SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF TOURISM IN COXS BAZAR: [612458]

SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF TOURISM IN COX’S BAZAR:
A STUDY OF LOCAL RESIDENTS' ATTITUDE
A Thesis Submitted to the
Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Faculty of Busines s
Studies, University of Dhaka for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D)
In
Tourism and Hospitality Management
Submitted By
Mohammad BadruzzamanBhuiyan
Ph.D Registration No -13/2014-2015
DEPARTMENT OF TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
UNIVERSITY OF DHAKA
DHAKA, BANGLADESH
02 October, 2016

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Page |iiSOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF TOURISM IN COX’S BAZAR:
A STUDY OF LOCAL RESIDENTS' ATTITUDE
A Thesis Submitted to the
Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Faculty of Busines s
Studies, University of Dhaka for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D)
In
Tourism and Hospitality Management
Submitted By
Mohammad BadruzzamanBhuiyan
Ph.D Registration No -13/2014-2015
DEPARTMENT OF TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT
UNIVERSITY OF DHAKA
DHAKA, BANGLADESH
02 October , 2016

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Page |iiiDECLARATION
I, hereby declare that the dissertation entitled “Socio -Economic Impact of Tourism in
Cox’s Bazar: A Study of Local Residents' Attitude” is prepared by me. This dissertation
is an outcome of a socio -economic research consisting of both theore tical and empirical
works. The study has been designedto search unexplored areas to make an additional
contribution in the field of diversified tourism of Bangladesh. I humbly submit this thesis
to the Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Univ ersity of Dhaka,
Bangladesh for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The contents of this
thesis have neither in part nor in full been submitted to any other institution for any other
academic degree.
02October, 2016 Mohammad BadruzzamanB huiyan

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Page |ivCERTIFICATE
I am pleased to certify that the dissertation entitled “Socio-Economic Impact of Tourism
in Cox’s Bazar: A Study of Local Resident’s Attitude” has been prepared by Mr.
Mohammad BadruzzamanBhuiyan, Assistant Professor, Department of Tourism and
Hospitality Management, University of Dhaka. It is an original work and an addition to
the knowledge in the field of tourism. To thebest of my knowledge, no other person has
carried out exactly such type of work. We have gone through the draft and final version
of the dissertation thoroughly and found it as satisfactory for submission to the
Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Faculty of Business Studies,
University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh for fulfilling of the Degree of Doctor of
Philosophy.
02 October , 2016 (Professor Dr. Syed RashidulHasan)
Department of Tourism and Hospitality
Management, University of Dhaka
& Supervisor of the Thesis

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Page |vDEDICATION
DEDICATED TO MY RESPECTED PARENTS MD. MYIN UDDIN BHUIYAN
and ROWSAN ARA BEGUM WHO LAID THE FOUNDATION OF MY
EDUCATION

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Page |viACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the name of Allah, the most Gracious and the most Merciful, I praise Him for
providing me the opportunity and inspirations for carrying out this study. May peace and
blessing of Allah be upon His beloved prophet Muhammad (SAW), his famil y and his
companions.
In the process of conducting my research, it became quite clear to me that a researcher
can hardly complete a Ph.D thesis alone. Many people and institutions deserve thanks
and appreciation for their valued contribution. As the list o f individuals and institutions,
wish to thank cannot be accommodated in this limited space, I, therefore, would like to
thank some specific ones for their dedicated support.
At first, I would like to take the opportunity to convey my deep respect, profound
gratitude and indebtedness to my reverend supervisor Dr. Syed RashidulHasan, Professor
and Director (Evening MBA), Department of tourism and Hospitality Management,
former treasurer, University of Dhaka and Vice Chancellor, National University,
Bangladesh , for his cordial supervision guidance, pragmatic suggestion and continuous
encouragement and inspiration during the whole period of my Ph.D thesis work. In -spite
of his busy schedule of teaching in different universities and heavy work load of other
administrative and policy issues, Professor Dr. Syed RashidulHasan was always ready to

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Page |viihelp me in supervising the thesis work, which enables me to complete the thesis work
successfully. My deepest respect always remains for him.
I would also like to offer my h eartfelt thanks, gratitude, deep respect and indebtedness to
Dr. Shaker Ahmed, Professor & Chairman, Department of Tourism and Hospitality
Management, Faculty of Business Studies, University of Dhaka for his continuous
guidance thoughtful suggestion and in spirations during the entire period of my Ph.D
work. In spite of his heavy involvement in academic and administrative matters, he was
always eager to extend his guidance for my Ph.D work which was really invaluable for
me.
I would like to offer my sincere thanks and gratitude to the distinguished personnel,
academician and professionals of BPC and BTB and teachers of Department of Tourism
and Hospitality Management, University of Dhaka for providing their valuable
suggestions and comments during the presen tation of the research findings in the
seminars which helped me immensely to improve the quality of the research work. I am
indebted to all of them.
My sincere thanks and gratitude and indebtedness are also due to the authorities of
different national and international research organization like Bangladesh Bureau of
Statistics(BBS), United Nation World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), Bangladesh
Tourism B oard (BTB), Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (BPC), World Tourism
Organ9ization (WTO) with plenty of valuable information which help me a lot in my
thesis.

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Page |viiiI am also indebted to the librarians of the Central Library, Public Library of Dhaka
University for helping me in searching secondary materials. I am really thankful to the
librarians of E -Library of Faculty of business studies, University of Dhaka, who provided
their valuable time in collecting secondary materials by using their web sites. I am also
indebted to the staffs of E -Library of Faculty of business studies, University of Dhaka for
rendering their services during my Ph .D thesis work.
I am also indebted to Professor ShibliRubayat -Ul-Islam, Dean, Faculty of Business
Studies, University of Dhaka, P rofessor Mojib Uddin Ahmed PhD, former chairman
Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Faculty of Business Studies,
University of Dhaka, Professor Dr. Afjal Hossain, Department of Tourism and
Hospitality Management, Faculty of Business Studies, University of Dhaka who
provided me all sorts of guidance and inspiration from the very beginning of my
registration in Ph.D program in the University of Dhaka.
I am indebted to the respondents of the study village, who provided data and suggestion
without which the research work could not be completed. I am also indebted to the
village level investigators who helped me immensely in the data collection and editing
the filled in questionnaires.
Finally, I would like to thank my family members for their ins piration and caring support.
I am indebted to my father, Late Md. Myin Uddin Bhuiyan and mother, RowsanAra
Begum for their contribution in my life. My children Xayeen and Naveen have suffered a
lot during my study but they always provided me emotional supp ort to finish this study. I

