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4/2014EDUCATIO ARTIS
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STUDIA UNIVERSITATIS BABE Ș-BOLYAI
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EDITOR-IN-CHIEF:
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Sport, Cluj-Napoca)
SCIENTIFIC BOARD:
Prof. Bomp
a Tudor, PhD (University of York, Toronto Canada)
Prof. Tihanyi József, PhD (Semmelweis University, Faculty of Ph ysical Education and
Sport Science, Budapest, Hungary) Prof. Hamar Pál, PhD (Semmelweis University, Faculty of Physica l Education and Sport
Science, Budapest, Hungary)
Prof. Isidori Emanuele, PhD (University of Rome „Foro Italico”, Rome, Italy)
Prof. Karteroliotis Kostas, PhD (National and Kapodistrian Univer sity of Athens, Greece)
Prof. Šimonek Jaromír, PhD (Facu lty of Education, University of Constantine the Philosopher
in Nitra, Slovakia)
Prof. Tache Simona, PhD (Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-
Napoca, Romania)
P r o f . B o c u T r a i a n , P h D ( I u l i u H a țieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-
Napoca, Romania)
EDITORIAL BOARD:
Conf. Baciu Alin Marius, PhD (Babeș-Bolyai University, Faculty of Physical Education and
Sport, Cluj-Napoca, Romania)
Conf. Gomboș Leon, PhD (Babeș-Bolyai University, Faculty of Phy sical Education and
Sport, Cluj-Napoca, Romania) Lector Ștefănescu Horea, PhD (Babeș-Bolyai University, Faculty of Physical Education and
Sport, Bistrita extention, Romania)
Lector Negru Ioan Nicolaie, PhD (Babeș-Bolyai University, Facul ty of Physical Education
and Sport, Cluj-Napoca, Romania)
Asist. Drd. Gherțoiu Dan Mihai (Babeș-Bolyai University, Facult y of Physical Education and
Sport, Cluj-Napoca, Romania)
EXECUTIVE EDITOR:
Prof. Ciocoi-Pop D. Rareș, PhD (Babeș-Bolyai University, Facult y of Physical Education and
Sport, Cluj-Napoca, Romania)
VICE EXECUTIVE EDITOR:
C
onf. Boros-Balint Iuliana, PhD (Babeș-Bolyai University, Facul ty of Physical Education
and Sport, Cluj-Napoca, Romania)
http://www.studia.ubbcluj.ro/se rii/educatio/ index_en.html;
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Y E A R V o l u m e 5 9 ( L I X ) 2 0 1 4
MONTH DECEMBER
ISSUE 4
S T U D I A
UNIVERSITATIS BABE Ș-BOLYAI
EDUCATIO ARTIS GYMNASTICAE
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STUDIA UBB EDITORIAL OFFICE: B.P. Hasdeu no. 51, 400371 Cluj-Napoca, Romania,
Phone + 40 264 405352
CONTENT – SOMMAIRE – INHALT – CUPRINS
K R S K A P E T E R , S E D L A C E K J A R O M I R , K O S T I A L J A N , I n f l u e n c e o f S e l e c t ed
Kinetic Parameters in Female Pol e Vault on Sport Performance .. ………………. 5
C I U L E A L A U R A , S Z A B O B A R N A , T h e R o l e o f T h e F u n c t i o n a l T r a i n i n g in
Optimising the Motric Capacity o f Junior Female Teams I-Volleyb all *
Rolul antrenamentului func țional în optimizarea capacit ății motrice a
echipelor de junioa re I – volei. …………………………………………………………………………………. ……….. 17
APOSTU PAULA, DOBOȘI ȘERBAN, Optimization of Technical and Tact ical
Preparation using Mixed Table Tennis Exercises on Children of 1 0-12
Years * Optimizarea preg ătirii tehnico-tactice prin folosirea exerci țiilor
combinate la copiii de 10-12 ani în jocul de tenis de mas ă ……………………………. 27
OPREAN ALEXANDRU, COJOCARIU ADRI AN, Morphological Aspects of
Forwards in The Rugby Game Related to Tasks and Position * Aspecte
morfologice ale pachetului de înaintare în jocul de rugby, raportate la
post și sarcini …………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………….. 35
COJOCARU ADIN-MARIAN, COJOCARU MARILENA, Contributions to the
Development of Resistance in the Youth Volleyball Players (15-1 6 Years)
* Contribuții privind dezvoltarea rezisten ței jucătorilor de volei la nivelul
cadeți (15-16 ani) …………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………. 4 3
ABALAȘEI BEATRICE, HONCERIU CEZAR, TROFIN PETRUȚ-FLORIN, Analys is
of the Relation between the Individual’s Social Representation and
Physical Development Indices * Analiza rela ției dintre reprezentarea
socială a individului și indici ai dezvolt ării fizice …………………………………………….. 51
DEAK GRAȚIELA-FLAVIA, BOROȘ-BALIN T IULIANA, CIOCO I-POP DUMITRU
RAREȘ, GROSU EMILIA FLORINA, Correlations between Physical Acti vity
and Ruffier Indices in Romanian University Students * Corelații între
indicele de activitate fizic ă și indicele Ruffier în cazul studen ților români …. 61
SZABO BARNA, CIULEA LAURA EDIT, Comparative Study about the Phy sical
Education Activity among Students between two Universities in T îrgu
Mureș* Studiu comparativ al activit ăților fizice a studen ților între dou ă
universități din Tîrgu Mure ș …………………………………………………….. ………………………… 73
BULDUȘ CODRUȚA FLORINA, VĂDAN ANCA LUCIA, Hemp Seed Oil Effect
on the Rat Tissular Oxidant/Antioxidant Balance in Exercise with
Progressive Intensity * Efectul uleiului din semințe de cânepă asupra
balanței tisulare oxidanți/antioxidan ți în efortul fizic cu intensitate
progresiv ă la șobolani. Introducere …………………………………………… …………………….. 81
URZEALĂ CONSTANȚA, Aspects Regarding the Motor Capacity Develop ment
in Children with Diabetes * Aspecte privind de zvoltarea capacit ății motrice
a copilului cu diabet …………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………….. 91
DOCU AXELERAD ANY, DOCU AXELERAD DANIEL, Physical Exercises for
Diabetic Polyneuropathy * Exercițiul fizic în polineuropatia diabetic ă …………. 101
BROASCĂ ALEXANDRA-ANDREEA, POP NICOLAE HORAȚIU, The Effect of
Kinesio Taping on Knee Instability Of Female Rugby Players * Efectul
metodei Kinesio Taping asupra instabilit ății genunchiului la juc ătoarele
de rugby …………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………… …………… 107
CREȚU AURICA, ZĂGREAN ELEONORA, Ș TEFĂNESCU HOREA, RUS VIRGIL,
CREȚU DENISA-IOANA, The Implicat ions of Carbohydrates During
Physical Effort: A Comprehensive Review * Implicațiile carbohidra ților
în efortul fizic …………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………. 113
DRAGOȘ PAUL, Financial Reward and its Effects on Managers and
Employees in the Sport Organizations * Recompensa financiar ă și efectele
acesteia asupra managerilor și angajaților din organiza țiile sportive ………….. 125
VOICU ALEXANDRU-VIRGIL, ANDRÁS ÁLMOS, VOICU BOGDAN-IOSIF,
Considerations on the Realization of the Law in the Matter Of A nti-Doping
Regulations In Sport Activities In Romania * Considera ții privind realizarea
dreptului în materia reglement ărilor antidoping în activit ățile sportive din
România …………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………… ………….. 133
STUDIA UBB EDUCATIO ARTIS GY MN., LIX, 4, 2014, pp. 5 – 16
(RECOMMENDED CITATION)
INFLUENCE OF SELECT ED KINETIC PARAMETERS IN FEMALE
POLE VAULT ON SPORT PERFORMANCE
KRSKA PETER1, SEDLACEK JAROMIR1*, KOSTIAL JAN1
ABSTRACT. P o l e v a u l t i s t h e o n l y a t h l e t i c e v e n t i n w h i c h t h e p e r f o r m a n c e is
reached with use of tool. From the point of technique it is considered like complex
a t h l e t i c e v e n t . T h e m o v e m e n t a c t i v i t y i s r e a l i z e d i n t w o b a s i c p a r t s ; t h e f i r s t i s approach ended with take-off and the second are movements of ju mper on the
p o l e . I n t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n w e t r y t o r e v e a l h i e r a r c h y o f k i n e t i c p a r a m e t e r s o f competitive movement activity and their influence on the level of female pole
vault sport performance. There are involved 19 female pole vaul t jumpers with
sport performance 380 – 483 cm, divided on 2 different groups f rom the point of
sport performance level (lower s p o r t p e r f o r m a n c e g r o u p a n d h i g h er sport
performance group). In this contribution are used logical methods, mostly
analyse, comparison and induction. Differences between those tw o groups are
mostly found in speed and angles parameters during pole vault j umping. Group of
higher sport performance level loses less of horizontal speed o f centre of gravity
and of higher arm grip in phase of take-off and keep higher ver tical speed of
centre of gravity in phases end of the extension with turn and in end of the lift.
Jumpers of higher performance level reached more favourable val ues also in
some angle parameters; it was mostly in angle of take-off tread -down, climbing
angle and angle between fore arm of lower upper extremity with the pole at
moment of take-off end. In the work on pole we also found betwe en our groups in
w a t c h e d a n g l e p a r a m e t e r s s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . I n t h e g r o u p of female lower performance level jumpers comes to considerable centre of gravi ty body move
away from extension axis. Too gr eat centre of gravity move away at extension end
is the course of minimal, resp. zero growths on maximal centre of gravity height during last phase of jump. Found differences in speed and angle parameters in
female pole vault jumping manifest better mastering of movement activity mainly
in phases take-off and in work on pole of higher level sport pe rformance group.
Presented differences of these two watched groups of female pol e-vaulters show
on possibilities and training orientation for further performan ce increase.
Keywords: female, pole-vault, kinematic parameters, speed, angles
1 Faculty of Education, Catholic University Ruzomberok, Slovakia
* Corresponding Author: jaromir.sedlacek47@gmail.com
KRSKA PETER, SEDLACEK JAROMIR, KOSTIAL JAN
6 Introduction
Pole vault is the only athletic event in which is result reache d with the
h e l p o f t o o l . T h i s p o l e u s e c o u r s e s i t s w i t h d r a w a l f a r f r o m a n y fundamental
locomotion and classifies it amon g complex athletic events. Mov ement activity
of it is performed in two basic parts. First is an approach fin ished by take-off
and second is a phase of actual jump – activity of jumper on po le. An approach
has cycle movement structure and it is affected by handling and b e a r i n g o f
pole by both upper extremities with pole transmission at the en d of approach.
Movements on pole have on the contrary acyclic character and re present
structure of forward movements in frontal and vice versa positi on at parallel
rotations round horizontal and also vertical body axes and roun d the pole
performed in optimal time sequence – rhythm.
Sport performance in pole vault depends on a reach height of the centre of
gravity of pole vault jumper body during the jump and on the economy over the
bar transition.
Very important precondition for high performance result is to reach during a p p r o a c h a s h i g h v e l o c i t y a s p o s s i b l e , m a i n l y a t t h e e n d o f a p p roach and finish
t h i s a p p r o a c h w i t h e x p l o s i v e t a k e-off and with rational transit ion on the pole.
McGinnise (1997) proves that take-off effectiveness is manifest ed in holding or
even in increase of kinetic energ y gained with approach. Approach velocity and
take-off form kinetic energy which pole-vaulter by exact and en ergy planting the
pole in the take-off box transmits on the pole. At take-off moment the pole starts to bend and thus is shortened the distance between grip and the end of the pole.
Pole elasticity thus enables actually to pass easier and faster through vertical line
a n d t h i s a l s o e n a b l e s t o h a v e h i g h e r g r i p o n t h e p o l e . T h e p o l e in the phase of
bending cumulate kinetic energy and at period of straightening phase returns it at
vertical centre of gravity acceleration of pole-vaulter. At tim e of pole straightening
is important active muscle pole-vaulter work, for direction of catapulting must be
the same with direction of the pole-vaulter centre of gravity; otherwise it comes
t o f o r c e b r e a k d o w n a n d i t c o u r s e s l o s s o f p e a k h e i g h t o f t h e c e ntre of gravity
(CGv). The pole-vaulter by his activity on the pole influences common movement
rhythm of movement; through his adequate activity on pole can b e increased
vertical centre of gravity peak.
For technique evaluation we need biomechanics analyse in order to
evaluate more precisely technique of movements, enables to iden tify differences
from ideal technique model and thus even form orientation its f urther
improvement. At sportsmen technique evaluation we start from me chanic
phenomena that are in biomechanics called biomechanical charact eristics.
These phenomena make sportsman movement technique more concrete i n i t s
INFLUENCE OF SELECTED KINETIC PARAMETERS IN FEMALE POLE VAULT O N SPORT PERFORMANCE
7 kinetic and dynamic manifestation and they can be measured and evaluated.
T h e m o r e c o m p l e x m o v e m e n t a c t i v i t y i s , t h e m o r e n e e d e d a n d h e l p ful can
biomechanical analyse be.
Kinematical analyse enables to learn movement activity characte r and
thus is formed prerequisite for following movement rationalization. Lately took
care with kinematical analyse us e of competitive movement activ ity in athletic
events several authors (Bojko & Nikonov, 1989; McGinnis, 1997; Grabner, 1997;
Varga, 1997; Krška & Koštial, 2000; Koštial & Dremmelová, 2001; Krska, 2008);
they show mostly on its contribution on training process improv ement.
In the sport performance structure of female pole-vaulters thos e speed
and angle characteristics (fig 1) of movement activity play ver y important roles
(Krška, 2008).
Objectives
Aim of this contribution is to analyse course of horizontal and vertical
centre of gravity speed and to select angle characteristics of competitive
female pole vault-jumpers movement activity and reveal their in fluence on
sport performance level.
Tasks:
1. Realise kinematic analyse of jumps of watched female pole vault jumpers,
2. From the hierarchy of sport performance structure model (Krška, 2008)
select positions of proper speed and angle characteristics,
3. Analyse and compare gained kinetic parameters of female pole-va ulters
of different sport performance levels and try to explain their mutual
relations and their influence on the level of sport performance .
Material and methods
This research was performed in 2004 – 2006 on the meetings Gold en
spiked shoes in Ostrava, Czech Republic. Kinetic parameters wer e gained by two-
dimension analyser Consport Motion Analysis System (CMAS). Ther e are involved
19 female pole-vaulters with the sport performance 380 – 483 cm . All watched
top-level female pole-vaulters ( group S) were divided on 2 smal ler groups; lower
sport performance group (S1) and higher sport performance group (S2). In this
contribution are used logical methods, most ly analyse, comparis on and induction.
KRSKA PETER, SEDLACEK JAROMIR, KOSTIAL JAN
8 Results and discussion
Fundamental statistical characteristics of our female pole-vaul ters can be
seen in tables 1, 2 and 3. Figure 1 shows us the hierarchy of s port performance
structure of female pole vault with mutual relations of watched speed and angle
parameters within single factor levels. Speed parameters Graphical courses of watched vertical and horizontal speed par ameters can
be seen in figures 2, 3 and 4.
Average horizontal centre of gravity (CGv) speed of our female pole-vaulters
a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f l a s t s t e p r e a c h e d 7 . 2 7 m . s-1 (fig 2). At the first touchdown
moment of take-off the velocity even slightly increases on average value 7.46 m.s-1.
The fastest (8.48 m.s-1) is always the one with the best sport performance result,
S.D. (483 cm). During take-off reached pole-vaulters average lo ss of velocity
1.02 m.s-1. Better value about technique effectiveness seems to be percen tage loss
o f v e r t i c a l C G v s p e e d d u r i n g t a k e – o f f ; a v e r a g e v a l u e i s m i n u s 1 3.4 % from the
velocity reached during approach. After transmission on pole we can watch relatively
high values of CGv horizontal speed at moment of end of hanging position
(average value is 6.00 m.s-1). At the moment of the end of swing up we watch their
average velocity on the level 4.09 m.s-1.
Like supported parameter of pole -vaulter transmission on pole w e watched
horizontal speed at the point of upper arm grip that during tak e-off suddenly
decrease of 3.56 m.s-1 (fig 3). This average loss in percentage is 49.4 %.
During pole-vaulter activity on pole is important gained vertical CGv
speed (fig 4). First values are registered after the end of tak e-off when average
v e r t i c a l C G v s p e e d r e a c h e s a v e r a g e v a l u e 1 . 2 0 m . s-1. During following phases of
hanging position, swing up and roll this value changes only sli ghtly and have
oscillating character. Considera b l e g r o w t h o f v e r t i c a l s p e e d o f t h e C G v c a n b e
watched after beginning of pole extension. After the end of extension phase, pole-
vaulters reach an average value 3.51 m.s-1. At the moment of peak height, the
average vertical speed value is on the level 3.16 m.s-1.
T h e a v e r a g e h o r i z o n t a l C G v s p e e d o f h i g h e r s p o r t p e r f o r m a n c e p ole-
vaulters (S2) slightly overreaches values reached by pole-vault ers of lower sport
performance (S1). The highest difference can be watched at the moment of take-
off end (average is 0.62 m.s-1), when pole-vaulters S2 lost from horizontal CGv
speed during transmission on pole only 0.74 m.s-1, while S1 lost 1.33 m.s-1 (fig 2).
Similar course with only slightly different values can be watched (fig 3)
also at horizontal speed of upper arm grip. The most comprehens ive difference
between our groups are watched at moment of the end of take-off (difference is
INFLUENCE OF SELECTED KINETIC PARAMETERS IN FEMALE POLE VAULT O N SPORT PERFORMANCE
9 1.41 m.s-1), when in group S2 we watched average speed 4.28 m.s-1 and in group
S1 2.87 m.s-1. The difference at speed loss of upper arm grip during the who le
take-off period is even slightly higher and represents average value 1.57 m.s-1.
Higher values of vertical CGv speed we found in the group of hi gher sport
performance level (S2). The group of lower sport performance level (S1) reached
higher velocity only at moment of hanging position (difference plus 0.40 m.s-1)
that we consider like not effective (fig 4). Significant differ ence in average value it
is 0.72 m.s-1 in favour of S2 group that can be watched at the end of roll an d 0.56
m.s-1 at the end of extension that shows on better work on pole of h igher sport
performance pole-vaulters (S2).
Angle parameters
I n f i g 1 w e c a n s e e a n i m p o r t a n c e o f a n g l e p a r a m e t e r s i n s p o r t
performance pole vault structure . From this point the decisive are operating
angle and climb angle (u54 and u55); other 4 parameters (u52, u 53, u56 and
u57) belong to supported substructure factors. Positive influen ce on the 1st
performance factor level we stay at operating angle of take-off on clean grip
h e i g h t ( p a r a m e t e r o f c o n d i t i o n c h a r a c t e r ) a n d a t c l i m b a n g l e o f t h e C G v i n
standing over (peak height) that is parameter of technique char acter). Mutual
c o m p a r i s o n o f o u r w a t c h e d g r o u p s S 1 a n d S 2 c a n b e s e e n g r a p h i c a lly in
figures 5, 6, 7.
Average values of selected angle characteristics learned durin g take-off
activity differ only slightly (fi g 5). At tread-down of take-of f angle we watch more
active take-off action by higher performance jumpers S2 (71.900) comparing with
lower performance group S1 (68.600) . F o l l o w i n g t a k e – o f f a n g l e i s a t h i g h e r
performance group (S2) lower of 3.700 like at jumpers S1; this shows on more
effective take-off end connected with better pole squeeze. Aver age value of
operating angle is in both groups very similar – 34.40 at S1 and 34.80 at S2. Lower
average climb angle at S2 like at S1 also shows on better trans ition on pole in the
group of higher sport performance female jumpers.
D u r i n g q u a l i t y e v a l u a t i o n o f t r a n s i t i o n o n p o l e o f f e m a l e j u m p ers we
watched position (angle) of forea rm of lower upper extremity to the pole (fig 6).
A t t a k e – o f f e n d w e f o u n d i n t h e g r o u p S 1 a n g l e 1 2 1 . 7 00 and in S2 103.300; it
shows on better arms position in the group of higher sport perf ormance female
jumpers. At the end of following phase of hanging position we w atch in the group
S1 slight improvement of lower arm work and angle decrease of 1 .800 on 119.900.
O n t h e c o n t r a r y i n t h e g r o u p S 2 w e f o u n d s l i g h t a n g l e i n c r e a s e of 4.300 on
107.600; in spite of this decrease of difference it this proper arm po sition between
our groups, we still consider our group S2 in this angle signif icantly better like it is
in S1 (difference 12.300).
KRSKA PETER, SEDLACEK JAROMIR, KOSTIAL JAN
10 Effectiveness of activity on pole of female jumpers can be als o estimated
by watching of body position from vertical line on the surface during phases of
pole extension (fig 7). In the first comparison in the moment o f extension phase
end we watch at female jumpers S1 angle 26.900 and in S2 more favourable angle
16.500. During phase extension with turn happens in both groups to mo ve away
of the CGv from the pole. Average angle increase in S1 is 24.700 and it represents
its growth on 51.60% and in S2 is increase on 16.400 and it means its increase on
32.90%. At the end of lift when female jumpers leave pole and t hey get into last
phase of bar clearance we watch significant angle growth that c onfirm move away
of the centre of gravity from the pole. In S1 it is in average 80.000 and in S2 it is
65.800. These reached values are courses of unwanted low resp. zero i ncrease in
the height of the CGv during last phase of the jump.
Tab 1. Statistical characteristics of kinetic parameters of the whole group S,
sport performance 380-483 cm (S, n = 19)
Tab 2. Statistical characteristics of kinetic parameters of the lower sport performance
group S1, with sport performance 380-430 cm (S1, n = 9)
Tab 3. Statistical characteristics of kinetic parameters of the higher sport performance
group S2, with sport performance 440-483 cm (S2, n = 10)
INFLUENCE OF SELECTED KINETIC PARAMETERS IN FEMALE POLE VAULT O N SPORT PERFORMANCE
11
speed parameters angle parameters
Fig 1. Relations and quantifications of parameters in female pole vau lt sport performance
structure with regard of speed a nd angle parameters (Krška, 200 8)
Legend:
Horizontal speed o f centr e of gravity a tmomen t
u11 tread-down o f take-of f
u12 end o f take-of f
u13 speed lost during take-of f
Vertical speed o fcentr e of gravity a ttheend o fmomen t
u17 end o f hanging position
u21 end o f extension with turn
Angl e Parameters (u)
u52 angle o ftread-down o f take-of f
u53 angle o ftake-of f
u54 operating angle
u55 climb angle
u56 angle between bod y and vertical line at moment o fextension end
u57 angle between bod y and vertical line at end moment o fswing-up with turn
KRSKA PETER, SEDLACEK JAROMIR, KOSTIAL JAN
12
Fig. 2. Course comparison of horizontal speed of centre of gravity
Fig. 3. Course comparison of horizontal point speed of higher arm grip
INFLUENCE OF SELECTED KINETIC PARAMETERS IN FEMALE POLE VAULT O N SPORT PERFORMANCE
13
Fig. 4. Course comparison of vertical speed of centre of gravity
Fig 5. Angle comparisson during contact phase of take-off
in groups of female pole-vaulters
KRSKA PETER, SEDLACEK JAROMIR, KOSTIAL JAN
14
Fig 6. Angles comparison between fore-arm of lower upper extremity an d
pole at moment of end of take-off and hanging position phases
in female jumpers
Fig 7. Body angles comparisson to vertical line on surface
at finishing of selected phases
INFLUENCE OF SELECTED KINETIC PARAMETERS IN FEMALE POLE VAULT O N SPORT PERFORMANCE
15 Conclusions
1. Our group of higher sport performance level reached in phase
transmission on pole favourable values in horizontal centre of gravity speed at
moment of the end of take-off and parallel watche d loss during take-off phase
and in angles of take-off tread-down, climb angle and angle bet ween fore-arm
of lower upper extremity with the pole at take-off moment end.
2. Better activity on pole of again higher sport performance pole-
vaulters is manifested by higher vertical speed at the end of p hases of extension
with turn and lift. In the group of female lower performance ju mpers comes to
considerable centre of gravity body move away from vertical axi s; thus angles
between body and vertical line at phases extension, extension with turn and lift are too great and centre of gravity moves away from vertical axis and it results to
minimal, resp. zero growths of c entre of gravity height during last phase of jump.
There are two speed parameters (h o r i z o n t a l C G v v e l o c i t y a t t h e end of
take-off and vertical CGv speed at the end of extension with tu rn) and two angle
parameters (angle in take-off and climb angle of CGv) that infl uence directly
parameters on the 1st sport performance factor level which are of condition resp.
technique character.
Effective transmission on pole is enabled and mostly characterised by:
Speed parameters:
1. Horizontal CGv speed at moment of the end of take-off, 2. Velocity loss during take-off phase.
Angle parameters:
1. Operating angle in take-off,
2. Climb angle of centre of gravity,
3. Angle of take-off tread-down,
4. Angle between fore-arm of lower upper extremity with pole at moment
of take-off end.
Effective work on pole is conditioned and characterized by these parameters: Speed parameters:
1. Vertical speed at the end of phases of roll,
2. Vertical speed at the en d of extension with turn.
Angle parameters:
1. Angle between fore-arm of lower upper extremity and pole at moment
of hanging position end, 2. Angle between body and vertic al line at moment of extension end,
3. Angle between body and vertic al line at end moment of swing- up
with turn,
4. Angle between body and vertic al line at end moment of lift.
KRSKA PETER, SEDLACEK JAROMIR, KOSTIAL JAN
16 Found differences in speed and angle parameters between those t wo
sport performance different level groups enable us to evaluate precisely individual
female pole vault technique with further technique training spe cification and
final sport performance level improvement.
REFERENCES
Bojko, V. & Nikonov, I. (198 9). Novoe v prižke c šestom (New of pole vault). In: Legkaja
atletika, no. 10, p. 30 – 31.
Grabner, S. (1997). Kinematic analysis of the Women pole vault. I n : N e w s t u d i e s i n
athletics. Monaco: IAAF, 12, 1997, no. 1. p. 47 – 61.
Koštial, J. & Dremmelová, I. (20 01). Štruktúra športového výkon u v atletických
horizontálnych skokoch (Sport performance structure in athletic horizontal
jumps). In: Soubor z referátů z medzinárodního semináře: Nové poznatky v
atletice 2000. Brno, PF MU, p. 45 – 49. ISBN 80-210-2640-5.
Krška, P. & Koštial, J. (2000). Somatické a motorické faktory š truktúry športového
výkonu v skoku o žrdi žien (Somatic and motor factors of sport performance
structure in female pole vault). I n : Z b o r n í k v e d e c k ý c h p r á c k a t e d r y a t l e t i k y
FTVŠ UK. Bratislava: SVŠ TVŠ, p. 46 – 49. ISBN 80-89057-00-2.
Krška, P. (2008). Vývoj modelu k inematickej štruktúry športovéh o výkonu v skoku o
žrdi žien (Model development of kinematic structure of sport performance in
female pole vault) . In: Elektronický zborník z medzinárodnej konferencie:
Atletika. Nitra: UKF PF KTVŠ, 2008, s. 68 – 73. ISBN 978-80-809 4-373-8, EAN
9788080943738.
McGinnis, P.M. (1997). Mechanics of pole vault take-off. In: Ne w studies in athletics.
Monaco: IAAF, 12, no. 1, p. 43 – 46.
Varga, I. (1997). Skok o žrdi a ženy (Pole vault and females ). In: Slovenská atletika, 3,
1997, no. 6-7, p. 8.
STUDIA UBB EDUCATIO ARTIS GY MN., LIX, 4, 2014, pp. 17 – 25
(RECOMMENDED CITATION)
THE ROLE OF THE FUNCTIONAL TRAINING IN OPTIMISING
THE MOTRIC CAPACITY OF JUNIOR FEMALE TEAMS
I-VOLLEYBALL
CIULEA LAURA1*, SZABO BARNA1
ABSTRACT. Premises: T h e r e c e n t t r e n d s o n o b t a i n i n g h i g h q u a l i t y t e c h n i c a l
executions in female volleyball players, junior I, requires bes ides the technical and
tactical component, a great physical condition is the base of t he athletes
performance and efficiency (on the field). Concerning the junior I level, volleyball,
the first important component is the physical training to creat e the motor and
f u n c t i o n a l s u p p o r t i n o r d e r t o s u s t a i n t h e e f f o r t w h i c h i s s p e c ific for this sport.
S p o r t s p e r f o r m a n c e r e q u i r e s n e w a d a p t a t i o n s t o t h e p r o g r a m m e s , innovative
methods that can be adapted to the sports games. Because of a high level of the
game and an international level of physical training, but a low level of training in
the domestic area, both concerning the level of the game and th e player’s physical
training, it’s compulsory to modify the physical training progr ammes since early
junior ship. Functional training programmes have as a main aim the optimization
of the physical and functional capacity of the athletes, but al so the prevention and
rehabilitation of injuries. Objective: To emphasize the importance of the functional
training in optimizing the physi cal capacity of the volleyball players, juniors
I. Methods: The research was performed over a period of 11 months (July 201 3
to May 2014), during the National Volleyball Championship, edit ion 2013-2014,
juniors, and it comprised 2 groups: the experimental group of 1 2 junior
I v o l l e y b a l l p l a y e r s f r o m C S U M e d i c i n e C N U E T g . M u r e s a n d a c o n t r o l g r o u p o f
volleyball players from ACS Provo lei Tg. Mures juniors I. At th e beginning of the
training period (July) were performed the initial size tests co ncerning body mass
index, and as physical tests, were performed tests as: vertical jump test with one
hand, front flexibility test and abdominal strength. Before sta rting the final
tournament, in May 2013, were performed the final tests. Conclusions: The
functional training had a better influence on the physical trai ning of the volleyball
players belonging to the experim ental group compared to the one s from the
control group.
Keywords: functional training, motric capaci ty, method, volleyball, optimization
1 UMF Tîrgu-Mure ș, Romania
* Corresponding author: caffenoname@yahoo.com
CIULEA LAURA, SZABO BARNA
18 REZUMAT. Rolul antrenamentului func țional în optimizarea capacit ății
motrice a echipelor de junioare I – volei. Premise: Tendințele din ultima
perioada privind obținerea unor execuții tehnice de mare calita te la nivelul
jucătoarelor de volei, junioare I, necesită pe langă componenta tehnico-tactică, o
bună pregătire fizică care se constituie în baza de susținere a prestației și eficienției
jucătoarelor. La nivelul junioar e l o r I , v o l e i , p r i m a c o m p o n e n t ă p e c a r e s e p u n e
accentul este reprezentată de pregătirea fizică pentru a crea s uportul motrico-
funcțional care să susțină efortul specific acestui sport. Perf ormanța sportivă
solicită noi adaptări la programele, metodele și mijloacele de acționare inovative
care se pot adapta jocurilor sportive. Datorită nivelului de jo c ridicat și a pregătirii
fizice superioare la nivel internațional, și a nivelului scazut pe plan intern, atât
î n c e e a c e p r i v e ș t e n i v e l u l d e j o c , c â t ș i î n c e e a c e p r i v e ș t e pregătirea fizică a
jucătoarelor, se impune modificarea planurilor de pregătire fiz ică încă de la
nivelul junioarelor I. Programel e de functional training (antre nament funcțional) au
ca obiectiv principal optimizarea capacității fizice și funcțio nale a sportivilor, dar
și de prevenire și reabilitare după accidente suferite. Obiectiv: C e r c e t a r e a î ș i
propune evidențierea rolului ant renamentului funcțional în opti mizarea capacității
fizice a jucătoarelor de volei, junioare I. Metode: cercetarea s-a efectuat pe o
perioadă de 11 luni (iulie 2013 – mai 2014), de-a lungul Campio natului Național
de Volei ediția 2013-2014, junioare și a cuprins 2 grupe: grupa experiment
formată din 12 voleibaliste junioare I în cadrul CSU Medicina C NUE Tg-Mureș și
grupa control, compusă din voleibalistele de ACS Provolei Tg-Mu reș. La începutul
perioadei de pregătire (luna iul ie) s-au efectuat testările ini țiale privind indicele
de masă corporală, iar ca teste fizice au fost utiliazate: prob a de săritură pe
verticală cu elan, cu o mână; proba de flexibilitate frontală; forța abdominală.
Înainte de începerea turneului final, mai 2013, au fost efectua te testările finale.
Concluzii : antrenamentul functional a avut o influență mai bună asupra pre gătirii
fizice a jucătoarelor de volei din cadrul grupei experiment, co mparativ cu grupa
control.
