers. According to Maurice et al., this difference results from the different institutional characteristics of national educational systems; the German vocational education is more specific and skill-oriented, while the French counterpart usually tends to be general. In another comparative study on the school-work link in the USA, Germany and Norway, Allmendinger (1989) also suggests a set of categories for conceptualizing institutional differences between countries. She distinguishes the standardization, which can be indicated by how far the quality of education meets the same standards nationwide, from the stratification, which can be measured by the degree of differentiation within given educational levels. In a more standardized and stratified educational system one can expect that educational credentials are more directly related to the occupational achievement. In a summary of the wide-ranged comparative studies Shavit and Müller (1998) point out the importance of the proportion of tertiary education in a given age-cohort besides these two variables. Increases in the proportion of tertiary education tend to decrease returns to the next below educational level (mostly the highest-level secondary education or maturity qualifications). Comparative studies on educational transition in European countries have shown that there exist considerable differences in the global survival pattern between countries – i.e. the pattern with which pupils go on to the next level of education –, although the effect of class origin appears commonly. According to these results the differences in educational returns between countries should be explained through the historical, institutional, or political peculiarities of each country.

Regarding educational returns and social inequality, there exist a relatively large volume of comparative empirical studies, but the results of these studies have yet not been integrated into a single theoretical framework that might be able to explain both commonalities and differences in educational returns between countries at the same time. Raftery and Hout (1993) suggested a rather microscopic theoretical explanation named “maximally maintained inequality’ (MMI) thesis. The key point of this thesis is that the selective effect of social origin – mainly operationalized by the class positions of parents – does not necessarily diminish on the whole through the expansion of educational chance. According to the MMI thesis, advantaged classes are the first that profit from the educational expansion, and only after the enhanced chance to education has sufficiently been taken up by advantaged classes, the less advantaged ones begin to benefit from the educational expansion.

Although the MMI thesis sheds light upon the results and implications of educational expansion, especially in terms with the mobility of different social classes, it has recently been criticized, because it neglects the fact that there can exist differences and diversities even in a same educational track and also because it does not sufficiently take into account qualitative dimensions. Especially Lucas (2000) proposes as alternative to the MMI thesis the thesis of “effectively maintained inequality’ (EMI), according to which the advantaged groups in a given society try to get maximal advantages from the educational level above the general access as well as from the lower-level educational tracks (i.e. the higher secondary education) that have already become accessible to less advantaged classes. This thesis implies than not only the quantity of educational expansion but also its qualitative dimension – that is, how the expansion is canalized, and to what extent distinctive tracks in a given educational level are affected by it – should be taken into account.

Which implications can we drive from these theoretical discussions with respect to tertiary education? It should be noted that discussions upon the MMI and EMI thesis mainly refer to the secondary education that has been rather generalized in the second half of the 20th century in most industrialized countries. It is true that the tertiary educational institutions have widened their doors to individuals from less advantaged classes; it cannot be argued, however, that the tertiary education has been generalized to such an extent as the secondary education. Accesses to tertiary education still remain very asymmetrical with respect to social origins of students. That does not mean that the diversification and differentiation of educational tracks are unknown phenomena for tertiary education. On the contrary, we are observing the quantitative – through opening of new higher educational institutions – as well as qualitative – through reorganization of existing institutions or introduction of new forms of institutions (for example, vocationally oriented colleges) – differentiation also in the tertiary sector. Together with the considerable increase in the enrolment quote of age cohort into the higher education, this observation lets us suppose that the tertiary education is becoming a central theme regarding the inequality of educational chance in near future.

2.1. STRUCTURE

The situation from this point in any country in the world is caused by a factor slightly less visible factor acting for some time and will show the effects for many years to come: the educational system.

Lacking alternatives, many have blindly accepted what they were told in sweet Leninist style: ‘Learn, learn, learn!’ An effective education system is one that ensures equality the compulsory education and which promotes excellence in higher education.

UK (United Kingdom, UK) consists of four separate countries: England (England), Wales (Wales), Scotland (Scotland) and Northern Ireland (North Ireland). They have separate education systems under separate governments. Education systems in England, Wales and Northern Ireland are similar, the Scottish being slightly different.

All but have an internationally recognized education that can provide students with an educational experience abroad quality, the ideal destination for learning English.

State schools in England, Wales and Northern Ireland follow a national curriculum which was introduced by the UK through education reform act of 1988. Independent schools are not required to appeal to the curriculum, as long as you own a reasonable standard for education.

In Wales, all pupils are required to learn Welsh. In most schools, they teach Welsh as a second language.

Scotland does not have a national curriculum although schools are forced to comply with certain national rules in this regard. Learning and Teaching Scotland has a key role in helping schools to adjust and refine the curriculum they offer.

By law, all children between age 5 and 16, have to go to school for education. The UK National Curriculum introduced in 1992 and all scholars have obligations to their studies until the age of 16. Independent private schools are not required by law to follow the public.

The most important National Curriculum core subjects are: English, Mathematics and Holy Town. Foundation subjects are design and technology, information and communications technology to history and geography, modern foreign languages, music, art and design, physical education, religious education and citizenship.

Northern Ireland has a similar education, but schools in Ireland are allowed to add new items to the National Curriculum, depending on the needs of the school and the existing situation. The curriculum also includes the Irish language in Ireland or Welsh in those areas.

After five years of secondary education, students, schoolchildren go through exams in the subjects of General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). GCSE exam is a single issue, examined by a school board. Students normally choose up to 10 subjects (no minimum or maximum – in exchange as many subjects make an impression and help)

After taking GCSE exam, students may waive continuing education. Naturally they choose to continue their studies through to register for Colleges or a more advanced level, A-Level exam (Advanced Level) that are required recording in a UK university.

School based, called Grundschule is primary school correspondence Romania. It has a duration of four years in all provinces and is compulsory for all children. At its completion, the teachers decide, depending on the results – grades or marks – what type of school students can follow.

Dividing the above is not the ultimate purpose, as many parents believe. Good students in school can move from school to middle school or even real in the main school gymnasium.

After graduating from school principal or the real, there are multiple opportunities to attend other schools to get general maturity – Abitur. These options vary from province to province. There are provinces that have a type of school called Gesamtschule – ‘school’. This system does not separate students by the 4th grade in 3 different school types, but students follow the same school. Schools offer only certain items of different educational levels of training.

A German foreign education system appears like a node consists of multiple threads. Description German education system is almost impossible, each of the 16 provinces with its own system. Switching from one type of school to another is done at different ages, depending on the respective provincial legislation.

Schooling is compulsory from age 6 to 18 years. On average, children start school at six years of the base that has a duration of 4 years and over, if not repeat remain at 10 years. Then, along with parents, decide what form of school ahead: school based, the real, gymnasium or school, obtaining certificates of these forms of school graduation. Until at least age 15 or 16, children attend school, so until completion of the 9th or 10th. After class 9th and 10th students can decide to trade or to continue attending secondary school or primary school to achieve maturity diploma (Abitur). Here attending high gear. Students are required to 18 years to pursue a professional qualification. They must therefore be decided after completion of the 9th or 10th or professional qualification, or for attending secondary school or primary school to achieve maturity. If you have decided for learning a trade, you have to attend after class 10th parallel to schooling in the firm, and a vocational school (so-called dual qualification in). Or can follow in order to obtain a qualification, the courses of specialized schools.

Class 5th to 10th I called the second stage or middle level. Classes 11-13 are called secondary stage II or higher level. At the end of the upper step is usually achieved maturity (Abitur). Universities and high schools can only be followed with Abitur.

2.2. MAIN ASPECTS

Even government funding risks and opportunities are accepted as inextricably linked to entrepreneurship. Risk is defined as the threat or possibility that an action or event will affect the organization’s ability to achieve its objectives or adversely in profitable. Home governmental executive agency of higher education funding in England is the Higher Education Funding Council for England, Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE), which establishes the annual higher education terms and conditions for payment of grants.

The framework contract financing (Financial Analysis) provides specific conditions for educational institutions, funds available and educational provisions that schools agree to justify their funds. The purpose of the contract is to establish formal relations between HEFCE and the governing bodies of higher education institutions it funds. It reflects HEFCE responsibility to provide annually to Parliament to ensure that: funds are used for the purpose for which they were granted; risk management, control and management / governance in this sector are effective; the value of money is accumulated / preserved or money is spent effectively, efficiently and economically with economies (Economy, Efficiency and Effectiveness – value for money being Achieved).

Those who want to study in Germany, they can choose between several types of higher education such as on the one hand Universities and Technical Universities, and on the other faculties, which are based on the assimilation of materials from a practical and least in theory, so-called Fachhochschulen.