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Page |ixalso want to express my thanks to my brothers and sister for their care and support.
Finally I want to express my special thanks to my wife Munira Sultana who has all the
way been a source of great inspiration in my life. She pl ayed a very important role in the
journey of my research not only by supporting me financially and emotionally but also
playing dual responsibilities back at home.
Last but not least, I offer my regards and blessings to all of those who supported me in
any respect during the completion of the study.
Mohammad BadruzzamanBhuiyan

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Page |xABSTRACT
In the 21stcentury, globalization of capitalism, movement of populations, and advances in
transportation and communication technology have helped to develop tourism into one of
the world’s largest industries. Tourism is a dynamic economic sector which plays a
significant role in the sustainable economic development and in poverty reduction. It is
recognized that tourism has become a significant industry both in poor and rich countries
due to its positive impacts on the economy, people’s livelihoods and socio -cultural
development. Unfortunately, the efforts and steps taken by the government of
Bangladesh have not brought remarkable growth in its tourism sector in spite of its huge
potentiality. Literatures on tourism impact have indicated that there is a lack of study that
provides the information of local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact in developing
tourist destinations. In particular, very little is known about the factors influencing local
residents’ attitude towards tourism impact. To fill this gap, thi s study examines the
influence of economic and social impact of tourism on the attitude of local residents’ of
Cox’s Bazar in Bangladesh. This study has the following objectives: (1) t o analyze the
attitude of local residents of Cox’s Bazar about the impac t of tourism on their economic
development ; (2)to analyze the attitude of local residents of Cox’s Bazar about the
impact of tourism on their social changes ; (3)toexamine the influences of demographic
factors on the attitude of local residents towards t ourism impact in their area; and (4) t o

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Page |ximake recommendations for all tourism stakeholders and the local community to
maximize the benefits of this sector and for the development of tourism.
To achieve the objectives of the study, data were collected from 3 97 local residents of
Cox’s Baza r through questionnaire. During data collection, the stratified random
sampling approach was used to select the respondents that represent the whole group of
the population that lives in the four Wards within the Cox’s Bazar Municipality area;
Ward no. 2, 3, 9, and 12. Factor ana lysis was initially used to assess the dimensionality of
the various constructs in the theoretical model, thereafter multiple regression analysis was
performed to investigate the influence of economic impact (living standard, employment
opportunity, earnin g capability) and social impact (cultural development, social value) of
tourism on the attitude of local residents’ of Cox’s Bazar in Bangladesh. The results
indicated that local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact are significantly affected
by theliving standard, employment opportunity and earning capability created by tourism
but local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact are not significantly affected by the
cultural development and social value created by tourism.The findings implied that the
respondents have positive attitude about the economic impacts than the negative
economic impacts due to the benefits received from the growth of the tourism industry in
Cox’s Bazar. Their positive attitudes were mostly influenced by an opportunity to e arn
greater income from working in the tourism industry or by selling goods and services to
tourists. On the other hand, the respondents have a slightly negative attitude in the
statements related to consequences of tourism impact on the local residents of Cox’s

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Page |xiiBazar in terms of cultural development and social value. Based on the findings of this
research, some recommendations have been made that could assist the related authorities
in formulating appropriate policy and strategy and constructing a framewor k for
developing sustainable tourism in Cox’s Bazar.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF TOURISM IN COX’S BAZAR:
A STUDY OF LOCAL RESIDENTS' ATTITUDE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT vi
ABSTRACT x
LIST OF TABLES xxi
LIST OF FIGURES/GRAPHS xxiv
GLOSSARY OF WORDS xxv
Chapter-One
Introduction
1.1 Introduction 01
1.2 Background of the Study 01
1.3 Statement of the problem 11
1.4 Objectives of the Study 14
1.5 Research Questions 15
1.6 Hypothesis Development 16

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Page |xiii1.7 Significance of the Study 17
1.8 Scope of the Study 21
1.9 Definition of Terms 21
1.10 Structure of the Thesis 24
Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.1Tourism and its significance 26
2.2The Nature of Development Process and Tourism 29
2.3Evolution of Development Paradigms 31
2.3.1Sustainable Development 31
2.3.2 Sustainable Tourism 35
2.3.3 Sustainable Tourism Development 37
2.4Tourism Impacts 39
2.4.1 Dimensions of tourism impacts 39
2.4.2 The economic impacts of tourism 41
2.4.3 The social impacts of tourism 48
2.4.4 Factors Influencing Residents' Attitudes. 57
2.5Attitudes towards Tourism Development 63
2.6Tourism Impact Models 72

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Page |xiv2.6.1 Doxey’sIrridex Model 73
2.6.2 Butler’s Tourist Area Life Cycle (TALC) 75
2.6.3 Social Exchange Process Model 78
2.7Tourism Impact and Residents’ Attitude Scales 80
2.8Tourism and Community Participation 84
2.8.1 Community 84
2.8.2 Community participation 85
2.8.3 Community participation and tourism 87
2.9Summary of Literature Review 92
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1Introduction 93
3.2Research Approach 94
3.3Research Design 95
3.4Nature and purpose of research 97
3.5Research paradigm 98
3.6Survey research 100
3.6.1 Justification of survey methodology 101
3.6.2 Self -administered questionnaire 102

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Page |xv3.7Selecting the format of responses 103
3.8Research Population 106
3.9Sampling Method 109
3.10Sample Size and Sampling Design 111
3.11Selection Criteria for Respondents/Sampling Criteria 113
3.12Questionnaire Design 114
3.13Questionnaire Scale 114
3.14Conducting Data Collection 116
A. Primary Data 116
B. Secondary Data 116
3.15Validity And Reliability Test 117
3.16Pilot Study 120
3.17Measurement of Variables 122
3.17.1 Living Standard 122
3.17.2Employment Opportunity 123
3.17.3Earning Capability 125
3.17.4Cultural Development 126
3.17.5Social Value 127
3.17.6 Socio -demographic Variables 128
3.18Data Analysis Procedure 128
3.19Data Editing and Coding 129