Cuvinte cheie: antrenament func țional, capacitate motric ă, metodă, volei,
optimizare
Introduction
”The motric capacity/motor skill is the totality of natural and acquired
motric possibilities, whereby is possible to achieve a variety of efforts as structure
a n d d o s a g e . ” ( A c c o r d i n g t o “ T e r m i n o l o g i a e d u c a t i e i f i z i c e s i s p ortului, 1978,
quoted by Dragnea & Bota, 1999, p. 41) Dragnea & Bota (1999, p. 44) consider that “motor skill is a co mplex of
mostly motric manifestations (mo vements) (skills and abilities) , conditioned by
the development level of the motor skill, by the morpho-functio nal index, by the
THE ROLE OF THE FUNCTIONAL TRAIN ING IN OPTIMISING THE MOTRIC CA PACITY …
19 mental processes (cognitive, affective, motivational) and by th e biochemical and
metabolic processes; all these su mmed up, correlated and mutual ly conditioned,
will have as a result the effici ent performing of the actions r equired by the specific
conditions in which the motor skill will be performed.” The authors Pailjous & Bonnard (1999) quoted by Epuran (2005), state
that generally and res trictedly “motor skill designates a funct ion that indicates the
relationship with the environment and it has as peripheral supp ort the skeletal
muscles”. The essential philosophy of voll eyball consists of “do not mak e only
mistakes in the own court, but to win everything that’s played towards/or in the
opponent’s court” (Mârza, 2006, p. 66). The particularity of the volleyball game is given by the follo wing essential
characteristics (Bădău & Tănase, 2006, p. 12):
• Volleyball is a game that can be performed by all age groups (c hildren,
teenagers, adults), in an organi zed way or as extracurricular a ctivities;
• Volleyball can be performed as a recreational, hygienic and com pensatory
activity;
• The effort that is specific to the volleyball game has a variab le intensity,
depending on age, physical train ing level and technicality leve l;
• Volleyball game needs a good multilateral training due to the s everal
jumps and acrobatic procedures performed during the game, as we ll as of
the attack and service hits, both requiring force and precision .
Professional volleyball players c oncluded that sports training should use
the scientific progresses of the researches and should undergo to some rational
principles. This is because modern training became a science, d ue to the fact that
more and more specialists are interested to know the training p rocess in order to
improve it. Regardless of the surface on which is performed (co urt or sand),
volleyball contributes to the dev elopment of motor skills and a lso to the formation
of driving skills, thu s, having an important role in motility.
The analysis of the volleyball game performed by junior female players
reveals that the physical training programmes are outdated and t h e y a r e n o
longer available for the requi rements of the game nowadays.
The specific physical training h as a “content mainly oriented t owards the
development of capacity concerning the specific effort in sport s , a s w e l l a s
towards the combined qualities that determine a specific superi or efficiency”
(Teodorescu, 2009, p.150).
T r a i n i n g a t e a m o f f e m a l e j u n i o r p l a y e r s m u s t r e l y o n a w e l l o r ganized
and planned programme with a very good knowledge of all the fac tors that are
involved in the game, thus contributing to the formation of the valuable players.
CIULEA LAURA, SZABO BARNA
20 The trainers who work with junio rs must ensure their developmen t to the
highest level of the motor and technical potential. The first c oncern should be to
c r e a t e a m u l t i l a t e r a l t r a i n i n g b a s e f o r t h e f i r s t s t a g e o f t h e volleyball training
(beginners-advanced), a base tha t contributes to the formation of a motric (motor
foundation) specific to the ga me’s requirements, this being a m ajor concern in
sports specialization (cadets-juniors).
Bădău & Tănase (2006, p. 112) state that “the specific physical training
r e p r e s e n t s a s e l e c t i v e p r o c e s s o f t h e m o t r i c i t y a n d o f t h e b o d y ’s function in
accordance with the specific effort and with the highest requir ements of the
volleyball game.”
Aerobics, borrowing means of acti on specific to fitness, manage d to
create an optimal combination whi ch is called functional traini n g a n d w h o s e
main objective is to optimize the motric and functional capabil ities of those who
practice it.
Functional training is a reinterpretation of the traditional tr aining methods
and it implies the relinquishment of fixed equipment and heavyw eights (Cannone,
2007).
Functional training, considered t h e n e w t r e n d i n f i t n e s s , i m p l i es simple,
natural moves which are performed on a daily basis.
The exercises that compose a functional training programme aim at a
large variety of muscle groups. This offers muscular stability and, at the same time,
reduces the possibility of injuries in athletes and increases t he effort capabilities
of the individual.
Materials and Methods
The research was conducted over a period of 11 months (July 201 3-May
2014), during the 2013-2014 edition of the National Volleyball Championship
j u n i o r I , o n a s a m p l e o f 1 4 p l a y e r s , d i v i d e d i n t o t w o g r o u p s : e xperimental and
control. The players in the experimental group were trained usi ng specific means
of functional training and control group athletes were trained by conventional
means.
During the pre-competitive period athletes in the experimental group
were trained exclusively on functional training programs, so th at during the
competitive period to introduce during the last 20 minutes of t raining functional
training-specific circuits.
Research sample included a total of 24 athletes, junior I, age d between 16
and 18 years. The experimental group was composed of 12 athlete s, player of CSU
Medicine CNUE Tg – Mures, and the 12 athletes from the control group are part of
the CSS team Blaj (the same age as subjects from the experiment al group).
THE ROLE OF THE FUNCTIONAL TRAIN ING IN OPTIMISING THE MOTRIC CA PACITY …
21 The methods used in this research were: methods of data collec tion:
bibliographic study, experiment, test.
Results and discussions
The first measurements in this research were designed as anthro pometric
measurements: body mass index (BMI).
Table 1. Results of BMI
ID. Experimental
group TI TF Control group TI TF
1. A.C 21,0 20,15 M.A. 19,94 19,94
2. F.O. 20,1 20,15 P.O. 21,60 21,37
3. L.M. 20,6 20,09 H.A. 21,13 20,60
4. L.R. 20,3 19,97 C.R. 20,83 20,60
5. S.T. 20,1 19,81 T.A. 20,52 20,09
6. J.P. 20,6 20,38 D.A. 20,20 19,96
7. C.I. 21,0 20,76 B.R. 20,99 20,68
8. S.C. 20,6 19,79 N.A. 21,20 21,20
9. B.R. 21,4 20,83 F.A. 20,37 20,15
10. C.L. 19,4 18,51 C.O. 18,72 18,72
11. M.C. 19,6 19,59 K.R. 19,82 19,27
12. S.I 20,2 19,94 D.E. 20,68 20,23
Table 2. Statistical indicators for BMI
Groups Statistical markers
TestingX S CV t-Student P
(dif. Tf & TI)
Ti 20,40 0,60 2,71 0,58
0.0009 Experimental Tf 20,0 0,57 2,85 0,59
Ti 20,50 0,74 3,59 0,77
0.0007 Control Tf 20,23 0,71 3,52 0,74
CIULEA LAURA, SZABO BARNA
22 Physical tests:
1. Vertical jump test with one hand
Table 3. Summary results on vertical jump test with one hand
No.
Experimental
group initials TI
(m) TF
(m) Control group
initials TI
(m) TF
(m)
1 A.C 2,68 2,7 M.A. 2,42 2,42
2 F.O. 2,81 2,85 P.O. 2,59 2,6
3 L.M. 2,72 2,74 H.A. 2,81 2,83
4 L.R. 2,75 2,79 C.R. 2,71 2,71
5 S.T. 2,78 2,83 T.A. 2,74 2,74
6 J.P. 2,81 2,84 D.A. 2,56 2,57
7 C.I. 2,86 2,9 B.R. 2,83 2,84
8 S.C. 2,62 2,66 N.A. 2,58 2,59
9 B.R. 2,45 2,47 F.A. 2,62 2,64
10 C.L. 2,51 2,55 C.O. 2,82 2,85
11 M.C. 2,52 2,55 K.R. 2,55 2,56
12 S.I 2,58 2,63 D.E. 2,59 2,6
Table 4. Statistical indicators for Vertical jump
Groups Statistical
markers
Tests X S t-Student P
(diff. Tf & TI)
Experimental
group Ti 2,67±4,86 0,13 0,135
0,001
Tf 2,70±4,90 0,13 0,138
Control group Ti 2,65±4,65 0,12 0,128
0,0016 Tf 2,66±4,78 0,12 0,132
The experimental group because the exercise program used, there was an
increase in the arithmetic mean between the two assays of 0.03 cm, resulting
from the initial average value o f 2.67 m, and final testing of 2.70 m.
In the control group, progress was less than the initial value of the mean
was 2.65 and the final value of 2.66 units.
THE ROLE OF THE FUNCTIONAL TRAIN ING IN OPTIMISING THE MOTRIC CA PACITY …
23 2. Frontal flexibility
Table 5. Results from frontal flexibility test
No.
Initials
Experimental
group Ti Tf Initials
Control
group Ti Tf
1 A.C 9 11 M.A. 11 12
2 F.O. 7 9 P.O. 9 11
3 L.M. 7 8 H.A. 7 9
4 L.R. 8 10 C.R. 7 8
5 S.T. 11 13 T.A. 8 8
6 J.P. 10 11 D.A. 8 9
7 C.I. 9 12 B.R. 9 10
8 S.C. 7 9 N.A. 10 11
9 B.R. 11 12 F.A. 9 9
10 C.L. 10 11 C.O. 8 9
11 M.C. 9 12 K.R. 11 12
12 S.I 8 10 D.E. 12 14
Table 6. Statistical indicators for frontal flexibility
Groups Statistical
indicators
TestsX S t-Student P
(diff. Tf & TI)
Experimental
group Ti 8,83±15,8 1,40 1,46
0,0001
Tf 10,66±13,4 1,43 1,49
Control group Ti 9,08±17,0 1,55 1,62
0,16 Tf 9,25±17,2 1,63 1,71
In testing this sample, experimen t group athletes have achieved a higher
progress than control group athletes, due to the specific means of functional
t r a i n i n g . A s i t c a n b e s e e n i n T a b l e 6 , i n t h e g r o u p e x p e r i m e n t t h e d i f f e r e n c e
between the two tests is 1.83cm, w hile in the control group is only 0.17cm.
CIULEA LAURA, SZABO BARNA
24 3. Abdominal strength
Table 7. Results from Abdominal strength
No. Initials
Experimental
group TI TF Initials
Control
group TI TF
1 A.C 59 63 M.A. 58 59
2 F.O. 64 68 P.O. 60 61
3 L.M. 62 66 H.A. 62 64
4 L.R. 59 62 C.R. 62 62
5 S.T. 60 63 T.A. 58 60
6 J.P. 62 65 D.A. 59 61
7 C.I. 64 66 B.R. 62 63
8 S.C. 63 65 N.A. 64 65
9 B.R. 63 67 F.A. 64 64
10 C.L. 60 63 C.O. 61 63
11 M.C. 61 65 K.R. 60 62
12 S.I 61 65 D.E. 60 61
Table 8. Statistical indicators for abdominal strength
Groups Statistical
markers
Testing X S t-Studen t P
(diff. Tf & TI)
Experimental Ti 61,5±2,77 1,70 1,784
0,0001 group Tf 64,83±2,65 1,72 1,801
Control Ti 60,83±3,20 1,95 2,037
0,081 group Tf 61,,1±2,89 1,80 1,880
A c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 8 , i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p , b e c a u s e a n a d a pted
a e r o b i c s p r o g r a m w a s u s e d , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t c o m pared to the
control group, the initial testing showed a value of 61.5 execu tions, and the final
testing 64.83, with a difference mean value of 3.33 executions. The control group
recorded during the initial testing a mean value of 60.83 and t he final testing 61.1
with a difference of 0.27 executions.
THE ROLE OF THE FUNCTIONAL TRAIN ING IN OPTIMISING THE MOTRIC CA PACITY …
25
Conclusions
1 .D
u e t o t h e s e l e c t i o n a n d a d a p t a t i o n o f m e t h o d s a n d m e a n s o f
improving the physical preparation of the volleyball players, t heir driving ability,
resulting in increased exercise capacity, was positively influe nced.
2 .T
h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n p r o g r a m o f p h y s i c a l t r a i n i n g c o n t e n t t h r o u gh t he
intro
duction of specific means of training function was found a balance between
clues: somatic (morphological) and motive.
3 .T
h e u s e o f t a i l o r e d f u n c t i o n a l t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s p r o d u c e d s m ooth
development
of athletes. An increase in height by an average of 1 c m , a v e r a g e
weight loss with 1 kg and decreased body mass index (BMI) was o bserved in
athletes from the experimental gr oup when compared with athlete s from the
control group.
REFERENCES
Bădău, D. & Tănase, T. (2006). Volei, teorie si metodica, Editura Omnia Brașov, p. 112.
Cannone, J. (2007). Functional training. Retrieved 2007-08-26.
Dragnea, A. & Bota, A. (1999). Teoria activit ăților motrice , Editura Didactică și Pedagogică,
p. 44.
Epuran, M. (20 05). Metodologia cercet ării ac tivităților c orporale , Editura Fest, București.
Mârza, D. (2006). Volei, bazele teoretice și metodice, Editura PIM Iași, p. 66.
Teodorescu, S. (2009). Antrenament și competi ție – Ed. a 2ă, rev., Buzău, Alpha MDN,
p. 150.
STUDIA UBB EDUCATIO ARTIS GY MN., LIX, 4, 2014, pp. 27 – 34
(RECOMMENDED CITATION)
OPTIMIZATION OF TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL PREPARATION
USING MIXED TABLE TENNIS EXERCISES
ON CHILDREN OF 10-12 YEARS
APOSTU PAULA1*, DOBOȘI ȘERBAN1
ABSTRACT. Technical exercise consist the key element of the entire workou t,
during which the main goals are to achieve and perfect technica l procedures,
pre v e n t an d c omb a t mi s ta k e s, au t om ati z e stro ke s, try i n g t o ob ta in technical
e f f i c i e n c y . D u r i n g t h e 1 0 – 1 2 y e a r s o l d c h i l d r e n ’ s w o r k o u t i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o
improve technical procedures by using teaching methods appropri ate for their
age and according to their abili ty to comprehend. Using mainly combined exercise
will contribute to their faster a nd easier learning, substantia lly increasing the stroke
efficiency.
Keywords: technical -tactical procedures, tabl e tennis, forhand, backhand
REZUMAT. Optimizarea preg ătirii tehnico-tactice prin folosirea exerci țiilor
combinate la copiii de 10-12 an i în jocul de tenis de mas ă. Pregătirea tehnică,
constituie factorul de bază al antrenamentului, prin care se ur mărește realizarea
însușirii și perfecționării procedeelor tehnice, prevenirea și corectarea greșelilor,
automatizarea loviturilor, eficacitatea tehnică, etc. În antren amentul copiilor de
10-12 ani se impune îmbunătățirea procedeelor tehnice printr-o însușire cât mai
corectă și economică a acestora, folosind metode și mijloace ad ecvate nivelului de
cunoștințe ale acestora. Folosirea cu pondere sporită a exerciț iilor combinate în
instruirea copiilor la tenis de masă va contribui la însușirea mai rapidă a procedeelor
tehnice, favorizând substanțial eficiența loviturilor.
Cuvinte cheie: procedee tehnico-tactice, tenis de mas ă, forhand, rever
1 Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Babe ș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
* Corresponding author: paulaapostu@yahoo.com
APOSTU PAULA, DOBOȘI ȘERBAN
28 Introduction
The nowadays high performance tennis table resides in dynamism, f a s t
thinking and acting, precision and exceptional tactical and tec h n i c a l s k i l l s . T h e
high motivation, the fight for winning points in European and w orld rankings,
along with the contribution of oth er scientific domains in trai ning and game
required for becoming a great champion, leads to decrease of th e age when high
performances in the table tennis are achieved.
Technical preparation represents the main training factor, wher eby we
aim to train and improve technical procedures, to prevent and c orrect mistakes,
t o c r e a t e a n a u t o m a t i s m o f t h e k i c k s , t o i n c r e a s e t e c h n i c a l e f f icacy, etc. The
improvement of technical procedu res through correct and efficie nt acquirement
o f t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s , b y u s i n g p r o p e r m e t h o d s a n d m e a n s a c c o r d i n g to the
children’s level is mandatory in training children of 10-12 yea rs (Doboși & Apostu,
2009).
The increased use of mixed exercises in children’s table tennis training will
have impact on the fast learning of technical procedures, impro ving significantly the
efficiency of kicks.
The table tennis players’ activity is assessed not only by taki ng into
consideration the competitions results but based on the observa tions made
during trainings, depending on th e subject, attention and the i nterest displayed by
each player for the training process.
Research objectives
• The increased use of mixed exerci ses in children’s table tennis instruction
• Assessment of the technical preparation level of the children o f 10-12 years
in tennis table.
• Argumentation and experimental verification of the efficacy of using mixed
technical procedures in acquirin g and consolidating the basic t echnique.
Materials and methods
The study group
The experiment was conducted within the Table Tennis Department o f
the sport club CS Politehnica Cluj – Napoca during the period o f September 2013 –
June 2014. The research was conduc ted on a group of 20 boys (ha ving the same
level) divided in two groups: th e witness and the experimental group, each
consisting of 10 players (age: 10-12 years).
OPTIMIZATION OF TECHNICAL AND TA CTICAL PREPARATION USING MIXED TABLE TENNIS EXERCISES
29 Research methods
In the research I have used the following methods which helped me in
finding solutions for the proposed objectives: the experimental method; the test
method, the comparative method; graphical representation.
During the experiment I have used assignments on simple directi ons for
specific technical preparation in table tennis of the witness g roup.
For the experimental group, I have used mixed assignments consi sting of
forhand and backhand which require a better coordination and ar e more difficult
to execute.
Means of instruction used in the experiment for technical preparation
of the experimental group
• Long serve followed by cross forhand counter (figure 1);
• Long serve followed by cross backhand counter (figure 2);
• Long cross serve from forhand followed by alternating counters from
forhand and backhand towards the opposite forhand (figure 3);
• Long cross serve from backhand fo llowed by alternating counters from
forhand and backhand towards the opposite backhand (figure 4)
(Doboși, 2009).
Fig. 1. Long serve followed by
cross forhand counter Fig. 2. Long serve followed by
cross backhand counter
APOSTU PAULA, DOBOȘI ȘERBAN
30
Fig. 3. Long cross serve from
forhand followed by alternating
counters from forhand and
backhand towards the
opposite forhand Fig. 4. Long cross serve
backhand followed by from
alternating counters from
forhand and backhand towards
the opposite backhand
Instruction means used in the expe riment for technical preparation
of the witness group
• Long serve followed by cross forhand counter (figure 5);
• Long serve followed by cross backhand counter (figure 6);
Results
By these instruction means we inte nded to estimate if mixed ass ignments
used at the experimental group are more efficient for technical p r o g r e s s o f
players. As a result we have proceed to the initial testing (on September 2013)
and final testing (on July 2014) both for the witness and exper imental group.
OPTIMIZATION OF TECHNICAL AND TA CTICAL PREPARATION USING MIXED TABLE TENNIS EXERCISES
31
Fig. 5. Long serve followed by
cross forhand counter Fig. 6. Long serve followed by
cross backhand counter
Table 1. Summarizing table – initial and final testing on witness group
Subject no. Cross forhand counterattack
No. of wins Cross backhand counterattack
No. of wins
Initial testing Final testing Initial testing Final testing
1 8 9 7 8
2 8 8 6 7
3 5 6 9 9
4 7 8 8 7
5 8 9 8 9
6 9 9 6 6
7 10 8 7 8
8 9 10 5 5
9 6 7 8 8
10 7 8 9 8
Arithmetical
mean 7,70 8,20 7,30 7,50
APOSTU PAULA, DOBOȘI ȘERBAN
32 Table 2. Summarizing table – initial and final testing on experimental g roup
Subject no. Cross forhand counterattack
No. of wins Cross backhand counterattack
No. of wins
Initial testing Final testing Initial testing
1 7 9 6 8
2 9 10 8 10
3 6 8 5 7
4 8 8 9 10
5 11 10 9 11
6 6 8 5 8
7 8 9 7 9
8 7 7 8 10
9 9 10 7 8
10 7 8 6 9
Arithmetical
mean 7,80 8,70 7,00 9,00
Table 3. Dynamics of technical preparation indices
for the groups included into the experiment
Attempts for test Sample Initial testing Final testing Difference/Increment
Cross forhand
counterattack Witness group 7,70 8,20 0,50
Experimental
group 7,80 8,70 0,90
Cross backhand
counterattack Witness group 7,30 7,50 0,20
Experimental
group 7,00 9,00 2,00
Analysis of the dynamics of technical preparation indices for the
groups included into the experiment
By analyzing data collected after the initial and final testing we notice as
follows:
On final testing the result for the witness group is 0,50 wins better than
the result on initial testing for cross forhand counterattack (T.I.-7,70; T.F .-8,20)
and 0,20 wins better on final test ing comparing with the result of initial testing for
the cross backhand counteratta ck (T.I.-7,30; T.F.-7,50).
In what concerns the experimenta l group the result on final tes ting is 0,90
wins better for the cross forhand counterattack (T.I.-7,80; T.F .-8,70) and with 2,00
wins better on final testing comparing with the result of initi a l t e s t i n g f o r t h e
cross backhand counterattack. (T.I.-7,00; T.F.-9,00).
OPTIMIZATION OF TECHNICAL AND TA CTICAL PREPARATION USING MIXED TABLE TENNIS EXERCISES
33 By comparin g the resul ts of the two g r oups ( witne s s and ex peri m ental)
we can notice that the witness group obtained at the initial te sting higher results
t h a n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p ( 7 , 7 0 – 8 , 2 0 ) b o t h i n c a s e o f t h e c r o ss forhand and
cross backhand counterattack (7,30-7,50).
On final testing, following the application of mixed assignment s in
technical preparation of the exp erimental group, the results ob tained were
significantly better than the re sults obtained by the witness g roup both in
what concern cross forhand counterattack (7,80-8,70) and cross backhand
counterattack (7,00-9,00), which proves the efficiency of this instruction method.
Graphic 1. Values of Cross forhand counterattack
Graphic 2. Values of Cross backhand counterattack
APOSTU PAULA, DOBOȘI ȘERBAN
34 Conclusions
The improvement of technical procedures through correct and eff icient
acquirement of these procedures, by using proper methods and me ans according
to the children’s level is manda tory in training children of 10 -12 years.
Based on the results obtained, we may assert that the suggested means
for players’ instruction, effici ently and successfully reached the objectives proposed
at the beginning of the experiment.
Analyzing the results obtained during the research, we can say that these
results validate the hypotheses of the research. Comparing the results of the
initial testing with those of the final testing we observe the progress achieved in
case of the two technical procedures by using the mixed assignm ents.
REFERENCES
Doboși, Ș. (2009). Tenis de mas ă –Teorie și metodică, Ed. Napoca Star, Cluj Napoca
Doboși, Ș. & Apostu, P. (2009). Metodologia instruirii în jocul de tenis de mas ă, Ed. Napoca
Star, Cluj Napoca
http://protabletennis.net
http://www.tabletennisinstruction.com/
STUDIA UBB EDUCATIO ARTIS GY MN., LIX, 4, 2014, pp. 35 – 42
(RECOMMENDED CITATION)
MORPHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF FORWARDS IN THE RUGBY
GAME RELATED TO TASKS AND POSITION
OPREAN AL
EXANDRU1*, COJOCARIU ADRIAN1
ABSTRACT. The aim of this study is to identify and underline the morpholo gical
particularities of Romanian elite rugby players from the forwar ds compartment.
This aspect can contribute to the improvement of training conte nts. The
hypothesis of this study is that morphological particularities of forwards vary
depending on tasks and position in the same manner as in the ca se of elite players
f r o m o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . T h e s t u d y i n c l u d e d t h e p l a y e r s o f a s e l e c ted team, which
comprises the best players of the Romanian championship. Among the 32 tested
players, 17 are forwards. Evaluations were done by positions, a nd we drafted
tables with arithmetic means and standard deviations for each p osition. We took
several anthropometric measurements for the rugby players, thus d e t e r m i n i n g
the qualitative level of the body mass between the four positio ns of the
compartment. Findings indicate that players have a certain leve l of morphological
adaptation to specific effort by the post they occupy within th e team. The players
feature a hypertrophy of the muscle tissue, a phenomenon specif ic to strength
sp o r ts. H ow e v e r, s ome o f th e pl a y e r s al s o h a d a si gn i fi c a n t am ou n t o f f a t m a ss ,
which contributes to less impressive performances.
Keywords: fat body mass, lean mass, forwards
REZUMAT. Aspecte morfologice ale pachetului de înaintare în jocul de
rugby, raportate la post și sarcini. Scopul acestui studiu este reprezentat de
identificarea și evidențierea specificului morfologic al jucătorilor profesioniști
d e r u g b y d i n R o m â n i a , a s p e c t c e p o a t e c o n t r i b u i u l t e r i o r l a î m b unătățirea
conținutului antrenamentului. În realizarea acestei lucrări am pornit de la
premisa că valorile de masă și compoziție corporală ale înaintă rii se încadrează în
standardele optime ale acestui sport. Studiul s-a desfășurat pe jucătorii unei echipe,
selecționată a celor mai buni jucători din campionatul intern. Din cei 32 de sportivi
testați, 17 sunt jucători ai compartimentului de înaintare. Eva luările au fost făcute
pe posturi, mediile aritmetice și abaterile standard la nivelul fiecărui post au fost
întabelate. S-au efectuat măsurători antropometrice ale jucătorilor de rugby,
1 Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, “Al. I. Cuza” University, Ia și, Romania
* Corresponding Author: alexandruoprean@yahoo.com
OPREAN ALEXANDRU, COJOCARIU ADRIAN
36 determinând nivelul calitativ al masei corporale între sporturi . Rezultatele indică
faptul că jucătorii au un nivel de adaptare morfologică la efor tul specific, în funcție
de postul ocupat în echipă. Jucătorii testați prezintă o hipert rofie a țesutului muscular,
fenomen specific sporturilor de forță. Cu toate acestea, stratu l de țesut adipos este
mare, la unii dintre jucători, fapt ce contribuie la diminuarea p e r f o r m a n ț e l o r
sportive ale acestora.
Cuvinte cheie: țesut adipos, mas ă activă, înaintare
Introduction
Performance physical effort deter mines adaptive variations of t he human
body as a whole, starting with the somatic nervous system, coor dinator of voluntary
movement and in charge with veget ative functions (cardiovascula r, respiratory)
and endocrine-metabolic functions, responsible for ensuring the energetic substrate
of muscular effort.
There are numerous studies (Dră gan, 2002; Duthie, 2006; Gabbett , 2005)
in the scientific literature concerning the adjustment capaciti es of rugby players,
mostly in countries with rugby tradition. In Romania, this subj ect has not been
approached very much by speciali sts, considering the low popula rity of this sport.
For this reason, in the following lines, we will outline the po sitions of the
forwards compartment of the rugby team:
• The forwards, comprised of 8 players:
– first line – 2 props and a hooker;
– second line – two players;
– third line – two flankers and a lock.
The demands of each position are so diverse, that team unity is essential
in attaining the objectives. Generally, rugby is a sport for al l shapes and sizes, but
it is also a sport of individu al attributions and skills.
Purpose
Considering the low popularity of this sport in Romania, there have been
only a few assessments of players’ exercise and effort adjustme nt capacity. For
this reason, we decided to conduct certain morphological tests on rugby players
w i t h i n t h e f i r s t R o m a n i a n l e a g u e . W e c o m p a r e d t h e r e s u l t s b e t w e en teams,
compartments, position s, and our findings to those of existing studies and to the
biological model of top players.
MORPHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF FORWARDS IN THE RUGBY GAME RELATED TO TASKS AND POSITION
37 The purpose of this study was to identify and highlight the mor phological
particularities of professional rugby players in Romania, which can contribute to
an improvement of training contents.
In this paper, we focus on the adjustment of rugby players’ bod y composition
to game-specific effort.
Hypothesis
In this investigation, we have started from the idea that the t ested
morphological particularities values of the forwards varies wit hin the optimal
standards for this sport.
The second hypothesis is that the body density of the third lin e is better
than the rest due to their more “aerobic tasks” during the game .
Material and methods
This study comprised anthropomet rical measurements of the playe rs and
recordings of adjustment conditions specific to rugby.
The study was conducted on the pl ayers of an elite team, which comprises
the best players of the Romanian championship.
Among the 32 tested players, 17 are forwards and 15 backs. Eval uations
w e r e d o n e b y p o s i t i o n s , a n d w e d r a f t e d t a b l e s w i t h a r i t h m e t i c m eans and
standard deviations for each position.
Among the morph functional measur ements, we will highlight the
following:
– body mass; – height; – brachial skin fold thickness; – subscapular skin fold thickness; – intercostal skin fold thickness; – abdominal skin fold thickness; – femoral skin fold thickness.
Body composition was calculated by using the methods of the fi ve skin
folds on the right side of the body. We also conducted a bioele ctrical impedance
test. Through both these testes, we calculated the amount of le an and fat mass, as
well as their percentages.
OPREAN ALEXANDRU, COJOCARIU ADRIAN
38 Results and discussions
In the following lines, we will compare and discuss the results o btained
by the forwards, by positions and by each anthropometric index. The data were
i n t r o d u c e d i n t o g r a p h s f o r a b e tter emphasis on the relations b etween the five
positions of this category.
Table 1. Morphological results of the forwards
Position Age
(years) Weight
(kg) Lean
body
mass
(kg) Lean body
mass
(%) Body fat
(kg) Body fat
(%)
MEAN
PROP 24 112 83 74 29 26
S.D. 3,0 4,9 2,0 3,5 5,2 3,5
MEAN
HOOKER 22 107 80 75 28 25
S.D. 2,8 1,4 7,8 6,4 6,4 6,4
MEAN
LOCK 22 112 86 77 26 23
S.D. 1,7 6,2 6,1 5,4 7,0 5,4
MEAN
FLANKER 22 102 84 83 18 17
S.D. 1,9 3,4 2,2 2,6 3,1 2,6
MEAN
NO.8 22 102 84 83 18 17
S.D. 1,9 3,4 2,2 2,6 3,1 2,6
The mean ages by positions for forwards range between 21 and 24
(Fig 1). The means by positions are below those of previous stu dies, which
generated results above 26 years old (Duthie et al., 2006). The players with the
highest mean age are the props, b u t t h e y a l s o r a n g e b e l o w t h e m ean of the
p r o f e s s i o n a l l e v e l f o r t h i s p o s i t i o n . T h e l o w e s t m e a n w a s t h a t o f t h e n u m b e r –
eights – 21, which can indicate a deficit of strength on the le vel of this category, as
i t i s k n o w n t h a t t h e c l i m a x o f s t r e n g t h i s r e a c h e d a f t e r 2 5 , a n d strength is the
basic motor quality of the forwa rds. Furthermore, the game expe rience has a very
important role in the activity of this category. Nonetheless, a low mean age can be
to the advantage of this categor y, as it brings more agility an d vitality.
MORPHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF FORWARDS IN THE RUGBY GAME RELATED TO TASKS AND POSITION
39
Fig. 1. Age of the forwards
The body mass of the players of this category is large. The for wards of
rugby teams are among the heaviest athletes, similar to the wei ght throwers,
wrestlers and heavy weight lifters, or with other athletes whos e main skill is
strength.
The mass of the forwards we have studied is close to the weight indices
resulted from the tests conducted previously of professional ru gby players. As
seen in Figure 2, the biggest weight was that of props and lock s, as they are the
pillars of the scrum. The means of the five forwards coincide t o the ideal weight
values for this category (Drăgan, 2002; Gabett, 2005).
Fig. 2. Weight of the forwards
Body composition is a very important factor in the physical dev elopment
of the athletes. Depending on the percentage of lean mass and b ody fat, the
athletes can achieve or not the performances they have set in m ind. Age of the forwards
(years )
Pr op
Hooker Lock FlankerNo. 8
051015202530Pr op
Hooker
Lock
Flanker
No. 8
standard deviation
Weight of the forwards
(Kg)
HookerLock
FlankerNo. 8
60708090100110120130
Pr op
Hooker
Lock
Flanker
No. 8
standard deviation
OPREAN ALEXANDRU, COJOCARIU ADRIAN
40 The forwards of a rugby team are athletes with large body mass, as their
prevailing motor skill is strength (Clarke, 1995). Nonetheless, the body fat must
b e l o w e r t h a n t h e m u s c u l a r t i s s u e , c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e r u g b y g ame requires a
predominantly aerobic energy.
Fig. 3. Lean mass of the forwards
The lean mass means of the forwards is presented graphically (F ig. 3); the
results are as follows: the props 83 kg, the hookers 80 kg, the l o c k s 8 6 k g , t h e
flankers 84 and the number-eights 80 kg. Though they have obtai ned a low
arithmetic mean, number-eights had a high standard deviation, w hich reduces the
value of the arithmetic mean; this was also observed in case of the hookers.