If the first two faculties are found everywhere in Europe, the Fachhochschulen, they are more a feature of the German university system. The main features of such type of faculty are: emphasis is on practical rather than theory; courses held by a small number of students; materials have very much to do with what is facing an alumnus at work; and not least during the study is much lower as a college / university normal; a Fachhoschule graduates who graduated with good grades can enrol in a university doctorate just because Fachhochschulen does not allow completion of a PhD.

Grundstudium – lasts four semesters, i.e. two years, during which students are introduced to the theoretical part of this type of study, they must attend the general theory courses, seminars and less electives. So how is structured the first part of the faculty – Grundstudium – the principal is for all students equally. Grundstudium usually ends with an examination designed to verify knowledge gained in the first part of the study and called Vordiplom times Zwischenprüfung times, it depends from one faculty to another.

The success of such an examination will pave the way for the second part of the study so called – Hauptstudium -. Preparation for this exam is on average one semester. With the entry into Hauptstudium open to students many opportunities by which they can realize their own interests and visions related to the field of studies. In the foreground is the realization of a single zone, depending on preference and intended, but according to everyone’s future plans.

Hauptstudium is a deeper theoretical study in which the student must attend seminars, guardians, tutors, etc.. Embark on this should be done in time for the large number of students because places are limited.

Length study of this second part is comprised of four to six semesters. The exception is the faculty of medicine in which Hauptstudium takes 10 semesters. Hauptstudium ends with a written and one oral. In addition each student must also teach a subject in which they specialize. Exam preparation time and theme is two semesters. Of particular importance is the graduation a semester abroad, which can be done after Zwischenprüfung or Hauptstudium because it could provide new opportunities in the international pursuit of a career or the possibility of obtaining a job in an international company.

2.3. STATE EDUCATION

To access to higher education should absolve a young British 12 grades. The final examination in the UK is called A-Levels and 2007 it can automatically equate Romanian Baccalaureate. In other words, any graduate school in Romania can attend university in the UK. Applying to UK universities is through a system called UCAS unique online (www.ucas.com). This system can be applied to a maximum of five (5) academic programs.

Higher education typically begins with a program called Bachelor Degree equivalent undergraduate programs in Romania. After 3 or 4 years of study under such a program the student will have a Bachelor degree and will be able to access a Master program.

In the UK there are many types of programs in which high school graduates have access. In essence they all represent the same stage in education.

The most common abbreviations for the programs are: BA – Bachelor of Arts; BSc – Bachelor of Science; BEng – Bachelor of Engineering; BArch – Bachelor of Architecture; LLB – Bachelor of Law; MA – Master of Arts [Meng – Master of Engineering [these programs are all undergraduate programs, not the master programs. To meet the very old universities (Oxford, Cambridge, UCL, the Scottish) kept the tradition].

These abbreviations can be added the title of Hons (Honors) degree. It is awarded to students who complete a program of four years, the last or the last two years of specialization. For example: BA / BSc / MA Hons in Accounting. 3-year programs will have this title.

To be admitted to a Master’s program a student must graduate from a Bachelor Degree. As with bachelor programs at Masters level there are different names: MA – Master of Arts; MSc – Master of Science; MPhil – Master of Philosophy (usually 2 years with strong emphasis on research); MLitt – Master of Letters; MBA – Master of Business Administration.

The Tuition Fee Loan fully covers the tuition for students admitted to a Bachelor program in the UK at a state university. For this loan can apply all of the students coming from the European Union, it is automatically entitling without selection. Being a loan, it will be refunded. During the studies the student does not have to repay anything. He will begin to do so only after graduation and only when annual income exceeds a certain threshold depending on where choosing to stay after graduation.

For example, if a student chooses to remain in the UK after graduation, he will begin to repay the loan than when annual income is over 21,000 GBP / year. When reached this milestone, he will begin to repay gradually the national tax system, a percentage of the amount that exceeds this threshold. If you win 21.100 GBP / year, next year will repay 9% of 100 GBP (= 9 pounds), thus remaining income or very little damage.

This loan has no interest banking but is adjusted annually for inflation.

The first step before applying for admission to one of the schools in Germany, is to ask the Diploma Supplement, in which Romania introduced since 2005, which is based on the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS), with the 60 credits corresponding to one year of study. This supplement to certificate is recognized throughout the European Union and can be written in English, German and French.

But those who have graduated several years ago, but want to continue their German masters or doctoral studies can apply to the university who have completed a diploma supplement, and another diploma, where the notes to be equated with transferable credits.

In order to attend a university in Germany baccalaureate applicant shall seek recognition in the country of origin, the competent institution. Obtained a baccalaureate degree from a college / school theory can study at any university in Germany regardless of the profile. With a baccalaureate degree from a school profile obtained e.g. economic applicant can only study at a university with the same profile ex. economic profile identical to that of degree, i.e. a Fachhochschule. However, if the applicant wishes to attend other universities, which is not in the field, for example. medicine, you have to make an addition to baccalaureate home and get on completion of specialized schools this (Studienkolleg) a baccalaureate degree in Germany, the theoretical profile.

Applicants must then choose which school they want to attend. In the faculty offices are dealing with the admission of foreign students, the so-called (Ausländerämte – International Angelegenheiten). Another condition for admission to college is to prove that the person of citizenship that Romania has sufficient knowledge of the German language to attend a university in Germany, the German language exam elimination DSH, TestDaF, ZOP.

If German language skills are minimal person should follow intensive German language, then language examination to give the college. The level of language which should be taken for admission varies from province to province.

Those who want to make Germany a Master / Magister, or Master must also address Ausländeramt office / International Angelegenheiten the faculty chosen.

ECTS (The European Credit Transfer System) – European Credit Transfer System was introduced by the European Commission in order to facilitate market access of foreign students European university to provide translucent and mobility in Europe. The main obstacle to student mobility and assertion European market was that there were insufficient studies and diplomas recognized students. So we wanted a unit on European notes in providing for a better appreciation of them. An academic year is 60 credits.

Test results are expressed in grades.

German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) offers scholarships for the academic year 2012/2013. Are funded language courses, master and research internships at universities in Germany. It is possible to apply to a degree program in English.

2.4. PRIVATE EDUCATION

The school system in the UK can proudly call itself one of the most complicated in Europe. Not only it is not the same across the kingdom but also the number of changes that have taken place in the last 50 years have made it equally confusing for a British person or for a foreigner. Let’s start from the beginning.

There are two types of schools in the UK: state schools where education is free and private schools where you have to pay. The only thing is that private schools in Britain are called … public. Why? A long time ago when education was a privilege of the rich, the only schools where poor people could go were funded by charities (organizations that collect money for people in need). As it was public money, the schools for the poor were called public schools. Logical, isn’t it? However, in the course of history many public schools became very successful and turned into expensive private schools but the conservative British continued to call them public schools.

Until very recently public schools were either boys or girls only. Public schools can be full boarding (pupils live there all academic year except for holidays), normal (pupils go home every day) and mixed (some pupils go home every weekend and some stay) (information available on http://www.langust.ru/review/private.shtml).

When most German pupils are leaving school for the day, students at Rhine Main International Montessori School (Rims) are getting a crash course in English.

That’s just one aspect that sets the private school apart from its publicly funded counterparts. Not only do the children have daily English classes; they stay well past midday to participate in drama and sports. For this amount of coaching, parents spend $500 a month, unusual in egalitarian Germany.

Unlike many countries in the world, Germany has little tradition of private schools. In part because the state set high standards for public schools and the constitution has strict guidelines governing private schools, Germans have tended to view education as a state responsibility. But with an international study in 2000 ranking Germany’s prized educational system among the bottom third of industrial nations, parents have become much more open to the private school option.

Since 1995, the number of pupils attending private schools in Germany has climbed 61 per cent for primary schools and 25 per cent overall, according to German government statistics. And although private schools still only account for only 6 per cent of all schools – compared with 60 per cent in Belgium, 30 per cent in Spain, and 25 per cent in France – as many as a quarter of German parents would opt for a private school if one were available to them, says Christian Lucas, president of the German Association of Private Schools in Frankfurt.

Perhaps nowhere is the boom of private schools as visible, and controversial, than in the eastern regions where private schools were forbidden only 15 years ago. In Saxony, where population decline has forced 100 public schools to shut down annually over the past few years, Mr Ungerer, the mayor, fought for his town’s public school, so that children wouldn’t travel up to two hours to attend school. But when the school did close, Ungerer allowed a private high school that charges $50 monthly for tuition and $90 for afternoon programs to operate from the old public high school’s building. It looks like private schools can react to problems better and faster, admits Ungerer.