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Page |xvi3.20Data Screening 129
3.20.1 Missing data 129
3.20.2 Treatment of outline 130
3.20.3 Linearity, normality and homoscedasticity 130
3.20.4 Multicollinearity 131
3.21Descriptive Statistics 132
3.22Correlation 132
3.23Factor Analysis 133
3.24Reliability Test 135
3.25T-Test and ANOVA Test 135
3.26Multiple Regressions 136
3.27Summary 136
Chapter-Four
Data Presentation and Analysis
4.1Introduction 137
4.2Overview of the Data Collected and Response Rate 138
4.3Profile of Respondents 138
4.3.1Gender 138
4.3.2 Age 139
4.3.3 Education Level 140

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Page |xvii4.3.4 Marital Status 141
4.3.5 Professional Status 142
4.3.6 Income 143
4.4Goodness of Data 144
4.4.1 Reliability of Data 144
4.4.2 Validity of Data 146
4.4.2.1 Construct Validity 148
4.4.2.2 Content Validity 149
4.5Data Screening 149
4.5.1Missing Data 150
4.5.2 Outliers 151
4.5.3 Normality 151
4.5.4 Linearity 152
4.5.5 Homoscedasticity 153
4.5.6 Multicollinearity 153
4.6 Factor Analysis 155
4.6.1Satisfying Factor Analysis Assumptions 156
4.6.2 Factor Analysis Procedure 158
4.6.3 Results of Factor Analysis 159
4.6.3.1 Factor Analysis on Living Standard 159
4.6.3.2 Factor Analysis on Employment Opportunity 162

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Page |xviii4.6.3.3 Factor Analysis on Earning Capability 165
4.6.3.4 Factor Analysis on Cultural Development 167
4.6.3.5 Factor Analysis on Social Value 170
4.7Local Residents’ Attitudes towards Tourism Impact: Descriptive
Statistics173
4.7.1 Overall Attitudes towards Tourism in Cox’s Bazar 173
4.7.2 Local Residents’ Attitude towards Socio-Economic Impact of
Tourism177
4.7.2.1 Local Residents’ Attitude towards Economic Impact of
Tourism177
4.7.2.1.1 Living Standard 177
4.7.2.1.2 Employment Opportunity 179
4.7.2.1.3 Earning Capability 181
4.7.2.2 Local Residents’ Attitude towards Social Impact of
Tourism182
4.7.2.2.1 Cultural Development 182
4.7.2.2.2 Social Value 184
4.8Correlation Analysis 186
4.9T-Test Analysis Results 195
4.10ANOVA Test Results 196

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Page |xix4.11Multiple Regression Analysis 199
4.11.1Model Development 201
4.11.2Empirical Analysis of Multiple Regression Model 203
4.11.2.1 Evaluating the model 206
4.11.2.2 Evaluating Independent Variables 206
4.12Results of Hypothesis Testing 207
4.13Summary 210
CHAPTER FIVE
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
5.1Introduction 212
5.2Discussion on Findings of the Study 212
5.2.1 First Objective 213
5.2.2 Second Objective 222
5.2.3 Third Objective 227
5.2.3.1 Gender 227
5.2.3.2 Marital Status 228
5.2.3.3 Age 228
5.2.3.4 Education Level 229
5.2.3.5 Professional Status 230

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Page |xx5.2.3.6Income 231
Chapter S IX
RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUTION
6.1Introduction 233
6.2Recommendations 233
6.3Suggestions for Future Research 242
6.4Conclusion 245
Appended Part
References 249
Questionnaire 275

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Page |xxiListof Tables
In the Text Page
Table-2.1Positive Economic Impacts of Tourism Development 42
Table-2.2Major Socio -cultural Impacts of tourism According to Various
Authors44
Table 2.3 Positive Socio -Cultural Impacts of Tourism Development 49
Table 2.4 Negative Socio -Cultural Impacts of Tourism Development 52
Table 2.5 Socio-demographic Factors Resulting in Positive and Negative
Impacts58
Table-3.1Measurement Scales 104
Table-3.2Stratified sampling frame of the study area 112
Table-3.3FivePoint Numerical Scale 115
Table-3.4Assessment of Reliability and Validity of the Questionnaire 119
Table-3.5The items used to measure living standard 123
Table-3.6The items used to measure employment opportunity 124
Table-3.7The items used to measure earning capability 125
Table–3.8The items used to measure cultural development 126
Table–3.9The items used to measure social value 127

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Page |xxiiTable–4.1Gender of Respondents 139
Table–4.2Age of Respondents 140
Table-4.3Education Level of Respondents 141
Table-4.4Marital Status of Respondents 142
Table–4.5Professional Status of Respondents 142
Table–4.6Income Level of Respondents 143
Table–4.7Reliability Analysis 146
Table–4.8Testing Multicollinearity through Tolerance and VIF Values 154
Table-4.9Factor Analysis for Living Standard 159
Table-4.10Factor Analysis for Employment Opportunity 162
Table–4.11Factor Analysis for Earning Capability 165
Table–4.12Factor Analysis for Cultural Development 168
Table–4.13Factor Analysis for Social Value 170
Table–4.14Means and Standard Deviations for the 25 Statements 173
Table–4.15Overall Attitudes towards Tourism in Cox’s Bazar 176
Table–4.16Attitude of Local Residents towards Tourism Impact on Living
Standard178
Table–4.17Attitude of Local Residents towards Tourism Impact on
Employment Opportunity180
Table–4.18Attitude of Local Residents towards Tourism Impact on Earning
Capability181
Table–4.19Attitude of Local Residents towards Tourism Impact on Cultural
Development183

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Page |xxiiiTable–4.20Attitude of Local Residents towards Tourism Impact on Social
Value185
Table–4.21Cohen and Pallant’s Guidelines of Correlation Strength 186
Table–4.22Correlation between Attitude Towards Tourism Impact and
Living Standard Items187
Table–4.23Correlation between Attitude Towards Tourism Impact and
Employment Opportunity Items188
Table–4.24Correlation between Attitude towards Tourism Impact and
Earning Capability Items190
Table–4.25Correlation between Attitude towards Tourism Impact and
Cultural Development Items191
Table–4.26Correlation between Attitude towards Tourism Impact and Social
Value Items192
Table–4.27Correlation between Attitude towards Tourism Impact and
Demographic factors194
Table–4.28Local Residents’ Attitude towards Tourism Impact Based on
Gender195
Table–4.29Local Residents’ Attitude towards Tourism Impact Based on
Marital Status196
Table–4.30Local Residents’ Attitude towards Tourism Impact Based on
Age, Education Level, Professional Status and Income197
Table–4.31OLS Regression Results 203
Table-4.32Summary of Regression Results 207