Regarding the lean mass percentage, the players of our study ha ve
obtained the following results: the props 74%, the hookers 75%, the locks 77%,
the number-eights 77% and the flankers 83%. (Fig. 4) We notice that the values
are close; only flankers scored a bove 80%. The results are belo w the ideal values
of the players of this category; the only ones who scored four units below the
value were the flankers (Drăgan, 2002). Furthermore, the locks and the hookers
had a high standard deviation: some of the players are closer t o the ideal values
for these positions. Though the props and the locks had a large a m o u n t o f l e a n
mass, their percentage is lower t han that of their teammates, w hich can indicate a
deficit in the body density of these players.
The amount of body fat is large for the athletes of this catego ry, with
the following results: the props 29 kg, the hookers 28 kg, the locks 26 kg, the
number-eights 25 kg and the flankers 18 kg. (Fig. 5) We notice that flankers
are the only ones with a mean below 20 kg, as well as a low dis tribution of the
individual values. Forw a rds' le a n ma ss
(kg)
Pr op
HookerLockFlanker
No. 8
6065707580859095Pr op
Hooker
Lock
Flanker
No. 8
standard deviation
MORPHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF FORWARDS IN THE RUGBY GAME RELATED TO TASKS AND POSITION
41
Fig. 4. Percentage of forwards’ lean mass
Fig. 5. Amount of the forwards’ body fat
Fig. 6. Percentage of the forwards’ body fat Forwards' lean mass percentage
(%)
Pr opHookerLockFlanker
No. 8
606570758085 Pr op
Hooker
Lock
Flanker
No. 8
standard deviation
Forwards' body fat
(kg)
Pr op HookerLock
FlankerNo. 8
0510152025303540
Pr op
Hooker
Lock
Flanker
No. 8
standard deviation
Forwards' body fat percentage
(%)
Pr opHookerLock
FlankerNo. 8
05101520253035Pr op
Hooker
Lock
Flanker
No. 8
standard deviation
OPREAN ALEXANDRU, COJOCARIU ADRIAN
42 In percentages, the forwards vary as follows: the props 26%, t he hookers
25%, the locks 24%, the number-eights 24% and the flankers 17%. (Fig . 6) We
n o t i c e t h a t t h e f i r s t r o w p l a y e r s ( t h e p r o p s a n d t h e h o o k e r s ) h ave the highest
percentage of body fat, closely followed by the locks and the n umber-eights. This
indicates an excess of body fat to take into account and an ine ffective adaptation
t o t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e r u g b y g a m e f o r t h e s e p o s i t i o n s . F l a n k e r s are better
positioned: only four units above the ideal value for this posi tion.
Conclusions
• The lean mass of the forwards is in the demanded standards, wit h
the exception of the props, whose results are under the demands ,
considering their tasks based mostly on specific force.
• The fat tissue of the players is higher than normal, results
indicating a low specific adaptation due to some lacks in train ing
and nutritional habits.
• The differences between positions and lines are in the favor of the
flankers who have a good body density. Props and hookers show
a smaller adaptation of the body density. Also the No. 8 shows a
poor adaptation, considering thei r tasks and the long distances
they have to cover during the game.
REFERENCES
Clarke, B. (1995). Rugby skills – a complete step by step guide , Hamlyn, London, p. 65-78
Drăgan, I. (2002). Medicină sportivă, Ed. Medicală, Buchares t, p. 22-3, 45, 86, 136-9
Duthie, GM., Pyne, DB. & Hopkins, WG. (2006). Anthropometry profiles of elite rugby
players: quantifying changes in lean mass, Brit J Sports Med , Vol. 40, p. 307-12
Gabbett, TJ. (2005). A comparison of physiological and anthropo metric characteristics
among playing positions in j unior rugby league players, Brit J Sports Med , Vol. 19,
p. 400-8
STUDIA UBB EDUCATIO ARTIS GY MN., LIX, 4, 2014, pp. 43 – 50
(RECOMMENDED CITATION)
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEVELO PMENT OF RESISTANCE IN
THE YOUTH VOLLEYBALL PLAYERS (15-16 YEARS)
COJOCARU ADIN-MARIAN1*, COJOCARU MARILENA1
ABSTRACT. Introduction: T h e n e e d t o k n o w t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e c u r r e n t
model of the game's development trends and elements of progress is an essential
requirement then the coach must always be guided. Sports traini ng contents must
always be improved by updating and enriching the news, so that they can meet
existing training and competition in the current model and futu re expected level
(group) training respectively. Objectives: Optimizing the training of volleyball players
t o i m p r o v e g e n e r a l a n d s p e c i f i c r e s i s t a n c e . Methods: T h e f o l l o w i n g m e t h o d s w e re
used namely research and bibliog raphic documentation method, ob servation
method, driving tests, mathematical method – statistical, graph ical method. The
comparative results with model se lection and model motor model developed by FRV
game differences recorded quite noticeable, especially in techn ical evidence. This
approach requires a new strategy to achieve the objectives of t raining, improvement
of the set of means used and not least the emphasis will be on individual instruction
to players, even if they team depend on each other in achieving ph ase of game .
Conclusions: The means selected to achieve the objectives were effective, w ell-
dosed, it highlighted the progress and the quality of execution of techniques.
Keywords: resistance, volleyball, player, development of motricity
REZUMAT. Contribu ții privind dezvoltarea rezisten ței jucătorilor de volei la
nivelul cade ți (15-16 ani). Introducere: Necesitatea cunoașterii caracteristicilor
actualului model de joc, a tendințelor lui de dezvoltare și a e lementelor de progres
constituie o cerință esențială după care antrenorul trebuie per manent să se
orienteze. Conținuturile instruirii sportive trebuie să fie per manent îmbunătățite
prin reactualizarea și îmbogățirea cu noutăți, în așa fel încât să se poată îndeplini
cerințele de pregătire și concurs existente în modelul actual ș i de perspectivă,
preconizat pentru nivelul (grupa) respectiv de instruire. Obiective: Optimizarea
procesului de instruire a jucătorilor de volei în vederea îmbun ătățirii rezistenței
generale și specifice. Metode: Au fost utilizate următoarele metode de cercetare și
1 Spiru Haret University, Bucharest, Romania
* Corresponding Author: adincojocaru@yahoo.com
COJOCARU ADIN-MARIAN, COJOCARU MARILENA
44 anume metoda de documentare bibl iografică, observația, metoda t estelor motrice,
metoda matematico – statistică, metoda grafică. Rezultatele com parative cu modelul
de selecție, modelul motric și modelul de joc elaborat de F.R.V . înregistrează
diferențe destul de vizibile, mai ales la probele tehnice. Aces t lucru impune
abordarea unei noi strategii în vederea realizării obiectivelor antrenamentului,
îmbunătățirea setului de mijloace utilizat și nu în ultimul rân d se va pune accent
pe instruirea individuală a jucătorilor, chiar dacă aceștia în echipă depind unul
de celălalt în realizarea fazelor de joc. Concluzii: Mijloacele selecționate pentru
realizarea obiectivelor au fost eficiente, bine dozate, lucru r eliefat de progresul
obținut cât și de calitatea execuțiilor procedeelor tehnice.
Cuvinte cheie: rezistență, volei, juc ător, dezvoltare motric ă
Introduction Characteristics generalizes various schools volleyball players worldwide.
Increased height of players coupled with particular strength in attack and defense
with an emphasis on blocking, promoted by the European School, along with
organizing varied and fast attack with acrobatic game on defens e and efficient line
II promoted Asian School are strategic attributes propagated to t h e c u r r e n t
volleyball (Cojocar u & Cojocaru, 2009).
Physical training should achieve a high level of specific motor capacity
development which is manifested through technical and tactical possibilities perfect
needed volleyball player (Bril & Kleshev, 1988).
The orientation of physical training should be done considering t h e o t h e r
components of the preparation (tec hnical, tactical and mental), its contribution in
strengthening and recovery efficiency is very technical and tac tical. It becomes
obvious need to apply the princi ple of concentric training (Ghe nadi, 1984).
Hypotheses research It was assumed that, using metho ds, techniques and specific mea ns adapted
t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s p l a y e r s c a d e t s w i l l a c h i e v e i t s o b j e c t i v e s a n d t h u s w i l l
improve the quality of motor str ength, specific volleyball game .
The research purpose is to optimize training volleyball players to improve
general and specific resistance.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF RESISTANCE IN THE YOUTH VOL LEYBALL PLAYERS (15-16 YEARS)
45 Materials and methods
⇒ organizing research experiment and determining sample;
⇒ studying literature and selecting the main means of achieving t raining
model;
⇒ establish research and investigative methods to be used during the
experiment;
⇒ establish evaluation criteria;
⇒ final evaluation sample from th e application model training;
⇒ initial and final processing of results and comparative analysi s of results;
⇒ validate assumptions, conclusions.
During the experiment, the follo wing methods wer e used for rese arch:
a) bibliographic documentation method;
b) observation; c) motility test method; d) mathematical method – statistical; e) graphical method;
The experiment was organized in CS Steaua Bucharest team boys y outh,
aged 15-16 years.
The experiment was conducted ov e r a p e r i o d o f o n e s c h o o l y e a r
(2013/2014) and aimed at improving physical training volleyball p l a y e r s a n d
especially the quality of the driving resistance.
Included in the research sample was composed of a group of 24 v olleyball
players cadets category, a fairly large group, which is explain ed by the three age
categories: 15, 16 years.
During the training was intended to train all players to target all
components of athletic training, t h e f o c u s i s p u t o n p h y s i c a l t raining and hence
development of resistance, and i n May were reapplied control sa mples in order to
ascertain the progress made the first test, but the differences b e t w e e n t h e f i n a l
r e s u l t a n d t h e m o d e l p r e s e n t e d b y R o m a n i a n F e d e r a t i o n a n d V o l l e yball this
category is age.
Methods and means used were those recommended by the literature .
It insisted on preparing both individual and collective players .
Towards the end of this period, after the age of 15 years may b e given
particular attention to developing overall strength and resista nce under specific
s p e e d t r a i n i n g i s i n d i v i d u a l i z e d f o r h i g h – s p e e d u n d e r s t r e s s and shooters –
r e s i s t a n c e r e g i m e j u m p . A m i d a g e n e r a l t r a i n i n g , s p e c i f i c t r a i n ing is performed
(Bompa, 2003).
COJOCARU ADIN-MARIAN, COJOCARU MARILENA
46 Development of resistance involves using several methods, emplo ying
only one not able to determine the corresponding effects (Baech le & Earle, 2000).
Moreover, the outstanding results obtained in the tests demonst rate the
usefulness of the resistance of the track to a wide variety of methods.
a) training method variable;
b) the method of hindering;
c) a method of long-term effort;
d) interval training;
e) control method;
f) method tempo;
g) method the competition;
h) training method in circuit.
Examples of exercises to develop strength
General Development of resistance
⇒ Running uniform tempo;
⇒ lengthy run with acceleration along the way;
⇒ running on varied terrain;
⇒ multiple technical replicates uniform tempo and even some accel eration;
Development of specific resistance
⇒ game, more sets (6-10);
⇒ game with a reduced squad;
⇒ game at end of training under conditions of tired;
⇒ game with shortening, number of s ets, but with th e introduction of fragments
of game very fast tempo game with disabilities and reducing the duration of
sets; play five alternating sets , each team starts with a lead of five points.
Breaks between sets may be granted at the request of a team;
⇒ technical circuit: service pickup of service attack, lifting bl ock (figure 1); will
focus not only on fast tempo, but also a large pe rcentage of ex ecutions as good;
Fig. 1. Technical circuit
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF RESISTANCE IN THE YOUTH VOL LEYBALL PLAYERS (15-16 YEARS)
47 ⇒ game 4-4 and the ball thrown normal (combined); play 4 sets to 11, the usual
o d d , t h e b a l l t h r o w n b y t h e h u s b a n d . I t w i l l t a k e a c c o u n t o f m e thodical
guidelines specified in the previous year.
Results
All subjects included in the survey results were recorded in th e tables in
Annex. To compare results using the arithmetic mean of the samp le for each
sample separately.
The results were analyzed and st atistically, both initially and finally.
At the end of the experiment, the results are as follows:
Table 1. The somatic level
Nr.
crt. Sample Testing
initial Testing
Final Progress The
Model of
F.R.V. The difference
between the model
and the final test
1. Stature 162,8cm 165cm 2,2cm 177cm 12cm
2. Weight 48,71kg 49,63kg 0,92kg – –
3. Span arms 161,6 163,9 2,3cm – –
4. Thoracic
perimeter 68,2cm 71,5cm 3,3cm – –
Table 2. The motricity level
Nr.
crt. Sample
Testing
initial Testing
Final ProgressThe
Model
of F.R.V.The difference
between the
model and the
final test
1. Vertical Jump
without elan 43,63cm 47,13cm 3,5cm 52cm 4,87cm
2. Vertical Jump with
elan 47,29cm 51,42cm 4,13cm 56cm 4,58cm
3. Lateral
displacements the
3meters, time 1
min 20,04 25,54 5,50 50 24,46
4. Flexion of dorsal
trunk 25,29 31,13 5,84 30 +1,13
5. Triple jump length 5 6,33 1,33 10 3,67
COJOCARU ADIN-MARIAN, COJOCARU MARILENA
48 Table 3. The technical level
Nr.
crt. Sample Testing
initial Testing
Final Progress The
Model of
F.R.V. The difference
between the
model and the
final test
1. Service
5,12 good 5,91 good 0, 79 good 10/10 4,09 good
2. Reception
from service 4,54 good 6,08 good 1, 54 good 10/10 3,92 good
3. Attack 4 good 5,5 go od 1,5 good 10/10 4,5 good
Discussions
In the game, volleyball players running a large number of rapid movements
(starts, shifts, stops, hitting the ball) combined with repeate d jumping attack and
block, acyclic movements made rounds of intense effort and inte rspersed with
short breaks (Balaiș & Păcuraru, 1997).
Repeating these rounds very often in a match requires a specifi c resistance
training. Resistance must be pre pared according to the intensit y and duration
of exercise.
The fact that the movements are acyclic, complex and changing r equirements
for game development and maintenance of specific resistance is performed
with some difficulty. Ensuring a sustainable overall resistance largely removes
this difficulty.
The effort of the players on the front line is anaerobic and th e second
line, the effort is aerobic, so specific resistance training sh ould take account of
this aspect.
In general, the means for develo ping specific resistance must h ave a
structure similar to volleyball, so it is recommended choice of means and
performing typical volleyball ma tch their speed or higher (Șerb an, 1999).
Instability resistance requires specific volleyball and using t heir own
means cyclic sports, to develop g eneral strength (running the l ong-term average
speed without acceleration and, skating and especially running on varied
terrain).
D e p e n d i ng on t h e t e am , p e r i o d , o b j e c t i v e a n d b as e d o n t h e e x am p les
can also use other exercises or v ariations of those presented.
Lesson training must be organized, that duration is about 60 mi n
(without heating), if the pulse goes up to 170 / min. If it is lower, 140 / min on
average, the duration can be greater.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF RESISTANCE IN THE YOUTH VOL LEYBALL PLAYERS (15-16 YEARS)
49 If the games are organized ball thrown phases of continuous pla y can be
planned (reception, lift and atta ck, approximately 3 sec). Exam ple of planning:
20-30-45-60-30-20-60-30 sec. etc (unequal halves, as in the gam e, their duration
can be increased, but the kit wi ll decrease compar ed to that in the game).
In order to improve specific resistance is recommended that par allel
global influence to work and sel ectively game resistance lines I and II.
Conclusions
A n a l y z i n g e a c h c o n t r o l s a m p l e i n h a n d , i n t e r m s o f i n i t i a l a n d final
notes:
• visible progress between the two tests, which demonstrates that t h e
training was well planned and organized and use the most effect ive
teaching tools.
• results with model selection and model motor mode l developed by
FRV game differences recorded qu ite noticeable, especially in t echnical
evidence. This approach requires a new strategy to achieve the
objectives of training, improvement of the set of means used an d not
least the emphasis will be on in dividual instruction to players , even if
they team depend on each other in achieving rally.
• means selected to achieve the objectives were effective, well-d osed, it
highlighted the progress and the quality of execution of techni ques.
• good selection of players, setting clear objectives, proper use of teaching
strategies can lead to achieving the intended results.
REFERENCES
Baechle, T. & Earle, R. (2000). Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning: 2nd
Edition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, p 23-48.
Balaiș, F. & Păcuraru, A. (1997). Volei de la selecție la perfo rmanță, Galați: Editura
Academica.
Bompa, T. (2003). Performanța în jocurile sportive: teoria și m etodologia antrenamentului,
București: Editura Ex Pronto.
Bril M.S. & Kleshev U.N. (1988). Modeling characteristics usage of top skills volleyball
players during sports schools selection, М.: IFK, p. 135.
COJOCARU ADIN-MARIAN, COJOCARU MARILENA
50 Cojocaru, A. & Cojocaru, M. (2009) . Volei, antrenament și perfo rmanță, București:
Editura Bren.
Ghenadi, V. (1984). Volei – mode larea instruirii copiilor și ju niorilor, București: Editura,
Sport – Turism.
Serban, M. (1999). Gândirea factor de optimizare a modelării, B ucurești: Editura
PRINTECH.
STUDIA UBB EDUCATIO ARTIS GY MN., LIX, 4, 2014, pp. 51 – 59
(RECOMMENDED CITATION)
ANALYSIS OF THE RE LATION BETWEEN
THE INDIVIDUAL’S SOCIAL RE PRESENTATION AND PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT INDICES
ABALAȘEI BEATRICE1*, HONCERIU CEZAR1,
TROFIN PETRU Ț-FLORIN12
ABSTRACT. The objective of our study is to pinpoint the relation between perceived
image in social setting and the image determined by physical de velopment
indices. Representations are generated by members of a group, t hus being part of
i t s s t r u c t u r e , b u t t h e y c a n b e f a r f r o m r e a l i t y , w h i c h s a y s s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e
diversity and complexity of taking over propagated messages. If representation is
in agreement with reality, subjects are anchored in the surroun ding environment,
they perceive life as it is; if the representation of their own body differs from
q u a n t i f i a b l e i n d i c e s c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f h y pothesis validity,
the communication between subjects and the world is deformed. A fter analyzing
the correlations between the ind ependent variables and the depe ndent variable,
we determined the connections between the social representation of the body
and body mass – more precisely, body mass index.
Keywords: social representation, body image, physical development
REZUMAT. Analiza rela ției dintre reprezentarea social ă a individului și indici
ai dezvolt ării fizice. Obiectivul studiului nostru este de a identifica relația dintre
imaginea percepută în cadrul social și cea determinată de indic ii dezvoltării fizice.
R e p r e z e n t ă r i l e s u n t g e n e r a t e d e m e m b r i i u n u i g r u p , f o r m â n d o c o mponentă a
structurii lui, însă poate să fie departe de realitate și asta vorbește de diversitatea
și complexitatea peluării mesajelor propagate. Dacă reprezentarea formată este în
concordanță cu realitatea, subiecții sunt ancorați în mediul am biant, percep viața în
parametri reali; dacă reprezentarea propriului corp diferă de i ndicii cuantificabili
considerați importanți în analiza veridicității ipotezei, comun icarea subiecților
cu lumea este deformată. În urma analizei corelațiilor ce apar între variabilele
1 Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University Ia și, Romania
2 PhD Candidate, grant holder, Romanian Academy, Ia și Branch, Project SOP HRD/159/1.5/S/ 133675
* Corresponding author: beatrice.abalasei@yahoo.com
ABALAȘEI BEATRICE, HONCERIU CEZAR, TROFIN PETRUȚ-FLORIN
52 independente și cea dependentă, au fost determinate legăturile ce se stabilesc
între reprezentarea socială a corpului și masa corporală, respe ctiv, indicele de masă
corporală.
Cuvinte cheie: reprezentare social ă, schemă corporală, dezvoltare fizic ă
Introduction
Man – as entity separated by ethos and within a group – lives i n harmony
with the environment, forms his own symbols by watching the bod y at rest or in
motion, thus modelling the fluctu ating grids of perception, which are conscious or
unconscious, but always active. Therefore, he co nstructs repres entations that help
him anchor himself in the immediate reality and maintain this c ollaboration.
Representing means bringing something to the foreground with th e intent of
explaining a thing to others; hence, the representation speaks a nd, becau se i t is
able to show reality (subjected to its own interpretation syste ms), it communicates.
In this case, “social representation” – a term proposed by S. M oscovici (1961, La
psychanalyse, son image et son public apud Moscovici, 1997) – is a particular
knowledge method, an intermediary form between concept and imag e / perception
(between showing the real and the abstract).
The idea of our study is to pinpoint the relation between the i mage created
and the real, quantifiable image. Representations are generated by members of a
group, thus being part of its structure, but they can be far fr om reality, and this
hegemonic representation dominates most symbolic or affective p ractices, thus
acquiring identical and coercive particularities that can influ e n c e t h e l i f e s t y l e
practices of a social actor. Representations emerge following a social conflict, a
social controversy, antagonistic relationships between members o f t h e s o c i e t y ;
the genesis is the polemic, which can have a constructive or de structive effect for
people in motion. From the space they dominate, from the existe ntial sphere,
social actors receive information and transform it depending on t h e i r o w n
experience and on the collective one, and they acquire the grou p behaviour for
data that exceed the personal level of perception. The social life of the individual enriches the content of representation, (cognitive, emotional a nd behavioural)
which influences essentially the collection of images that he b ears in the memory,
such as daily gestures.
In this study, the representation of one’s own body refers to t he strategy
through which the social actor thinks pragmatically – by mediating between the cognitive and the emotional, seeking to understand the information that promotes
ANALYSIS OF THE RELATION BETWEEN THE INDIVIDUAL’S SOCIAL REPRES ENTATION AND …
53 a healthy lifestyle in relation to his image in space and passi ng it through the filter
of reason – and manages to communicate for dominating the socia l, material and
ideal environment (Neculau, 1996) . In this context, Palmonari & Doise (1986)
posit that social representations can be dual, thus presenting a side of the image
and one of the significance: each image can be ascribed a signi ficance and each
significance, an image. The acti on through which the social act or gains access to
common significances materializes itself in the exploration of the unknown real
universe, emerged as a terror caused by ignorance and turned in to the desire to
know. The product – social representation – outlines an analogy between image and fund. Therefore, the object of a social representation is a ssimilated to the
system of values and norms pertaining to the individual or to h is group. In other
w o r d s , t h e b o d y o f a s o c i a l a c t o r a n c h o r e d i n t h e s o c i a l e n v i r o nment does not
have a preset, determined significance, but it represents the r elation subject/ object;
it is this relation that we seek to underline in our investigat ion. A representation
restructures reality; it reduces the unfamiliar to familiar, to enable the integration
of objective characteristics of the object, of previous experie nces of the subject
and of his system of attitudes and norms.
Objective of the study
Our investigation seeks to pinpoint the causality between the s ocial
representation of the subjects’ body and their physical develop ment.
Hypothesis
We estimate that the individual’s social representation is influenced by
physical development indices.
Research variables
1. Social representation – the dependent variable;
2. Body mass, height and BMI – independent variables.
Material and methods
B o d y m a s s i n d e x ( B M I ) i s a n i n d i c a t o r o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s h e a l t h; the
interval considered normal by Wo rld Health Organization (WHO) i n 2000 ranges
between 18 and 23 kg/m2 (Khongsdier, 2005). Under the value of 18 kg/m2, it is
considered that there is a misba lance between weight loss and e nergetic reserves
of the body, which would lead to pathology (James et al., 1988; Shetty & Jam es,
1994; WHO, 1995). Some studies have assessed the probability of determining
ABALAȘEI BEATRICE, HONCERIU CEZAR, TROFIN PETRUȚ-FLORIN
54 body fat percentage through the BMI (Frankenfield et al., 2001; Kyle et al., 2003),
taking into account that it can vary as effect of certain facto rs, such as age, gender,
body shape, ethnic gro up, etc (Norgan, 1994; Gurrici et al., 19 98; Wagner & Heyward,
2000; Prentice & Jebb, 2001). It is important to know the BMI v alue during
childhood and adolescence, considering that high values associa te with pathologies
and even death (Abraham et al., 1971; Baker et al., 2007; Bjorg e et al., 2008;
Mossberg, 1989; Franks et al., 2010). Kahn et al. (1977) report ed that BMI could
b e a l t e r e d t h r o u g h e x e r c i s e ( a t l e a s t 4 h o u r s / w e e k o f w a l k i n g or jogging). The
aspect of body modification was explained subsequently by a stu dy that compared
forest workers and researchers: the first category ranged bette r within normal
limits (Gallis, 2009).
Subjects
The volunteers involved in our investigation are male, aged bet ween 19
and 30 (28 subjects). Their chara cteristics are featured in Table 1.
Table 1. – Characteristics of the experimental group
(mean ± standard deviation)
Characteristic Value
Age (years) 22.71 ± 2.62
Number of subjects 28
Height (cm) 177.11 ± 6.76
Weight (kg) 73.56 ± 12.60
Physical activity level (1-5) 2.29 ± 0.76
Method The investigation method used a questionnaire to pinpoint the s ocial
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s b o d y , a s t a n d a r d i z e d t o o l , m eant to show the
image of each subject about his own person. The number of items was limited to
17, each with a Likert scale referring to the image ascribed by social actors to the body of the research subjects. The questionnaire was applied to 28 subjects, and
Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of internal consistency was 0.933. T he value of t he
coefficient of internal consistency demonstrates that the worki ng instrument
measures what we have proposed. Images are an important part of the questionnaire,
because each respondent and each opinion of the pertaining grou p was related to
this body image (Fig. 1).
ANALYSIS OF THE RELATION BETWEEN THE INDIVIDUAL’S SOCIAL REPRES ENTATION AND …
55
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Fig. 1. – Body image models
Testing protocol for independent variables Height was determined by using a metallic bevel (20/40 cm) and a Bosch
G L M 8 0 a n g l e m e a s u r e r . T h e s u b j e c t s t o o d n e x t t o a w a l l w i t h 0 ș inclination
toward the vertical plane, on a floor with the same inclination t o w a r d t h e
horizontal plane, in a normal anatomic stance. The bevel was placed with one side on the wall and the other tangentially on the subject’s top of the head. The angle
measurer measured the distance between the horizontal lower sid e of the bevel
and the floor, thus the subject’s height. Body mass was assesse d b y u s i n g t h e
Tanita BC 587 scale. After determi ning the height, the subject stepped on the scale
t o f i n d o u t t h e b o d y m a s s . D u r i n g t h e a s s e s s m e n t , t h e s u b j e c t s tood tall and he
stepped back after the signal. Results were noted on the indivi dual chart of each
subject. Body mass index represen ts the result of the rapport b etween body mass
and height squared.
Findings and discussions
Table 2. Correlations between research variables
Pearson r Social
representationSocial
representation
vs.
Body mass Social
representation
vs.
Height Social
representation
vs.
BMI
R 0.5202 -0.1415 0.5918
95% confidence interval 0.1825 to 0.7482 -0.4889 to 0.2446 0.2807 to 0.7904
R square 0.2707 0.02002 0.3503
P value
P (two-tailed) 0.0045 0.4726 0.0009
P value summary ** ns ***
ABALAȘEI BEATRICE, HONCERIU CEZAR, TROFIN PETRUȚ-FLORIN
56 The body is our reference point for self-perception, for relati ng to the
e n v i r o n m e n t , f o r e v o l v i n g , f o r s h o w i n g o u r s e l v e s a s p e r s o n s o r in relation to
others. The body protects the genetic inheritance of each of us and it contributes
t o i n t e g r a t i o n . P e r c e i v e d b o d y i m a g e i s b a s e d o n e d u c a t i o n , e n v ironment and
heredity. They determine the individual to show interest for th e image presented
by the ethos. Sometimes, this image is in agreement with the va lues, principles
and culture of the individual; o ther times, the representation o f w h a t w e a r e
transforms through the relation with society, a model promoted b y s o c i e t y o r
b y t h e p e r t a i n i n g g r o u p . I t i s b e y o n d d o u b t t h a t e a c h i n d i v i d u a l acquires a
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a b o u t t h e s e l f , a b o u t w h a t h e i s a n d w h a t h e c a n i m p r o v e t o b e
successful, by interacting with the environment. Our findings s how a correlation
b e t w e e n t h e s o c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e b o d y ( a s t h e i m a g e f e a tured in the
questionnaire) and two of the rese arch variables: body mass and body mass index
(BMI). The correlation between the social representation of the body and body
mass is statistically significant , with a significance threshold of 0.004, which
suggests that respondents associate their own weight with the s ocial opinion
corresponding to the images featured in the questionnaire. The correlation
between social representation and BMI is statistically signific a n t ; t h e v a l u e o f
0.0009 supports the idea that social representation depends on the rapport
between body mass and height. Therefore, social image correspon ds to the one
determined by quantifiable body images, by the 3D image of the body perceived
by the subject and by his group. Though BMI presents body image as a whole and
social representation adjusts to this result, we found no statistically significant
correlation between height and overall social representation. T he result can be
interpreted from the male perspective of projecting the self to ward the outside
world, where accomplishing tasks and action prevail over body image. After
analyzing the correlations betw een the independent variables an d the dependent
variable, we determined the relations between the social repres entation of the
body and body mass, more precisely – body mass index (Graphs 1 and 2). We
c a n p r e d i c t – w i t h 9 5 % p r o b a b i l i t y – t h e v a l u e o f b o d y r e p r e s e n tation of an
individual within the statistical population of our sample, if we know his body
mass or body mass index.
Graph 1 shows the statistical relation between the social repre sentation
of the body and body mass. The relation Y = 0.02823*X + 3.034 (Y = social
representation, X = body mass) expresses that the alteration of body mass also
modifies the social representation of the individuals within ou r sample. Therefore,
every extra pound adds to the peripheral system of the social representation
variables able to change the core by 0.02823 units.
ANALYSIS OF THE RELATION BETWEEN THE INDIVIDUAL’S SOCIAL REPRES ENTATION AND …
57
Y = 0.02823*X + 3.034
Y = 0.1012*X + 2.735
Graph 1. 2 – Linear regression between body mass and social representation , –
Linear regression between body mass index (BMI) and social repr esentation
Graph 2 illustrates the statisti cal relation between the social representation
of the body and body mass index. The relation Y = 0.1012*X + 2. 735 (Y = social
representation, X = body mass index) shows that the two variabl es alter in the
s a m e s e n s e . T h e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f B M I b y u n i t d e t e r m i n e s t h e m o d i fication of
the social representation by 0.1012 units.
Conclusions
The findings of this study confirmed the initial hypothesis. Th e body
image of the subjects (for people included in our investigation ) – determined
in the social environment – is correlated with their body mass and with their body mass index. The male gender of our subjects may contribute to the fact
t h a t t h e s o c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e i r b o d y m o d i f i e s i n t h e s a m e s e n s e –
quantitatively speaking – with their body mass and body mass in dex, which
s u g g e s t s t h a t s u b j e c t s a r e a n c h o r e d i n r e a l i t y , t h a t t h e y h a v e a pragmatic
relation with the environment.
Therefore, this investigation shows the final synthesis of body image,
one’s own perceived body in corre lation with physical developme nt indices;
b o d y i m a g e d e p e n d s o n c o n c r e t e i n d i c e s t h a t m e d i a t e t h e r e l a t i o n between
the object and the subject.
The continuation of this investigation can provide important da ta
regarding the connection between body representation created wi thin the
social groups – for the same cat egory of subjects – and their b ody composition,
considering that body mass includes these parameters.
ABALAȘEI BEATRICE, HONCERIU CEZAR, TROFIN PETRUȚ-FLORIN
58 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This paper is supported by the Sectoral Operational Programme H uman
Resources Development (SOP HRD), financed from the European Soc ial Fund
and by the Romanian Government under the contract number POSDRU /159/
1.5/S/133675
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of coronary heart disease in adulthood. N Engl J Med. 357: 2329-2337.
Bjorge, T., Engeland, A., Tverdal, A. & Smith, G.D. (2008). Bod y mass index in adolescence
in relation to cause-specific mortality: a follow-up of 230,000 N o r w e g i a n
adolescents. Am J Epidemiol. 168: 30-37.