Mr Lucas of the Association of Private Schools concurs, saying private schools can be a catalyst for change in the public school system. But others, like Frankfurt education specialist Manfred Weiss, argue that public schools are starting to improve because they were shocked by the PISA results, not because they’re scared that increasingly popular private schools are going to out- perform public schools. As a case in point, Mr Weiss points to the government’s commitment of $4 million to build all-day schools (currently, nearly all public-school students, even high scholars, get out by 1:30 p.m.).

Mr Weiss also says that studies have shown that private schools aren’t necessarily better than public ones. Although private-school students tend to do better than public-school students, that may have as much to do with their more privileged social backgrounds as it has to do with the quality of education they’re getting, adds Wilfried Bos, director of the Institute of School Development Research at Dortmund University.

Indeed, perhaps nowhere in the industrialized world does the school success of children depend so much on the social background of their parents. Germany’s rigorous tracking of pupils into three different school paths, determining as early as age 9 whether they will end up at a university or learn a trade, puts children of immigrants and lower social backgrounds at a disadvantage. The latest PISA study released last fall shows that children of professors are four times more likely to go to a ‘gymnasium’ – the university-track high school – than children of car repairmen.

The private schools cropping up range in cost from a few dollars per month for some Catholic schools to several thousand dollars per month for international schools (information available on http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0130/p07s02-woeu.html).

2.5. EDUCATION TO THE AGE OF 18

By law, all children living in the UK receive a free education in school and by the age of 18. Like any educational system, is staging the steps of age. By doing this, British schools are divided into four key stages. Primary schools are for children aged between 5 and 11 years, and have two levels: one for children aged 5 and 7 years and one for children aged between 7 and 11 years. Some primary schools include a nursery for children 3 and 4 years.

Secondary schools are for children aged between 11 and 16 years.

 After the age of 16 years education in the UK is not mandatory, students at this age with three options: obtaining a vocational qualification (NVQ – National Vocational Qualification); continuation high school, ‘Sixth Form’, completed with baccalaureate stage (A – Levels); commencement of professional activity.

Professional qualification NVQ is recommended to those who want to work in specialty areas such as engineering, transport, goods and services, construction, communication, health, etc..

Within two years of ‘Sixth Form’ the student has the opportunity to decide on study material that will deepen them (i.e., three or four subjects of study). These will be studied intensively, about 10 lessons in each subject per week. In principle, the options are based on faculty, the student wishes to pursue. There is a difference between qualifications NVQ A-Levels exams namely that the first offers a specialization theoretical and practical, and exams A – Levels offers a diploma equivalent to European Baccalaureate.

The education system in the UK offers a range of English courses required of those who are not native speakers of English and who wish to study or work in the British realm. The courses ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Languages) are free and which addresses both the beginner level and those who have an advanced level of English. Training lasts about 3 months, depending on the level and number of hours taken weekly. At the end of these courses qualification obtained is recognized through a certificate or diploma. Enrolments in these courses are a month before the start of classes (i.e. September to January). Courses are funded by the British government. Those wishing to enrol need an ID to attest that they are European Union citizens (passport or identity card). Before the actual course participants are screened to determine the initial level of knowledge of English.

EFL (English as a Foreign Language) is another type of English course. The costs of such training varies by college choice. Those who opt for an EFL course on your own just go to test, so just paying the examination fee. EFL certificates that can be obtained are: Cambridge First Certificate (level B2), Cambridge Advanced Certificate (level C1), Cambridge Proficiency Certificate (level C2).

With normal education is compulsory from 6 to 15 or 16 years – depending on the Land (state in Germany). Shortened Education is compulsory up to age 18 for those who do not attend full-time. Teaching half a day is the traditional form of teaching and schools with extended an exception in Germany, despite expansion of schools with normal accents is one of federal education reform.

Depending on the laws of the respective Land, parents decide what type of school they attend lower secondary school children, based on the evaluation of primary school students who meet certain performance criteria and / or the decision of the school authorities.

School year spans between 188 and 208 days in the period from August to July. Contains 19-28 hours a week in primary and secondary schools 28 to 30 hours.

The public school system is financed on the division of responsibilities between the Länder and Kommunen (local): While local authorities bear the costs of paying non-teaching staff and materials, Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder are responsible for paying teachers. Public schools do not charge tuition fees.

In Germany, the responsibility for the education system is subject to the federal structure of the country. According Grundgesetz (constitution), legislation and administration of education are more largely the responsibility of the Länder (in a system comprising the Ministries of Education of the Länder, regional and local school offices), and coordinates national Kultusministerkonferenz (Conference of Ministers of Education and Culture of the Länder). The federal government’s burden falls on the general law for higher education and financial assistance to individual training, including the promotion of young academics.

2.6. HIGHER EDUCATION

Studies in the UK are among the most desired in each year. Language teaching, and relatively easy admission, are some of the reasons why more and more students opt for higher studies in the UK. If you want to join them, find out how you can study in one of the British universities!

In the UK there are 114 universities. Duration university differs from one area to another, such as in England and Wales, it is 3 years, while in Scotland, it is 4 years.

To apply for a UK university, you will need: an UCAS online form; a transcript of high school grades; a letter of recommendation in English; a motivation essay about 4000 characters; a Certificate for English language proficiency (IELTS, TOEFL, Cambridge).

Each university has its own admission criteria and requirements. However, you have to remember that, in the humanities and social acceptance is more difficult than in the exact sciences. This is because UK universities want to attract students in areas less attractive.

The first step in the application process is to create an account on the UCAS website, the agency that regulates access to higher education in Britain. To complete all fields in the application data sheet, you will need the above documents. Data to be completed until January 15 and 15 of October for students who apply to Oxford or Cambridge universities, and for those who wish to pursue studies in the medical field. The answer you can get the latest on 31 April, when the session closes UCAS admissions.

Tuition fees are quite high in the UK, the amount you may need to pay, in general, being about 3200 pounds.

Life in the UK is not exactly cheap, so make sure you have the consistent monthly income so you can maintain. Campus accommodation is very expensive, ranging between 87 pounds and 150 pounds per week. Dinner at a restaurant will cost between 12 and 20 pounds, and the food a week, around 40 pounds. For transportation, will give about 41 pounds per week or £ 86 per month, depending on the subscription preferred. An output movie will cost between 7 and 10 pounds, and the ticket to a concert, at least 10 pounds.

To get extra money, you can either work or to get a loan. If you choose to work, you need a ‘work permit’, which can be obtained by completing a form, which must be accompanied by two passport size photos, identity card or passport and proof that you can maintain – in other words that does not benefit from social support.

As for the loan, you can apply to get one on the [anonimizat] (SLC).

The most famous universities of Cambridge and Oxford UK are – two of the best higher education institutions in the world. Of the 114 universities in the UK, and remember: University of Aberdeen, University of Birmingham, University of Buckingham, Cardiff University, City University London, University of Edinburgh, University of Exeter, University of Glasgow University of London, University of Nottingham.

The higher education system in Germany is characterized by the density of its institutions, the highly qualified professors for each specialty area. More and more universities adapt their Bachelor and Master studies diplomas recognized internationally. Especially in post-graduate education are a large number of offers to study in English. Federal Government actively participates in the Bologna process, which aims to create by 2010 a European higher education area unit. Since the mid-90s the number of foreigners interested to study in Germany rose sharply.

The number of students coming from Romania and it has increased considerably in recent years. If in 2002 there were 2,860 students enrolled in Romania to Germany, in 2004 this number had risen already to 3977. During 2006 there were nearly 4,000 Romanian students at German universities. Guide higher education institutions currently registered nearly 250 higher education cooperation between German and Romanian.

2.7. OTHER TYPES OF EDUCATION

In today’s world of rapid change, the more we know many cultures, customs and languages, the better prepared we are for the future. Schools and colleges in Europe provides education to the highest level and qualifications that can have a decisive role in the future of any young career. Educational systems in different countries of course have specific traits but all offer solid academic knowledge and qualifications recognized throughout the world, which is the access to the best higher education institutions worldwide.

Every parent wants to provide the best education possible for their children. The school choice should take into account many factors outside school reputation for being the best choice for the child’s needs and abilities. Integral Educational Programs, part of the Integral Group benefits from 17 years of experience in providing educational consulting services for parents and children. If you chose Europe can benefit from individual advice on study options and free assistance in the enrolment and admission, as well as assistance in organizing your trip and a pleasant and useful experience.

The UK is recognized as one of the countries which traditionally attracts a large number of students from abroad. More than 20 000 students of different nationalities in mainland Europe, Asia, Africa and America studying in private schools in the UK. They not only get a quality education, but as representatives of different cultures and traditions, they contribute to the diversity of these institutions.