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Page |xxivList of Figures/Graphs
In the Text Page
Figure–2.1Doxey’sIrridex Model 74
Figure–2.2Butler’s Tourist Area Life Cycle (TALC) 77
Figure-2.3Social Exchange Process Model 79
Figure–2.4Normative Typologies of Community Participation 89
Figure-4.1Scree plot of Living Standard 160
Figure–4.2Scree plot of employment opportunity 164
Figure–4.3Scree plot of motivation 167
Figure–4.4Scree plot of cultural development 169
Figure-4.5Scree plot of Social Value 172

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Page |xxvGlossary of words
ADB Asian Development Bank
BB Bangladesh Bank
BPC Bangladesh Parjaton Corporation
BTB Bangladesh Tourism Board
BBS Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics
CFA Confirmatory Factor Analysis
CSD The Commission for Sustainable Development
DC District Commissioner
DFID Department for International Development
ESCAP TheEconomic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
GoB Government of Bangladesh
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GNP Gross National Product
ICIDI International Commission on International Development Issue
ILO International Labour Organization

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Page |xxviIMF International Monetary Fund
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
KMO Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
LDC Least Developed Country
MAS Measure of Samplify Adequacy
NGO Non Government Organization
NHTTI National Hospitality Tourism Training Institute
PCA Principle Component Analysis
PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
SCCI South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Chamber of
Commerce and Industry
SME Small and Medium size Enterprise
UN United Nations
UK United Kingdom
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environment Program
UNWTO United Nations World Tourism Organization
VAT Value Added Tax
WB World Bank
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
WTTC World Travel and Tourism Council

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Page |xxviiWTO World Trade Organization
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature

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Page |1CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
1.1 Introduction
This chapter commences with a brief discussion of the b ackground of the study. It
starts the problem statement, research objectives, research questions and
hypotheses of the study. This chapter also highlights the significance of the
research and scope of the study. Lastly, the chapter concludes with an outline of
the forthcoming chapters.
1.2 Background of the Study
Tourism is considered as one of the largest and fastest developing sectors of the
world. Its high gr owth and development rates bring considerable volumes of the
foreign currency inflows, infrastructure development, employment generation,
regional development, economic multiplier effects and introduction of the new
management and educational experience ac tively affect various sectors of the
economy, which will be positively affected to the social and economic
development of the country (Nayomi & Gnanapala, 2015). Tourism has become
not only a major force in world trade but also a vital factor in a country' s
economic, cultural and social development (Sharpley, 2009). Over the last

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Page |2decades, tourism has experienced continued growth and increased diversification
becoming one of the fastest economic sectors in the world. These dynamics have
turned it into a key driver of socio-economic progress in nations worldwide. The
development of to urism in emerging economies havebeen shaped by many
factors.
Today, tourism is one of the major sectors in international trade and one of the
main wealth creators for many devel oping countries .Tourism is one of the
world’s largest sectors, but it is also one of the most complex industry, impacting
on and impacted by countless actors and actions. Tourism create sjobs, poverty
eradication, gender equality, and the protection and promotion of our natural and
cultural heritage. Which means, it is a significant industry not only for rich but
also for the poor people. The economic advantages of tourism are, however,
enormous and this fact has been realized all over the world. Tourism thus is not
only an ec onomic activity but also many countries the highest foreign exchange
sector. It is an important medium of social and cultural development and italso
promotes lasting goodwill and friendship among the nations of the world. In the
longrun, the most impor tant contribution of tourism is developing an
understanding ofvaried cultures and lifestyles .
Bangladesh is a potential country for tourism. Its unique natural resources, rich
culture and heritage, colorful and hospitable lifestyle ar e great attractions for

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Page |3tourists. Realizing the vast potentials and multi -dimensional benefits of tourism,
the present government has laid huge emphasis over the development of tourism
as an economic sector of the country. Economic growth is an essential c riterion of
tourism development. Furthermore, the economic impact of tourism development
on the community is a significant tool to change the local residents' perception of
and attitude toward tourism development. Therefore, ithas a tremendous
opportunity to contribute to our GDP. The increasing rate of foreign tourist arrival
as well as domestic tourism creates a great opportunity for this country to use
tourism as an economic develo pment tool for the growth of the economy .For this
reason, Go B has establ ished Ministry of Civil Aviation under which they have two
affiliated network which specially focused on tourism related issues of this
country named, Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (BPC) and Bangladesh Tourism
Board (BTB). BPC is responsible for touris m infrastructural development related
activities and BTB is for tourism promotion related activities. These two
organizations are trying their best for the betterment of the tourism sector of
Bangladesh.
Since the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, the c ountryhas been trying to
develop its tourism industry by taking various measures but it could not achieve
expected level of success as it required. Even with its unique and diverse tourism
resources, Bangladesh has not yetbeen able to attract tourists ef fectively

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Page |4(Bhuiyan, 2009). The depth of this failure of tourism industry in Bangladesh is
reflected in the report of the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) where it
has been shown that in 2011, the travel and tourism industry of Bangladesh
obtained 13 0thposition based on thesize and 155thposition in relative to the
contribution in Gross Dom estic Products (GDP) (WTTC, 2015 ). Tourism is the
number one foreign exchange earners in 60 countries of the world and over 150
countries tourism is one of the f ive top foreign exchange earners. In 23 of the 49
Least Developed Countries, tourism is one of the top three foreign exchange
earners and in seven countries it is the single largest revenue earner (UNWTO,
2012). But if we consider tourism perspective of Bangladesh the number is not
very promising.
Bangladesh is located conveniently on the east -west air-corridor, making it a
gateway to the Far East. It is endowed with resources which are potential for the
growth of thetourism industry. In the southeast the country has a beach of soft
silvery sand. It is a Riviera -like setting with acrescent-shaped low hills
overlooking the Bay of Bengal. The range of the hills clad in lush green thicket is
a thesaurus location for tourists name Cox’s Bazar. It's the longest continual
naturalseabeach on the planet earthand the place where the country likes to come
to relax. Due to thehuge number of tourist’sarrival, Cox's Bazar develops as an
important city of Bangladesh with available tran sportation, accommodation,