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STUDIA UBB EDUCATIO ARTIS GY MN., LIX, 4, 2014, pp. 61 – 72
(RECOMMENDED CITATION)
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND RUFFIER
INDICES IN ROMANIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
DEAK G RAȚIELA-FLAVIA1*, BOROȘ-BALINT IULIANA1,
CIOCOI-POP DUMITRU RARE Ș1, GROSU EMILIA FLORINA1
ABSTRACT. Introduction: Physical inactivity was prevalent in 31% of adults
older than 15 years in 2008 and it is the fourth leading risk f actor for global
mortality. The purpose of this study was to establish the corre lations between
the self-reported Physical Activity Index (PAI) and the Ruffier I n d e x i n t h e
case of students from Cluj-Napoca, Romania. Materials and methods: Four
hundred students, enrolled at the “Babeș-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca,
voluntarily participated in this research. Anthropometric measu res (weight,
h e i g h t a n d w a i s t c i r c u m f e r e n c e ) w e r e c a r r i e d o u t . B o d y M a s s I n d ex (BMI)
was calculated. All subjects self-evaluated their current physi cal activity level
(Physical Activity Index), performed a Ruffier test and an abdo minal strength
test. Results: Mean age of subjects was 20.56 ± 4.58 years, mean weight was
62.51 ± 12.74 kg, mean height was 167.94 ± 12.41 cm, mean Ruffi er Index
was 11.28 ± 4.76, mean Physical Activity Index was 39.19 ± 25.9 8, mean BMI
was 21.91 ± 3.56 kg/m2, and the mean number of performed sit ups was
22.26 ± 9.55. A statistically significant negative relation bet ween the Ruffier
Index and the Physical Activity Index was found ( r = -0.28, p < 0 . 0 0 1 ) .
Conclusions: S elf-reported levels of physical a ctivity were highly predictive
of cardio-respiratory fitness. A positive result of this resear c h w a s t h e f a c t
that the participants were not overweight. An alarming outcome was the poor
level of their physical fitness. Further investigations are nee ded in order to
see if this situation is v alid at national level.
Keywords: ph
ysical activity, Ruffier test, indices, correlations, students
REZUMAT. Corelații între indicele de activita te fizică și indic ele Ruffier în
cazul studen ților români. Introducere: Inactivitatea fizică a fost prevalentă
în cazul a 31% dintre adulții cu vârste peste 15 ani în anul 20 08 și este al
patrulea factor de risc al mortalității la nivel mondial. Scopu l acestui studiu a
fost acela de a stabili corelațiile dintre indicele de activita te fizică și indicele
1 Babes-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport
* Correspon ding Autho r: gratiela.de ak@ubbcluj.ro
DEAK GRAȚIELA-FLAVIA, BOROȘ-BALIN T IULIANA, CIOCOI-POP DUMITRU RAREȘ, GROSU EMILIA FLORINA
62 Ruffier în cazul studenților din Cluj-Napoca, România. Materiale și metode:
Patru sute de studenți ai Universității „Babeș-Bolyai” din Cluj -Napoca au
participat voluntar la această cercetare. Au fost efectuate măs urători antropometrice
(greutate, înălțime și circumferința taliei). S-a calculat Indi cele de Masă
Corporală (IMC). Toții subiecții și-au autoapreciat nivelul de activitate fizică
(Indicele de Activitate Fizică – IAF), au efectuat un test Ruff ier și unul pentru
evaluarea forței abdominale. Rezultate: V â r s t a m e d i e a s u b i e c ț i l o r a f o s t
20.56 ± 4.58 de ani, greutatea medie a fost 62.51 ± 12.74 kg, î nălțimea medie a
fost 167.94 ± 12.41 cm, indicele Ruffier mediu a fost 11.28 ± 4 .76, IAF mediu a
fost 39.19 ± 25.98, IMC mediu a fost 21.91 ± 3.56 kg/m2 și numărul mediu de
abdomene efectuate a fost 22.26 ± 9.55. Între indicele Ruffier și IAF există o
corelație negativă semnificativă statistic ( r = -0.28, p < 0.001). Concluzii:
Nivelurile de activitate fizică autodeclarate au prognozat core ct nivelurile de
pregătire fizică ale participanților. Un rezultat pozitiv al ce rcetării a fost acela
c ă s u b i e c ț i i n u a u f o s t o b e z i . E s t e a l a r m a n t , î n s ă , f a p t u l c ă n i v e l u l l o r d e
pregătire fizică a fost foarte scăzut. Ar trebui efectuate inve stigații ulterioare
pentru a vedea dacă această situ ație este valabi lă la nivel naț ional.
Cuvinte cheie: activitate fizic ă, testul Ruffier, indici, corela ții, studenți
Introduction
Physical inactivity causes annually the death of approximately 3.2 million
people worldwide. As the fourth leading risk factor for mortali ty, physical
i n a c t i v i t y w a s p r e v a l e n t i n 3 1 % o f a d u l t s o l d e r t h a n 1 5 y e a r s i n 2008 (WHO,
2011). Over the course of time, physical activity has been prov ed to be negatively
related to weight gain or obesity, coronary heart disease (CHD) , type 2 diabetes
mellitus, Alzheimer’s disease and, respectively, dementia (Rein er et al., 2013). In
school-aged children and youth, aerobic exercise has positive e ffects on blood
p r e s s u r e , o n t h e m e t a b o l i c s y n d r o m e , o n B o d y M a s s I n d e x ( B M I ) , total fat,
a n d / o r a b d o m i n a l f a t , o n b o n e m i n e r a l d e n s i t y , a n d o n d e p r e s s i o n (Janssen &
LeBlanc, 2010).
Existing scientific evidence regarding the association between a reduced
risk of premature death and regular physical activity is incont rovertible
(Warburton, Whitney Nicol & Br edin, 2006). Although it is known t h a t p h y s i c a l
activity lowers the risk of mortality, it still remains to be d etermined the role of its
components (intensity, duration, frequency) on preventing CHD, hypertension,
obesity, diabetes, and other chronic diseases. Citing different studies, Kokkinos &
Myers (2010) conclude that exercise intensity and duration are both associated,
in an inverse mode, to the risk of coronary events. Other autho rs (Warburton et
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND RUFFIER INDICES IN R OMANIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
63 al., 2006) emphasize the fact that there seems to be a linear r elation between the
volume and the intensity of the performed physical activity and the health status
of those who engage in it.
The general physical condition of one person is defined by tha t person’s
cardio-respiratory fitness. An indicator of the cardio-respirat ory fitness is the
speed of recovery of the cardiac frequency after exercising ( Nsenga Leunkeu,
Shephard & Ahmaidi, 2014) . In France, the interest of the scientific community
regarding the heart recovery curves during the first decades of the 20th century
led Jean-Edouard Ruffier to develop the Ruffier test. Nsenga Leunkeu et al. (2014)
compared the scores obtained by twelve healthy men who performe d the Ruffier
test with the results obtained b y the same subjects after perfo rming a 20 meter
shuttle run. The Ruffier test indices and the 20 meter shuttle run indices were
moderately correlated. Nevertheless, the scores obtained with t he recovery test
(Ruffier test) did not correspond to the ranking of the partici pants based on the
20 meter shuttle run results (Nsenga Leunkeu et al., 2014).
The purpose of this study was to establish the correlations be tween the
self-reported Physical Activity Index (PAI) and the Ruffier Ind e x i n t h e c a s e o f
students from Cluj -Napoca, Romania.
Materials and methods
Participants
Four hundred students, enrolled at the “Babeș-Bolyai” Universi ty of Cluj-
Napoca, voluntarily participated in this research. The research protocol was
explained to them and they agree d to sign a written informed co nsent.
Table 1. Physical Activity Index – self evaluation of the score
Scor e Activit y
Intensit y
5 Sustained heavy breathing and perspiration
4 Intermittent heavy breathing and
perspiration, as in tennis
3 Moderately heavy, as in cycling and other
recreational sports
2 Moderate, as in volleyball, softbal l
1 Light, as in fishing
Duratio n
4 Over 30 minutes
3 20 to 30 minutes
2 10 to 20 minutes
1 Less than 10 minutes
DEAK GRAȚIELA-FLAVIA, BOROȘ-BALIN T IULIANA, CIOCOI-POP DUMITRU RAREȘ, GROSU EMILIA FLORINA
64 Frequency
5 6 to 7 times per week
4 3 to 5 times per week
3 1 to 2 times per week
2 A few times per month
1 Less than once a month
Procedures
Anthropometric measures (weight, height and waist circumference ) were
performed on all 400 subjects. The Body Mass Index (BMI) was ca lculated for
each participant according to t he formula: weight / height2 [kg/m2].
Table 2. Physical Activity Index – evaluation of the physical activity level
Evaluation of Activity Score
Score Evaluation Activity Categor y
81 to 100 Very active lifestyle High
60 to 80 Active and healthy Very good
40 to 59 Acceptable but could be better Fair
20 to 39 Not good enough Poor
Under 20 Sedentary Very poor
All subjects self-evaluated their current physical activity by selecting a
score for each of the three comp onents (intensity, duration, fr equency) (Table 1).
The total score was calculated with the following equation: Int ensity x Duration x
Frequency, and it was categorized as shown in Table 2.
Table 3. Ruffier Index – classification
Classification Ruffier Index
Endurance athletes < 0
Excellent or Good Aerobic fitness 0.1 – 5
Average fitness 5.1 – 10
Poor fitness 10.1 – 15
Very poor or medical issues > 15.1
Each subject performed a Ruffier test as described by Monod, Vandewalle
& Flandrois (2007), cited by Nsenga Leunkeu et al. (2014). Part icipants
performed 30 squats in 45 seconds, with a given pace. Their fee t were placed
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND RUFFIER INDICES IN R OMANIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
65 s h o u l d e r w i d t h a p a r t , f l a t o n t h e f l o o r , a n d t h e i r b a c k w a s k e p t straight. Heart
rates were recorded before starting the test, after 3 minutes o f seated rest (P 0),
immediately after performing the squats (P 1) , a n d a f t e r 1 m i n u t e o f s e a t e d r e s t
(P2). The Ruffier index was calculated with the formula: Ruffier I ndex = [(P 0 +
P1 + P 2) – 200] / 10. The classification was made according to Table 3 (Nsenga
Leunkeu et al., 2014).
A test for abdominal strength was carried out by all participan ts. The test
consisted of executing sit ups, as fast as possible, in 30 seco nds. Subjects were
l y i n g w i t h t h e i r b a c k o n t h e f l o o r , h a n d s b e h i n d t h e h e a d , k n e e s bent, ankles
i m m o b i l i z e d b y a p a r t n e r . T h e y e l e v a t e d t h e i r t r u n k f r o m t h e f l oor until they
reached a vertical position.
Analyses Means, standard deviations and s tandard errors were calculated for all
data. Pearson’s correlation coe fficients were computed in order to investigate the
relationships between parameters (age, weight, height, waist ci rcumference, BMI,
Physical Activity Index, Ruffier Index, sit ups). A crosstabula tion analysis was
performed for the Physical Activity Index and the Ruffier Index . The independent-
s a m p l e s t – t e s t w a s u s e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e w h e t h e r t h e r e a r e s i g n i f icant differences
between males and females in the case of Ruffier Index, Physica l Activity Index, sit
ups, and BMI. A p<0.05 was considered statistically significant. The analyses we re
carried out in IBM S PSS, version 20.0.
Results
Mean age of subjects was 20.56 ± 4.58 years, mean weight was 6 2.51 ±
12.74 kg, mean height was 167.94 ± 12.41 cm, mean waist circumf erence was
73.06 ± 9.40 cm, mean Ruffier Ind ex was 11.28 ± 4.76 (classifie d as poor fitness –
see Table 3), mean Physical Act ivity Index was 39.19 ± 25.98 (e valuated as not
good enough – see Table 2), mean BMI was 21.91 ± 3.56 kg/m2 (evaluated as low
risk o f d e v e l o p i n g d i s e a s e s r e l a t e d t o o b e s i t y ) , a n d t h e m e a n n u m b e r of
performed sit ups was 22.26 ± 9.55.
As seen in Table 4, a statistically significant negative relat ion between the
R u f f i e r I n d e x a n d t h e P h y s i c a l A c t i v i t y I n d e x w a s f o u n d ( r = -0.28, p < 0 . 0 0 1 ) .
Subjects with high Ruffier scores have reported low levels of p hysical activity.
Physical Activity Index has significant positive relations with B M I ( r = 0 . 2 0 , p <
0.001), with waist circumference ( r = 0 . 2 9 , p < 0 . 0 0 1 ) , a n d w i t h t h e p e r f o r m e d
number of sit ups ( r = 0.23, p < 0.001) (Table 4).
DEAK GRAȚIELA-FLAVIA, BOROȘ-BALIN T IULIANA, CIOCOI-POP DUMITRU RAREȘ, GROSU EMILIA FLORINA
66
A s i g n i f i c a n t a s s o c i a t i o n w a s f o u n d b e t w e e n t h e f i v e l e v e l s o f s e l f –
reported physical activity (PAI) and the four levels of calcula ted recovery scores
(Ruffier Index) ( χ2 = 53.15, df = 12, p = 0.001) (Tables 5, 6). Table 4. Correlations between six parameters
BMI
(kg/m2)Waist
circum-
ference
(cm) Sit ups Physical
Activity Inde xRuffier
Index Weight
(kg)
BMI
(kg/m2) Pearson
Correlation 1
Sig. (2-
tailed)
N 399
Waist
circum-
ference
(cm) Pearson
Correlation 0.769** 1
Sig. (2-
tailed) 0.001
N 398 399
Sit ups Pearson
Correlation 0.081 0.141** 1
Sig. (2-
tailed) 0.108 0.005
N 398 398 399
Physical
Activity
Index Pearson
Correlation 0.206** 0.299** 0.239** 1
Sig. (2-
tailed) 0.001 0.001 0.001
N 395 395 395 396
Ruffier
Index Pearson
Correlation -0.002 -0.115*-0.187** -0.289** 1
Sig. (2-
tailed) 0.971 0.022 0.001 0.001
N 396 396 396 393 397
Weight
(kg) Pearson
Correlation 0.817** 0.861** 0.160** 0.348**-0.100* 1
Sig. (2-
tailed) 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.046
N 399 399 399 396 397 400
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND RUFFIER INDICES IN R OMANIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
67 Table5. Crosstabulation between Physical Activity and Ruffier Indices
Ruffier Index
excellen t avera ge poo r very poo r Total
Physical
Activity
Index 81-100 high Count 4 5 4 4 19
% of Total 1.0% 1.3% 1.0% 1.0% 4.8%
60-80 very
good Count 18 29 18 8 69
% of Total 4.6% 7.4% 4.6% 2.0% 17.6%
40-59 fair Count 17 25 17 8 69
% of Total 4.3% 6.4% 4.3% 2.0% 17.6%
20-39 poor Count 40 24 40 30 103
% of Total 10.2% 6.1% 10.2% 7.6% 26.2%
<20 very poor Count 53 28 53 44 133
% of Total 13.5% 7.1% 13.5% 11.2% 33.8%
Total Count 56 132 132 94 393
% of Total 14.2% 33.6% 33.6% 23.9% 100.0%
Table 6. Chi-square test (Physica l Activity and Ruffie rIndices)
Value df Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 53.150a 12 0.001
Likelihood Ratio 53.514 12 0.001
Linear-b y-Linear Association 37.183 1 0.001
N of Valid Cases 393
a. 2 cells (10.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected
count is 2.71.
The Ruffier Index had a mean va lue of 12.05 ± 4.37 (classified as poor
fitness – see Table 3) for female participants, and a mean value of 9.4 6 ± 5.2
(classified as average fitness – see Table 3) for male pa rticipants (Table 7). PAI
had a mean value of 34.39 ± 22.76 (evaluated as poor – see Table 2) for females,
and a value of 51.15 ± 29.35 (evaluated as fair – see Table 2) for males (Table 7).
Table 7. Descriptive statistics (Ruffier and PA Indices, Sit ups, BMI)
Sex N Mean Std.
DeviationStd. Error Mean
Ruffier Index Female 279 12.0480 4.37011 0.26163
Male 117 9.4585 5.20060 0.48080
Physical Activity
Index Female 280 34.39 22.757 1.360
Male 115 51.15 29.348 2.737
Sit ups Female 281 20.94 9.189 0.548
Male 117 25.34 9.739 0.900
BMI (kg/m2) Female 282 21.440472 3.7178500 0.2213947
Male 116 23.075164 2.8828848 0.2676691
DEAK GRAȚIELA-FLAVIA, BOROȘ-BALIN T IULIANA, CIOCOI-POP DUMITRU RAREȘ, GROSU EMILIA FLORINA
68 Table 8. T-test for Ruffier and Physical Activity Indices, Sit ups and BMI
Levene's Test
for Equality of
Variances t-test for Equality of Means
F Sig. t df Sig.
(2-tailed) Mean
Difference
Ruffier
Index Equal variances
assumed 8.830 0.003 5.078 394 0.001 2.58948
Equal variances
not assumed 4.731 187.992 0.001 2.58948
Physical
Activity
Index Equal variances
assumed 16.758 0.001 -6.088 393 0.001 -16.755
Equal variances
not assumed -5.483 172.948 0.001 -16.755
Sit ups Equal variances
assumed 2.809 0.095 -4.274 396 0.001 -4.399
Equal variances
not assumed -4.173 206.206 0.001 -4.399
BMI
(kg/m2) Equal variances
assumed 1.930 0.165 -4.239 396 0.001 -1.6346922
Equal variances
not assumed -4.706 273.740 0.001 -1.6346922
The mean score of Ruffier Indic es for female participants is s ignificantly
higher than the mean score of Ru ffier Indices for male particip ants ( t = 4.73, df =
187.99, p = 0.001) (Table 8). Because the variances for the two groups a re
significantly unequal ( F = 8.83, p < 0.05), a t-test for unequal variances was used
(Table 8). In the case of PAI, the same t-test for unequal vari ances was utilized
(F = 16.76, p < 0 . 0 5 ) ( T a b l e 8 ) . T h e m e a n P A I ’ s s c o r e f o r f e m a l e s i s
significantly lower than the mean PAI’s score for males ( t = -5.48, df = 172.94,
p = 0.001) (Table 8).
M e a n s c o r e s o f R u f f i e r I n d i c e s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 1 a n d F igure 2
presents the relations between Physical Activity and Ruffier In dices.
Discussion In a study published in 2013, Asztalos et al. discussed the rel ations
b e t w e e n s u b j e c t i v e h e a l t h a n d t h r ee other parameters (physical activity, waist
circumference, and BMI) based on data obtained from 3208 Belgia n adults. The
short International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) was used to assess
p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y . T h e a u t h o r s r e p o r t e d t h a t s u b j e c t i v e h e a l t h was strongly
associated with physical activity and negatively associated wit h BMI (Asztalos
et al., 2013).
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND RUFFIER INDICES IN R OMANIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
69
Fig. 1. Classification of Ruffier Indices
Fig. 2. Crosstabulation between Physical Activity and Ru ffier Indices
DEAK GRAȚIELA-FLAVIA, BOROȘ-BALIN T IULIANA, CIOCOI-POP DUMITRU RAREȘ, GROSU EMILIA FLORINA
70 In the same year, another group of researchers shared with the scientific
community results regarding the r elationship between the level of physical
activity and markers of cardiovascular health in adolescents fr om Valencia, Spain
(Morales-Suarez-Varela, Clemente -Bosch & Llopis-Gonzalez, 2013) . 583 Valencian
adolescents aged 12-18 years fi lled in a questionnaire develope d to evaluate their
physical activity level, participated in sessions of anthropome tric (weight, height,
waist circumference) measurements , have performed the 20 meter shuttle run
test and manual dynamometry. Physical activity level was negati vely related to
BMI, waist circumference and weight in male adolescents, and po sitively related
to aerobic capacity in both male and female adolescents (Morale s-Suarez-Varela
et al., 2013).
Self-reported physical activity levels and aerobic fitness stat us were
assessed by Singleton, Fitzgerald & Neale (1994) in 384 healthy black and
white adults aged 50-80 years. Physical Activity Index Question naire was used
t o e v a l u a t e p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y l e v e l s a n d a e r o b i c f i t n e s s w a s a s sessed using a
Naughton protocol, with a treadmill (Singleton et al., 1994). M en were more
physically active than females, white males and white females w ere more
p h y s i c a l l y a c t i v e t h a n b l a c k m a l e s a n d b l a c k f e m a l e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . A s i g n i f i c a n t
positive relation was found between self-reported exercise leve l s a n d a e r o b i c
fitness in men. For women, fitness status could not be predicte d by self-reported
physical activity levels (Singleton et al., 1994).
Toriola & Monyeki (2012) investigated the status of health-rela ted
physical fitness, body composition and physical activity in 283 adolescents from
South Africa (mean age of 14.90 ± 0.72 years, 111 boys and 172 girls). Eurofit
protocol test was chosen to asse s s p h y s i c a l f i t n e s s a n d I n t e r n a tional Physical
Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) was administered to evaluate acti vity levels
(Toriola & Monyeki, 2012). BMI was higher for girls than for bo ys, boys had better
scores at Eurofit tests than girls. The conclusion of Toriola & Monyeki (2012) was
that boys were more physically a ctive and less overweight than girls.
The mean BMI of our subjects was 21.91 ± 3.56 kg/m2, evaluated as low
risk of developing diseases related to obesity. Females had signifi cantly lower BMI
than males. Neither males nor females were overweight. Mean Phy sical Activity
Index was 39.19 ± 25.98, evaluated as not good enough . Females had significantly
lower levels of self-reported physical activity than males. Mea n Ruffier Index was
11.28 ± 4.76, classified as poor fitness . Females had significantly higher levels of
R u f f i e r I n d i c e s t h a n m a l e s . M e n p e r f o r m e d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r number of sit
ups than women.
The findings of our study suggest that, among students aged 20. 56 ± 4.58
years from “Babeș-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca, self-repor ted physical
activity was a very good predictor of cardio-respiratory fitnes s assessed with the
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND RUFFIER INDICES IN R OMANIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
71 R u f f i e r t e s t . T h e s e r e s u l t s w e r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e f i n d i n g s o f Morales-Suarez-
Varela et al. (2013), in the case of adolescents, and partially consistent with the
findings of Singleton et al. ( 1994), in the case of healthy old er adults.
Conclusions
T h e m a i n g oa l o f t h i s s t u d y w a s t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s between
the self-reported Physical Activity Index (PAI) and the Ruffier Index among
students from Cluj-Napoca, Romania. According to the analyzed d ata, self-
reported levels of physical activity were highly predictive of cardio-respiratory
fitness. A positive result of this research was the fact that p articipants were not
overweight. An alarming outcome was the poor level of their phy sical fitness.
F u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e n e e d e d i n o r d e r t o s e e i f t h i s s i t u a tion is valid at
national level.
REFERENCES
Asztalos, M., Huybrechts, I., Temme, E., Van Oyen, H. & Vandevi jvere, S. (2013). Association
of physical activity, waist circumference and body mass index w ith subjective
health among Belgian adults. European Journal of Public Health , 1–5. doi:10.1093/
eurpub/ckt069
Janssen, I. & Leblanc, A.G. (2010) . Systematic review of the he alth benefits of physical
activity and fitness in school-aged children and youth, International Journal of
Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity , 7, 40. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-7-40
Kokkinos, P. & Myers, J. (2010). Exercise and Physical Activity : Clinical Outcomes and
Applications, Circulation , 122, 1637-1648. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.
110.948349
Monod, H., Vandewalle, H. & Flandrois, R. (2007). Physiologie du sport. Bases physiologiques
des activités physiques et sportives , 6th ed. Paris, France: Masson.
Morales-Suarez-Varela, M.M., Clemente-Bosch, E. & Llopis-Gonzal ez, A. (2013).
Re l a ti on sh i p b e tw e e n t h e l e v e l o f ph y si c al a c ti v i ty an d m ar ke r s of cardi ov ascul ar
health in Valencian adolescents (Spain). Arch Argent Pediatr, 111(5), 398-404.
Nsenga Leunkeu, A., Shephard, R.J. & Ahmaidi, S. (2014). Histor ical perspective A brief
history of exercise clearance and prescription: 1. The era of h eart rate recovery
curves, Health & Fitness Journal of Canada , 7(1), 26-35.
Reiner, M., Niermann, C., Jekauc , D. & Woll, A. (2013). Long-te rm health benefits of physical
activity–a systematic review of longitudinal studies. BMC Public Health , 13, 813.
doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-813
DEAK GRAȚIELA-FLAVIA, BOROȘ-BALIN T IULIANA, CIOCOI-POP DUMITRU RAREȘ, GROSU EMILIA FLORINA
72 Singleton, S.P., Fitzgerald, J.T. & Neale, A.V. (1994). Self-re ported physical activity and
treadmill test performance in healthy older blacks and whites. Journal of Aging and
Physical Activity, 2, 14-24.
Toriola, O.M. & Monyeki, M.A. (2012). Health-related fitness, b ody composition and
physical activity status among adolescent learners: The PAHL st udy. African Journal
for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance, 18(4:1), 795-811.
Warburton, D.E.R., Whitney Nicol, C. & Bredin, S.S.D. (2006). H ealth benefits of physical
activity: the evidence, Canadian Medical Association Journal , 174(6), 801-809. doi:
10.1503/cmaj.051351
World Health Organization:Global status report on noncommunicab le diseases 2010
(2011). World Health Organisation . Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Pre ss.
STUDIA UBB EDUCATIO ARTIS GY MN., LIX, 4, 2014, pp. 73 – 80
(RECOMMENDED CITATION)
COMPARATIVE STUDY ABOUT THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION
ACTIVITY AMONG STUD ENTS BETWEEN TWO
UNIVERSITIES IN TÎRGU MURE Ș
SZABO BARNA1*, CIULEA LAURA EDIT1
ABSTRACT. We start this study from the necessity to evaluate the possibi lities
and options of the students from two universities in Tîrgu Mure ș, to improve
and enrich the teaching activity for physical exercises when re quired. In the
past years we don’t evaluate to much the student’s options abou t their need
to practice one kind of sport, what we realized with this paper work. This can
opened new horizons to widening our educational offer and the e nrichment
the program of study in physical education by the two institute s. We were
curious if the students from oth er locations, countries (in case of the foreign
s t u d e n t s w h o s t u d i e s a t E n g l i s h section) have enough knowledge about
possibilities to practice different outdoor sports in our city, o u t o f p h y s i c a l
education lessons. After this study if we realize to offer more information about
the sport potential of the universities and the city, we can ac hieve that the
students make more physical activity. As method, we built a que stionnaire with
19 questions concept by the authors, applying at most to the st udents from 1st
and 2nd year of study, but also from senior years, because they have m ore
experience, they lived longer in Tîrgu Mureș and they know bett e r t h e c i t i e s
opportunities. If we can form a clear image about the student options, needs, and
also their attitude about the physical activities we would know in which direction
to go to forestall the students’ attention to do physical exerc ises.
Keywords: physical activity, compare, university sport, options
REZUMAT. Studiu comparativ al activit ăților fizice a studen ților între dou ă
universit ăți din Tîrgu Mure ș. Am pornit această cercetare de la necesitatea de a
evalua posibilitățile și opțiunile studenților al celor două un iversități din Tîrgu
Mureș pentru a îmbunătăți și îmbogăți la nevoie activitatea did actică în ceea ce
privește exercițiile corporale. În ultimii ani nu am avut curio zitatea de a evalua
opțiunea studenților despre practicarea unor discipline sportiv e, ceea ce am
e f e c t u a t p i n a c e a s t ă l u c r a r e , c e p o a t e d e s c h i d e o r i z o n t u r i î n l ărgirea ofertei
1 UMF Tîrgu Mureș
*Corresponding Author: barneas76@yahoo.com
SZABO BARNA, CIU LEA LAURA EDIT
74 educaționale, îmbogățirea programei de educație fizică învățămâ nt în cadrul celor
două instituții. Am fost curioși, dacă studenții din alte local ități, județe sau chiar
d i n a l t e ț ă r i , s t u d e n ț i s t r ă i n i l a s e r i i l e d e e n g l e z ă , a u c u n o ș tințe necesare de
p o t e n ț i a l u l d e a p r a c t i c a s p o r t u r i o u t d o o r î n o r a ș î n a f a r a p r o gramului de
învățământ. După acest studiu dacă reușim să oferim mai multe i nformații despre
p o t e n ț i a l u l d e a e f e c t u a a c t i v i t ă ț i s p o r t i v e d i n o r a ș ș i a l ă r g i posibilitățile
universităților de a oferta practicarea mai multor ramuri de sp ort, putem spune
că am venit în sprijinul ideii ca studenții de la universitate să facă din ce în ce mai
multă mișcare. Ca metode de studiu vom acționa cu un chestionar alcătuit din 19
întrebări de concepție proprie, aplicând în majoritate studenți lor care mai au în
program disciplina educație fizică, adică anii I și II, dar che stionând și studenți din
anii de studii superioare, deoarece aceștia au experiența de a petrece deja mai
mult timp în oraș, cunoscând mai bine posibilitățile lui. Dacă vom putea alcătui o
imagine clară despre opțiunile studenților și atitudinea lor față de sport, vom
ști în ce direcție să ne orientăm pentru a acapara atenția spre a efectua mișcare.
Cuvinte cheie: activitate fizic ă, comparare, sport universitar, op țiuni
Introduction
Physical education has a significant influence on building the human
personality (character, intelligence, skills, creativity, temper a m e n t ) s o i t i s
considered a basic component in the process of improving the hu man personality.
Among the objectives of the physical education, we have to ment ion:
– The optimal health maintenance;
– Promote physical development processes;
– Proper development of motor skills;
– Forming the habit to practice physical exercises during leisure time;
– Proper development of intelle ctual traits (Cârstea, 2000).
Among of the above mentioned objectives, we have to emphasize t he
fourth one, to form the habit to practice sport and physical ex ercises during
leisure time, because at the university level, we suppose that we work with
students who have a lot of knowledge and skills formed in the s chool and high
school, and our role is to lead them to use this skills during their free time.
T o r e l a u n c h t h e p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n a c t i v i t y i n t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d
schools, the recommendations of the European Council are:
COMPARATIVE STUDY ABOUT THE PHYS ICAL EDUCATION ACTIVITY AMONG S TUDENTS
75 – Alternating the practice of the competitive sport with those fo r
recreation, entertainment, which cover the students options for
motion;
– Introducing tourist activities in the school’s schedule, which takes
place mostly outdoor;
– Ensure coordination of activities within the university physica l
education to those out side the university;
– Teachers provide regular contests and competitions for all leve ls of
sport, but mostly for recreation (Smîdu & Smîdu, 2012).
Objectives
W e s t a r t t h i s s t u d y f r o m t h e n e c e s s i t y t o e v a l u a t e t h e p o s s i b i l ities and
options of the students from two universities in Tîrgu Mureș, t o improve and
enrich the teaching activity for physical exercises when requir ed. In the past years
we didn’t evaluate the student’s options about their need to pr actice one kind of
s p o r t , w h a t w e r e a l i z e d w i t h t h i s p a p e r w o r k . T h i s c a n o p e n n e w horizons to
widening our educational offer and to enrich the program of stu dy in physical
e d u c a t i o n o f t h e t w o i n s t i t u t e s . W e w e r e c u r i o u s i f t h e s t u d e n t s from other
locations, countries (this is the case of foreign students who study in English)
have enough knowledge about possibilities to practice different outdoor sports in
our town, out of physi cal education lessons.
Method
As method, we used the method of investigation, for identifying t h e
s t u d e n t s ’ o p t i o n s a n d i n t e r e s t s f o r t h e p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n a c t i vity. We have
designed a questionnaire with 19 questions which was applied to students from
the 1
st and 2nd year of study, but also from senior years, because they have m ore
e x p e r i e n c e , t h e y l i v e d l o n g e r i n T î r g u M u r e ș a n d t h e y k n o w b e t t e r t h e t o w n ’ s
opportunities. We have interrogated 156 student from the Univer sity of Medicine
and Pharmacy of Tg-Mures and 100 from the “Petru Maior” Univers ity of Tg-
Mures, starting from this university year.
In the case of UMF Tg-Mures, the subjects were between 18 and 2 6 years
o l d , f r o m 1 7 c o u n t i e s a n d 1 0 c o u n t r i e s ( t h e U M F h a s i n h i s o f f e r to study in
English section, so they have students from different countries of the World), and
between 18 and 29 years old and from 6 counties and 2 countries in case of UPM
Tg-Mures. Both universities have physical education in their pr ogram of study for
2 years, in the 1st and 2nd year.
SZABO BARNA, CIU LEA LAURA EDIT
76 Results
The first important question was: how many students practiced
competitive sport before they enrolled at the university? We se e that the
percentage of the UMF students is better than the UPM students, represented by
the two charts below:
Fig. 1 . Sport loving students from UPM Fig. 2. Sport loving students from UMF
Fig. 3. Different sports, what the students practiced in high school f rom the UMF
Series1
; Yes;
26%;
26% Series1
; Not;
74%;
74% Number of students who
practiced competitive sport at
UPM
Series
1; Yes;
29%;
29% Series
1;
Not;
71%; … Number of students who
practiced competitive sport
at UMF
COMPARATIVE STUDY ABOUT THE PHYS ICAL EDUCATION ACTIVITY AMONG S TUDENTS
77
Fig. 4. Different sports, what the students practiced in high school f rom the UPM
T h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s h o w u s , t h e o p t i o n s w h a t t h e t w o u n i v e r sity
students can choose to practice physical activities during the physical education
l e s s o n s . W e c a n s e e t h a t t h e s t u d e n t s f r o m U M F h a v e m o r e o p t i o n s as the
students from the UPM. As we see in the two charts from below ( Figure 5 and 6),
the students from UMF have possi bilities to practice regularly 9 types of sports,
and the students from UPM only 5.