More and more families are choosing the UK’s excellent academic reputation, tradition in education, diversity of activities in and outside school, excellent academic results, safe, enjoyed the attention each student and good discipline imposed by institutions. Before the emergence and use of new technologies in the mass of information and communication, educators using the print and mail services for what is called education by correspondence. Since 1910, a study on a distance learning institution gives us a measure of what is happening in the United States and Canada: “As many as 1,600 people are involved in training activities by the International Correspondence School, whose main mission is to penetrate the heterogeneous mass of humanity to discover direct and persuade individuals to benefits of education. know not another revolutionary innovation among existing methods and more radical than this. We are dealing here with an institution that spends annually over two million dollars to create a demand for education’.

This form of distance education remains a viable training method where not yet developed the necessary infrastructure of a modern and efficient approaches. It should be noted here some of the current forms of education by correspondence, the learning materials are in electronic format and can be delivered on diskettes, CD-ROM or through e-mail. Thus obtained some advantages over postal correspondence distance learning: cost reduction, staff and storage.

Radio distance education had a lower popularity, being used with extraordinary development of this new carrier of information and dissolving the other functions of communication by media: promotion of culture, information, socialization and even entertainment. Immediately after getting the first educational radio licenses by the University of Salt Lake City, in 1921, appeared in Romania early feedback on new pedagogical methods provided by the broadcaster. At the suggestion of Dimitrie Gusti, as president of the Romanian Radio Society, have organized two conferences from 1930 radio upper and lower classes. Without a doubt, radio has had its predominant position in the area of ​​instruction and education informal school type.

Similar is the case of education through television, which also takes at a time, from the book / manual and press multiple loads of storage and transfer of information contained in an explosion. Through its extensive and varied resources and taking advantage of familiarity, television contributes to cultural information, but can also be used for education, maintaining that alternative pedagogical focus of educators since 1945 (when the State University of Iowa get first license ) and up to the middle of the eighth decade. Research has shown that the results obtained are below the school television obtained by traditional education. The distinction that is required is between 1. General educational TV programs, instructional objectives by pursuing educational influence spread and 2. Programs designed and manufactured according to school type programs as alternative education, which benefit from the specific advantages of education distance: a teacher lead learning situations for a greater number of students; are inaccessible to direct observation facts presented to the student; attractiveness of materials by combining image with sound; contents can be transmitted endorsement personalities present at the lesson; cancellation impediment distance; Further re-use of materials, etc..

The receiver is a large and heterogeneous mass of people, you run the risk of anyone address not address anyone; definitely no reception of the message by those whom it is addressed specifically (cannot be sure that students will receive a show about literature, prepared especially for them). Communication through radio and television has essentially a unidirectional character, lacking reverse connection; between transmitter and receiver and there is no real dialogue.

Another type of teaching and learning at a distance, which is gaining ground every day, is education via the Internet. Support courses are stored on a computer in a specific shape and a browser usually Internet or in some rare cases, a special program allows students to access information at their own pace assimilation. Learning materials are presented in a multimedia form – the combination of text, sound, images and even short films – and hyperlink mode – a structural model where access to other information is done through multiple links from one page; in turn allow other pages return, deepening by accessing other pages similar topic or jump to other types of information.

In a feasibility study in order to implement one of the forms of distance education, comparisons between them can be done through a series of indicators that characterize, according to some researchers, a paradigm of distance education: scale – the number of participants involved in a learning activity for a specified period; symmetry – the degree to which it can focus attention on each participant (inversely proportional to the size of the class); perception – the technical quality of materials received by the participants; interactivity – the minimum length of time it can get a response in an interaction; co-location – the physical distance that separates the participants; means – the range of means / tools work available to participants for learning and communication; costs – costs a student to achieve a defined set of objectives; time – the time required control a learner to achieve learning objectives.

3. The main differences between the British and the German Educational Systems

In Europe, compulsory education lasts at least eight years, however, in the vast majority of countries, the duration is between nine to ten years. In some countries, the duration is greater:

• 11 years in the United Kingdom (England, Wales and Scotland);

• 12 years in the United Kingdom (Northern Ireland).

In the UK, compulsory education starts at the age of four or five, but children are integrated directly into school programs.

The end of compulsory education to date often coincides the transition from lower secondary to upper secondary school or the end of a single structure. However, in the United Kingdom (England, Wales and Northern Ireland) and Germany – Liechtenstein – (Gymnasium), the transition from lower secondary to upper secondary education takes place in one or two years before the end of compulsory education. In Germany, the upper secondary level is covered by compulsory schooling. After the age of fifteen or sixteen, young people are required to complete at least one-time training program lasting two or three years.

In the United Kingdom (England, Wales and Northern Ireland), parents have the right to express option for a particular school. Schools must publish the admission criteria and, if these criteria are met, schools must comply with the option to allow parents and children to the occupation number of places made available, based on the physical capacity of the school. If there are more applications than places available, places are distributed according to criteria released by the school in case of an overload. Applications that are not accepted are considered for the next school which was opted for.

In addition to differences in the average size, schools should emphasize the importance of schools by the size distribution at the country level. Significant differences related to school size can be seen in Germany. Here, some students study in schools for 15 years with a total of 100 students, while others attend schools with over 1,000 students. This substantial difference in the number of students is explained largely by geographic particularities and differences between urban and rural areas. Differences between urban and rural areas is the main explanation of the largest differences in the size of schools in Europe.

National monitoring based on standardized assessment of students is widespread in Europe today. In most countries which use standardized assessment of students, except Germany, the results are aggregated to give an overview of the functioning of the national or central education system. Most countries use all available results from national tests to obtain information in this regard.

In contrast, a small number of countries, schools are given a low degree of autonomy in financial and human resources. This is the case in Germany (although the legislation passed in 2010 gave schools full autonomy for operating expenditure).

The central government’s authority is at the highest level in education in most countries. In three cases, however, most decisions on education are taken at the regional level of government, namely the governments of the German Länder in linguistic communities.

Germany: With regard to the minority of teachers who are not career civil servants, the contract may be Land or municipality.

United Kingdom: The employer varies depending on the legal status of the school. In England and Wales, a teacher concludes contracts with either the local authority or the governing body of the school. In Northern Ireland, the contract is concluded with the Commission for Education and Library Boards, council for Catholic schools supported or governing board of the school.

3.1. Positive aspects

The UK’s education system has been subject to much change and reform since the Second World War. It has expanded dramatically and widened access to all parts of the system, from primary school right through to university level. Furthermore, in the drive to raise standards, the UK education system has been on the forefront of the movement to introduce market forces into education. With a twin pronged approach of greater parental choice and better school accountability, the UK has strived to improve the productivity and efficiency of its schools.

What has all this change achieved in terms of performance? We have shown that the UK spends a moderate amount on education, but achieves an above average performance in terms of the expected average years of education. The UK performs particularly well at the upper end of the distribution, with one of the highest graduation rates amongst OECD countries. However, we have identified significant problems at the lower end of the education distribution, and in particular the high proportion of workers leaving with GCSE qualifications or less (high school drop outs) and the variability of basic skills amongst less educated workers.

Even given this relatively good (and cost efficient) performance at the upper end of the education distribution, it may nonetheless be the case that the UK education system is failing to meet the demands of the labour market, as compared to many other countries’ education systems. For example, the evidence suggests that there are relatively high returns to certain qualifications in the UK, such as degrees. This may move course indicate high demand for these qualifications or insufficient supply or both.

If the UK has too many unskilled or low skilled workers (and by implication relatively too few highly skilled and graduate workers), the excess supply of low skill workers will push down their relative wage. This will automatically push up the return to a degree, which is derived from relative graduate salaries. This is consistent with the story that the UK’s performance at the lower end of the educational distribution is much more problematic. This is also consistent with evidence of high returns to basic skills in the UK as compared to other European countries. The high premium for basic skills, and in particular numerical skills, may reflect insufficient supply of such skills – clearly an indictment of the quality, if not the quantity, of output from the education system (information found on www.cls.ioe.ac.uk/library-media%5Cdocuments) .

Parental choice is a major force in the school system; the constitution guarantees not only the freedom for parents to choose the school for their children, but also the mode of employment and the manner of upbringing. Important parental decisions in regard to school choice may be guided by recommendations made by the school faculty or a report detailing the suitability of transfer. However, parents make the ultimate decision. As a result, the number of students attending the Gymnasium has increased, as well as the number of those taking the Abitur and attending a university. The increase of students has not only put a strain on schools and universities, but has reduced the desirability of the comprehensive system.