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Page |5banking and many other facilities. This development contributes to the national
economy of the country. A ll these facilities and services are creating significant
employment opportunity in Cox's Bazar. The municipality covers an area of 6.85
sq km with 27 maha llas and 9 wards. Located at a distance of 152 km. As it is
located in the South of Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar is connected both by air and road
with Dhaka and Chittagong. The major source of economy of Cox's Bazar is
tourism. Many people are involved in hos pitality and customer service related
business. A number of people are also involved in fishing ,collecting seafood and
sea products for their livelihood. Traditionally Cox’s Bazar is a conservative
society. The socio cultural and economic statistics inclu ding literacy rate is far
below than national average (Ahammed, 2010).
Nearly two million people visit Cox’s Bazar in peak season from November to
March. Most of the visitors are domestic and they come from different parts of the
country. The bas ic purpos es of visitors include walk along the beaches, sea
bathing, parasailing, surfing, shopping from the Rakhaine stalls. There are many
beautiful beaches such as Labonee, Kalatoli, Himchari and Innani. Among them
Labonee beach is the mo st popular one. It has b een repea tedly noted as one of the
most frequently visited tourist destination sof the country. Other attractions of
Cox’s Bazar include: Aggmeda Khyang, a Buddhist monastery at the hills;
Himchari picnic spot which is about 8 kms away from Cox’s Bazar; In nani Beach,

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Page |632 kms away from the city; Sonadia island with very less human visitation; Teknaf
peninsula, 80 km awayfrom town and picturesque St. Martin Island to the south at
13 kms away from Mainland. All these places are easily accessible from Cox’s
Bazar by bus, jeep and boat. The area from Labonee to Kalatali beach has many
hotels, motels, cottage, rest and guest houses and restaurants. Over thousands of
local and non -local Bangladeshi nationals are working in the tourism sector of
Cox’s Bazar (Ahammed , 2010).
In the recent years, Cox’s Bazar experiences huge growth in tourism and this
improvement has been reflected by the establishment of different infra structures
and facilities in this area. The improvement of tourism industry leads to the
developmen t of different facilities such as hotels, restaurants, airport, gift shops
etc. It also supports local community by creating numerous employment
opportunities. It is obvious that the developments of tourism in Cox’s Bazar
certainly have some socio -economic and environmental impacts. If the tourism
development happens with improper planning, it can create problems. The aim of
this report is to address this fact. Recently, this area is showing signs of negative
impacts such as excessive crowds, poor waste man agement, security issues and
unplanned construction of hotels to support excessive local tourist demand. This
implies that Cox’s Bazar encounters socio-economic and environmental impacts
mainly caused from domestic tourism. This problem of some certain are as of

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Page |7Cox’s Bazar requires immediate attention, a little has been done to investigate
aboutthe impact of tourism and tourist activities on the socio -economic and
cultural aspects of the concerned area.
Studies on community attitudes toward tourism have ma inly focused on broad
issues related to economic, socio -cultural and environmental impacts (Kuvan and
Akan, 2004). Economic dependence on tourism has been found to have a positive
and significant effect on resident attitudes, where those standing to gain m ore
financially from tourism tend to have more positive attitudes towards tourism
(Harrill, 2004). On the other hand, local culture is affected by tourism -both
positively and negatively. Actually social, economic and cultural background of
tourists and l ocal inhabitants are different, and thus local residents donot always
like excessive tourists’ mobility to avoid a dreaded contamination. As a matter of
fact, development decision should conform to the opinion of the local residents
regarding their social values and culture.
Tourism has immense potentiality in terms of economic and social values in Cox’s
Bazar, the tourist capital of Bangladesh. By observing different literatures, it is
found that there are a lot of studies regarding tourism potentialiti es, tourism
facilities, tourism development plan as well as problems and prospects of tourism
in Bangladesh. But So far ,researchers of this study didn’t find any prolific study
conducted in this field, covering the socio -economic impact of tourism in

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Page |8Bangladesh,especially onCox’s Bazar, the longest sea beach of the wor ld as well
as one of the most popular tourist destination s. For a tourism -based economy to
sustain itself in local communities, the residents must be willing partners in the
process. Their attitudes toward tourism and perceptions of its impact on
community life must be continually assessed.
The development and economic management of a natural area is closely tied to
residents’ perception of the impacts of tourism, especially in the initial s tages of
development. Tourism is prominent in Bangladesh’s economic restructuring,
particularly in coastal areas. A “community mandate” is necessary for sustaining
the tourism industry and managing the more critical aspects that appear as a
tourism destina tion reaches maturity. Cox’s Bazar is now in its maturity stage.
Everyone is aware about the longest sea beach in the world is in Bangladesh. A lot
of noteworthy development has been done in this area that contains a population
of about 22 lakhs (2011 Cens us, Bangladesh). Tourism development provides
opportunities to stimulate local commer ceand industry. Certainly, there is a direct
need to evaluate the impacts of such developments on local population .For this
purpose, this study aims to examine socioecon omic impacts of tourism on local
residents of Cox’s Bazar.
Tourism is now a global industry involving hundreds of millions of people in
international as well as domestic travel each year. Tourism plays a vital role in the

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Page |9economic development of a country. It contributes to the fulfillment of significant
societal growth and expansion. Over the past six decades, tourism has experienced
continued expansion and diversification, to become one of the largest and fastest –
growing economic sec tors in the world. But Sharpley (1994); Wall and Mathieson
(2006) argue that in developing countries major benefits generated by tourism do
not reach to the poorer sections of the society whereas the host countries bear the
environmental and social costs.
Local residents' suppo rt is essential for long term success in thetourism
development process. Community participation is an important component of
community development and reflects a grassroots or bottom -up approach to
problem solving. Effective community participation may l ead to social and
personal empowerment, economic development and socio -political transformation.
Each and every sector of the economy has some negative impacts on the
livelihood of the community. As it is one of the most visible sectors of the
economy, tou rism sector bears the major blame. However, the local community
needs to participate in tourism activities if they want to get benefits from the
development of tourism. Though tourism is an important tool for economic
development in developing countries, i t is necessary to understand the impact
tourism on local community and how they can benefit from it. Community
participation in tourism is concerned with decision making process and how the