Fig. 5. The 9 sport activities chosen by students from UMF
SZABO BARNA, CIU LEA LAURA EDIT
78
Fig. 6. The 5 sport activities chosen by students from UMF
T h i s d i f f e r e n c e w e c a n e x p l a i n b y t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e b e t t e r s port
complex from the UMF. UMF has 2 sport gyms, 4 open air tennis f ields, 3 indoor
tennis fields, 2 fitness gyms, 1 aerobic gym, 2 synthetic footb all fields, and 1
fencing gym. T here is al so a sw imming pool , whi ch is un der con s truction in the
final phase. There are only 2 sport gyms at the UPM University.
Fig. 7. The UMF student needs for physical activity
COMPARATIVE STUDY ABOUT THE PHYS ICAL EDUCATION ACTIVITY AMONG S TUDENTS
79
Fig. 8 . The UPM student needs for physical activity
The students’ need for physical activities is almost the same f or both
universities. Students from UMF are oriented to swimming, but t his can be
explained by the fact that they know the swimming pool will ope ned soon. A lot of
s t u d e n t s a r e s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i r o p t i o n s , a n d t h e y d o n ’ t w a n t to choose other
activities. In the case of the students from UPM, we see their needs for the other
common sports, as swimming, aerobic, handball, fitness, and we observe that only
10 students have any options.
Fig. 9. Activity in free time in UMF Fig. 10. Activity in free time in UPM
As the two charts from above show us, the students from the 2 u niversities
don’t practice physical activity during their free time, the an swer from the
both universities was that they don’t have enough time. In this case, the role of
the physical education teacher is to determine the students to be more active.
SZABO BARNA, CIU LEA LAURA EDIT
80 All of the students who were practicing sports in their free ti me, they
know a lot of possibilities, they enumerate us about 20 types o f sports which can
be practiced in Tîrgu Mureș. Also they expressed their needs fo r a tourist guide in
which they can find more informa tion about the outdoor activiti es in the City.
Among their options we can mention sports that are not so popul ar and
just a few people practiced them , as: scuba diving, sky diving, c l i m b i n g , M M A ,
Krav Maga etc. They don’t know, for example, that a lot of thes e sports can be
practiced in Tîrgu Mureș.
O n t h e q u e s t i o n s a b o u t h o w t h e y f e e l d u r i n g p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s , most of
t h e m a r e r e l a x e d , t h e y l i k e c o m p e t i t i o n , t h e y l i k e t o p r a c t i c e sports in the
company of their friends.
Conclusions
F r o m t h i s s t u d y w e f o u n d o u t t h e s t u d e n t s r e v i e w s a b o u t t h e p h y sical
activities in their Universities. From the results we can concl ude that the students
from the UMF have more possibili ties and options to practice ph ysical activities
during the physical education lessons as the students from UPM. T h i s c a n b e
explained with the better sport complex of the UMF.
T h e s t u d e n t s ’ n e e d f o r p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t i e s a r e t h e s a m e , t h e r e ason that
they can’t practice some sports is lack of time.
I n c a s e o f t h e U M F w e c a n s a y t h a t t h e o p t i o n s f o r p h y s i c a l a c t ivities
during the physical education lessons will be increased signifi cantly by opening
the new swimming pool, and also we can collaborate with the Uni versity Club
who can give us options for f encing and martial arts.
We observed that UMF students are more opened to the idea of ph ysical
activities when compared t o their peers from UPM.
REFERENCES
Bădău, D. (2012). Teoria și metodica educa ției fizice și sportului. Note de curs . Editura
University Press, Tîrgu Mureș.
Cârstea, Gh. (2000). Teoria și metodica educa ției fizice și sportului , București, Editura
AN-DA.
Hanțiu, I. (2013). Teoria și metodica educa ției fizice și sportului (Note de curs) , Oradea.
S m î d u , N . & S m î d u , D . ( 2 0 1 2 ) . P r o b l e m e a c t u a l e a l e e d u c a ț i e i f i zice și sportului în
învățământul superior pe plan na țional și internațional, Marath on, Vol II, 4, 96-99.
Thompson, J.R. & Nelson, J.K. (1997). Metodologia cercet ării în activitatea fizic ă, volum II,
S.D.P., C.C.P.S., București.
STUDIA UBB EDUCATIO ARTIS GY MN., LIX, 4, 2014, pp. 81 – 90
(RECOMMENDED CITATION)
HEMP SEED OIL EFFECT ON THE RAT TISSULAR
OXIDANT/ANTIOXIDANT BALANCE IN
EXERCISE WITH PROGRESSIVE INTENSITY
BULDUȘ COD
RUȚA FLORINA1*, VĂDAN ANCA LUCIA1
ABSTRACT. Introduction. P r o o x i d a n t e f f e c t o f i n t e n s e p h y s i c a l e f f o r t , i t s
consequences and the importance of combating nitrosative stress i s a t o p i c a l
issue of interest, according to the literature. Combating this effect is achieved by
administration of exogenous nutritional or non nutritional, nat ural or synthetic
antioxidants. The influence of nutrition, the antioxidant and pro oxidant effect of m o d e r a t e e x e r c i s e i s a d d e d t o t h i s a s p e c t . H e m p s e e d o i l i s a n atural source of
antioxidants whose beneficial effects on the balance of serum o xidant /
antioxidant in exercise rats was the subject of our previous re search. Objectives .
We aim to study the effect of the administration of hemp oil on indicators of tissue
oxidant/antioxidant balance in the myocardium and brain in the exercise training
with gradual intensity. Methods. The research was conducted on two groups of
male, adult Wistar rats. Group I consisted of rats trained at p rogressive intensity
exercise, group II consisted of rats trained with progressive i ntensity exercise and
supplemented with hemp oil. Indicators of oxidative stress: mal ondialdehyde
( M D A ) , p r o t e i n c a r b o n y l s ( P C ) w e r e d e t e r m i n e d . A n t i o x i d a n t d e f e nse capacity
indicators were hydrogen donor (DH), total sulfhydryl groups (SH), glutathione
( G S H ) . F o r s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s , d a t a f o r n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n w e used the t
(Student) and one-way ANOVA analysis of variance. Results. T h e i n t e n s i t y
progressive exercise and dietary supplementation with hemp oil produce
significant changes in the myocardium and brain with increased indicators of
oxidative stress and increased antioxidant defense versus unsup plemented
group. Conclusions. Hemp oil supplementation and progressive intensity
exercise affect the oxidant/antioxidant balance in the tissues, causes significant
increases in oxidative stress an d increases antioxidant defense in brain and
myocardium.
Keywords: oxidative stress, nutritional antioxidants, my ocardium, brain
1 Babes-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport
*Corresponding author: codruta.buldus@ubb.ro
BULDUȘ CODRUȚA FLORINA, VĂDAN ANCA LUCIA
82 REZUMAT. Efectul uleiului din semin țe de cânep ă asupra balan ței tisulare
oxidanți/antioxidan ți în efortul fizic cu intensitate progresiv ă la șobolani.
Introducere. Efectul prooxidant al efortului fizic intens, consecințele ace stuia și
importanța combaterii stresului oxinitrozativ, este o temă actu alitate și interes,
conform datelor din literatură. Combaterea acestui efect se rea lizează prin
administrare de antioxidanți exogeni nutriționali sau nenutriți onali, naturali sau
s i n t e t i c i . A c e s t u i a s p e c t i s e a d a u g ă ș i i n f l u e n ț a n u t r i ț i e i , c a prooxidant și
antioxidant și efectul antioxidant al efortului fizic moderat. Uleiul din semințe de
cânepă este o sursă naturală de antioxidanți ale cărui efecte f avorabile asupra
balanței serice oxidanți/antioxi danți în efortul fizic la șobol ani a făcut obiectul
cercetărilor noastre anterioare. Obiective . În acest studiu s-a urmărit efectul
administrării uleiului de cânepă asupra indicatorilor tisulari ai balanței
oxidanți/antioxidanți la nivelul miocardului și encefalului în antrenamentul la
efort fizic cu intensitate progresivă. Metode. Cercetarea a fost efectuată pe două
loturi de șobolani masculi, adulți, rasa Wistar. Lotul I a cupr ins șobolani antrenați
la efort cu intensitate progresi vă, lotul II a cuprins șobolani antrenați la efort cu
intensitate progresivă și suplimentați cu ulei de cânepă. Indic atorii stresului
oxidativ determinați au fost: malondialdehida (MDA), proteinele carbonilate (PC).
Indicatorii apărării antioxidante au fost capacitatea de donori de hidrogen (DH),
grupările sulfhidril totale (SH), glutationul (GSH). Pentru analiza statistică a
datelor, în cazul datelor cu distribuție normală s-a utilizat t estul t (Student) și
analiza variantei one-way ANOVA. Rezultate. În efortul fizic cu intensitate
progresivă și suplimentarea dietei cu ulei de cânepă determină la nivelul
miocardului și la nivelul encefalului se produc modificări semn ificative cu
creșterea indicatorilor stresului oxidativ și creșterea apărări i antioxidante, față de
lotul nesuplimentat. Concluzii. Suplimentarea cu ulei de cânepă și efortul fizic cu
încărcare progresivă influențează balanța oxidanți/antioxidanți l a n i v e l t i s u l a r ,
determină creșteri semnificative ale stresului oxidativ și creș teri semnificative ale
apărării antioxidante în miocard și în creier.
Cuvinte cheie : stres oxidativ, antioxidan ți nutriționali, miocard, creier
Introduction
Exercise is a complex stress: neu romuscular, endocrine, systemi c,
biochemical and psycho-emotional. Depending on the intensity an d duration,
exercise can act paradoxically as a prooxidant or antioxidant ( AO) factor, by
modifying redox homeostasis: proo xidant, if high intensity and short duration and
antioxidant if moderate and long duration (Fisher-Wellman & Blo omer, 2009).
Increased oxygen consumption during exercise thereof causes the formation of
oxigen catabolites and subsequently nitrogen catabolites, with oxinitrosative
stress (ONS) triggering under cond itions of intense effort (Tac he, 2001).
HEMP SEED OIL EFFECT ON THE RAT TISSULAR OXIDANT/ANTIOXIDANT BALANCE IN…
83 Paradoxical effect of exercise is a topic of great interest and concern,
according to the literature on the prooxidant effect of intense physical effort,
its consequences and the importa nce of combating nitrosative st ress by
administration of exogenous nutritional or non nutritional, nat ural or synthetic
antioxidants and antioxidant effect of moderate physical effort . T o t h i s e f f e c t i s
added the influence of nutrition, as prooxidant and antioxidant (Tache, 2006).
T h e m y o c a r d i u m h a s a h i g h r a t e o f o x i d a t i v e m e t a b o l i s m a n d r e l a tively
low activity of main AO enzymes, which could increase susceptib ility to oxidative
damage after acute exercise. The exercise is considered an impo rtant stimulus for
antioxidant systems as GSH and related AO enzymes that are impo rtant in
protecting the myocardium, such as SOD and GSH-Px (Tache & Stai cu, 2010).
Endurance training induces upregulation in some AO defense mech anisms
protecting the heart muscle in potentially harmful situations t hat induce additional
SO (Ascensão et al., 2003).
The brain uses 20% of the total oxygen consumed by the entire b ody at
r e s t . O x y g e n c o n s u m p t i o n i n c r e a s e s b y 1 0 t o 1 5 t i m e s d u r i n g t h e exercise.
However, oxygen consum ption of the brain is known to be constan t during exercise.
T h u s , i t i s u n l i k e l y t h e e x e r c i s e t o i n d u c e o x i d a t i v e s t r e s s ( O S) in the brain.
The brain may be sensitive to lipid peroxidation processes due to the high
concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids and low levels of antioxidant enzymes
(SOD, CAT, GSH-Px) and GSH present in normal conditions (Radak et al., 2008).
C h r o n i c p h y s i c a l e f f o r t i n c r e a s e s t h e l e v e l o f A O i n t h e b r a i n and helps
protect brain oxidative lesions (Tache & Staicu, 2010).
Endurance training induces upregulation in some AO defense mech anisms
p r o t e c t i n g t h e h e a r t m u s c l e i n p o t e n t i a l l y h a r m f u l s i t u a t i o n s t hat induce
additional SO (Ascensão, 2003).
Physical training induces an adaptive biochemical response, whi ch may
require an increase of the intake and /or absorption of micronu trients. One
hypothesis raised is whether acute or chronic exercise alter AO requirements. In
this respect, the interaction of exercise with nutrition should be considered. SON
cannot be avoided, but the imbalance between O and AO can be mi tigated to
reduce oxidative damage and consequences SON (Sies, 1997).
In the modern society there is excess of calories in the diet, what causes
obesity and chronic metabolic stress. The calorie excess associ ated with elevated
concentrations of plasma lipids and lipid accumulation in skele tal muscle, lead to
decrease insulin sensitivity.
The exercise is commonly used to combat these consequences as i t is
considered an effective means of lipid oxidation (Kiens et al., 2001).
In high intensity exercise the O/AO balance is disturbed and nu tritional AO
supplements are administered to r ebalance it. Doses of antioxid ant supplements
should be prescribed with respect to quantitative aspects relat ing to the effect of
acute and chronic exercise on th e O/AO balance and their impact on health.
BULDUȘ CODRUȚA FLORINA, VĂDAN ANCA LUCIA
84 Adopting certain nutritional strategies during exercise means a dministration
of AO that must consider: the sp ecific metabolic processes (aer obic, anaerobic or
mixed) during various sports activities; intensity and duration of exercise during
training or competitions. Intake of AO aims to increase intrace llular concentrations
of AO, delays muscle fatigue, improves performance, reduces the risk of injuries
or illnesses related to the specific muscle effort (Tache, 2006 ).
There is growing evidence that a particular AO cannot prevent b y itself the
ONS production. As di rect adverse effects of dietary supplement s are synergistic
adverse effects. Other effects are assumed to limit the effect of endogenous adaptive
produced by chronic exercise. Hi gh doses of AO supplementation may reduce the
favourable effects induced by the reactive species or generate prooxidant effects.
The administration of nutritiona l supplements in athletes is ne eded only when
the nutritional status is poor. Analysis of the risk/benefit ev i d e n c e f o r a n
unknown risk of high doses of AO, namely an impairment of adapt ive effects and
long-term risk is still unknow n (Margaritis & Rousseau, 2008).C aution should be
applied in administering antioxidant supplements in excess. Ata lay et al. (2006)
recommends the following doses required to determine individual A O d o s e s o f
each athlete performing a specific type of sport. Administratio n of several
nutrients instead of mega-doses of any single nutrient form, ap p e a r t o b e a
prudent choice and performance should not be the sole criterion f o r c h o o s i n g
supplementation doses AO. The general condition of the athlete, faster recovery and
reduced oxidative damage could b e affected by AO therapy (Arent et al., 2010).
Objectives
In this study we aimed: 1 . t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t i s s u e i n d i c a t o r s o f t h e O / A O b a l a n c e i n
progressive intensity exercise training;
2. the effect of hemp oil administration on tissue indicators o f the O/AO
balance in the myocardium and brain in exercise training with p rogressive
intensity.
Material and method
Lots
T h e r e s e a r c h w a s c o n d u c t e d o n t w o g r o u p s o f a d u l t m a l e W i s t a r r ats,
weighing 200-300g average (n = 10 animals/group). Group I consi sted of rats
t r a i n e d t o p r o g r e s s i v e i n t e n s i t y e x e r c i s e , g r o u p I I c o n s i s t e d o f rats trained with
progressive intensity exercise and supplemented with hemp oil. Exercise intensity
was progressively modified by loading the animals with weights attached, carried
as follows: 7 days without charge, day 8 to14 with10% charge, d ay 15 to 21 with
1 5 % c h a r g e , d a y 2 1 t o 2 8 w i t h 2 0 % o f t h e w e i g h t l o a d . T h e t i m e moment
analyzed was on day 28.
HEMP SEED OIL EFFECT ON THE RAT TISSULAR OXIDANT/ANTIOXIDANT BALANCE IN…
85 Hemp oil administration was made by oral gavage in amount of 0. 1 ml per
rat, the dose was calculated in relation to the recommended dai ly dose for
humans oil.
Training lasted 28 days, with the swimming test, which was perf ormed in
a plastic basin with water at 20 ° C, by measuring the time int erval, in seconds,
timed from the moment the animal w ere introduced i n the pool, u ntil exhausted
(refusal to swim).
For the determination of the oxidant/antioxidant (A/AO) balance
indicators in the myocardial ti ssue and brain, samples of myoca rdial and brain
tissue were harvested following euthanasia of the animals.
Biochemical determinations were performed in the Laboratory for t h e
Study of Oxidative Stress of the "Iuliu Hațieganu" University, in Cluj-Napoca.
We determined the following in dicators of oxidative stress:
Malondialdehyde (MDA) was dosed using the fluorescence method a fter
Conti et al. (1991). Protein carbonyls (PC) were determined usi ng the method
according to Reznik and Packer (1994). We determined the follow ing indicators
of antioxidant defense: Hydrogen donor ability (DH) was determi ned using the
assay method after Janaszewska and Bartosz (2002). Total sulfhy dryl groups (SH)
were dosed according to the Hu (1994) method. Glutathione (GSH) concentration
was assayed by the fluores cence method (Hu, 1994).
For statistical analysis of data , t test (Student) was used for d a t a w i t h
normal distribution, one-way ANO VA analysis of variance followe d by post hoc
a n a l y s i s f o r m u l t i p l e c o m p a r i s o n ( S c h e f f e t e s t / B o n f e r r o n i / L S D test), the
v a r i a t i o n s b e i n g t e s t e d w i t h L e v e n e t e s t f o r v a r i a n c e . K o l m o g o r ov-Smirnov test
was used for normal distribution.
Results Comparative statistical analysis b e t w e e n t i s s u e i n d i c a t o r s o f t he O/AO
determined in samples of myocardium and brain is shown in Table 1.
Table 1 . Statistical analysis of comparative indicators of tissue O/AO balance in
myocardium and brain, t he groups studied.
Myocardium homogenate –
brain homogenate MDA PC SH DH GSH
Lot I Average values 0,14 0,137 0,741 0,656 0,023 0,030 35,463 39,877 0,670 0,838
p 0,865 0,482 0,002 0,006 0,004
Lot II Average values 0,268 0,153 1,122 4,051 0,016 0,043 51,479 30,413 0,52 3,941
p 0,001 1,38 x 10 -5 2,06 x 10 -7 1,92 x 10 -7 2,45 x 10 -9
BULDUȘ CODRUȚA FLORINA, VĂDAN ANCA LUCIA
86
Fig. 1. MDA values for the studied lots (nmol/mg)
Fig. 2. PC values for the studied lots (nmol/mg)
HEMP SEED OIL EFFECT ON THE RAT TISSULAR OXIDANT/ANTIOXIDANT BALANCE IN…
87
Fig. 3. DH values for the studied lots (% inhibition)
Fig. 4. SH values for the studied lots (µmol/mg)
BULDUȘ CODRUȚA FLORINA, VĂDAN ANCA LUCIA
88
Fig. 5. GSH values for the studied lots (nmol/mg)
Discussion The exercise with progressive intensity and hemp oil supplement ation
causes significant changes in the rat myocardium: increased ONS on account of
MDA and decreased AO defense on behalf of SH groups and DH grow th versus un-
supplemented group.
In the brain, progressive intensity exercise and dietary supple mentation
with hemp oil, determine signifi cant changes with increasing ON S due to PC and
decreased AO defense due to the decrease in SH groups and GSH c ompared to un-
supplemented group.
Conclusions • Hemp oil supplementation and exercise with progressive loadin g
influences O/AO balance at the tissue level.
• Hemp oil supplementation and exercise with progressive loadin g cause
significant increases in ONS, on behalf of MDA in the myocardiu m and on behalf of
PC in the brain.
HEMP SEED OIL EFFECT ON THE RAT TISSULAR OXIDANT/ANTIOXIDANT BALANCE IN…
89 • Hemp oil supplementation and exercise with progressive loadin g causes
significant increases in AO defense on account of DH in the myo cardium and on
behalf of SH groups and GSH in the brain.
• Proper nutrition and strategies on intake of dietary nutritio nal agents,
for supporting exercise capacity and post effort recovery, requ ires the development
o f r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s b y s p e c i a l i s t p h y s i c i a n s i n t h e f i e l d o f s p o rts medicine in
collaboration with nutritionists.
• To increase the performance should be considered use of antio xidants
through proper nutrition and nut ritional supplements in exercis e, to increase
aerobic capacity and antioxidant defense.
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history. Dyn Med ., 8:1.
Hu, M.L. (1994). Measurement of protein thiol groups and glutat hione in plasma. Methods
Enzymol , 233:380-385.
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f o u r m e t h o d s a s a p p l i e d t o h u m a n b l o o d p l a s m a . Scand J Clin Lab Invest. ,
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skeletal muscle. Obes Rev., 12(10):852-858.
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method for carbonyl assay. Methods Enzymol ., 233:357-363.
Sies, H. (1997). Oxida tive stress: oxidants and antioxidants. Exp Physiol ., 82(2):291-295.
BULDUȘ CODRUȚA FLORINA, VĂDAN ANCA LUCIA
90 R a d a k , Z . , C h u n g , H . Y . & G o t o , S . ( 2 0 0 8 ) . S y s t e m i c a d a p t a t i o n t o oxidative challenge
induced by regular exercise. Free Radic Biol Med ., 44(2):153-159.
Tache, S. (2001). Stresul oxidativ și antioxidan ții în efortul fizic . În Dejica D (sub red)
Antioxidanți și terapie antioxidantă. Ed. Casa Cărții de Științ ă, Cluj-Napoca,
198- 236.
Tache, S. (2006). Oxidanții și antioxidan ții; Î n M u r e ș a n A , T a c h e S , O r ă s a n R ( s u b r e d . )
Stresul oxidativ în procese fiziologice și patologice, Ed. Tede sco, Cluj-Napoca,
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STUDIA UBB EDUCATIO ARTIS GYMN ., LIX, 4, 2014, pp. 91 – 99
(RECOMMENDED CITATION)
ASPECTS REGARDING THE MOTOR CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT
IN CHILDREN WITH DIABETES
URZEA
LĂ CONSTAN ȚA1*
ABSTRACT. T h i s s t u d y i s a c h i e v e d a n d p u b lished under the aegis of the
National University of Physical Education and Sports of Buchare st, as a
partner in the program co-financed by the European Social Fund through the
S e c t o r a l O p e r a t i o n a l P r o g r a m m e f o r H u m a n R e s o u r c e s D e v e l o p m e n t 2007-
2013, developed through the project Pluri- and interdisciplinar y in doctoral
and post-doctoral programmes, Project Code: POSDRU/159/1.5/S/14 1086, its
main beneficiary being the Research Institute for Quality of Li fe, Romanian
A c a d e m y . O u r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e p r o j e c t d e v e l o p m e n t i s c o n c r e t ized in a
research topic oriented towards the possibilities of interdisci plinary intervention
on the body of persons suffering from diabetes. In this context , the objective of the
present paper is to identify the motor potential of the child d iagnosed with type 1
mellitus diabetes, as a landmark in dimensioning the physical exercise
programmes developed simultaneously with nutritional, family an d psychological
c o u n s e l i n g a c t i v i t i e s . T h e s a m p l e w a s m a d e u p o f 1 1 d i a b e t i c c h ildren aged
between 6 and 12 years. The assessment took place at the Nation al University of
Physical Education and Sports of Bucharest, in cooperation with t h e M e d i c a l
Association “Support for Diabetes” and the Department of Pediat rics II within the
“ M a r i e S . C u r i e ” H o s p i t a l . T h e m o t o r t e s t s w e r e s e l e c t e d f r o m t he Eurofit test
battery and were performed at the beginning of the first interd isciplinary
intervention module, in October 2014. The results of this constative study have proved that the subjects participating in our research have a m otor capacity
development level encompassed within the limits corresponding t o their current
age stage.
Keywords: diabetes, child, motor capacity
REZUMAT. Aspecte privind dezvoltarea capacit ății motric
e a copilului cu
diabet. Acest studiu este elaborat și publicat sub egida Universității Naționale
de Educație Fizică și Sport din București, ca partener în progr amul co-finanțat
de Fondul Social European prin Programul Operațional Sectorial pentru
1 UNEFS Bucharest
*Corresponding Author: ritmicuta@yahoo.com
URZEALĂ CONSTANȚA
92 Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007-2013, dezvoltat prin proiectu l Pluri- și
interdisciplinaritate în programe doctorale și postdoctorale Co d proiect:
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/141086, al cărui principal beneficiar este Ins titutul de
Cercetare a Calității Vieții, Academia Română. Contribuția noas tră în derularea
proiectului se concretizează într-o cercetare a cărei problemat ică este orientată
spre posibilitățile de intervenție interdisciplinară asupra org anismului
persoanelor cu diabet. În acest context, obiectivul prezentei l u c r ă r i e s t e d e a
indentifica potențialul motric al copilului diagnosticat cu dia bet zaharat tip I, ca
reper în dimensionarea programel or de exerciții fizice, care se derulează simultan
cu activități de consiliere nutrițională, familială și psiholog ică. Eșantionul a fost
format din 11 copii cu diabet, cu vârste cuprinse între 6 și 12 ani. Evaluarea a avut
loc în cadrul UNEFS București, în colaborare cu Asociația Medic ală Sprijin pentru
Diabet și cu secția Pediatrie II a Spitalului “Marie S. Curie”. Probele motrice au fost
selecționate din bateria de teste Eurofit și au fost susținute la începutul primului
modul de intervenție interdisciplinară, în octombrie 2014. Rezu ltatele acestui
s t u d i u c o n s t a t a t i v a u d e m o n s t r a t f a p t u l c ă s u b i e c ț i i p a r t i c i p a n ți la cercetarea
noastră au un nivel de dezvoltare a capacității motrice care se înscrie în limitele
corespunzătoare etapei de vârstă la care se află.
Cuvinte cheie: diabet, copil, capacitate motric ă
Introduction
This research is part of a more comprehensive scientific approa ch within
the POSDRU/159/1.5/S/141086 project, through which we aim to re nder
efficient the interdisciplinary intervention on persons with di abetes. Studies
about the incidence of diabetes emphasize that in 2010, at glob al level, 6.4% of
the adult population was diagnosed with this disorder. This per centage is
estimated to reach 7.7% until 2030 (Dishman, Heath & Lee, 2013) , the year when
the World Health Organization pr efigures that this disease will be the 7
th cause of
mortality in the world.
As to the incidence of diabetes in children, statistical data r eveal that the
number of cases differs depending on the race/ethnicity and the g e o g r a p h i c a l
area. The countries with the low est degree of risk are thought to be Japan and
Korea, while at the opposite pol e, we find Finland and Sweden ( “Familial insulin-
dependent diabetes”, 1991).
In Romania, the onset of diabetes mellitus between the ages of 0 and 14
records 3.48 cases/100,000 people /year (Moraru, Moraru, Oltean, Bozomitu,
Bogdan & Stana, 2008).
ASPECTS REGARDING THE MOTOR CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN WI TH DIABETES
93 Mellitus diabetes, popularly called “sugar disease”, represents a metabolic
d i s o r d e r a f f e c t i n g b o t h t h e a d u l t s a n d t h e c h i l d r e n , i n t h e l a t ter case being an
autoimmune disease (Herrmann, Mu tter, Rodl, Rose & Zaker, 2009) .
There are two types of mellitus diabetes: type 1, a predominant ly juvenile
disorder that necessitates permanent insulin treatment and for which no
prevention measures can be taken , a n d t y p e 2 , m a i n l y a f f e c t i n g the overweight
persons and which, in many cases , if identified in due time, ca n be kept under
control through an appropriate diet (Dishman, Heath & Lee, 2013 ).
Regardless of the type of diabetes, if the disease is well-cont rolled and
balanced, it doesn’t represent a contraindication to motor acti vities. The type of
physical exercises and, implicitly, the type of effort will be chosen in cooperation
with the attendant physician, who will ensure that there are no s i d e d i s o r d e r s
that might restrict the practice of motor activities (Orgeret, 2008).
The treatment of diabetic childr en requires insulin administrat ion, a
proper diet and physical exercise. This emphasizes the existenc e of three factors
the oscillations of which may lead to physiological imbalances (Bota &
Teodorescu, 2007). Although many studies in the field prove the effect of physical
exercises on the increase in glucose tolerance, in the case of type 2 diabetes, there
is no conclusive evidence related to the glucose control improv ement in the case
o f t y p e 1 m e l l i t u s d i a b e t e s ( “ S p o r t – E u r o f i t f o r a d u l t s : ” , 1 9 9 5). However, the
exercise intensity during the pr actice of motor activities will be correlated to the
glucose values and the carbohydr ate intake, pre-, intra- and po st-effort.
In this context, any formative m otor intervention on the child with type 1
mellitus diabetes relies on a good cooperation between family, teacher and
diabetologist. We think that the physical exercise parameters a r e s e t a f t e r a
minute analysis of the motor capacity development level, of the g r o w t h a n d
development particularities, but also of the medical prescripti ons.
Aims
This paper aims to identify the motor capacity development leve l in
children with type 1 mellitus diabetes, as a landmark in dimens ioning the physical
exercise programmes applied in the context of an interdisciplin ary intervention.
Methods and materials
As research methods, we used: bib liographical study, observatio n, testing
and the Microsoft Excel software to calculate the statistical i ndicators.
URZEALĂ CONSTANȚA
94 The research was conducted at the National University of Physic al
Education and Sports of Bucharest, in October 2014, as part of a complex approach
of educational intervention on both the diabetic child and his family, which required
us to develop some modular programmes of motor activities and c ounseling. The
initial motor assessment of the p articipants in this project wa s programmed at the
beginning of the first module of activities, being followed by the prefiguration of the
most efficient modalities of phys ical exercising. The sample wa s made up of 11
diabetic children from the Medical Association “Support for Dia betes” and the
Department of Pediatrics II with in the “Marie S. Curie” Hospita l of Bucharest.
The investigated insulin-depende nt children were not medically exempt from
t h e p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n a n d s p o r t s d i s c i p l i n e i m p o s e d b y t h e s c h o o l s y l l a b u s . I n
order to identify the level of their motor capacity development , they had to perform
many tests selected from the Eurofit battery, namely: sit-ups f rom dorsal decubitus
with support (maximum number of repetitions within 30 sec.), tr unk
extension from ventral decubitus with support (maximum number o f repetitions
within 30 sec.), standing broad jump, sit-and-reach (for mobili ty), Flamingo balance
test and tapping test. They were added tests for the coordinati on capacities, such as
the Matorin test and a rhythm test, the latter for assessing th e fidelity with which
the subjects were able to reprod uce a varied rhythmic sequence. With the support
of volunteers from the UNEFS Student League and also of Graduat es, we prepared
the observation protocols and the individual assessment records , where we put
down both the children’s results and manifestations in relation to the glucose
values registered before, during and after the end of the activ ity.
Results
The calculated statistical indica tors allow us to have a global picture of
the motor components that should be approached in the physical exercise
programmes (table 1).
Table 1. Statistics for the motor capacity assessment
Test Min. Max. Med. Mean St. dev. Coeff. var.
Sit-ups from dor sal decubitus 12 27 12 17.54 4.48 25.54
Trunk extension from ventral
decubitus 4 40 33 27.36 12.8 46.78
Standin g broad jump 73 152 117 112.36 27.77 24.71
Sit-and-reach -7 13 1 3 5.42 180.66
Turnin g jump to the ri ght side 180 360 320 300.9 59.74 19.85
Turnin g jump to the left side 90 360 270 257.27 88.55 34.41
Flamin go 2 30 11 13.45 9.05 67.28
Tapping 13 32 18 19.27 5.04 26.15
Rhythm 6 10 8 8.27 1.1 13.3
ASPECTS REGARDING THE MOTOR CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN WI TH DIABETES
95 Among the calculated statistical indicators, we insist on the c oefficient of
variability (Tudoș, 1993), which shows us that the group is non -homogeneous in
the situation of the performed assessment, except for two tests , the rhythm and
coordination ones. This is due to the age gap encompassing the research sample.