Critics of the tripartite system argue that parents do not always choose schools based on their children’s best interest, but based instead on their own social background. Consequently, students may find themselves unprepared for the school’s demands. Critics of the comprehensive school argue that students have opportunities to transfer in the tripartite system based on performance, thus rendering the comprehensive system unnecessary. In response, supporters of the comprehensive school contend that transferability would be easier than in the tripartite system ( information found on http://web.wm.edu/so/monitor/issues/14-1/2-andell.pdf) .

3.2. Negative aspects

During the fifties and sixties some developments in the GDR were of relevance for educational discussions in the West, serving as ‘precursors ‘for such developments as the replacement of tiny rural schools by central schools serving larger catchment areas, development of alternative forms of university admission, introduction of student grants (the Honnef Modelin 1957), implementation of work studies (alongside polytechnic training),and extension of compulsory schooling. On the other hand, the GDR ‘unified school’ was generally viewed negatively in discussions of comprehensive schools during the sixties and seventies.

Many of Germany’s schools are in need of better funding for bigger classrooms and better resources, from Hauptschulen in Berlin to private schools in Munich. Kindergartens are not freely available for all children, which may contribute to the class divisions seen in the three-tiered system. The transition to all-day schools, as in schools C and D, may produce higher results, as German students were originally found to spend signify scantly less time in the classroom than the OECD average. Finally, the central role of parents in the education of their children makes up a large part of the debate between comprehensive and traditional schools. While the headmaster at the Gesamtschule argued that parental choice places students at a disadvantage if parents do not take their child’s best interests into consideration, students at the Gymnasium mirror their parents’ concern about the quality of comprehensive schools. Additionally, a lack of parental involvement can negatively affect the students’ achievement, as reflected in school B.

Addressing any of these issues may lead to higher PISA scores in the future, but the strong division of the country over education reform is unlikely to result in a complete restructuring of the system (information found on http://web.wm.edu/so/monitor/issues/14-1/2-andell.pdf) .

Finally, the proportion of young people in the age groups 20-24 years old and 30-34 years old, who have completed higher education has continued to grow; for the second group, it has grown steadily since 2000. Nevertheless, the entry of young people into the labour market is a concern in many countries because of the negative impact of the economic crisis. Results show that a growing number of young people seem to be overqualified for the jobs they find. This shows the need for more efficient forecasts on short-term needs and long-term labour market to ensure a solid career and educational guidance in schools so that the educational qualifications of the young people assures real opportunities to better match the labour market .

3.3. The most effective system

The most effective system is found in both England and Germany due to the doctoral form of education.

A number of philosophers have pondered on education and attempted to describe it.

In this sense, Plato said that ‘education aims to give the soul and the body beauty and perfection.’

I. Kant believes that ‘education aims to achieve all the perfections that the human nature is capable of.’

In general, the aim can also mean the absence of failure to reach a suggested target. So in education, we must know what we want to know and where we need to go. Education is the main resource of an individual’s development, but also a major prerequisite in preserving the national identity. It is designed to help children grow to become successful adults. Through this end, education must give every child the knowledge and skills necessary for the proper functioning in modern society. Children are hungry for opportunities in order to explore the environment and live the experiences that shape them with pleasure and curiosity to continue learning throughout their lives. Children really need to realize how much they have learned and discovered, without being scared of the idea of new knowledge.

Education is designed to teach them to aspire the truth, to develop moral responsibility, the ability to discern right from wrong, however, accountable to choose good, to discern good relationship with the world surrounding them, awareness of the world around them and how they act.

States Member the Commission shall submit proposals based on national experiences and research for the quality of education and training based on the principles of efficiency and equity . The integration of these principles at all levels of education and training should guarantee access to education and training, particularly those most disadvantaged. Along with contributing to the objectives of competitiveness and social cohesion aimed at the integration of these principles will also allow reducing long-term costs that are a consequence of inequalities in education and training, and internal and external EU challenges.

Education and training policies of the States Member shall integrate with a greater efficiency and equity principles when engaging in reforms of their education and training systems. The experiences of certain States Member and research on which this communication demonstrates the beneficial effects of education and training policies can occur in terms of equity and efficiency.

However, many educational and training systems replicate and even accentuates disparities, the most vulnerable people are those who have the lowest qualifications (32% in 2004). During their show they do not have the same opportunities for education and training for people who are in a complete studying program, including graduation.

Education and training policies based on efficiency and equity offers the opportunity to maximize long-term benefits, reducing the economic and social costs and add value to other policy areas such as sustainable development and social cohesion. Indeed, such initiatives entail some costs, but the costs of inaction and the high incidence of early schooling is higher.

Ensuring the quality education and training for all EU citizens will also allow the EU to face socio-economic challenges facing globalization and competitiveness of newly industrialized countries, EU demographics (aging population and migration flows), the evolution labour market and rapid revolution of information and communication technologies (ICT).

The repercussions and effects of investments in education and training are considered long-term. Within these strategies should focus on: long-term planning at a local and a national level in determining spending priorities; validation of learning in all contexts, including in non-formal and informal activities, allowing the acquisition of knowledge and key skills. This validation will be facilitated by the national and European qualifications frameworks; an evaluation on culture to allow the establishment of robust data resulting from research, statistics or mechanisms to measure progress, thus supporting the effectiveness of the policy; cross-sectorial policies. Reducing inequalities in educational policy not only in results, but also in association with other policies related to specific areas such as jobs, the economy, social inclusion, youth, health, etc.

Pre-school education is proving to be essential for later stages of learning, particularly in terms of results and socialization. This helps to prevent school dropout, improving equity outcomes and improve the overall level of skills, and reduce costs in other areas (unemployment, crime, etc.).

Therefore, following the example of some States Member, preschool education must be accompanied by early intervention programs to help the most disadvantaged people. In addition, to enhance the effectiveness of these programs, they must be accompanied by other intervention measures, such as support for language learning and social adjustment.

Such programs must be tailored to the preschool period, taking into account the nature of the education provided (teaching, individual and social skills) and pedagogical issues (improving the supply of teachers, parental commitment, etc.). Parental engagement can also be supported through special education programs and parental awareness of marginalized people.

Primary and secondary education should be oriented to quality basic training for all. In other words, basic education and key competences should be guaranteed fairly for all in a society based on knowledge. Thus, certain procedures, should be avoided as a source of inequity, particularly for the disadvantaged and immigrant communities.

The combination of institutional autonomy and accountability proved to be positive in terms of effectiveness. However, we must ensure that the standards and criteria take into account equity and dissemination of results.

In this case, one must ensure efficiency and equity if the nature of learning and teaching methods are adapted, in particular through recruitment policies to ensure the quality of education. In addition, to encourage collaboration between teachers, parents and social services, especially through social inclusion updated strategy based on a pedagogical approach.

Higher education, which includes education, research and innovation (the ‘knowledge triangle’), is a key sector in the economy and knowledge society. Therefore, it must be competitive and promote excellence, as the Commission pointed out in its 2006 Communication on modernizing universities. The Commission then proposed to achieve the allocation of 2% of gross domestic product (GDP) for higher education in the next decade.

Three elements are important to a modernized higher education: it must be fair for all; it must be financially viable; it must have a more effective role.

The national systems of higher education is free but not necessarily the most equitable because it favours people from the socio-economically advantaged category or have attended some form of higher education. In addition, their funding has not increased, unlike the number of students and the expectations of higher education.

The benefits enjoyed by students are not fully offset by progressive tax systems, which leads to the reverse redistribution effect.

Therefore, it is necessary to focus on an investment in higher education, particularly through the introduction of tuition fees. This will allow a fair rebalancing costs incurred by individuals and society, and the benefits enjoyed by each bringing additional funds to universities. It thus improve the quality of education, university administration and student motivation.

But to guarantee universal access to higher education, the introduction of tuition fees should be offset by financial aid the most disadvantaged people because they invest generally less in their future, as far as personal returns are not guaranteed. This is particularly important when the amount of tuition fees are based on an estimate of the future performance indices. So to remedy in this situation may provide scholarships, bank loans and loans repayable by future revenues to encourage access to higher education.

At the same time, higher education must become more attractive to students from disadvantaged backgrounds, those who have qualifications for entry to higher education, but also for young children and their families, and to alter cultural perceptions. We therefore need to focus on providing information via school visits, tutoring programs and lifelong guidance policies which marginalized global awareness and access to university education (including ‘bridge programs’ and reserved seats).

The need to improve the relationship between education and professional environment – education should integrate training to make professional systems to become more attractive and to facilitate the transition of university graduates who hold professional qualifications. This is all the more necessary as the labour market needs have evolved, notably through an increased demand for more skilled workers. In addition, we must take into account other factors such as aging or youth unemployment.