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Page |10benefits of development can be enjoyed by them. Sustainability may never be
achieved if participation and consent of local people in tourism planning and
development are not ensured. Moreover, it is needless to say, mere consultation is
not sufficient here. Global competi tiveness cannot be ensured if local resentment
towards tourism seen persistent. It may have resulted from not being involved in
the development process. Krishna (2011) which can also have a negative effect on
the experience of tourists and fail to maintain the competitiveness of the tourism
market as the tourism industry is largely dependent upon repeat visits. So it is
essential that guests have a positive and welcoming experience. The equal
distribution of the benefits of tourism earnings among local communities from the
government level is also essentia l for fostering a healthy and afavorable social
environment that could establish Cox’s Bazar as a pleasurable place to re -visit.
Tourism is undoubtedly a blessing for those local people who are directly or
indirectly involved with it for their livelihood. But, for the overall benefit of the
local economy, environment, society and culture, it should be developed and
managed in a sustainable manner, considering the perception and attitude of the
local residents. However, it is important to find out all the f actors influencing
socio-economic aspect both in apositive and negative way. The purpose of the
research is to find some key socio -economic factors that have profound impact on
the local residents through tourism.

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Page |111.3 Statement of the problem
Tourism is o ne of the most important components of the global economy. It
generates billions of dollars in revenues and millions of jobs worldwide. It is
considered by many communities, especially in emerging countries the only tool
for development, and the only chanc e for increasing the quality of life. Thus the
tourism industry has stretched from seaside to mountain resorts and from small
villages to big metropolises. But at the same time, tourism started to show its
uglier side. Both the actions of investors and of tourists are having negative
impacts on the socio -cultural values and environmental assets of host communities
all over the world. In the present paper, we are trying to observe the socio –
economic impacts of tourism on local residents' attitude in Cox's Ba zar.
Many studies have addressed about tourism impacts when tourism is being
evaluated (Frew & Shaw, 1999; Govers et al., 2007; Murphy , Moscardo &
Benckendorff, 2007; Plog, 2002 ), but they did not examine the local residents'
attitude towards socio -economic impact of tourism. Conceptually, tourism
development generated economic, physical, and social impacts in the destination
area. For example, Liu, Sheldon, and Var (1987) justified the economic benefits
and the costs of social, cultural, and environmental impacts of tourism. Lankford
and Howard (1994) identified local tourism development and personnel and
community benefits as tourism impacts, while developing the tourism impacts

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Page |12attitude scale. Each of this study used different approaches, techniques and
procedures to assess tourism development impacts and to identify residents’
characteristics. On the other hand, even though there are some studies that focused
on determinants affecting residents’ attitude towards tourism impacts, each study
examines only f ew determinants and addresses inconsistent results instead of
examining them simultaneously. Moreover, there are few studies that investigate
the relationship between determinants and residents’ attitude towards tourism
impacts. Also, there is a limited s tandardized scale and measurement to identify a
relationship between determinants and residents’ attitude towards tourism impacts.
Local residents could have different attitude on different dimensions of tourism
impacts according to their demographic chara cteristics.
Earlier researchers and scholars have suggested that despite the availability of
some research on residents' attitudes toward tourism and its impacts, it is
necessary to conduct additional research on this topic in other geographical
locations, in different settings and over a period of time in order to not only
reinforce earlier findings but also identify and explore other factors that may
influence the host residents' perceptions of and attitudes toward tourism, its
impacts and their support for tourism development.
Cox’s Bazar is a well-established and well-known tourist site in Bangladesh. In
spite of the importance of tourism in Cox’s Bazar and the knowledge that the

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Page |13attitudes and perceptions of local residents are vital for the success o f tourism,
little is known about the local residents’ perceptions of tourism. Although there
appears to be substantial research on tourism activities in Cox’s Bazar, no
published research has so far, dealt with the residents' perceptions of the socio –
economic impact of tourism and their attitudes toward tourism development in
Cox’s Bazar.
•Do local residents have positive or negative attitude and perception about
the impact of tourism on their lives and their economic development?
•Is tourism responsible for making any social changes or economic leverage
of the local community?
•How different demographic factors are affecting attitude of local residents
towards tourism impact?
Hence, the above mentioned questions have created the need for undertaking a
study that will concentrate on the local residents' attitude towards tourism impacts.
A systematic and comprehensive analysis about these aspects among the residents
of Cox’s Bazar can help local authorities, planners, community decision -makers,
tour-operators, and tourism promoters to identify real concerns and issues in order
to implement appropriate and effective policies and actions in the area, thus
optimizing the benefits and minimizing the problems associated with tourism.

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Page |14Consequently, this study was designed to solve the above issues by achi eving the
following objectives.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
The aim of this study is to investigate and analyze the impact of tourism activities
on the social and economic lives of the local residents. The overall objectives of
the thesis are as follows:
•to analyze the attitude of local residents of Cox’s Bazar about the impact of
tourism on their economic development;
•to analyze the attitude of local residents of Cox’s Bazar about the impact of
tourism on their so cial changes;
•to examine the influences of demographic factors on the attitude of local
residents towards tourism impact in their area and
•to make recommendations for all tourism stakeholders and the local
community to maximize the benefits of this sector and for the development
of tourism.

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Page |151.5 Research Questions
In order to achieve this research objectives systematically, the study specifically
addresses the following research questions.
•What is the attitude of local residents of Cox’s Bazar about the imp act of
tourism on their economic development?
•What is the attitude of local residents of Cox’s Bazar about the impact of
tourism on their social changes?
•Do demographic factors influence the attitude of local residents of Cox’s
Bazar towards socio -economic impact of tourism?
•What are the strategies and policies to maximize the opportunities and
benefits of tourism and minimize the threats of tourism development to the
local community?

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Page |161.6 Hypothesis Development
Hypothesis 1
There is a significant posit ive relation between living standard and the level of
local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact.
Hypothesis 2
There is a significant positive relatio n between employment opportunities and the
level of local residents’ attitude towards tourism impa ct.
Hypothesis 3
There is a significant positive relation between earning capacity and the level of
local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact.
Hypothesis 4
There is a significant positive relation between cultural development and the level
of localresidents’ attitude towards tourism impact.
Hypothesis 5
There is a significant positive relation between social value and the level of local
residents’ attitude towards tourism impact.