T h a t i s w h y w e t r i e d a s m u c h a s p o s s i b l e t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t s ome clues
considered to be standards for each age. Thus, to better assess the development
l e v e l o f t h e m u s c l e s s t r e n g t h , t h e r e s u l t s a c h i e v e d b y t h e i n v e stigated children
were related to the minimal standard existing in the National S chool Assessment
System for the physical education discipline (Filip, Scarlat, D ragomir, Mironescu &
Predescu, 1999), corresponding to each grade.
In the sit-ups from dorsal decubitus, all the tested children m anaged to
exceed the standard correspondin g to mark 5 (with 12.9 repetiti ons on an
average), respectively to the “sufficient” grade (fig. 1). The development level of
the back muscle strength assessed through the number of trunk e xtensions from
ventral decubitus emphasizes that 82% of the children have exce eded the
minimal standard level, by recor ding an average equal to 27.36 repetitions, as
compared to 10.81 repetitions. In the standing broad jump, the values achieved
by the children are below the le vel specified in the minimal st andards, the
average being 112.36 cm, as compared to 122.72 cm (fig. 3). 36% of the subjects
managed to reach/ exceed the len gth corresponding to their age.
Fig. 1. Graph for the values recorded by subjects in the sit-ups from dorsal decubitus, in
relation to the National School Assessment System values recorded by the subjects
values from the national school assessment system
URZEALĂ CONSTANȚA
96
Fig. 2. Graph for the values recorded by subjects in the trunk extensi on from ventral
decubitus, in relation to the National School Assessment System
Fig. 3. Graph for the values recorded by subjects in the standing broa d jump, in relation to
the National School Assessment System values recorded by the subjects
values from the National School Assessment System
values recorded by the subjects
values from the National School Assessment System
ASPECTS REGARDING THE MOTOR CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN WI TH DIABETES
97 Mobility at the vertebral column and the coxofemoral joint leve ls was
better in the case of the younger pupils compared to older pupi ls, the average
being 4.16 cm versus 1.6 cm (fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Graph for the mobility values Fig. 5. Graph for the results in the balance test
The average obtained in the Flam ingo test (13.45 balance losses /min)
was influenced by the great amplitude of the data (fig. 5). Gen eral coordination
investigated through the Matorin test indicated higher values i n the case of the
turning jump to the right side (300.90 compared to257.270 t o t h e l e f t s i d e ) , a n
aspect that could be explained by the fact that all the subject s were right-handed.
Fig. 6. Graph for the general coordination (the Matorin test) 1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
9 10 111 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
9 10 11
turning jump to the right side turning jump to the left side
URZEALĂ CONSTANȚA
98 The average for tapping was 19.27 sec., which proved a good rep etition
speed and coordination in the upper limbs. The average mark obt ained by the
children in the rhythm test (8. 27) indicated a higher capacity of motor musicality
and rhythmicity.
Discussions
The possibility to bring together, in a representative sample, children
with type 1 diabetes is reduced, due to the number of recorded cases and to the
p a r e n t s ’ a v a i l a b i l i t y t o g e t i n v o l v e d i n t h i s p r o j e c t , e v e n i f their participation
doesn’t require any expenses. Th e investigated children showed an increased
interest in the proposed motor a ctivities, they having a higher motivation even in
the assessment lessons.
Conclusions
The study of specialty literatur e reveals that physical exercis e represents
t h e b i o – a n t i d o t e t o h y p e r g l y c e m i a , w h i l e h y p o g l y c e m i a i s t h e m o st redoubtable
enemy of the programmes of motor activities addressed to the ch ild with type 1
mellitus diabetes.
The development of motor capacit y components investigated throu gh
this scientific approach is situated at a level corresponding t o the subjects’ age,
despite the existing metabolic diagnosis.
Knowing the initial level of the motor capacity development in children
with type 1 diabetes represents a compulsory stage in dimension ing the physical
exercise programmes, together wit h the permanent monitoring of the subjects’
blood sugar, treatment and diet.
Acknowledgements
This study was achieved and published under the aegis of the Na tional
U n i v e r s i t y o f P h y s i c a l E d u c a t i o n a n d S p o r t s o f B u c h a r e s t , a s a partner in the
program co-financed by the European Social Fund through the Sec toral
Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-2013 ,
developed through the project Pluri- and interdisciplinary in d octoral and post-
doctoral programmes, Project Code: POSDRU/159/1.5/S/141086, its m a i n
beneficiary being the Research Institute for Quality of Life, R omanian Academy.
ASPECTS REGARDING THE MOTOR CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN WI TH DIABETES
99
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Familial insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) epidemiolog y: standardization of
d a t a f o r t h e D I A M O N D P r o j e c t . ( 1 9 9 1 ) . I n Bulletin of the World Health
Organization , nr. 69(6) (pp. 767-777). Retrieved from:
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Sport – Eurofit for adults: assessment of health-related fitnes s. (1995). Council of Europe
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&sa=X&ei=h9lHVNSnAsTnywOQmYLQBA& ved=0CDwQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=eur
ofit%20manual&f=false
Bota, A. & Teodorescu S. (2007). Exercițiul fizic în afec țiunile cronice (pp. 67 – 69).
București: EDP.
Dishman, RK., Heath, G.W. & Lee, I.M. (2013). Physical Activity Epidemiology (pp. 244 –
248). Ilinois: Human Kinetics.
Filip, C. (coord.), Scarlat, E., Dragomir, P., Mironescu, I. & Predescu, S. (1999). Sistemul
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sănătate (pp. 206 – 209). Bu curești: Reader’s Digest.
Moraru, D., Moraru, E., Oltean, C., Bozomitu, L., Bogdan, A. & Stana, B.A. (2008). Date
actuale privind diabetul zaharat de tip 1 la copil. În Revista românå de pediatrie ,
vol. LVII, n r. 3 (pp. 214 – 227). Retrieved from:
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3_2008_Art-8.pdf
Orgeret, G. (2008). Le sport est un médicament bio. Trouver le sport adapté à son état de
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Tudoș, Ș. (1993). Elemente de statistic ă aplicată (pp. 32 – 36). București.
STUDIA UBB EDUCATIO ARTIS GYMN ., LIX, 4, 2014, pp. 101 – 106
(RECOMMENDED CITATION)
PHYSICAL EXERCISES FOR DI ABETIC POLYNEUROPATHY
DOCU AXELERAD ANY1*, DOCU AXELERAD DANIEL2
ABSTRACT. Introduction : Chronic sensorimotor neuropathy is the commonest
of the diabetic neuropathies, although at any one time only app roximately 50% of
patients will experience symptoms and 10-20% have symptoms seve re enough to
warrant specific therapy. A structured exercise program with ac tive and passive
movements to reduce muscle tension and prevent muscle wasting. Material and
methods: I n t h i s s t u dy , 2 8 p a ti e n t s re ce i v e d a s tru c t u re d e xe r ci se pr o gram: 14
with treatment and physical program exercises and 14 without. Pain relief was
measured by the patient’s global assessment of efficacy, using a visual analogue
scale (0–10). Treatment goals in clude restoring function and im proving pain
control. Patients were randomly selected, the common factor bei ng the presence
of painful diabetic non insulin-dependent neuropathy. Patients of either sex with
t y p e 2 d i a b e t e s , a g e d b e t w e e n 2 5 a n d 8 3 y e a r s , w h o w e r e o n s t a b le glucose-
lowering medications during the preceding 3 month and who had P DN for at least
1 m o n t h w e r e b e g i n t o b e t r e a t e d . P a t i e n t s w h o h a d a p a i n s c o r e of >5, as
assessed by visual analogue scale (VAS), were enrolled in our o bservation.
Results : Our study shows the results of physiotherapy for painful diab etic non
insulin-dependent neuropathy aft er 6 months of exercise program i m p r o v i n g
s t a b i l i t y , g a i t a n d c o o r d i n a t i o n . A n o t h e r a s p e c t i s t h e r e d u c t i on in depression
symptoms caused by unsuccessful therapy before using the physio therapy used
i n t h i s s t u d y . T h e s t u d y s h o w s h o w t h e p h y s i o t h e r a p y i s e f f i c i e nt in reducing
muscle cramps and pain. Pain relief was measured by the patient ’s global
a s s e s s m e n t o f e f f i c a c y , u s i n g a v i s u a l a n a l o g u e s c a l e ( 0 – 1 0 ) . T reatment goals
include restoring function and improving pain control. Conclusions : The current
s t u d y c o m p a r e d t h e e f f i c a c y o f p h y s i o t h e r a p y i n p a t i e n t s w i t h p ainful diabetic
non insulin-dependent neuropathy. Numerically, more patients have pain relief
after physiotherapy program than the group without physiotherap y.
Keywords: polyneuropathy, physical exercises, pain control
REZUMAT. Exercițiul fizic în polineuropatia diabetic ă. Introducere : Realizarea
u n u i p r o g r a m d e e x e r c i ț i i f i z i c e c u m i ș c ă r i a c t i v e ș i p a s i v e c u rolul de a reduce
1 Ovidius University of Constanta, General Medi cine Faculty
2 Ovidius University of Constanta, Physical Education, Sport and Kinetotherapy Faculty
*Corresponding Author: docuaxi@yahoo.com
DOCU AXELERAD ANY, DOCU AXELERAD DANIEL
102 tensiunea musculară și a preveni apariția atrofiilor musculare. Materiale și
metode : este un studiu realizat pe 28 pacienți cărora li s-a aplicat un program de
e x e r c i ț i i f i z i c e ( 1 4 a u a v u t u n p r o g r a m s t r u c t u r a t d e e x e r c i ț i i fizice și terapie
medicamentoasă, iar 14 au primit doar terapie medicamentoasă) . Reducerea
intensității durerii a fost măsurată în baza eficienței clinice a t r a t a m e n t u l u i
pacienților și în baza scalei vi zuale (0-10). Ținta tratamentul ui include restabilirea
funcțiilor motorii și îmbunătățirea din punct de vedere al cont rolului durerii.
Pacienții au fost randomizați se lectiv, factorul comun fiind pr ezenta neuropatiei
diabetice noninsulinodiabetice. Pacienții selectați indiferent de sex, cu vârste
cuprinse între 25 si 83 ani, aflați pe doze stabile de medicame nte antidiabetice
o r a l e î n u l t i m e l e 3 l u n i ș i c a r e a u d i a g n o s t i c d e p o l i n e u r o p a t i e diabetică de cel
puțin 1 luna. Pacienții incluși a u a v u t u n s c o r a l d u r e r i i s u b 5 pe scala vizuală.
Rezultate : studiul nostru arată rezultate le tratamentului fizic pentru p acienții
cu polineuropatie diabetică dure roasă după 6 luni de exerciții fizice cu
îmbunătățirea stabilității, mersului și coordonării. Alt aspect este reducerea
depresiei cauzate de terapia medicamentoasă ineficientă înainte de inițierea
programului de exerciții fizice. Acest studiu arată eficiența t erapiei prin exercițiu
fizic în reducerea crampelor musculare și a durerii. Durerea a fost măsurată prin
eficiența clinică a tratamentului pacienților și în baza scalei vi zu ale (0 -10), țin ta
fiind restaurarea funcționalității și controlul durerii pacienț ilor. Concluzii : Acest
studiu a comparat eficacitatea exercițiului fizic la pacienții cu polineuropatie
diabetică non-insulinodependentă. Numeric, mai mulți pacienți a u prezentat o
scădere a intensității durerii după programul de exerciții fizi ce.
Cuvinte cheie: polineuoropatie, exerciții fizice, controlul durerii
Introduction
Chronic sensorimotor neuropathy is the commonest of the diabeti c
neuropathies, although at any one time only approximately 50% o f patients will
experience symptoms and 10-20% hav e symptoms severe enough to w arrant
specific therapy.
A structured exercise program with active and passive movements
reduces muscle tension and prevents muscle wasting.
Objective The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of physical e xercises
i n p a i n f u l d i a b e t i c n e u r o p a t h y ( P D N ) . S e n s o r y , m o t o r a s w e l l a s autonomic
neuropathy all contribute to development of the diabetic foot s yndrome.
PHYSICAL EXERCISES FOR DIABETIC POLYNEUROPATHY
103 Material and methods
In this observational trial, 28 patients received pregabaline, 150 mg orally
twice daily in the morning at 8 a clock and at the bedtime, eac h for 6 months with
optional dose uptitration (divided in two groups, each group ha s 14 patients both
groups has the same medication for pain and the first group rec eive a program of
physical exercise). Pain relief was measured by the patient’s g lobal assessment of
efficacy, using a visual analogu e scale (0–10). Treatment goals include restoring
function and improving pain control. Patients were randomly sel ected, the
common factor being the presence of PDN. Patients of either sex w i t h t y p e 2
diabetes, aged between 25 and 83 years, who were on stable gluc ose-lowering
medications during the preceding 3 month and who had PDN for at least 1 month
w e r e b e g i n t o b e t r e a t e d . P a t i e n t s w h o h a d a p a i n s c o r e o f > 5 , as assessed by
visual analogue scale (VAS), were enrolled in our observation.
PDN was confirmed by 1) the patient’s medical history, 2) a diabetic
neuropathy symptom and increased thresholds on the vibration pe rception test
and monofilament test. Patients w ere excluded if they had any c linically
significant or unstable medical or psychiatric illnesses. Patie nts with other causes
of neuropathy; renal dysfunction , liver disease; psychiatric i llness; uncontrolled
hypertension; those taking antic onvulsants, antidepressants, lo cal anaesthetics, or
opioids; those who were pregnant; lactating women; or those bei ng treated with
any investigational drug within the last 30 days were excluded from this
observation.
All patients underwent 6 months o f treatment with one drug and, at the
end of 6 months, patients und erwent clinical evaluation.
O n e d o s e 7 5 p r e g a b a l i n e t w i c e d a i l y w e r e u s e d i n t h e s t u d y f o r both
groups. The primary end point of the study was the reduction of the average pain
score from initial results, as assessed by the patient’s global assessment of efficacy
by the VAS (0–10 points). Secondary end points included the 24- point Hamilton
Rating Scale for Depression; and patient self-evaluation of ove rall change on the
basis of patient global impression of change scale.
Demographic characteristics were n o t e d a n d a l l t h e p a r a m e t e r s w ere
measured before and after treatment with all four drugs and com pared. Patients
were not allowed any other pain medication.
Results and discussion Impairment of sensory inervations often results in the numbness o f t h e
feet, and minor trauma or persist ent pressure lead to severe co mplications
DOCU AXELERAD ANY, DOCU AXELERAD DANIEL
104 r a p i d l y . M o t o r n e u r o p a t h y i s a l s o common in the diabetic foot s yndrome. In
addition to reflex loss, electrop hysiological testing of the pe roneal provides
quantitative information on the severity of motor impairment. F or the group with
pregabalin with physical exercise program we choose a controlle d exercise
program of 20 minutes, with vari ous exercises picked form aerob ic, stretching
and strengthening disciplines, repeated three times a week.
The study was conducted between January 2014 and June 2014. Population and samples: Total population was 28 participants ra ndomly
s e l e c t e d , d i v i d e d i n t o 2 g r o u p s o f 1 4 . A g e v a r i e s b e t w e e n 2 5 a n d 83 years old,
mean age 53.42 (SD 15.75), 12 male patients and 16 female patie nts, with
duration of diabetes between 3 and 17 years, mean duration 3.90 (SD 11.03).
Gathered data analysis
Table 1. Values reported on visual analogue scale (VAS)
by patients measuring pain.
Group I with
medication and
physical program Group II with
medication without
physical program
Before After 6
monthBefore After 6
month
Patient 1 8 2 6 5
Patient 2 9 1 7 6
Patient 3 10 3 8 6
Patient 4 8 3 5 5
Patient 5 7 2 9 8
Patient 6 10 4 8 7
Patient 7 8 8 7 6
Patient 8 9 5 5 3
Patient 9 8 2 6 5
Patient 10 7 1 5 3
Patient 11 6 3 7 7
Patient 12 7 5 6 6
Patient 13 9 5 9 8
Patient 14 10 3 8 8
PHYSICAL EXERCISES FOR DIABETIC POLYNEUROPATHY
105 All data collections in above table have been tested for normal ity of
d i s t r i b u t i o n u s i n g S h a p i r o – W i l k n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n t e s t , a n d N ormal Q-Q Plots.
All data collections have been found to have normal distributio n.
Mean reduction of pain on VAS was calculated for each of the tw o groups
and found 58.24% improvement in pregabaline group without exerc ises program
and 72.82% improvement in pregab aline group with exercises prog ram.
Differences between mean values of pain on VAS for each group w ere tested with
t – t e s t f o r p a i r e d s a m p l e s a n d w e r e f o u n d s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c ant and non-
accidental. We based differences found on medication treatment for the past six
months. Differences were however statistically significant betw een pregabaline
group with exercises program and also between pregabaline group w i t h o u t
exercises program.
Table 2. Depression scores on Hamilton Scale
Group I with
medication and
physical program Group II with
medication without
physical program
Before After 6
month Before After 6
month
Patient 1 11 5 10 6
Patient 2 10 4 9 8
Patient 3 11 6 10 9
Patient 4 12 4 11 10
Patient 5 9 4 8 7
Patient 6 8 4 8 7
Patient 7 10 5 10 5
Patient 8 11 4 10 4
Patient 9 13 4 12 4
Patient 10 12 4 13 5
Patient 11 12 4 15 4
Patient 12 10 4 9 4
Patient 13 10 4 8 5
Patient 14 10 4 11 5
Initial assessment showed normal distribution of scores. The 6 moths
visit showed statistically signi ficant reduction of depression score for all patients.
DOCU AXELERAD ANY, DOCU AXELERAD DANIEL
106 Table 3. Overall perception of change
Group I with medication and
physical program Group I with medication without
physical program
Before After 6 month Before After 6 month
Patient 1 1 4 1 2
Patient 2 2 5 2 3
Patient 3 1 4 1 2
Patient 4 1 5 1 3
Patient 5 1 5 1 2
Patient 6 1 5 1 2
Patient 7 1 5 1 2
Patient 8 1 4 1 2
Patient 9 2 4 2 3
Patient 10 1 4 1 2
Patient 11 2 4 1 2
Patient 12 1 4 2 3
Patient 13 1 4 1 2
Patient 14 1 4 1 2
Overall perception of change, being a patient self-reported mea sure, like
the VAS, showed similar results as the VAS after data analysis.
Conclusions The current study compared the efficacy of exercises program at patients
in treatment with pregabaline with PDN with patients without ex ercises program
at patients with PDN. Numerically, more patients have pain reli ef after
combination of drug and exercise.
In the present observational study, more than 72% improvement i n pain
score was observed in first grou p, and 58% with second group. I mprovement in
pain was significant and as a re sult, a significant reduction i n depression scores
was also observed. The overall self evaluation of patients is c onsistent with this
result.
REFERENCES
Melzack, R. (1987). The short-fo rm McGill Pain Questionnaire. Pain ; 30, 191–197.
Snaith, R.P. (1977). Hamilton rating scale for depression. Br J Psychiatry ; 131, 431–432.
STUDIA UBB EDUCATIO ARTIS GYMN ., LIX, 4, 2014, pp. 107 – 112
(RECOMMENDED CITATION)
THE EFFECT OF KINESIO TAPI NG ON KNEE INSTABILITY OF
FEMALE RUGBY PLAYERS
BROASCĂ ALEXANDRA-ANDREEA1*, POP NICOLAE HORA ȚIU2
ABSTRACT. Background: T h e s t u d y a i m s t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
p h y s i c a l e x e r c i s e s a n d t h e K i n e s i o T a p i n g m e t h o d o v e r t h e k n e e ’ s stability.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of Kine sio Tape on
knee joint, during balance tests.We hypothesized that using Kin esio Taping
we will obtain better assessment results in comparison with the assessment
results in the lack of Taping. Methods: The study involved five adult female
s u b j e c t s . F o u r o f t h e s u b j e c t e w a s h e a t h y , a n d o n e h a d r e c e n t A CL surgical
intervention, with mean age for 20 ± 21 years old and body weig ht 55,5 ± 78
k g . T w o d i f f e r e n t t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s w e r e g i v e n t o t h e s u b j e c t s during two
months, with a frequency of thr ee times per week, each one last ing approximately
50 minutes. The first training program contained isometric and dynamic
e x e r c i s e s . A s t o t h e s e c o n d t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m , i t c o n s i s t e d o f d ynamic exercises
and an agility drill. Each subject trained the same way. The su bjects were
assessed three times: prior to starting the first training prog ram, after finishing it,
and, finally, after finishing the second training program. At each assessment, there
were two testing conditions: the first without Taping and the s econd with Kinesio
Taping (applied). Dynamic balance was assessed with the Star Ex cursion Balance
Test, while for static balance w e used the NetForce platform. With the help of the
SPSS statistics program’s Student’s t-test, we performed the st atistical analysis of
the results. Results: Kinesio Taping techniques applied in this research, have seen
segnificant changes in pain amelioration, edema reduction and r egaining full knee
extension in the acute postoperative period. Kinesio Taping als o positively
i n f l u e n c e s t h e d y n a m i c e q u i l i b r i u m n e c e s s a r y b o t h d u r i n g t r a n i n g and official
meetings.
Keywords: Kinesio Taping, instability, knee, rugby
1 Barticești Medical Center
2 Babeș-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Physical Educati on and Sport
*Correponding author: andreea.broasc ă@yahoo.com
BROASCĂ ALEXANDRA-ANDREE A, POP NICOLAE HORAȚIU
1
08 REZUMAT. Efectul metodei Kinesio Ta ping asupra instabilit ății genunchiului
la jucătoarele de rugby. Introducere: S t u d i u l u r m ă r e ș t e i n f l u e n ț a e x e r c i ț i i l o r
fizice și metodei Kinesio Taping asupra stabilității genunchiul ui la jucătoarele de
rugby. Ipoteză : Scopul acestui studiu a fost de a investiga efectul Kinesio Ta ping
p e a r t i c u l a ț i a g e n u n c h i u l u i , î n t i m p u l t e s t ă r i l o r d e e c h i l i b r u . Materiale și
metode: La studiu au participat cinci subiecți adulți de sex feminin d intre care – 4
sănătoase, iar una suferind o recentă intervenție chirurgicală a LIA, cu o vârstă
medie de 20 ± 21 ani și o masă corporală de 55,5 ± 78 kg. Două programe de
antrenament au fost aplicate timp de două luni, cu o frecvență d e 3 o r i p e
s ă p t ă m â n ă , f i e c a r e c u o d u r a t ă d e a p r o x i m a t i v 5 0 m i n u t e . P r i m u l p r o g r a m d e
antrenament a fost format din exerciții izometrice și dinamice. În ceea ce privește
al doilea program de exerciții, a fost compus din exerciții din amice, dar și un
traseu de agilitate. Subiecții au fost evaluați de trei ori: în ainte de a începe primul
program de antrenament, după terminarea acestuia, și după aplic area celui de-al
doilea program de antrenament. P entru fiecare evaluare au exist at două condiții
de testare: prima, fără Taping și a doua cu Kinesio Taping. Ech ilibrul dinamic a
f o s t e v a l u a t p r i n i n t e r m e d i u l S t a r E x c u r s i o n B a l a n c e T e s t , i a r pentru echilibrul
static am folosit platforma NetForce. Cu ajutorul programului d e statistică SPSS
am aplicat Student t-test, pentru prelucrarea și analiza statis tică a datelor culese
în urma testărilor. Rezultate: T e h n i c i l e K i n e s i o T a p i n g a p l i c a t e î n a c e a s t ă
cercetare, au înregistrat modificări semnificative în sensul am eliorării dureii,
reducerii edemului și recâștigarii extensiei genunchiului în pe rioada acută post-
operatorie. De asemenea Kinesio Taping, influențează pozitiv ec hilibrul dinamic,
i m p o r t a n t î n j o c u l d e r u g b y a t â t î n t i m p u l a n t r e n a m e n t e l o r c â t și în timpul
întâlnirilor oficiale.
Cuvinte cheie: Kinesio Taping, instabilitate, genunchi, rugby
Introduction
The knee is the most important joint of the body. By his posit ion, through
its role in the static and dynamic biomechanics of the lower li mb, and also by its
covering with soft tissue, it is particularly susceptible and v ulnerable to both
direct and indirect trauma. Bala nce is one of the most importan t factors in sports.
A deficitary balance was identified as being an important risk factor regarding the
knee joint.
Rugby is a contact sport by its specificity, which by default will cause
diverse and quite frequent trauma.
Current research conducted by Kaplan, Goodwill, Strauss & Rose n (2008)
h a s f o u n d t h a t t h e l e g i s t h e m o s t p r o n e a r e a i n t e r m s o f a n a t o mical injuries in
rugby, regardless of the experience level, that being from 42% to 55% of the total injury rate .
THE EFFECT OF KINESIO TAPING ON KNEE INSTABILITY OF FEMALE RUGB Y PLAYERS
109 In a study conducted by the International Rugby Board (Fuller & Taylor,
2013) on the rate of injuries in women`s rugby 7 women during 2 011-2013,
showed that lesions in the knee joint were ranked on second, wi th a percentage of
17.6% for le sion s locate d in the po ste rior area an d 26.7% fo r l esions located in
the anterior area. T h e K i n e s i o T a p i n g M e t h o d h a s b e e n u s e d f o r a l o n g t i m e f o r t h e
prevention and treatment of sports injuries, even for supportin g the joint or
muscle during movement. Kinesio Taping can improve the proprioc eption which
is considered to play an importa nt role in the prevention of ac ute injuries and also
during chronic injuries as well (Kase & Wallis, 2003).
According to Williams, Whatman, Hume & Sheerin (2012), on a se t of 10
a r t i c l e s t h a t i n c l u d e d t h e u s e o f t h i s m e t h o d i n s p o r t s , h a s d i scovered that it
a l l o w s a w i d e r r a n g e o f m o v i n g a n d c o m p a r e d t o a n o r m a l d r e s s i n g, it can be
worn over a longer period of time without reapplying. Also in t his study, from 10
articles only one had significant r e s u l t s s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e p o r t e d regarding pain
a m e l i o r a t i o n a n d p r o p r i o c e p t i o n , 4 a r t i c l e s w e r e f o u n d t o b e s i gnificant in
enhancing stimulation of muscle contraction. By applying Kinesi o Taping
bandages it is aimed at a better muscle contraction in the band aged area, of the 10
articles, 2 had significant results statistically reported and the others presented a
substantial change in muscle activity. Another article, which involves tracking the effects of two ty pes of
dressing: Kinesio Taping and Ath letic Tape in the functional pe rformance for
basketball players with ankle sprains, found that following the performance tests
t h e r e w e r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o test conditions.
Athletic Tape (Strap) showed a significant decrease in performa nce, while Kinesio
Taping did not limited the funct ional performance (Bicici, Kara tas & Baltac, 2012).
Objectives
The study aims to demonstrate th e influence of physical exercis es and the
Kinesio Taping method over the knee’s stability. The purpose of this study was to
investigate the effect of Kinesio Tape on knee joint, during ba lance tests.We
hypothesized that using Kinesio Taping we will obtain better as sessment results
in comparison with the assessmen t results in the lack of Taping .
Participants
The study involved five female adult subjects selected from th e female
r u g b y t e a m " U " C l u j , o u t o f w h i c h – 4 h e a l t h y , a n d o n e w h o s u f f ered a recent
surgery of ACL, with a mean age of 20 ± 21 years and a body wei ght of 55.5 ±
78 kg.
BROASCĂ ALEXANDRA-ANDREE A, POP NICOLAE HORAȚIU
110 Experimental design
All subjects took part in the study after signing the informed consent
needed. The research period was of six months of recovery and training . To reach
the same level of stability with the other participants, the su bject having had ACL
surgery followed a rehabilitation program for a period of four months.
After the recovery period, all subjects followed two training programs
d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e k n e e j o i n t . T h e f i r s t program included
isometric and dynamic exercises, and the second program consist ed of dynamic
e x e r c i s e s , a n d a a g i l i t y t r a i l . E a c h p r o g r a m w a s c o n d u c t e d o v e r a p e r i o d o f 1
month, with a frequency of 3 ti mes / week, lasting about 50 min .
Data recording
To highlight the results, the subjects were evaluated three ti mes: before
s t a r t i n g t h e f i r s t w o r k o u t , a f t e r i t s c o m p l e t i o n a n d a f t e r t h e application of the
second workout. The Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT) was used to assess the dynamic
balance; it is a functional dynamic test that requires strength , flexibility and
proprioception (Abbasi, 2012). Ground Reaction Forces (GFR) were measured using a balance pla tform
(model AMTI BP400600-2000 Hz, with size 400x600x83 mm), collect ed and
stored with an AMTI NetForce software at 2000 Hz. All data was analyzed using
the software developed in Matlab, managing to highlight the sta tic equilibrium.
During al l balance tes ts , s ubject s had t heir eyes o p en and they were ordered to
keep looking straight ahead. During the test, subjects were ins tructed to place the
measured leg (barefoot) on the middle of the platform, the othe r member being at
90 ° flexion of the knee joint. Before starting the test and da ta collection, subjects
were allowed a sampling evaluati on from each condition to perce ive the position
and to accommodate with the equipment. When subjects were ready , they were
asked to say "Ready!" in order to start the testing. Testing un der each condition
was performed three times (initia l, intermediate and final), ea ch test lasting 15s. If
subjects lost balance and touched the platform with the other f oot, the test was
repeated after a 3 minutes break. The evaluation of postural cont rol by this means of assessment w a s
shown to be a reliable and valid way to determine the ability o f static equilibrium
(Lyytinen et al., 2010; Qu, 2010; Harring et al., 2008; Hoffman , Schrader & Koceja,
1999; Williams et al., 1997).
THE EFFECT OF KINESIO TAPING ON KNEE INSTABILITY OF FEMALE RUGB Y PLAYERS
111 Test Conditions
For each evaluation there were t wo test conditions: first, wit hout Kinesio
Taping and second, wi th Kinesio Taping.
K i n e s i o – T a p i n g T e c h n i q u e s u s e d t o s u p p o r t t h e k n e e j o i n t w e r e :
ligamentous technique and the correction technique according to the Sijmonsma
Kinesio taping manual (Sijmonsma, 2013).
Data analysis
For the statistical interpretation of numerical data we used t he SPSS
statistical analysis program, wh ereby we applied Paired Sample T-Test. Statistical
significance was set at p <0. 05 (Huang, Hsieh, Lu & Su, 2011).
Results
After the dynamic balance test (SEBT) for the right leg by com paring the
final statistical results in two conditions: without Taping and with the aplications
o f t h e K i n e s i o T a p i n g b a n d a g e s i t s h o w s t h a t t h e r e i s a s t a t i s t ically significant
difference between condition Mean. The first condition (EfFDr) ( M = 1 . 0 1 , S D =
9.41) and the second condition (EfTDr) (M = 1.06, SD = 7.28) re sulted in: t (4) = –
2.924 and p = 0.043. For the left leg, there were no statistica lly significant
differences from the statistical analysis.
As regarding the results of the s t a t i c e q u i l i b r i u m o f t h e r i g h t leg for the
initial evaluation of the two cond itions, only the standard dev iation of the center
of pressure on the x(SDx) axis recorded differences in statisti cal terms; SDxF (M =
0.79, SD = 0.23) and SDxT (M = 0 .97, SD = 0.14) resulted t(4)=- 3.076, p=0.037. At
the lower left limb, there were significant statistical differe n c e s r e g a r d i n g t h e
displacement average of the center of pressure (ARD). ARDF (M=0 .74, SD=0.09)
and ARDT(M=0.83, SD=0.08) ind icated t(4)=-8.374, p=0.001.
Discussions
For the multitude of dynamic exercises applied, the dynamic ba lance was
much better developed, although good records were obtained duri ng the
evaluation of the static equilibrium.
Kinesio taping with small degr ees of elasticity, causes simila r effects to a
more rigid bandaging. Specifical ly, the taping influences the s tability, supports the
muscles, but restricts the joint movement to a small extent. So when we applied
SEBT, in certain directions the knee joint was prevented to rea ch the maximum
score so, during the official meet ings, Kinesio Taping helps to protect the joint and
does not allow it to slide during pivoting.
BROASCĂ ALEXANDRA-ANDREE A, POP NICOLAE HORAȚIU
112 The differences between legs si gnificantly decreased from the first
evaluation. By using Kinesio Taping techniques on some subjects , the difference
between the left leg and right leg is almost nonexistent.
Conclusions
Kinesio Taping techniques applied in this research, have seen s egnificant
changes in pain amelioration, edema reduction and regaining ful l knee extension
in the acute postoperative period.
Kinesio Taping also positively influences the dynamic equilibr ium
necessary both during training and official meetings.
REFERENCES
Abbasi, R.B. (2012). Evaluation of Static and Dynamic Balance a nd Knee Proprioception in
Young Professional Soccer Players . Scholars Research Library , 3(6), 2867-2873.