Thus, an early intervention to increase participation in the educational system and increase in the educational level is not sufficient to improve the employment prospects of employment. One must establish flexible learning paths and clearance from vocational leading to further deepen learning and employment, following the example of education and training. They offer participants the possibility of reasonable benefits in terms of revenue.

Adult education also contributes to the adaptation of a changing labour market and improve employment prospects. People with fewer qualifications are those who benefit at least from learning and training in their professional activity. Only 10.8% of the European adults participate in a formal, non-formal and informal activity learning throughout life, which is far below the benchmark set by the EU, namely a share of 12.5%.

These training activities bring significant social and cultural benefits (motivation and sense of social commitment, reintegration into the learning cycle). However, in this case, the balance capacity of these programs to broaden employment prospects of disadvantaged adults has been shown to be generally mediocre. This can be improved in two ways: during learning through partnerships between businesses, public sector, social partners and local third sector organizations, focusing on target groups and their needs. These partnerships have proven successful in preventing early school leaving; during professional activity, through training tailored to the employers’ skills, through partnerships. These correspond to the skills needs of the labour market, but are also intended to close the supply and demand and facilitate training and career choice.

These have proven to be effective in extending employment prospects of disadvantaged people. States Member shall provide information and training programs, thereby encouraging private investments and reducing costs for businesses and workers. Meanwhile, employers must invest in education and training to remain competitive and to fulfil their social responsibility, which will become ‘learning organizations’.

States Member are responsible for their education and training policies, but action at EU level can promote mutual learning and exchange of best practices between them.

Also, these principles will be integrated into adult education activities aimed at creating a European Qualifications Framework and a European framework of statistics and indicators, and research projects that are part of the Seventh Framework Programme for the EU Research and Development sector.

Action programs in education and lifelong learning and mobility of transnational cooperation through will also promote the acquisition of new skills and adapt to the European labour market, improving both the quality and the links between education and training in the EU.

EU States Member must have educational systems and high quality training to meet the challenges of competitiveness and social cohesion.

Education more than any other field requires openness and receptiveness to include social and cultural systems in all their complexity, the knowledge and analytical comparison between the types of training, between different educational systems, association and dissociation operated with lucidity and objectivity.

Being a teacher means having awareness of major responsibilities – forming, shaping the young generation to study road discovering personal vocation having its own meaning in relation to the world, the profession, the path of becoming.

The teacher cannot be captured in a single formula education and cannot ignore the diversity of pedagogical approaches, teaching methods, even as a school director cannot believe that he had discovered an immutable route and definitive management with guaranteed success. Ontological and gnoseologic relativity will inevitably prolong the educational space, hence the need for models of knowledge, dialogue between different cultural spaces between different visions of educational management in this complicated and contrasting twenty-first century.

In this sense the opportunities offered by the European programs ‘Type Long Life Learning’ were interesting and complex in forms of knowledge of how education is conceived in different educational systems, fingerprinting positive experiences with cultural inevitable brands – whether Anglo-Saxon is characterized by rigourosity, austerity, severity and frequent assessments or Latin type – more permissive, based on communication, understanding, teaching natural evolution, with insertion and adaptation concerns in society or in relation to the labour market quite fluid. One must believe they are decisive and crucial experiences completed in activities in schools, debates, documentary materials, diversity, dialogue with professors, specialists in pedagogy and educational management, exploration of teacher training systems in the UK and Germany, other types of classes, but also a decanted necessary reflection into final reports in comparison to guides developed in this context.

The teachers, inspectors and directors participating are a source of information and pedagogical expertise essential to the system as the user has developed an educational value of a document essentially synthetic and suggestive, giving other possible visions, other models pragmatic structuring educational approach in a Europe in which rigid boundaries are disappearing and educational approach requires complex information, multiple skills, and inspiration, vision, philosophy of education before translational practice in the designed educational model.

Several studies have shown the need to fit the needs of a teacher’s development program objectives. Evidence confirms the intuitive assumptions, namely that when school-related needs of a teacher and his personal needs are not provided directly in training, change is difficult. Training programs with a sufficient duration to incorporate key messages are reinforced and commonly made, even though these types of programs have a profound effect on teachers.

Personal beliefs or self-efficacy has received considerable attention as a way to actively improve teacher performance and to evaluate the growth and development of teachers.

Also, special attention was given to reducing the workshops to an unique event training because they have been shown to have rarely more than a minor impact compared to significantly longer programs.

Other strategies supported by recent research to improve the efficiency in teacher training include fostering collegiality within schools where vehicles such as lesson study or co – teach (teaching collaboration) are used to allow the construction of professionals to improve their teaching. Mentoring in school (which focuses on current problems and issues) and even action research proved that it provides positive results.

Countries that have a strategic framework for the promotion of education in the sciences include normally, improving teacher training as an objective science. School partnerships, science centres and similar institutions all contribute to informal learning of teachers and professors can give a valuable advice. Science centres in several countries provide specific training activities for teachers.

Almost all countries report their education authorities in order to include specific training activities for science teachers in formal training programs, in some cases this is linked to recent curricular reforms. However, there are frequent national initiatives for the basic training of science teachers.

Initial teacher training is an essential part of learning to teach and establish necessary foundation for teaching skills.

Despite low response rates, the general characteristics of the training programs satisfying the usual differences between general and specialist teachers. Indications pooled results from 203 programs which confirms in greater or smaller models established in previous researches.

The most important skills are addressed in teacher training knowledge and ability to teach the official curriculum of mathematics / science. They are often included in the assessment of future teachers. Creating a rich spectrum of teaching situations or applying different teaching techniques are usually a part of a particular course, both general teacher training programs as well as the specialist.

The application of collaborative learning and project-based and research-based learning or problem-solving are frequently addressed in both types of teacher training programs.

Treating diversity, for example, teaching a diverse range of students, taking into account the different interests of boys and girls and to avoid gender stereotypes when interacting with students are rarely addressed in general in teacher education programs rather than in programs preparing teachers of mathematics / science.

In general, these skills are the least addressed in both types of programs, although the diversity issues are important to improve motivation and tackle underachievement.

On partnerships between teacher and education institutions and other stakeholders, the most common collaboration is the implementation of the program, while research has the lowest number of partnerships. Primary and secondary schools are major partners of teacher training institutions. Many institutions also collaborates with national and local government organizations. There are very few partnerships with civil society organizations. This is quite surprising given that many projects and initiatives for cooperation between schools and companies, particularly occur in science.

The traditional forms of assessment such as oral or written tests and observation of teaching practice are the methods most commonly used in training programs that responded to the survey. Although, a portfolio assessment is the least commonly known to assess knowledge of content, it is used in more than half of the programs to assess teaching skills. However, an application portfolio is based on student assessment which is often included in the teacher examined education programs. Interestingly, there are more similarities than differences in skills training programs which targeted generalist and specialist teachers.

In general, teaching programs, whether they are for generalists or specialists are usually treated in a manner with similar skills throughout the program.

In the event that power is being included as part of a specific and most other skills are also included, similarly, if a program makes a general reference to the most important teaching skills in mathematics / sciences also are made only from general references to other content areas.

Doctoral degrees were first officially registered in Paris in 1150 but we can say that history doctoral education begins with the 19th century when, with the industrial revolution, there was a clear distinction between theoretical and applied sciences involved in doctoral training in these areas . Doctoral studies diplomas attesting appeared so early 1800s in countries such as Germany as a research degree research degree. By 1870 the German universities were the only ones that were organized around activities such as teaching and the research, focusing on both the freedom to learn, sometimes on their own, the student and teacher need to involve specialized research. German model of the university’s reputation, its contribution to the development of science and medicine have made the country such as USA, since 1860 and the UK at the end of World War I, to take and adapt this type of educational model. Thus the U.S. granted the first Ph.D. in 1861 from Yale University, UK in 1918, Australia in 1948, the model spread rapidly throughout the world.

Doctoral education is now more than ever the subject of public attention and academic analyses at a political level. Traditional PhD is criticized, new forms of doctoral programs and the types of funding by diversifying the role of managers and supervisors is redesigned, more bluntly asked the doctorate to support innovation and economic development and be relevant to the needs of the global economy.

On the other hand, higher education has the same patterns, diversifying student population, global competition in the labour market is increasingly fierce, major demographic changes affecting education. All this represents a risk to the system. Some theorists have domain addressing these risks in respect of issues and draw attention to the impact that an educational policy environment is increasingly aware of the risk, and thus more prone to counter the risk through regulatory instruments of all kinds, it may have on the management of doctoral education – especially, research components. Others, the majority, consider shaping the doctoral experience as structured, bounded in time with rigorously controlled sequence in performance, with high standards of quality and international comparability care issues.