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Page |171.7 Significance of the Study
•The tourism scenario of Cox’s Bazar has much changed in the last one and half
decade. The place used to deal with a crowd that was considerably seasonal.
But now, it can be merely stated that there is no specific season in there. As it
already reached to its maturity stage of development of soc io economic
perspective will draw under major atten tion project. Till now, not many socio-
economic studies associated with tourism impact have been done o n tourism of
Cox’s Bazar. Socio -economic development is one of the burning issues for
cox’s Bazar pers pective. One of the major purposes of this study is to evaluate
this pidgin of shift which hasn’t majored significantly yet. So this study has its
own significance in this regard.
•Most of the cases, tourism development has been viewed from thetourists’
point of view. This study attempt sto view tourism development from local
residents’ perspective. Aproper understanding of residents’ perception helps in
tourism planning. Thus ,having knowledge about how residents perceive
tourist activities helps when f ormulating development strategies and provides
leadership. For example the local government can identify what needs to be
done to change perceptions, more specifically the negative one. The study
would also enable developers to notice if tourism is bringin g benefits to locals

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Page |18and ways to maximize those benefits and at the same time minimizing negative
impacts would be devised.
•This study also attempt sto assess attitude and understanding of local residents
regarding tourism potential, planning and manageme nt of Cox’s Bazar. It
signifies the role of community in tourism development. To achieve
sustainable tourism development local communities need to participate in
decision-making process. Local communities can take part in identifying and
promoting tourist resources and attractions that form the basis of community
tourism development. To achieve long lasting outcome, communities need to
be active participants rather than passive observers. More direct local
involvement in decision -making, for example, it ma y enable residents to
request a specific portion of tax benefits from tourism to be allocated to
community development and the protection of the tourism resource base. The
main purpose of community participation is to involve people in the design and
the decision making processes. It is further argued that community
participation in decision making increase people’s trust and confidence with
the tourism industry. It also provides the local community with a voice of
designing and decision -making in order to improve plans, service delivery, and
finally, promotes a sense of community by bringing together people who share
common goals.

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Page |19•It also signifies communities as key stakeholders in tourism development.
There are different actors involved in tourism develo pment, including private
sector, government, donor agencies, civil societies and local people
themselves. Local communities are regarded as animportant asset in tourism
development as it is within their premises that these activities take place. Local
communities are also regarded as legitimate and moral stakeholders in tourism
development because their interests affect and are affected by decisions of key
policy makers. The degree of involvement of local communities in various
decision making and policy i ssues is determined by the extent to which they
affect or are affected by these decisions and policies. Local tourism
development requires people who are affected by tourism to be involved in
both the planning process and the implementation of policies and action plans.
This ensures that development meet the perceived needs of the local
community. If decisions concerning development of tourism in a region are not
made in consultation with the local communities during the design stage, it will
be impossible for the local communities to be involved during implementation.
Likewise,there will be little support of local communities for tourism
activities. Whichever circumstances, it is vital to identify and involve key
stakeholders right from the design stage. F ailure to do so can cause technical or
political difficulties during implementation, and can significantly influence the
success and outcome of the process. In fact, enabling wide participation of

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Page |20various stakeholders in the decision making process, includ ing local
communities, makes possible to gain knowledge about other stakeholders,
acquirenew skills and share ideas which, in turn, fosters understanding of
regional problems and allows for generation of new and innovative solutions.
•The findings of this study will help to develop Cox’s Bazar as a more suitable
tourist destination. The Cox’s Bazar oriented tourism is now to be considered
in a larger scale. Government tourism policies and BPC strategies of the90s
were may be suitable for the then circumst ance, but the situation has changed a
lot. The most visited tourist area in Bangladesh is Cox’s Bazar which is now
formidably occupying the top of the World’s New Seven Wonders list. The
growth of this industry can positively impact on socio -economic devel opment
of the country.
•The findings of this study may be used for development of new theory in this
field. This study can offer a framework to the stakeholders for following up
community perceptions which is currently nonexistent. The findings may also
enlighten tourism stakeholders with an in -depth scenario of the perceived
strong points and weak points of the socio -economic impacts of tourism in
Cox's Bazar that can serve as an input in its enhancing program.

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Page |211.8 Scope of the Study
This study was restric ted to examine the influence of socio -economic factors of
tourism impact such as living standard, employment opportunity, earning
capability, cultural development and social value on the attitude of local residents
of Cox’s Bazar in Bangladesh. The sample included only local residents who lived
at least for five consecutive years in the study area. Data were collected through
structured questionnaires using stratified random sampling method. Questionnaires
were distributed to local residents of only four Wa rds (Ward no. 2, 3, 9 & 12) of
Cox’s Bazar Municipality areas.
1.9 Definition of Terms
To make it convenient for the reader to understand the different terms that are
often used in this thesis, it is necessary to explain these as they easily can be
defined in different ways. The purpose of this is to decide on one definition of a
specific term, which is most relevant to this report.
•Tourism impact : tourism development brings with it inevitable positive and
negative impacts which arise from the interrelati onship between host
communities, visitors and the natural environment. Tourism impacts usually

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Page |22are measured by social, economic, and environmental aspects. In this study,
tourism impacts are measured by economic and social aspects.
•Local resident : A local resident in this study is a person who has lived in
Cox’s Bazar for more than five consecutive years.
•Attitude: In theCollins English (1991) dictionary the term is defined as “The
way a person views something or tends to behave towards it, often in an
evaluative way.”
•Tourism: Tourism is defined as visitors’ activities when they travel to places
that exist outside their ordinary environment. The duration of the stay shall be
shorter than a year and the main purpose of the trip shall not involve work that
is compensated by someone at the destination.
•Community: To understand the current widespread use of the term
‘communities’ one needs to understand what makes a ‘community’. Most
conservation literature views the ‘community’ as a small spatial unit,
homogenous social structure with shared norms and common interest.
•Community tourism: Thisis a special brand of tourism based on small travel
companies that are created, managed, and owned by local and indigenous
peoples.

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Page |23•Sustainable tourism: The World Touris m Organization defines sustainable
tourism as “tourism which leads to management of all resources in such a way
that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be filled while maintaining
cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversi ty and life
supporting systems”.
•Social impact: Social impact is the effect of an activity on the social fabric of
the community and well -being of individuals and families.
•Economic impact: Aneconomic impact examines the effect of an event on the
economy in a specified area, ranging from a single neighborhood to the entire
globe.
•Socio economic impact: Socio-economic impact assessment (SEIA) is defined
here as an examination of how a proposed development has changed and has
the potential to change the li ves of current and future residents of a community.