Bicici, S., Karatas, N. & Baltaci, G. (2012). Effect of Athleti c Tapin g and Kinesi oTapin g on
m e a s u r e m e n t s o f f u n c t i o n a l p e r f o r m a n c e i n b a s k e t b a l l p l a y e r s w i th chronic
inversion ankle sprains. The International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy , 7(2),
154-166.
Fuller, C. & Taylor, A. (2013). Women`s Sevens Challenge Cup. Women`s Sevens World Series.
Rugby World Cup Sevens (Women). International Rugby Board, 1-9.
Huang, C.Y., Hsieh, F.H., Lu, S. C. & Su, F.C. (2011). Effect of t h e K i n e s i o T a p e t o m u s c l e
activity and vertical jump performance in healthy inactive peop le. BioMedical
Engineering OnLine , 10:70.
Hoffman, M., Schrader, J. & Koc eja, D. (1999). An Investigation of Postural Control in
Postoperative Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction Patient s. Journal of
Athletic Training , 34(2): 130-136.
Kaplan, K., Goodwillie, A., Strauss, E.J. & Rosen, J.E. (2008). Rugby Injuries. A review of
Concepts and Current Literature . Bulletin of NYU Hospital for Joint Diseases , 66
(2), 86-93.
Kase, K., Wallis, J. & Kase, T. (2003). Clinical Therapeutic applications of the Kinesio Taping.
Tokyo: Ken Ikai Co.
Lyytinen, T. et al. (2010). Postural control and thigh muscle a ctivity in men with knee
osteoarthritis. Journal of Electromyo graphy and kinesiology , 20, 1066-1074.
Qu, X. (2010). Low-level noise affects balance control differen tly when applied at different
body parts. Journal of Biomechanics , 43, 2936-2940.
Sijmonsma, J. (2013). Conceptul medical de bandajare neuromuscular ă (CMB). Hof van
Twente: Fysionair (pp. 9, 11).
Williams, S., Whatman, C., Humme, P.A. & Sheerin, K. (2012). Ki nesio Taping in treatment
and prevention of Sports injuries. Sports Med , 42(2), 153-164.
STUDIA UBB EDUCATIO ARTIS GYMN ., LIX, 4, 2014, pp. 113 – 123
(RECOMMENDED CITATION)
THE IMPLICATIONS OF CARBOH YDRATES DURING PHYSICAL
EFFORT: A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW
CREȚU AUR
ICA1*, ZĂGREAN ELEONORA1, ȘTEFĂ NESCU HOREA1,
RUS VIRGIL1, CREȚU DENISA-IOANA2
ABSTRACT. The metabolism during physical exercise changes depending on th e
nature of the effort in various sports, duration, intensity, en vironmental
conditions, etc. Carbohydrates in the form of glucose and intra muscular glycogen
becomes an increasingly important energy substrate during physi cal activity,
w i t h t h e m u s c l e c o n t r a c t i o n b e i n g t r i g g e r e d b y A T P ( a d e n o s i n e t riphosphate).
The biochemical proce sses that occur during muscle contraction are very
complex. Degradation of glycogen to lactic acid and oxidative d egradation of
g l y c o g e n t o c a r b o n d i o x i d e a n d w a t e r h a v e n o o t h e r r o l e d u r i n g muscle
contraction but to obtain molecules of ATP. The modifications o f certain
biochemical parameters such as blood sugar levels depend on the e x e r c i s e
intensity and they, in turn, influence the speed of metabolic c hanges in the
working capacity of the body.
Key words: carbohydrates, ATP, physical effort
REZUMAT. Implica țiile carbohidra ților în efortul fizic. Metabolismul efortului
sportiv prezintă modificări în funcție de natura efortului depu s în diferite ramuri
sportive, durată, intensitate, condiții de mediu etc. Carbohidr ații, sub formă de
glucoză și glicogen reprezintă un substrat energetic important pentru activitatea
fizică, contracția musculară fiind declanșată de ATP(adenozin-t rifosfat). Procesele
biochimice care au loc în timpul contracției musculare sunt foa rte complexe.
Degradarea glicogenului la acid lactic precum și degradarea oxi dativă a
glicogenului la dioxid de carbon și apă nu au alt rol în proces ul contracției
musculare decât de a procura molecule de ATP. Modificările anumitor parametrii
biochimici-precum glicemia, care pot influența gradul de efort, sun t de pende n te
de intensitatea efortului fizic și ele, la rândul lor, acționea ză asupra vitezei de
realizare a modificărilor metabolice cu rezultat direct asupra capacității de muncă
a organismului
Cuvinte cheie: carbohidra ți, ATP, efort fizic.
1 Babeș-Bolyai University, Faculty of Phy sical Education and Sport, Bistri ța
2 Heart Institute ”Prof. dr. N. Stancioiu”, Cluj-Napoca
* Corresponding author: cretuaurica@yahoo.com
CREȚU AURICA, ZĂGREAN ELEONORA, ȘTEFĂNESCU HOREA, RUS VIRGIL, C REȚU DENISA-IOANA
114 Introduction
In order to achieve performance, lifestyle and above all alimen tation play
a c r u c i a l p a r t , b o t h i n t h e p r e p a r a t o r y s t a g e s , b u t e s p e c i a l l y in the competition
phase. For the best performance, athletes undergo a complex pro cess of
p r e p a r a t i o n d u r i n g w h i c h t h e b o d y i s r e q u i r e d t o r e a c h e v e n t h e m a x i m u m
physiological limits.
Carbohydrates during effort Carbohydrates are organic compounds containing in their structu re C, H,
O and other elements found only on certain classes of compounds . The basic units
of carbohydrates are the monosacch arides. Despite their similar chemical
c o m p o s i t i o n , c a r b o h y d r a t e s c a n f o r m a n e n o r m o u s n u m b e r o f c o m b i nations
through the stereochemical variety of the hydroxyl groups that they carry many
possibilities to assemble monosac charides one to another, and t hrough the
wealth of noncarbohydrate substituents that can decorate the re sulting oligo- and
polysaccharides (Lombard V, 2014). Carbohydrates play primarily an energetic
role, in addition to a structural and protective part.
Athletic performance is unthinkable without the involvement of
carbohydrate. During prolonged m uscular effort or when the exte rnal
environment temperatur e is lowered, energy consumption is great ly increased
and the need for carbohydrates increases as well. Carbohydrate oxidation
accounts for 10–15% of total energy production during low inten sity aerobic
exercise, increasing progressive ly to roughly 70–80% of total e nergy during
intense exercise (Ho lloszy JO, 1996).
There are two sources of glucose molecules available to the wor king
muscle: plasma glucose and muscle glycogen. The modifications o f certain
biochemical parameters such as blood sugar levels depend on the exercise
i n t e n s i t y a n d t h e y , i n t u r n , i n f l u e n c e t h e s p e e d o f m e t a b o l i c c hanges in the
working capacity of the body (Crețu A, 2010). Glucose delivery t o t h e w o r k i n g
muscle is accelerated by a marke d increase in capillary perfusi on during exercise
and by ingestion of carbohydrate rich meals or drinks as well a s the permeability
of the muscle membrane to glucose. The latter is regulated by a plethora of
molecular signalling thought to include calcium, stretch and en ergy stress
s i g n a l l i n g a n d p r o b a b l y o t h e r s . I n t h e p o s t – e x e r c i s e r e c o v e r y p eriod, muscle
glucose uptake displays an incre ased sensitivity to insulin in this way increasing
glucose uptake after a meal in the muscles that have performed the exercise and
therefore are in need of rebuilding their glycogen stores. (Tho mas E Jensen,
THE IMPLICATIONS OF CARBOHYDRATE S DURING PHYSICAL EFFORT: A COM PREHENSIVE REVIEW
115 2012). Furthermore, glucose utilization during exercise and the a m o u n t
metabolized per unit of insulin plasma (used as an indicator of insulin sensitivity)
increases especially when body weight loss is accompanied by ph ysical exercise
(Crețu A, 2010). Carbohydrate in the form of glucose and intramuscular glycogen becomes
an increasingly important energy substrate with rising exercise i n t e n s i t y
(Holloszy JO, 1996). While very l ittle net glycogen breakdown i s observed at low-
intensity exercise, glycogen-bre akdown becomes the predominant glucose source
at higher intensities (Hargreaves M, 1988), which resulted in t he practice of
high-carbohydrate diet regimens to increase pre-exercise glycog en levels
(carbohydrate loading). However, skeletal muscle glycogen conce ntration exerts a
regulatory effect on many cellular processes. For example, cont raction-induced as
well as insulin-stimulated glucose transport and glucose transp orter 4 (GLUT4)
translocation are inhibited by high muscle glycogen levels. (Ri chter EA, 2001.). A
number of studies (De Bock K, 2008.), (Akerstrom TC, 2009.), (H ulston CJ, 2010),
show that independent of prior t raining status, short-term (3–1 0 wk) training
programs in which a portion of workouts are commenced with eith er low muscle
glycogen and/or low exogenous gl ucose availability augment trai ning adaptation
t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n w h e n a l l w o r k o u t s a r e u n d e r t a k e n w i t h normal or
elevated glycogen stores.
Glycogen metabolisation The two largest glycogen deposits in mammals are in the liver a nd
skeletal muscle but many cells are capable of synthesizing glyc ogen. Both muscle
and liver glycogen reserves are important for whole body glucos e metabolism
and their replenishment is linked hormonally to nutritional sta tus. Control differs
between muscle and liver in part due to the existence of differ ent tissue-specific
isoforms at key steps. Readily visualized by the electron micro scope, glycogen
granules appear as bead-like stru ctures localized to specific s ubcellular locales.
Each glycogen granule is a functional unit, not only containing carbohydrate, but
a l s o e n z y m e s a n d o t h e r p r o t e i n s n e e d e d f o r i t s m e t a b o l i s m . T h e s e proteins are
n o t s t a t i c , b u t r a t h e r a s s o c i a t e and dissociate depending on th e carbohydrate
balance in the muscle (Shearer J, 2002).
Glycogen degradation and synthesis are relatively simple bioche mical
processes. Glycogenolysis is regulated by glycogen phosphorylas e (GP), acting on
the terminal α-1,4-glycosidic linked glucose residues, and debr anching enzyme,
targeting the α-1,6-branchpoints in the glycogen molecule (Roac h, 2002).
Therefore, glycogen degradation consists of three steps: (1) th e release of glucose
CREȚU AURICA, ZĂGREAN ELEONORA, ȘTEFĂNESCU HOREA, RUS VIRGIL, C REȚU DENISA-IOANA
116 1-phosphate from glycogen, (2) the remodeling of the glycogen s ubstrate to
p e r m i t f u r t h e r d e g r a d a t i o n , a n d ( 3 ) t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f g l u c o s e 1 -phosphate into
glucose 6-phosphate for further metabolism. The glucose 6-phosp hate derived
from the breakdown of glycogen has three fates (1) it is the in itial substrate for
glycolysis, (2) it can be processed by the pentose phosphate pa thway to yield
NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) and ribose derivatives;
and (3) it can be converted into free glucose for release into the bloodstream. This
conversion takes place mainly in the liver and to a lesser exte nt in the intestines
a n d k i d n e y s . T h e a c t i v i t y o f G P i s i n c r e a s e d b y a l l o s t e r i c b i n d ing of AMP
(adenosine monophosphate) or IMP (inosine monophosphate) and co mpeted by
ATP or glucose-6-phosphate (G-6-P) (Roach, 2002).
G l y c o g e n s y n t h e s i s r e q u i r e s a n a c t i v a t e d f o r m o f g l u c o s e , u r i d i ne diphosphate
glucose (UDP-glucose), which is formed by the reaction of UTP ( uridine
triphosphate) and glucose 1-phosphate. UDP-glucose is added to the nonreducing
end of glycogen molecules. As is the case for glycogen degradat ion, the glycogen
molecule must be remodeled for continued synthesis. Control of synthesis is
s h a r e d b e t w e e n t r a n s p o r t i n t o t h e m u s c l e a n d t h e s t e p c a t a l y z e d b y g l y c o g e n
synthase (Roach, 2002).
Muscle glycogen serves only to f uel muscular activity and its u tilization
is controlled by muscle contracti on and by catecholamines (Roac h, 2002).
Other studies show that after pr olonged high-intensity exercise the depletion
of glycogen is dependent on subc ellular localization. In additi on, the
localization of glycogen appears to be influenced by fibre type p r i o r t o
exercise, as well as carbohydrate availability during the subse quent period of
recovery. These findings provide insight into the significance o f f i b r e t y p e –
specific compartmentalization of glycogen metabolism in skeleta l muscle
during exerciseand subsequent recovery (Nielsen J, 2011).
Blood glucose level is kept cons tant by the liver glycogen rese rves. When
the blood glucose incr eases through the absorption of carbohydr ates from the
i n t e s t i n e , t h e e x c e s s i s c o n v e r t e d t o g l y c o g e n i n t h e l i v e r a n d m u s c l e s , s o t h a t
glycogenolysis that is replaced by glycogenesis. Skeletal muscl e does not
contribute directly to blood glucose levels, as it does not con tain specific enzymes
for the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to glucose.
While certain enzymes such as glycogen synthase and glycogen
phosphorylase have been extensively studied, other proteins suc h as the glycogen
i n i t i a t i n g a n d t a r g e t i n g p r o t e i n s a r e j u s t b e g i n n i n g t o b e u n d e rstood. Two
metabolically distinct forms of glycogen, pro- and marcoglycoge n have been
identified that vary in their carbohydrate complement per molec ule and have
d i f f e r e n t s e n s i t i v i t i e s t o g l y c o g e n s y n t h e s i s a n d d e g r a d a t i o n . The primer for
glycogen synthesis is an autoglucosylating protein referred to as glycogenin.
THE IMPLICATIONS OF CARBOHYDRATE S DURING PHYSICAL EFFORT: A COM PREHENSIVE REVIEW
117 While identifying and studying r odent muscle glycogenin, Lomako and colleagues
(Lomako J, 1993) discovered that there were two forms of glycog en. These
glycogen pools were shown to differ in size and protein content , with
macroglycogen (MG) being the larger at 107 Da and proglycogen ( PG) the smaller
at 400 kDa. Both molecular forms contain only a single glycogen in but different
amounts of CHO; thus they are separable via solubility in perch loric acid (PCA)
because MG is soluble and PG precipitates. The literature (K. B . Adamo, 1998)
d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t a t e x h a u s t i o n , t h e M G s t o r e s h o w s t h e g r e a t e r r e l a t i v e
deple tion , an d P G i s the more sen sit i ve to dieta ry CH O and i s s ynthesized more
rapidly after glycogen depletion . (K. B. Adamo, 1998) also demo nstrated that the
P G r e a c h e s a p l a t e a u a t 2 4 h , w h e r e a s t h e M G p o o l c o n t i n u e s t o expand and is
responsible for the supercompens ation seen in the days after ex haustive exercise
in a high CHO condition.
Gluconeogenesis (GNG)
Blood glucose is essential during prolonged periods of enduran ce
exercise, when large changes occu r in tissue oxygen delivery an d use, metabolic
rate, carbohydrate (CHO) oxidati on, blood glucose disposal, and hepatic plus renal
glucose production. Following an overnight fast, gluconeogenesi s (GNG) provides
2 5 – 5 0 % o f t o t a l g l u c o s e p r o d u c t i o n i n r e s t i n g h u m a n s , w h i l e t h e remainder is
supported by hepatic glycogenolysis (GLY)((Bergman BC, 2000.) ( Chandramouli
V, 1997.) (Chen X, 1999.)). In res ting humans after fasting for 40 h GNG accounts
for nearly 90% of total glucos e production (Staehr P, 2007). Du ring submaximal
exercise, energy demand requires muscle glucose utilization and , consequently,
increases blood glucose disposal in order to prevent hypoglicem ia (Brooks GA,
1994.) In contrast to rest, the r elative contribution of GNG to t o t a l g l u c o s e
production has been shown to decr ease during hard exercise (Tri mmer JK, 2002.)
Glycolysis durring effort Glycolisis represents the enzyma tic breakdown of a carbohydrate ( a s
glucose) by way of phosphate derivatives with the production of pyruvic or lactic
acid and energy stored in high-energy phosphate bonds of ATP.
The biochemical processes that occur during muscle contraction are very
complex. The source of energy that triggers muscle contraction is ATP (adenosine
triphosphate). There are three possible sources for ATP product ion: (a) anaerobic
alactacid metabolism –the ATP-CP (phosphocreatine) or phosphagene phase,
CREȚU AURICA, ZĂGREAN ELEONORA, ȘTEFĂNESCU HOREA, RUS VIRGIL, C REȚU DENISA-IOANA
118 during which energy is provided from ATP stored in muscles and by phosphagene
type degradation (ATP and creatine phosphate). ATP can be recon structed by
reducing phosphocreatine to creatine and inorganic phosphate, a gain providing
energy for the ATP. This contraction stage is followed by the ( b) anaerobic
lactacid metabolism , with formation of lactic acid, given by an incompete glycogen
breakdown during glycolisis. The production of lactate regenera tes NAD+
(pyruvate is reduced to lactate while NADH is oxidized to NAD+) , which is used
up in oxidation of glyceraldehyd e 3-phosphate during creation o f pyruvate from
glucose, and this ensures that energy production is maintained and exercise can
continue. In the final stage of glycolysis (the production of p yruvate) ATP is
generated. The anaerobic phase w ith the two components(alactaci d and lactacid)
is of great value as it provides the ATP energy molecules durin g muscle
contraction in conditions of a lack of oxygen, a situation whic h is created after an
intense physical effort. (c) Aerobic metabolism -oxidation or aerobic metabolism of
carbohydrates and fats. In the body, muscle is continuously sup plied with blood,
and therefore oxygen. This causes a new phase of muscle contrac tion, which is
more effective –the so called aerobic phase, and which provides a greater amount
of energy.
Therefore, degradation of glycogen to lactic acid during the an aerobe
phase and oxidative degradation of glycogen to carbon dioxide a nd water during
the aerobe phase have no other ro le in muscle contraction but t o obtain molecules
of ATP, and creatinphosphate is used to recover the degraded AT P during muscle
contraction.
Carbohydrate and fat utilization There has been continued interest in the regulation of carbohyd rate
utilization in muscle tissue, as they are, together with fatty substances, the main
substrates for energy production during exercise in well fed hu mans. The concept
o f a r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n f a t a n d c a r b o h y d r a t e o x i d a tion in muscle
resulted from the work of Randle and colleagues in the 1960s (R andle PJ, 1963).
The relationship was called the “glucose–fatty acid (G–FA) cycl e”, and
demonstrated the ability of incre asing fat provision to downreg ulate carbohydrate
metabolism in the heart and diaphragm. Furthermore, many invest igations have
demonstrated that increasing fat availability increases fat oxi dation and decreases
carbohydrate use in the whole body and skeletal muscle. By incr easing the
availability of free fatty acids to the working muscles, it was shown that
carbohydrate downregulation during moderate and intense aerobic e x e r c i s e
occurred mainly at glycogen phosp horylase, the enzyme that regu lates the
THE IMPLICATIONS OF CARBOHYDRATE S DURING PHYSICAL EFFORT: A COM PREHENSIVE REVIEW
119 degradation of muscle glycogen (Spriet, 2014). A main advantage of glucides over
lipids is that after aerobic and anaerobic catabolism, energy i s released at a rate
almost three times higher in comparison with fatty substances. However, the
energy released by 1 gram of carbohydrate is lower as to to the same amount
of lipids.
Types of physical effort B e f o r e c l a s s i f f y i n g p h y s i c a l e f f o r t , w e c o n s i d e r n e c e s s a r y t o d efine a
few terms that describe different concepts: ”physical activity, " "exercise," and
"physical fitness". C. J. Caspersen states in his study (C J Ca spersen, 1985) that
physical activity is defined as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles
that results in energy expenditu re. The energy expenditure can be measured in
kilocalories. Physical activity in daily life can be categorize d into occupational,
sports, conditioning, household, or other activities. Exercise is a subset of physical
activity that is planned, structured, and repetitive and has as a f i n a l o r a n
intermediate objective the improvement or maintenance of physic al fitness.
Physical fitness is a set of attr ibutes that are either health- or skill-related.
I n s p o r t , p h y s i c a l e f f o r t c a n b e c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o s e v e r a l criterias:
according to exercise intensity (maximum intensity effort, subm aximal exercise
intensity, exercise of high intensity, exercise of moderate int ensity, low intensity
exercise), according to the degree of oxygen supply to the body (anaerobic
exercise, aerobic exercise, combined exercise), according to th e type of muscle
contraction (isotonic effort, isometric effort and isokinetic e f f o r t ) , b a s e d o n
energy consumption (light work, medium work, heavy work) and ac cording to
the load degree of the major systems of the body (neuromuscular effort, effort
cardiopulmonary, endocrine-met abolic effort (ApostuM, 2003).
Depending on exercise intensity can be distinguished: maximum i ntensity
effort, lasting 10-15 seconds, the energy released is from ATP, w h i c h i s a g a i n
created from phosphocreatine. Submaximal intensity effort, last ing up to 1
minute, the energy source used in addition to ATP is creatine-p hosphate and
glucose during anaerobe glycolys is which forms lactic acid. Hig h intensity effort,
lasting up to 6 minutes, releasing energy through the aerobic a nd anaerobic path.
Moderate effort, lasting up to 60 minutes, the energy formation occurs via aerobic
energy substrate -the carbohydrates. The after effort small oxy gen deficiency is
covered in this case by an increased oxygen consumption. Mild e ffort, lasting
between 60 minutes and several hours, the energy formation occu rs through the
a e r o b e p a t h u s i n g a s s u b s t r a t e c a r b o h y d r a t e s a n d f a t . F u j i m o t o T et. al tested
whether glucose uptake is enhanc ed in trained men during low-, moderate-, and
CREȚU AURICA, ZĂGREAN ELEONORA, ȘTEFĂNESCU HOREA, RUS VIRGIL, C REȚU DENISA-IOANA
120 high-intensity exercise as compared with untrained men. The res ults showed that
skeletal muscle glucose uptake is higher in trained than in unt rained men at high
relative exercise intensity, although at lower relative exercis e intensities no
d i f f e r e n c e s a r e o b s e r v e d . T h u s , e n d u r a n c e t r a i n i n g i m p r o v e s t h e c a p a c i t y o f
contraction-induced glucose upta ke in skeletal muscle (Fujimoto T, 2003).
Carbohydrates in skeletal muscles, heart and brain during
physical exercise
Thorsten Rudroff et al. used positron emission tomography/compu ted
tomography (PET/CT) and [18F]-FDG to test the hypothesis that g lucose uptake
(GU) heterogeneity in skeletal m uscles as a measure of heteroge neity in muscle
a c t i v i t y i s g r e a t e r i n o l d t h a n y o u n g m e n w h e n t h e y p e r f o r m i s o metric
contractions. The findings of th e study demonstrated greater he terogeneity in
GU in old men during two types of isometric contractions with t he knee
extensors. The GU measurements of muscle activation obtained wi th PET/CT
imaging are consistent with age- associated differences in the m odulation of
muscle activation during tasks that require force or position c ontrol, but provide
greater spatial information about the magnitude of the differen ce in muscle
a c t i v i t y b e t w e e n y o u n g a n d o l d men when performing isometric co ntractions
(Thorsten Rudroff, 2014).
Jukka Kemppainen investigated th e effects of exercise on myocar dial
g l u c o s e u p t a k e a n d w h e t h e r t h e p a t t e r n o f g l u c o s e u p t a k e i s t h e s a m e a s i n
skeletal muscle, as the heart has a greater oxygen consumption both at rest and
during exercise compared to ske letal muscle (Rowell, 1986). Glu cose uptake was
measured using positron emission tomography (PET) and 2-[18F]fl uoro-2-deoxy-
D-glucose ([18F]FDG). The study demonstrated that myocardial gl ucose uptake is
increased during mild- and modera te-intensity exercise, but is decreased during
high-intensity exercise (Jukka Kemppainen, 2002).
Physiological activation increases glucose uptake locally in th e brain.
However, it is not known how high intensity exercise affects re gional and global
brain glucose uptake. Pellerin & Magistretti have introduced th e astrocyte–
neurone lactate shuttle hypothesis where lactate along with glu cose serves as an
oxidative fuel for elevated neuronal energy metabolism so that the largely
g l y c o l y t i c m e t a b o l i s m i n a s t r o c y t e s i s l i n k e d w i t h t h e l a r g e l y oxidative
metabolism of lactate in neurones (Pellerin L, 2003). The study of Kemppainen J
d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t b r a i n g l u c o s e u p t a k e d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s e in exercise
intensity. Therefore substrates other than glucose, most likely lactate, are utilized
by the brain in order to compensate the increased energy needed t o m a i n t a i n
THE IMPLICATIONS OF CARBOHYDRATE S DURING PHYSICAL EFFORT: A COM PREHENSIVE REVIEW
121 neuronal activity during high intensity exercise. Moreover, it seems that exercise
training could be related to ada ptive metabolic changes locally in the frontal
cortical regions (Kemppainen J , 2005). The study by Kemppainen et al. provokes
speculation as to the fate of th e carbohydrate taken up by the brain. Secher NH
states that lactate taken up by the activated brain is metaboli zed (Secher NH,
2005) as it does not accumulate within the brain or in the spin al fluid
(Dalsgaard MK, 2004) and it is known to be a substitute for glu cose metabolism
(Magistretti PJ, 1999).
To conclude, during exercise the energy consumed in muscle tiss ue is
mainly supplied by carbohydrates and fats. The use of intramusc ular carbohydrate
and lipid energy stores are coordinated during different types of exercise remains a
subject of debate. The importance of muscle glycogen on perform ance during
both prolonged and high intensity intermittent exercise has sub sequently been
confirmed in numerous studies. Furthermore, t he major metabolic consequences
o f t h e a d a p t a t i o n s o f m u s c l e t o e n d u r a n c e e x e r c i s e a r e a s l o w e r u t i l i z a t i o n o f
muscle glycogen and blood glucose, a greater reliance on fat ox idation, and less
lactate production during exercise of a given intensity. These adaptations play an
important role in the large increase in the ability to perform prolonged strenuous
exercise that occurs in response to endurance exercise training .
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STUDIA UBB EDUCATIO ARTIS GYMN ., LIX, 4, 2014, pp. 125 – 132
(RECOMMENDED CITATION)
FINANCIAL REWARD AND ITS EFFECTS ON MANAGERS AND
EMPLOYEES IN THE SPORT ORGANIZATIONS
DRAGOȘ PAUL1*
AB
STRACT. Inequity, real or only perceived as it is, has one of the stro ngest
effects in decreasing the motivation. An employee, initially mo tivated, may be
thinking: why should I do the best I can if I get paid as well as office colleague and
h e h a n g s a l l d a y / i f b o t h w o r k a s h e i s p a i d m u c h b e t t e r ? P a r a doxically, the
studies have shown that employees are asking themselves very ra rely such
questions of fairness, if they a re the ones that hang or are un duly better pay.
Keywords: reward, motivation, sport, managers, employees
REZUMAT. R ecompensa financiar ă și efectele acesteia asupra managerilor și
angajaților din organiza țiile sportive. Inechitatea, reală sau doar percepută ca
atare, are unul dintre cele puternice efecte de scădere a motiv ației. Un angajat, de
altminteri inițial motivat, poate gândi: de ce sa mă străduiesc dacă sunt plătit la fel
ca și colegul de birou și el pierde vremea toata ziua/ dacă mun cim amândoi la fel
și el este plătit mult mai bine? Paradoxal, studiile au arătat c a a n g a j a ț i i î ș i p u n
rareori acest tip de întrebări legate de echitate, în cazul în care ei sunt aceia care
pierd vremea sau sunt în mod nejustificat mai bine plătiți.
Cuvinte cheie: recompensă , motivație, sport, manageri, angajaț i
Introduction
This paperwork, as the title suggests, deals with the role of motivation in
sport (Hodge, 2005; Elliot, 2008; W alsh & Giulianotti, 2009) at t h e l e v e l o f
managers and employees, fundamental thing in order to achieve superior
performance at all levels of activity.
The often changes occurred in economic, social and sportive pl an, as well
as the importance, proven in time, of the motivational act, pro vide it with a special
importance both as theoretical a pproach and especially as pract ical approach
(Dănăiață et al., 2002; Derek & Hall, 1999).
1 University of Oradea, Faculty of Geography, Truism and Sport
*Corresponding Author: dpaul@uoradea.ro
DRAGOȘ PAUL
126 In the last years, also in our country, there have been develop ed complex
systems of compensation and benefits based on rigorous human re sources policy,
by the influence of managers with international experience and a more obvious
need to further motivate talented employees. In addition to fix ed salary,
organizations have begun to offer other elements that build the salary package to
be as motivating as close to the needs of employees: performanc e related bonus,
company car, phones, laptops, meal tickets / gift, medical insu rance / life
subscription to medical clinic / gym, pension funds, paid trips , loans, stock plan
sites, profits, kindergarten chi ldren, gifts. By offering such salary packages
depending on the needs of employees, the organization can gain in terms of their
motivation for work and satisfaction in work. So, one of the sp ecialists directions
of investigation are outlined in the content of salary package.
In many sports organizations, payroll system is by far the most important
motivator factor for employees (Bill, 2009; Hertzberg et al., 1 993; Deci & Flaste,
1996). Even if this fact is known, very often, their pay scale i s n o t b a s e d o n a
coherent wage policy and a systematic study of the importance o f positions in the
organization. Implementing a paying system that is based on rigorous investi gation
to capture the needs of employees in terms of salary package co ntent but also
the importance of the job to the organization and the level of salary in the
labor market, carries many advantages. For the employee, it is noted that
strong motivator role, making a sustained effort at work, inter est in professional
development, increased satisfact ion, organizational commitment increased,
wellbeing at work. All of this is reflected at the organization level in reducing staff turnover,
reducing counterproductive behaviors and increasing the product ive, in other
words, it succeeds in achieving organizational goals more effec tively.
Material and methods
The choice of research methods and techniques has been made acc ording
t o t h e s t u d i e d i s s u e , w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h e d o b j e c t i v e s a n d h y p o t heses, endeavor
which has allowed us to get to know the studied phenomena in re lation with up to
date theories, practices and realities. In consequence, the fol lowing methods and
techniques have been chosen:
• Study of specialty literature
• Questionnaire
FINANCIAL REWARD AND ITS EFFECTS ON MANAGERS AND EMPLOYEES IN T HE SPORT ORGANIZATIONS
127 After establishing the research a pproach strategy, the author d ecided to
accomplish the study on a number of 60 managers and 140 employe es of differed
sports organizations. Because of some of the potential respondents' reserves and
because of the mistakes occurred in filling in the questionnair e, I have managed to
gather a number of 51 correctly filled in questionnaire from ma nagers and 127
from employees.
The sampling was mixed (random and directed) because of the fol lowing
reasons: – sportive organizations of various sizes and statuses were taken i n t o
consideration;
– from each type, the investigated subjects were selected first o f all according to
their availability to answer the questionnaire.
The sample was subjected to an alysis through the following:
– g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a ( i n t h e c a s e o f m a n a g e r s 2 3 % f r o n m t h e t o t a l of subjects
a r e f r o m O r a d e a , 2 1 % f r o m C l u j N a p o c a , a b o u t 2 0 % f r o m T i m i ș o a r a a n d
Bistrița and 8% from Arad. In the case of employees, from Orade a were enroll
in research 26%, from Bistrița 21%, from Timișoara 20%, Cluj Na poca 18%
and from Arad 15%);
– the size of the organization (12% of respondents among both man agers and
employees are part of small sports organizations. Among 27% of managers
and 20% of the employees belong to medium size sports clubs, 61 % of
managers and 68% of the employees are part of larger sport orga nizations);
– the position within the organization (29% of managers are direc tors, 23% are
vice presidents, 12% are presidents; 12% deputy directors; also 12% are
counselors; 6% financial officers and 6% administrators. From t he employees
group: teacher-coach 38%, coaches 24%, organizers of competitio ns 8% and
5% head of deparments and reviewers. Also, in a small percentag e (4%) are
reviewers, secretaries and clerks. There is a category of 8% oc cupied by other
staff (caretakers, drivers etc.);
– study level (53% of the managers graduated bachelor's degree, 2 9%
postgraduate diploma and 18% are doctors. About the majority of employees
( 5 2 % ) h a v e g r a d u a t e d b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e , 2 3 % a t t e n d e d p o s t g r a d u a te and
only 27% graduated just the high school);
– the age of the subjects (a percentage of 47% of managers are be tween 46-55
years, 24% are between 36-45 years and same 24% are between 56- 65.