All studies show that the European higher education institutions are underfunded and funding sources are diversified. On average resources per capital of Europe for higher education are half or one third of the United States.

Funding for doctoral studies must keep pace with labour market requirements and current research needs. There are in the world at the moment various funding mechanisms for doctoral studies: lump sum government data (lum sum); competitive grants, a combination of the two special funds, etc. U.S. is perhaps the best example for this diversity. Few countries have special schemes for financing doctoral programs.

In Europe, the clear trend is to provide more support for programs / doctoral schools than for individuals (a counter example is Germany, where 85% of the allocated funds go to the candidate and doctoral programs only remaining).

It also gives more attention to the factors that impact on doctoral studies and therefore their financing. It’s an example of attention to research in areas that require experiments whose duration cannot be shortened or issues of gender doctoral education: that women interrupt their careers for example on grounds of maternity thus requiring funding flexibility programs.

Another trend is the increasing market that needs doctorate part time, although the prevailing full-time studies in the U.S., England and other European countries have part time students are becoming more and more.

Today it is considered that doctoral education should not be confined narrowly on a research topic or methodology but to breathe trans disciplinary stimulation and interdisciplinary thinking, its main purpose being to create ‘a habit of mind’.

Even if it pursues further education, doctoral ultra-specialty observed a shift from a monothematic research (based on a single research theme) in doctoral research programs in which the candidate is studying in a place with other students who come from other areas of research thus exposed to multidisciplinary experience.

University of Göttingen in Germany offers good example of interdisciplinary and intersectional collaboration structured doctoral programs organized in collaboration with the Max Planck Institute and gradually organized with DFG colleagues.

It also emphasizes the increasingly high rate on the development of transferable skills such as learning and continuous improvement (lifelong learning); communication and language; entrepreneurial; team work, etc.

Thus more and more higher education institutions arose training including cross professional practice (team management, law, interpersonal, career management) and information on specific topics (type of intellectual property rights).

The doctorate is the highest academic degree that a university can award to a student who has successfully managed to finish a program in a specific field of study.

In the UK, doctoral titles are diverse in nature, and this is supported by The Higher Education Academy (2007) that the most common doctoral titles as follows: traditional doctorate (PhD traditional) – based on the deployment and implementation of a research project supervised and reviewed / evaluated based on a final thesis; the publication doctorate (PhD by publication) – based on the achievement of a supervised research project, but considered on the basis of academic articles peer-reviewed, published or accepted for publication and often accompanied by a general introduction and conclusions; New Route PhD (new route PhD) is based on the teaching of information (related to a particular field of study) to be learned / acquired by the candidate. Learning / assimilating this information is evaluated by performing examinations, the candidate must obtain a note to ensure promotion. This PhD has been developed since 2001 to provide foreign students from outside the UK integrated doctoral studies, including research elements assisted by a supervisor and personal and professional development; professional doctorate (professional doctorate) requires completion of courses (taught) which should lead to specific learning outcomes (specific learning outcomes). It is based on a combination of taught modules (involving teaching, examination and the need to promote) and a supervised research project, often smaller than for the traditional PhD. In addition, the professional doctorate is more applied and is centred or based on work / occupation.

The emergence of professional doctorate in the UK is linked to the needs identified in the professional practice. In this context, the majority of students are experienced professionals in a particular field. These professionals seek to obtain a doctorate for career advancement and to achieve a higher level of skills / abilities / knowledge to help solve professional challenges. One aspect that deserves to be mentioned is the fact that the introduction of the professional doctorate is evidence of the flexibility of universities in the UK on the form and content of the doctoral education .

The professional doctorate, defined in terms of a non-traditional routes into doctoral education, and in 1992 it was imported into Britain from the United States and requires applied and teacher-practitioners in discipline. Practice-based PhD (practice-based PhD) involves a supervised research project, often in the arts, where the output involves both a written text (most often shorter than a traditional PhD thesis related) and one or more types of results, such as: a novel (creative writing), a portfolio of work (art and design) or one or more items that the student has performed (or music theatre studies ). They examined two types of output, both written text and other results (novel portfolio work etc.).

Fenced, most PhD students working in university teaching occupy lower positions.

The doctorate was organized under the traditional model, based on a strong relationship between the individual teacher and student coordinator, the latter usually being paid as an assistant to the former.

The lack of formalization doctoral studies led to a long period of study until graduation and especially – these being the main criticisms made to the system – the lack of transparency of a doctoral study and a doctoral candidate with a dependency relationship with the coordinator.

This situation was deemed unsatisfactory by several German higher education organizations, including the Conference of Rectors (Hochschulrektoren-Konferenz, HRK) and the Council for Scientific Research (Wissenschaftsrat), which led to the first attempts to reform doctoral studies. The reforms started in the last decade of the last century, however, given the decentralized nature of German tertiary education, it has not imposed an uniform organization of a PhD. Currently, several formulas, new and old, are working simultaneously.

As part of the efforts mentioned reforming doctoral studies, in 1990 the so-called ‘gradual colleagues’ were set up (Graduiertenkollegs) – structured research groups with a predetermined thematic focus and well-defined admission criteria. They had been proposed in 1988 by the Council for Scientific Research from the pilot projects launched by the Volkswagen Foundation and later a federal-interstate commission.

In 2003, the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG), an institution that supports academic research and extra-university in the Federal Republic, finances nearly 300 classmates who have graduated, of which around 30% in the social sciences and human biology and medicine, sciences and mathematics respectively, the remaining 11% working in engineering and computer science.

Colleges in Germany gradually created a systematic framework for doctoral studies.

The programs offered focus on the subject chosen by the student, providing the latter a package of compulsory courses and / or specific research program. Colleges allow funding doctoral scholarships and creates an environment in which candidates may be supervised by coordinators involved in research programs of the college . This model was later copied in a smaller or larger degree of similarity with the original, and other research institutions.

However, although the concept has clearly graduated college as a success, at least in the sense that it has proven the benefits of a structured model of organizing doctoral studies, it has generated a latter uniform. It was observed that the doctoral schools in Germany now have various forms and names (Doktorandenkollegs, Promotionskollegs, Graduiertenzentren or Graduiertenkollegs) and are still discussing the institutionalization of various pilot projects. Also worth mentioning that among these organizational formulas, some are exclusively dedicated to doctoral studies, while others held other post-bachelor programs.

Finally, it should be recalled in this connection that not all PhD students from Germany are studying at ‘de facto universities’, although only they can grant the title of a doctor.

In 2000, about 4,900 PhD students (probably around 8.5% of all formally registered PhD) study and work in non-university research institutions such as Fraunhofer Foundation, Helmholtz Research Centres and Institutes Foundation Max Planck.

Also in this area, there were initiated structured doctoral programs: in 1998, the Foundation launched the Max Planck HRK Max Planck Research Schools International (International Max Planck Research Schools), designed specifically to increase collaboration between non-university institutes and universities.

A German doctorate is, par excellence, an intensive program of research. Traditionally, it has assumed a set of courses and completing doctoral research focused on the individual but, where happy with the team coordinator. Although most German doctorates remains such, many newly created structured programs have adopted a formula inspired by the North American system, the first year of classes with lectures, tutorials, training methodology, laboratories; then a set of exams (whose graduation can sometimes equate to a master’s degree); and, finally, the actual doctoral research under the supervision of a committee composed of the coordinator and three others, completed by a sentence.

Note that in Germany there is another level of study, so-called Habilitation – a type of post-doctoral degree reserved for those who wish to practice in higher education. Normally, the preparation takes another 4 or 5 years and assume (again) a thesis based on original research. With a history of more than a century, Habilitation was until recently a condition of holding a job in a university department. More recently, higher education institutions have begun to abandon this additional requirement in order to facilitate access to academic job market.

The duration of doctoral studies is an issue of particular relevance in Germany, where the average age at completion of the doctorate is relatively high – 33 years.

A direct cause of this phenomenon is the duration of doctoral studies organized according to the old model of ‘discipleship’ academic.

Other factors specific to the German education system, in turn, a considerable influence: late age at which children enter the school system, the 13-year school to high school [Abitur], or the number of young people who complete a vocational school before faculty. Studies show that during doctorate tends to exceed four years envisaged by the Bologna process, sometimes appreciably, but the absence of reliable statistics makes it difficult to accurately assessing the average duration.

Another important issue in this context is that the number of doctoral students enrolled full-time, part-time, respectively. Because no distinction is not a formal statistical data in this respect are lacking, further complicating the calculation of the average duration of PhD in German universities.

Most of the German doctoral study and research are still individual formula ‘to the’ teacher coordinator. This involves finding a coordinator to negotiate a research topic and subsequent individualized relationship that third parties are usually involved – not the supervision or collaboration with colleagues at the research projects.

Upon completion of the research thesis is evaluated by the coordinator and usually a second teacher. Thesis is added to an oral examination, which can be several ways: a testing depth expertise in the field (a formula increasingly rare); a ‘defence’ thesis (preferred solution increasingly more); a doctoral colloquium on research.

However, innovations in the organization of doctoral studies and news have brought in coordination formulas. Goethe University of Frankfurt, for example, candidates for doctoral schools go through a double process of selection.

First, sorting is performed by a group coordinator or coordinators, and then the final decision belongs to a department doctoral committee, which decides whether the project coordinator candidate and recommendation are accepted.

Under international doctoral programs in molecular biology and, respectively, neuro-sciences organized by the University of Göttingen and the Max Planck Institute, a steering committee composed of at least three people closely following the work of PhD students in regular meetings. And this admission involves several phases: assessment file, a written exam, an interview with at least two different research teams.

Bibliography

Allmendinger, J., Educational systems and labor market outcomes. European Sociological Review 5/3, 1989.

Anna Kim, Ki-Wan Kim, Returns to Tertiary Education in Germany and the UK: Effects of Fields of Study and Gender, Working Paper, Nr. 62, Mannheim, 2002.

Badlauf, B., Doctoral Education and Research Training in Germany: towards a more structured and efficient approach?, European Journal of Education 33.2, 1998.

Breen, R., Hannan, D. F. and O’Leary, R., Returns to education: Taking account of employers’ perceptions and use of educational credentials. European Sociological Review 11/,1995.

Burkhardt, S. and Neher, E.,The International Max Planck Research Schools for Molecular Biology and Neurosciences in Göttingen (Germany) as Examples for Joint Doctoral Training by a German University and its Non-university Partners, Higher Education in Europe 33.1, 2008.

De Harriet Churchill, Teela Sanders, Getting your PhD, Sage.

European University Association, Doctoral Programmes for the European Knowledge Society. Brussels: EUA Publications, 2005.

Fuhr Christoph, The German Education System since 1945: Outlines and Problems. Inter Nations, Kennedy allee, 1997.

Guth, J., The Bologna Process: The Impact of Higher Education Reform on the Structure and Organisation of Doctoral Programmes in Germany, Higher Education in Europe 31.3, 2008.

Hüfner, K., Germany, in, Sadlak, J. (Ed.) Doctoral Studies and Qualifications in Europe and the United States: Status and Prospects. Bucharest: UNESCO-CEPES, 2004.

Leonard D., A Woman’s Guide to Doctoral Studies. Buckingham: Open University Press, 2001.

Lester, S., Conceptualizing the practitioner doctorate. Studies in Higher Education 29 (6), 2004.

Lucas, S. R., Effectively maintained inequality: educational transitions, track mobility, and social background effects. American Journal of Sociology 106, 2001.

Maurice, M., Sellier, F. and Silvestre, J. J., The Social Foundation of Industrial Power, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986.

McWilliams, E., Taylor, P., Lawson, A., and Evans, T., University Risk Management and Higher Degree Research. Abstract of Symposium, in, KILEY, M. and MULLINS, G. (Eds.) Quality in Postgraduate Research: Knowledge Creation in Testing Times. Canberra: ANU, 2006.

Meyer, J. W., Ramirez, F. O. and Soysal, Y., World expansion of mass education, 1870-1980. Sociology of Education 65/2, 1992.

Müller, W., Steinmann, S. and Ell, R. Education and labour-market entry in Germany, in: Y. Shavit and W. Müller (eds.). From School to Work: A Comparative Study of Educational Qualifications and Occupational Destinations. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998.

Müller, W., Steinmann, S. and Schneider, R., Bildung in Europa, in: S. Hradil and S. Immerfall (eds.) Die westeuropäischen Gesellschaften im Vergleich. Opladen: Leske+Budrich, 1997.

Müller, W. and Karle, W., Social selection in educational systems in Europe. European Sociological Review 9, 1993.

OECD, Education Policy Analysis, Paris, 1999.

Raftery, A. E. and Hout, M., Maximally maintained inequality: Expansion, reform, and opportunity in Irish education, 1921-75. Sociology of Education 66/1, 1993.

Shavit. Y. and Blossfeld, H-P. (eds.), Persistent Inequality: Changing Educational Stratification in Thirteen Countries. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993.

Shavit, Y. and Müller, W. (eds.), From School to Work: A Comparative Study of Educational Qualifications and Occupational Destinations. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998.

Webliography

aussieeducator.org.au

education.jhu.edu

educationengland.org.uk

iep.utm.edu

www.cls.ioe.ac.uk/library-media%5Cdocuments

http://www.langust.ru/review/private.shtml

http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0130/p07s02-woeu.html

http://web.wm.edu/so/monitor/issues/14-1/2-andell.pdf

Bibliography

Allmendinger, J., Educational systems and labor market outcomes. European Sociological Review 5/3, 1989.

Anna Kim, Ki-Wan Kim, Returns to Tertiary Education in Germany and the UK: Effects of Fields of Study and Gender, Working Paper, Nr. 62, Mannheim, 2002.

Badlauf, B., Doctoral Education and Research Training in Germany: towards a more structured and efficient approach?, European Journal of Education 33.2, 1998.

Breen, R., Hannan, D. F. and O’Leary, R., Returns to education: Taking account of employers’ perceptions and use of educational credentials. European Sociological Review 11/,1995.

Burkhardt, S. and Neher, E.,The International Max Planck Research Schools for Molecular Biology and Neurosciences in Göttingen (Germany) as Examples for Joint Doctoral Training by a German University and its Non-university Partners, Higher Education in Europe 33.1, 2008.

De Harriet Churchill, Teela Sanders, Getting your PhD, Sage.

European University Association, Doctoral Programmes for the European Knowledge Society. Brussels: EUA Publications, 2005.

Fuhr Christoph, The German Education System since 1945: Outlines and Problems. Inter Nations, Kennedy allee, 1997.

Guth, J., The Bologna Process: The Impact of Higher Education Reform on the Structure and Organisation of Doctoral Programmes in Germany, Higher Education in Europe 31.3, 2008.

Hüfner, K., Germany, in, Sadlak, J. (Ed.) Doctoral Studies and Qualifications in Europe and the United States: Status and Prospects. Bucharest: UNESCO-CEPES, 2004.

Leonard D., A Woman’s Guide to Doctoral Studies. Buckingham: Open University Press, 2001.

Lester, S., Conceptualizing the practitioner doctorate. Studies in Higher Education 29 (6), 2004.

Lucas, S. R., Effectively maintained inequality: educational transitions, track mobility, and social background effects. American Journal of Sociology 106, 2001.

Maurice, M., Sellier, F. and Silvestre, J. J., The Social Foundation of Industrial Power, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986.

McWilliams, E., Taylor, P., Lawson, A., and Evans, T., University Risk Management and Higher Degree Research. Abstract of Symposium, in, KILEY, M. and MULLINS, G. (Eds.) Quality in Postgraduate Research: Knowledge Creation in Testing Times. Canberra: ANU, 2006.

Meyer, J. W., Ramirez, F. O. and Soysal, Y., World expansion of mass education, 1870-1980. Sociology of Education 65/2, 1992.

Müller, W., Steinmann, S. and Ell, R. Education and labour-market entry in Germany, in: Y. Shavit and W. Müller (eds.). From School to Work: A Comparative Study of Educational Qualifications and Occupational Destinations. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998.

Müller, W., Steinmann, S. and Schneider, R., Bildung in Europa, in: S. Hradil and S. Immerfall (eds.) Die westeuropäischen Gesellschaften im Vergleich. Opladen: Leske+Budrich, 1997.

Müller, W. and Karle, W., Social selection in educational systems in Europe. European Sociological Review 9, 1993.

OECD, Education Policy Analysis, Paris, 1999.

Raftery, A. E. and Hout, M., Maximally maintained inequality: Expansion, reform, and opportunity in Irish education, 1921-75. Sociology of Education 66/1, 1993.

Shavit. Y. and Blossfeld, H-P. (eds.), Persistent Inequality: Changing Educational Stratification in Thirteen Countries. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993.

Shavit, Y. and Müller, W. (eds.), From School to Work: A Comparative Study of Educational Qualifications and Occupational Destinations. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998.

Webliography

aussieeducator.org.au

education.jhu.edu

educationengland.org.uk

iep.utm.edu

www.cls.ioe.ac.uk/library-media%5Cdocuments

http://www.langust.ru/review/private.shtml

http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0130/p07s02-woeu.html

http://web.wm.edu/so/monitor/issues/14-1/2-andell.pdf