Among employees, 31% are up to 35 years and between 46-55 years , 22%
were between 36 and 45 years and the remaining 16% are over 56 years);
– gender (88% from managers șand 80% from employees are men);
Data interpretation followed the analysis of some marks which c an
provide important aspects regarding the level of subjects' moti vation (the way of
salary should be given, the own perception about the level or r eceived reward
and what can be done to have more motivated people)
DRAGOȘ PAUL
128 Results
Responses received from the managers indicate in 82% that the s alary
should be granted differential, depending on the results. Only 1 2 % b e l i e v e t h a t
the salary should be paid equally for ones with the same tasks and only 6%
believe that wages should only be granted based on seniority (f ig. 1).
Fig. 1. Graphical representation of the opinions regarding salary
The opinion of the employees regarding the issue of granting wa ge differs
a little bit from what managers though, even if, most of the ex ecutives indicates, as
well as managers, that performances should be the first criteri a to be taken into
account for the establishing the salary, 60% of respondents cho osing this option.
Managers' perception of the level of reward received at current j o b
reveals that 53% of them (it means the majority) consider their work well-paid,
therefore have a proper motivation in this respect. However 23% s a y t h e y a r e
underpaid while 24% believe they are paid less than they deserv e, which leads to
decrease in motivation and the pe rformance in the workplace (fi g. 2).
T h e s i t u a t i o n a m o n g e m p l o y e e s i s t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t ( f i g . 2 ) . I f 53% of
managers are feeling that are well payed for the work they perf orm, among
e x e c u t i v e s t a f f o n l y 1 7 % f a l l i n t o t h i s c a t e g o r y . O n t h e o t h e r hand, 36% of
employees believe they are paid less than they deserve and a pe rcentage of 47%
say they are underpaid. Thus, th e motivation of staff in terms of salaries obtained
leave much to be desired in sports organizations where research was conducted.
FINANCIAL REWARD AND ITS EFFECTS ON MANAGERS AND EMPLOYEES IN T HE SPORT ORGANIZATIONS
129 Regarding the proposed actions o f managers to motivate employee s, as
shown in Fig. 3 stands appropriate remuneration (depending on r esults) that
appears in 44%, than working conditions, proposed by 31% of res pondents, and
the staff is considered in 25% of cases. There are other "actio ns" such as material
resources, awards, bonuses, trust, appreciation, etc. but do no t appear with such
frequency as the above mentioned.
Fig. 2. Graphical representation of the opinions regarding the work
Fig. 3. Actions which can motivate Fig. 4. Actions which can motivate
t h e m a n a g e r s t h e e m p l o y e e s
DRAGOȘ PAUL
130 The proposed actions of employees (fig. 4) does not differ too much from
those listed by managers, by cont rast, the first two are identi c a l . T h u s , 5 1 % o f
respondents consider adequate remuneration the most important w ay to be
motivated. Also, working conditions appear in a 27% of the resp onses and the
appreciation of the manager is an important incentive for 23% o f the employees.
A n o t h e r t h i n g s p r o p o s e d b y e m p l o y e e s a r e t h e j o b s e c u r i t y , t h e staff, the
dynamics of the activity etc.
Discussions
I m p l e m e n t i n g i n t h e c o m p a n i e s o f a p a y s y s t e m t h a t i s b a s e d o n
r i g o r o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o c a p t u r e t h e n e e d s o f e m p l o y e e s i n t e r ms of salary
package content, also the importance of the job within the orga nization and
the level of the wage at the labor market, carries many advanta g e s . F o r t h e
employee, it is noted that strong motivator role, making a sust ained effort at
work, interest in professional development, increased satisfact ion, organizational
commitment increased wellbeing a t work (Arnold & Feldman, 1986; C o l e ,
2000; Hoye et al., 2009).
As profit is appear as a measure of success in a business, so p eople judge
their own success or failure depending on the level at which th ey are maintained
by the employer in financial terms, ie according to the amount of salary that are
r e w a r d e d f o r w o r k p e r f o r m e d . S a l a r y c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s a s u r v ival factor.
Money can act as an incentive for more productive work. With mo ney earned
people can buy goods and services to meet their needs. As much as the work is
tedious and stirs a low intrinsi c interest, the greater the imp ortance of money as a
motivator factor of the initiative to effort (Johns, 1999; Jutt a & Heinz, 2010; Roșca,
2004; Wagner & Harter, 2009).
Each employee has a specific reason to go to work. Managers who
succeed to motivate people are th ose who know the objectives of e a c h o f t h e i r
employees. Every day, they do nothing else then to help people in achieving these
expectations. A true leader not only he understands these reaso ns, but also how
to integrate them into the life of employees (Zaharia, 2008; Bi ll, 2009).
Conclusions
• About the way that should salary be granted, managers' opinion can be a
starting point, their authority, but specially the possibility of involvement in
setting wage salary is a basic component in motivating employee s in sport
organizations.
FINANCIAL REWARD AND ITS EFFECTS ON MANAGERS AND EMPLOYEES IN T HE SPORT ORGANIZATIONS
131 • To understand the motivation, man agers firstly need to understa nd the
reasons for that the individuals behave in a certain way and ha ve certain
reactions in threatening situations or seeking to influence.
• Managers need to understand the s trategies of motivation, how t hey succeed
or fail based on how they manage to influence the internal moti vations of
employees.
• Leaders who succeed to help emplo yees in achieving their own go als will
never have problems for motivating them. Fulfilment of their ob jectives is the
way they are constantly motivated. All the things the managers need to do is
to find connections between emplo yees’ personal goals and needs o f t h e
organization.
• The equity at the workplace viewed through the perspective of r ewarding –
workload, has a major motivator effect, reflected in responses from subjects
included in the study. Also, differentiation of the grant recei ved in depending
with the performance can be a real motivational contribution in s p o r t s
organizations.
• The material conditions, workplac e environment and correct appr eciation of
the employees' work are really important motivator factors, bot h in terms of
managers and employees, and their careful use can create a stra tegic
advantage in the field of sports management.
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STUDIA UBB EDUCATIO ARTIS GYMN ., LIX, 4, 2014, pp. 133 – 143
(RECOMMENDED CITATION)
CONSIDERATIONS ON THE REALIZATION OF THE LAW IN THE
MATTER OF ANTI-DOPIN G REGULATIONS IN
SPORT ACTIVITIES IN ROMANIA
VOICU ALEXANDRU-VIRGIL1*, ANDRÁS ÁLMOS1, VOICU BOGDAN-IOSIF1
ABSTRACT. The treatment of such topics cou ld not be sufficiently covered by the
content of a single scientific p aper – but at least we can pres ent its complexity. The
theme of the paper, can offer us the percentage between un-clar ity (existence)
and the effectiveness of the law – that is the extent in which the law is realized
under the doping policies in Romania. Our considerations will h ighlight the fact
that we are in the presence of an object of regulation of a new b r a n c h o f l a w –
imposed by social-economic reality of today – namely "sports la w " – b e l o n g i n g
both to the field of sports science and science of law. We can relate to legal values
with the values of sport – so in this way we can highlight the state of realization of
the rights in the matter doping in sport in Romania.
Keywords: sports law, the fundamental right to practice sports activities, right to
life, right to health, the right to physical and mental integrity of the person, the right
to dignity, the achievement of law, transparency of decision
REZUMAT. Consideraț ii privind realizarea dreptului în materia
reglement ărilor antidoping în activit ățile sportive din România. Tratarea
u n e i a s t f e l d e t e m a t i c i n u a r p u t e a f i s u f i c i e n t a c o p e r i t ă p r i n c o n ț i n u t u l u n e i
singure lucrări – dar, cel puțin, ne poate oferi măsură complex ității acesteia.
Tematica lucrării, ne poate oferi și procentajul între declarar itatea (existența) și
efectivitatea legii – adică măsura în care se realizează dreptu l în cadrul politicilor
antidoping din România. Considerațiile noastre vor evidenția și faptul că suntem
și în prezența unui obiect de re glementare a unei noi ramuri de drept – impusă de
realitatea vieții social-economice contemporane – și anume a „d reptului sportului”
– aparținătoare atât științei sportului cât și științei dreptul ui. Nu vom putea să nu
r e l a ț i o n ă m v a l o r i l e j u r i d i c e c u v a l o r i l e s p o r t u l u i – n u m a i a s t f e l v o m p u t e a
evidenția starea de realizare a dreptului în materia reglementă rilor antidoping în
activitățile sportive din România.
1 Babeș Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca, Physical Education and Sport Faculty
*Corresponding Author: alexvirgilweisz@gmail.com
VOICU ALEXANDRU-VIRGIL, ANDRÁS ÁLMOS, VOICU BOGDAN-IOSIF
134 Cuvinte cheie: dreptul sportului, dreptul fundamental de a practica activit ăți
sportive, dreptul la via ță, dreptul la s ănătate, dreptul la integritate fizic ă și psihică a
persoanei, dreptul la demnitate, realizarea dreptului, transparen ța decizional ă
Introduction
In a paper published in the journal, Science of Sport stated th at, “Perhaps
those who are concerned by the analysis of the values of physic al education and
sport, in today’s Romania, would be tempted to withdraw from th e field to devote
to some abstract existential meditation“ (Voicu, 2007)- meaning , t o b e a b l e t o
make such an analysis, you have to rise above the phenomenon – to become even
“irrational” to be able to make a such valorization of patterns m a d e b y t h e
onstuporous proto-ideology of the contemporary sport. For, is n o t i t , “ . . . i n t h e
knowledge process of values it is about of determination of a v alue in a general
consciousness, the value of knowledge and we had characterized t h i s v a l u e a s
necessary, objective, independent of our subjectivity” (Petre, 1945, p.111) – thus
initiating a profane approach to the sport.
About realization of the law
Law is an important factor for p rogress and act as a powerful t ool of social
control. The existence and impl ementation of law is a condition f o r t h e p u b l i c
order. In general, the idea of order means a specific sequence in time or in space
of things. Order represents an essential prerequisite for socia l cohesion, being
conditioned by the existence of the normative systems and by th e content
perception of translation in their life. In this context it is placed also the order of
law, which represents the conduct of social life in accordance w i t h t h e l e g a l
norms. Given the importance of the legal system, as the core of social order, in
w h i c h t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e e s s e n c e o f l a w r e g u l a t i o n s a r e t r a n slated, also
including those governing the sport, to achieve legal commands is a crucial
m o m e n t i n t h e l i f e o f t h e l a w . F a r f r o m b e i n g j u s t a m a t t e r o f legal technique,
achieving the law, by its social implications, is a constituent of leading the society.
The analyzes of the process of realization of the law cannot om it to emphasize the
general features of the social system whom is a guarantee of th e integrity of rule
of law, of the effectiveness of legal norms, the correspondence between abstract
and general provisions of the legal norm and concreteness of so cial relations. The
a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o n c e p t ( r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e l a w ) i s a c t u a l l y t h e analysis of the
implementation of the rule of law in society, the way in which the society receives
the rule of law, incorporating in the psychological heritage of individuals.
CONSIDERATIONS ON THE REALIZATION OF THE LAW IN THE MATTER OF A NTI-DOPING REGULATIONS …
135 The general conditions that characterize the social-political a nd ideological
climate determine the efficiency of immediate legal forms of th e realization of the
l a w . T h e r o l e o f t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s ( e c o n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l , s p i r i t u al, and ideological)
are crucial in the process of transformation the principles of the law in intimate
structures of human personality and in criteria for assessing t he proper conduct
i n r e l a t i o n s i n s o c i e t y . L e g a l S o c i o l o g y a n d C r i m i n o l o g i c a l s t u dies, studding the
social condition of the law, knowledge of the law by its receiv ers, etc., have
revealed an important theoretical and practical finding regardi ng the dependence
b e t w e e n t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e l a w a n d t h e g e n e r a l s o c i o – e c o n o m i c a n d c u l t u r a l
conditions. These researches highlights the peculiarities of ho w the major social
processes exert their influence on the juridical behavior of th e citizens and upon
the legal application of the law b y s t a t e b o d i e s . T h u s , f i n a l l y , w e b e l i e v e t h a t
“realization of the law can be defined as the process of transp osition in life of the
content of legal norms in which people, as subjects of law, res pects and
implements the legal provisi ons” (Popa, 2008, p.186-187).
Possible limiting factors in realizin g the law in doping policies in
Romania
Persevering in the pursuit of id entifying possible new assessme nt of the
v a l u e s o f s p o r t , i t c a n b e s e e n t h a t , i n c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c i e t y , perception of the
value of sport in the collective mind, including lawyers produc ed no changes. So
we formulated, for now, the following questions:
1. How do you assess the realization of the law in the field of sports since
its current social values do not cover the content dedicated to sports functions?
2. How to realize the law in a field that is not yet defined in accordance
with the European Union's documents?
The first two questions will be answered only after a prelimina ry bending
t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f s p o r t i n E U d o c u m e n t s – i n f o r m e d a b o u t t h e f act that: a) the
right to practice the sport was elevated to a fundamental human right (Voicu et
al., 2011, p.157-162); b) In art. 4 of the Preliminary Title – About the New Civil
Code (NCC) civil law should be applied “priority of the interna tional human rights
treaties, and enshrined at the constitutional regulation” (art. 16 and 21 of the
Constitution), paragraph (2) of art. 4, to which we refer, stat es that where there is
inconsistency between them and national law, regarding the fund amental human
rights, the international treati es and pacts have precedence un less there are more
favorable provisions in the Civil Code; c) According to art. 5 entitled Priority
Application of EU law, in matters governed by the NCC, the rule s of EU law applies
i n p r i o r i t y , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e q u a l i t y o r s t a t u s o f t h e p a r t i e s . With regard to
European Union law, we specify that the constitutive treaties o r original law and
also the Lisbon Treaty entered into force on November 1, 2009, have the
VOICU ALEXANDRU-VIRGIL, ANDRÁS ÁLMOS, VOICU BOGDAN-IOSIF
136 significance of a Constitution of the European Union. The White Paper on sport,
gaining legal force with the entry into force of the Lisbon Tre aty took full
definition of sport as worded in the European Charter of Sport (art. 2, paragraph
1, letter a) – “all forms of physical activity which, through p articipation in
organized or unorganized form, aim at expressing or improving p hysical fitness
and mental, social relationships or obtaining results in compet itions at all levels”,
while, Law no. 69/2000 regarding Physical Education and Sport i n Romania,
regulating the organization and functioning of the national sys tem of physical
education and sport in Romania, contains a definition of physic al education (note
– not the sport): “the physical education means all forms of ph ysical activity
aimed, through an organized or self-expressing or improving phy sical fitness and
spiritual comfort, establish civilized social relations and lea d to obtaining results
in competition at all levels“. (Law no 69/2000, art. 1, paragra p h 2 ) , a l s o s t a t i n g
that: “physical education and sport include the following activ ities: physical
education, school and university sports, sport for all, sport p erformance, exercise
practiced for maintenance, prophylactic or therapeutic.” (Law n o 69.2000, art. 2,
paragraph 3).
3. How to realize the law in the field of preventing and combat ing doping
in sport regulated in Romania by the Law no. 227 of 7 June 2006 and updated and
republished and Law no. 104 of May 9, 2008, republished and upd ated on
preventing and combating illicit production and trafficking of doping substances
w i t h h i g h r i s k – i n p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e L a w o n p reventing and
combating illicit drug trafficking no. 143 of July 26, 2000, re published and
updated – knowing that many dopi ng substances on the banned sub stances list for
athletes, are also on the list of drug substances?
4. How to qualify the express repeal of the text from the Law n o
227/2006 republished in the Official Gazette of Romania, Part I , no. 485 of July 14,
2009, the provision contained i n (repealed) Law no. 552/2004 on preventing and
combating doping in sport, publi shed in the Official Gazette of Romania, Part I, no.
1215 of December 17, 2004, (to amend the Law 227/2006 by Law no . 128 of 8
October 2014 amending and suppl ementing Law no. 227/2006 on pre venting
and combating doping in sport, and for the amendment of Law no. 104/2008 on
preventing and combating illicit production and trafficking of doping substances
w i t h h i g h r i s k ) t h e p r o v i s i o n t h a t e x p r e s s . I f t h e s u b s t a n c e s d iscovered during
doping control fall under Law no. 143/2000 on preventing and co mbating illicit
drug trafficking and consumption, republished, with subsequent amendments, or
Government Emergency Ordinance no. 121/2006 on the legal regime o f d r u g
precursors, approved with amen dments by Law no. 186/2007, as am ended, the
Agency is required to notify the National Antidrug Agency and p rosecution” (art.
52 ^ 7) – actually I signaled policy factors in the field, thro ugh an published article.
(Voicu, 2007, p.137-142)
CONSIDERATIONS ON THE REALIZATION OF THE LAW IN THE MATTER OF A NTI-DOPING REGULATIONS …
137 5. How to qualify the introduction into the text of the Law no. 227/2006,
only in Official Gazette no. 744 of 13 October 2014, with a del ay of approx. 8 years
after the first publication of t his law the provisions of art. 36 of the Law stipulate
the responsibility of the Agency to make the following obligati ons: (1) the identity
of the athlete or support personnel thereof, who is suspected o f one of the
offenses referred to in art. 2 paragraph (2) shall be made publ ic by the agency,
after notification thereof, in accordance with art. 28 paragrap h (5) and (9);
paragraph (2) within 20 days of the delivery of the Commission' s decision of the
hearing , sub j ect to appeal , ac cor ding t o art . 49, or the date o n which the appeal
procedure was abandoned or waive d the hearing, in accordance wi th art. 33
p a r a g r a p h ( 2 ) l e t t e r i ) t h e a g e n c y m u s t p u b l i s h t h e d e c i s i o n ; ( 3) The public
agency must report within 20 days, the Board of Appeal decision s on violations of
anti-doping regulations; (4) The identity of the athletes and t heir support
personnel after the final resolution of the case, have not been found guilty of one
or more violations of anti-doping regulations laid down in art. 2 paragraphs (2)
may be made public only with the ir written consent; (5) the inf ormation disclosed
under paragraph (1) – (3) are pr esented and preserved during th e suspension, but
not less than one year, and on the Agency's website and nationa l sports
federations responsible, where they exist; (6) Notwithstanding the provisions of
paragraph (1) and (4) Agency Chairman or, in his absence, his r eplacement may
make public comment about a pending case out if they are needed in response to
public comments of athletes or support personnel concerned; (7) P u b l i c
Information mandatory under paragraph (2) and (3) is not requir ed if the athlete
or other person is a minor? – I actually reported these that in the fact the National
Anti-Doping Agency do not assume transparency of its decisions in accordance
with the provisions of Law no. 52 of 21 January 2003 on transpa rency in public
decision republished and updated (Voicu, 2007b).
Conclusions
We can state that the legal reality of the European Union helps to achieve
uniformity in a democratic system of fundamental cultural diffe rences.
Differences resulting from the disposition of systems, to polit ical events which
occurred in the Europe of the 1990s, on each side of the "iron curtain". In this
context, but also in the conditi ons of the adoption of the bene ficial aspects of each
of the two systems, we consider that the mutual influence of th e two creates
benchmarks for developing a new theory in Comparative Law regar ding
c o n t e m p o r a r y j u d i c i a l g e o g r a p h y . A s f a r a s w e a r e c o n c e r n e d , w e consider that
although there are peculiarities of interpretation of the value s of sport for those
VOICU ALEXANDRU-VIRGIL, ANDRÁS ÁLMOS, VOICU BOGDAN-IOSIF
138 belonging to each of the two systems, we cannot speak with the same intensity of
the fundamental differences on these perceptions. In our case – we can say that
Sport Law can be seen, equally, as a part of the science of Spo rt as well as of the
s c i e n c e o f L a w . W e c a n a p p r e c i a t e t h e i l l e g a l i t y o r l e g a l i t y o f t h e f a c t s t h a t
occurred in the field of Sport according to the following socio logical criteria – legal
norms, rules and regulations, customs, traditions, manners and habits (Gavriluță
& Gavriluță, 2010, p.88) – this as sertion is also justified by the classification given
by the legal doctrine to the areas of legality of Sport: 1. The area of state order; 2.
The area of the sport field; 3. The area of the international s tructures of sport. For
those who still have not decided to decipher Sport in depth, wh ich has become
and is considered the notable social-economic phenomenon whose legalization is
a necessity, in order to bring it as a possible object of work and of their
professional concerns (Voicu, 1999), we remind them that Sport Law has
assumed, with reasons and arguments, the quality of branch of L a w a n d s u b –
branch of the sciences of Law an d Sport (Voicu, Fildan & Voicu, 2009)
W e m u s t a l s o a g r e e w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l i z a t i o n o f Law
(similar to the social phenomenon of Sport), its transformation into an instrument
of politics, can be a real threat for the rule of law – but the threats of the current
conditions (the legislative infl ation, the excess of normativis m as a tendency
towards self-destruction, the possibility of separation and agg ravation of the
conflict between the values of public order and the rule of law in the process
of application of the law) to the existence of the rule of law must not alter the
n o r m a t i v i t y o f L a w , n o r t h a t o f S p o r t . T h u s , L a w , s e e n a s a n o r mative
phenomenon must also represent the implementation of law in an ample social
phenomenon like sport. We must promote the legal safety of all participants to
these activities influencing beh a v i o r , o n t h e b a s i s o f v a l u e r e quirements which
should address equally the values of Law and the positive value s of Sport –
especially in the current situation of excessive commercializat ion of sport and its
transition to an instrument of pol itical manipulation (Marțian, p.80-81) which can
lead to the legitimization of illegal behavior on the sport fie ld and related places.
In this context, we must also mention the utility of the formul ation of the
arguments above. Admitting that the Sport Law was formed as a s eparate branch
of Law in the Romanian legal sys t e m ( a s w e l l ) w e c a n " e n h a n c e t he scientific
r e s e a r c h t a s k s b o t h i n t h e g e n e r a l t h e o r y a s w e l l a s i n t h e p l a ne of sectoral
knowledge”. In the conditions of globalization, and sport is fu lly a globalized
phenomenon, lawyers can no longer afford the luxury of approach es made only
strictly from the local pers pective. (Popa, 2008, p.11)
The approach of desecration of sport was not initiated by the a uthors of
this article – we only continue to place a social phenomenon su c h a s s p o r t a s a
possible object of legal liability – because, after all, no-one is above the law. No
individual or legal person, no object or field of activity.
CONSIDERATIONS ON THE REALIZATION OF THE LAW IN THE MATTER OF A NTI-DOPING REGULATIONS …
139 Specialists the field of sport, directly confronted with the ma ny problems
w i t h r e g a r d t o m o r a l j u d g m e n t , t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d i r r e s p o n s ibility of sports
bodies and those having related activities seem more and more i nterested to
f o r m a c o n c r e t e a n d c o h e r e n t v i s i o n i n t h i s f i e l d . I t i s s a i d t hat sport was
professionalized and commercializ ed excessively – in this sense can answer that
professional activities understood in terms of the New Civil Co de must obey legal
r e g u l a t i o n s . I t i s s a i d t h a t s p o r t c a r r i e s t h e m e s s a g e o f i n t e r est groups –
independently of this reason; we must affirm that the existence of interest groups
p r o v i d e s f o r t h e f u n c t i o n a l i t y o f a s o c i e t y . P r e s s u r e g r o u p s , a long with the
i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f c o e r c i v e f o r c e s o f t h e s t a t e a n d t h e p a s s i v i ty of citizens
representing civil society or not, can cause the illegality of interest groups.
Realizing a brief diagnosis of unlawful conduct causing injury occurred in sports
and related activities we can as certain – that some authors of harmful events,
i n v o k e , i n t h e i r d e f e n s e , a s “ c l a u s e o f r e m o v i n g l e g a l l i a b i l i t y ” t h e n e e d f o r t h e
operationalization of the functions of sport without control an d limitations. The
basis of such reasons is anchored in the ancestral need of a pa rt of the population
to be satisfied, in the case of its material and spiritual unfu lfillment by the circus
spectacle, the game in which it manifests its ego and the spiri t of justice without
foundations of social normativity – was formed as a fundamental principle of a
current or future government "Pane m e t c i r c e n s e s " ( b r e a d a n d c i rcus/game) –
expression considered to be coming from the Latin poet Decimus Juvenalis who
lamented, addressing a friend, the decay of the Roman people.
The permissiveness of natural and human preprogrammed antisocia l
manifestations, untamed by the imperatives of civic culture, al low maintaining a
h i g h r a t e o f p o p u l a r i t y o f t h o s e w h o h o l d o r a i m t o h o l d p o l i t i cal power –
e s p e c i a l l y i n s i t u a t i o n s o f m a t e r i a l a n d s p i r i t u a l p r e c a r i o u s n e ss of society. An
illusion is created, that for the population dissatisfied with the bad management
o f t h e c o u n t r y ' s a f f a i r s , r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e s o – c a l l e d s p o r t s f a n s , t h e r e i s n o
greater happiness than the victory or their favorite athletes. It is necessary to
know other opinions regarding the values of sport today, others t h a n t h o s e
invoking the values of sport without knowing and being aware of them. Perhaps,
i f t h e e x t e n t o f t h i s p a p e r a l l o w e d u s , i t m i g h t p r o v e n e c e s s a r y to develop the
issue of morality in general and morality in sport in particula r – and to relate to its
instances of manifestation: morality, immorality and amorality – the last two
equally dangerous, taking into account that legal norms are gro unded in the
moral ones. And we know that where moral decays – as a natural consequence –
t h e p o w e r l a w a l s o d e c a y s . O n l y t h e n w e p r o b a b l y c o u l d g e n e r a t e a n
understanding of the need to restore the values of sport which originally made it
famous. Thus we can combat the possible effects of a spiral of silence induced to
achieve a certain optic related to valuing sports activities. S pecialists the field of
VOICU ALEXANDRU-VIRGIL, ANDRÁS ÁLMOS, VOICU BOGDAN-IOSIF
140 sport, directly confronted with the many problems with regard t o moral
judgment, the responsibility and irresponsibility of sports bod ies and those
having related activities seem more and more interested to form a concrete and
coherent vision in this field. According to those shown above w e can state that
sport was professionalized and commercialized excessively – in t h i s s e n s e c a n
answer that professional activiti e s u n d e r s t o o d i n t e r m s o f t h e New Civil Code
must obey legal regulations. It is said that sport carries the message of interest
g r o u p s – i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h i s r e a s o n ; w e m u s t a f f i r m t h a t t h e existence of
interest groups provides for the functionality of a society. Pr essure groups, along
with the ineffectiveness of coercive forces of the state and th e passivity of citizens
representing civil society or not, can cause the illegality of interest groups.
Realizing a brief diagnosis of unlawful conduct causing injury occurred in sports
and related activities we can as certain – that some authors of harmful events,
invoke, in their defense, as "clause of removing legal liabilit y " t h e n e e d f o r t h e
operationalization of the functions of sport without control an d limitations. The
basis of such reasons is anchored in the ancestral need of a pa rt of the population
to be satisfied, in the case of its material and spiritual unfu lfillment by the circus
spectacle, the game in which it manifests its ego and the spiri t of justice without
foundations of social normativity – was formed as a fundamental principle of a
current or future government "Panem et circenses" ( b r e a d a n d c i r c u s / g a m e ) –
expression considered to be coming from the Latin poet Decimus Juvenalis who
lamented, addressing a friend, the decay of the Roman people.
"The professionalization of sport makes it no longer emit spont aneity and
nonchalance… In modern society, sport gradually departs from the purely ludic
s p h e r e a n d b e c o m e s a s u i g e n e r i s e l e m e n t : t h e r e ' s n o m o r e g a m e , although no
seriousness either. In today's s ociety, the phenomenon of sport is detached from
t h e p r o c e s s o f c u l t u r e i t s e l f , w h i c h t a k e s p l a c e o u t s i d e i t . . . . Sport has become
completely profane and has no organic connection or other with the structure
of society, even if its exercise is required by authority…” ( Huizinga, 2003, p.
289-311).
The construction of an ideology of sport in agreement with the ideologies
of this field in democratic countries should be constructed in the spirit of
achieving Law, according to the legal conscience of the citizen s of those states. Can
we accept a separation of state powers, namely – the legislativ e, the executive, the
judiciary, the power o f sport, media power a nd religious power?
Fulfillment of the Law relating to the fight against doping in sport involve
t h e C o u r t o f A r b i t r a t i o n o f S p o r t i n L a u s a n n e – t h u s , L a w n o . 2 27/2006,
republished and updated states: Article 58 – Decisions of the A ppeals Board may
be appealed to the Court of Arbitration for Sport in Lausanne, within 21 days of
notification; Article 59 – The decisions referred to in Article 55 Letters a) to e)
CONSIDERATIONS ON THE REALIZATION OF THE LAW IN THE MATTER OF A NTI-DOPING REGULATIONS …
141 and g), taken in connection with a competition within an intern ational sports
event or involving athletes of international level, can be appe aled to the Court
of Arbitration for Sport in Lausanne, within 21 days from the d ate of
communication, by the following persons: a) international-Level Athletes or
another person who is the subject of the contested decision; b) the sport structure
to which the athlete belongs or other party in connection with which the
contested decision was taken; c) the International Federation r esponsible; d) the
anti-doping organization of the country of domicile of the pers on/athlete; e) an
Agency; f) the World Anti-Doping Agency; Article 60 – The decis ions referred to in
art. 55 Letter f) can be challenged only by the athletes or per sons against whom
the sanction of provisional suspension was imposed, in accordan ce with Article
57, respectively Article 59, as applicable; Article 61 – If the committee hearing the
a t h l e t e s a n d a t h l e t e s u p p o r t p e r s o n n e l w h o v i o l a t e d a n t i – d o p i n g regulations,
during the hearing procedure, do es not issue a decision within the period referred
to in Arti cle 33 Parag raph (3), the W orl d Anti -Do ping Ag ency ca n appeal to the
Court of Arbitration for Sport in Lausanne. If the Court of Arb itration for Sport in
Lausanne determines that a violation of anti-doping regulations was committed
and that the World Anti-Doping Agency acted correctly in choosi ng to appeal, the
costs incurred by the World Anti-Doping Agency in resolving the appeal shall be
borne by the Agency; Article 62 – The contested decisions retai n effects during the
proceedings referred to in Articles 57 and 59, excepting the si tuation when the
Board of Appeal or the Court of Arbitration for Sport decides t o suspend them.
In this regard Decision no. 560 of 29 May 2012 of the Constitut ional Court on the
plea of unconstitutionality of Article 61 of Law no 227/2006 on preventing and
combating doping in sport, published in the Official Journal of Romania, Part I, no
537 of 1 August 2012, rejected as u nfounded the plea of unconst itutionality of
Article 61 of Law no 227/2006 on preventing and combating dopin g in sport,
o b j e c t i o n r a i s e d e x o f f i c i o b y t h e C l u j C o u r t o f A p p e a l – T h e C ommercial,
Contentious Administrative and Tax Division, file no 131/33/201 1, on the
grounds that during the arbitration proceedings, the Court, by Decision no 203 of
7 March 2006, published in the Official Gazette of Romania, Par t I, no 267 of 24
March 2006, held that arbitration is an exception to the princi p l e t h a t j u s t i c e i s
done by courts and represents that efficient legal mechanism de signed to ensure a
fair trial, faster and less form al, confidential, completed by enforceable judgments.
Moreover, the Court notes that Romania agreed, by Law no 367/20 06, published
i n t h e O f f i c i a l J o u r n a l o f R o m a n i a , P a r t I , n o 8 2 8 o f 9 O c t o b e r 2006, the
International Convention against Doping in Sport, adopted by th e General
Conference of the United Nations Organization for Education, Sc ience and Culture
VOICU ALEXANDRU-VIRGIL, ANDRÁS ÁLMOS, VOICU BOGDAN-IOSIF
142 in Paris on 19 October 2005. World Anti-Doping Code is an integ ral part of this
Convention. Thus, in Part I of the World Anti-Doping Code, Arti cle 13 expressly
provides the jurisdiction of the Court of Arbitration for Sport in Lausanne in cases
o f d o p i n g i n s p o r t . T h e C o u r t f o u n d t h a t t h e d o p i n g i n s p o r t , t h e C o u r t o f
Arbitration for Sport in Lausanne functions as a disciplinary c ourt, especially after
the adoption of the World Anti-Doping Code, which in this case gives the direct
jurisdiction to this court. Thus the Court found that the criti cism according to
which the criticized provisions of the law are contrary to the constitutional
provisions of Articles 20, 21, 124 and 126 cannot be accepted.
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STUDIA UBB EDUCATIO ARTIS GYMN., LIX, 4, 2014, p. 145
(RECOMME NDED CITATION)
==ERRATUM==
LET’S TELL, THE NUMBERS, LET’S TELL THE DATAS;
OR THE WOMEN’S CHANCE OF EGUAL OPPORTUNITY, IN THE
SPORTDIPLOMACY AND IN THE SPORTLEADERSHIPS
Trenka Magdolna Lawyer
In the 3/2014 issue, of the p. 97, the gender marker-coloring
was unfortunately reversed in Figure 1.
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