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Page |241.10 Structure of the Thesis
The thesis comprises six chapters.
In thecurrent chapter the broader issues, concepts and approaches fundamental
to the research have been outlined. Especially the back ground ideas for the
research, the problem statement of the study, research questions and objectives,
significance and scope of the study and finally the important terms and definitions
are highlighted.
Chapter Two reviews the literature that provides the conceptual framework
followed in this research and tells the outcomes of the different research by the
authoritative scholars in the field of tourism. In line with tourism impact study the
different important research articles were consulted and some of t hem are noted
down for facilitating the understanding of the outline of research path.
Chapter three outlines the methodological approach adopted in the investigation
of socio-economic impact of tourism on the attitude of local residents in Cox’s
Bazar. Specifically, the research process and analysis are presented in greater
detail. The sampling procedure, the reasons for study area selection, the
respondents to be interviewed and the underlying reasons for selection,
questionnaire preparation, and data an alysis procedures are described in detail.

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Page |25Chapters four presents the data analysis and results of the research. In this
chapter, the data obtained from the respondents through the questionnaire were
arranged systematically. The responses of the local re sidents of 25 -tourism impact
statements on Lickert Scale are arranged together with frequency under the heads,
economical impact (sub -head: living standard, employment opportunity and
earning capability) and social impact (sub -head: cultural development an d social
value) of tourism.
This chapter first presents the residents’ overall attitude towards economic and
social impact of tourism. Then discusses the effect of different demographic
factors on the attitude of local residents about tourism impact. It t hen tries to
identify the relationship between tourism attitude and tourism Impact through
hypotheses testing with multiple regression analysis.
Chapter five provides a discussion on the findings and their implications for
tourism planning and development. It also looks for space whether the research
questions are answered properly in a valid and reliable manner.
Chapter six concludes with a reflection and assessment of the findings and makes
recommendations drawn from the results for achieving more sustain able tourism
development. Finally, the researcher provides some directions for future research
keeping in mind the limitations of the present study.

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Page |26CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
A review of existing literature was performed to support the study undertaken i n
this thesis. This chapter provides an overview of empirical studies looking at
tourism impact and, in particular, resident attitudes towards tourism impact. The
review of literature helps to identify authoritative researches presented by various
researchers or authors in attempting to respond to the research questions. The main
focus is placed on how residents perceive tourism impacts; critically examine the
influence of tourism impacts on theattitude of local residents. The literature
review will be bas ed on the following topics: 1) tourism impacts, 2) local
residents' attitudes towards tourism impact, 3) tourism impact models, 4) tourism
impact and resident attitude scales and 5) tourism and local community
participation.
2.1Tourism and its significanc e
Tourism is now a global industry involving hundreds of millions of people in
international as well as domestic travel each year (Mason, 2003, p. 3). Over the
last half century, the growth and development of tourism as a social and economic
activity has b een remarkable (Sharpley, 2009). Tourism development is generally
viewed as an important set of economic activities for improving local economies

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Page |27and many nations promote nature -based tourism to promote and sustain both
environment and economics.
While tou rism development requires well developed attractions, tourism
superstructures, and infrastructure at the same time hospitality of the local
residents is very important and essential. Identifying residents' perceptions of
tourism, and the factors affecting the formation of these perceptions are important
for gaining public support for tourism development. Lack of residents’ support of
tourism development or apathy and annoyance of local community can lead to
negative reactions to tourists and in turn result in their avoidance of visiting the
destinations where they feel uncomfortable (Fridgen, 1991).
Tourism is one of the largest and fastest growing industry (Davenport &
Davenport, 2006) of the world in terms of employment generation and
contribution to nat ional GDP (WTTC 2013). Tourism industry may become a tool
for Third World countries to combat poverty by generating income and
employment as well diversifying the economy. Tourism is now a global industry
involving hundreds of millions of people in interna tional as well as domestic travel
each year (Mason, 2003, p. 3). Millions of people all over the world involved
directly in the tourism industry and many more are employed in tourism related
activities. A large number of populations in the form of ‘host co mmunities’
involved in producing final tourism products, as they live in destination areas.

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Page |28Governments and tourism companies spend millions of dollars every year to
increase their income and promote holidays and tourism products.
According to the Organiza tion for Economic Co -operation and Development
(OECD) over the past years, travel and tourism have been an important economic
sector in the world economy. The economic growth rate of international tourism
has been faster than the world economy and this tre nd seems likely to continue in
the next decades (OECD, 2010).
The World Travel and Tourism Council ( WTTC) for more than 20 years have
been assessing the travel and tourism contribution to the world economy.
According to WTTC report, travel and tourism is one of the world’s largest
industries and a main provider of job opportunities. Travel & Tourism’s total
contribution to the global economy has risen to 9.5% of global GDP (US $7
trillion)-not only outpacing the wider economy, but also growing faster tha n
other significant sectors such as financial and business services, transport and
manufacturing. Travel & Tourism forecasts over the next ten years also
lookextremely favo rable. By 2020, this should be 303,019,000 jobs which is 9.2
percent of total emplo yment, or 1 in every 10.8 jobs. The world travel and tourism
economy’s contribution to gross domestic product is expected to rise from 9.2
percent ($5.75 trillion) in 2010 to 9.6 percent (11.15 trillion) in 2020. Inskeep
(1991) states that tourism is an im portant economic, sociocultural, and

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Page |29environmental phenomenon in today’s world. Over the last half century, the
growth and development of tourism as both a social and economic activity has
been remarkable (Sharpley, 2009, p.1).
2.2The Nature of Developmen t Process and Tourism
Roozbeh &Mirzaei, (2013) mentioned development as a term with various aspects
which has different meanings in different societies. Wall (2005) states that the
term development is complicated integrating a mix of material and moral id eas
encompassing both present and future states; the current situation and how it came
to be and the future perspective. At the early stages of its development the
economic aspects were considered. Andriotis (2000, p.13) argued that the concept
of developm ent has been discussed for many years.
However, according to Binns (cited in Wall, 2005, p.30) besides the economic
issues, it encompasses social, environmental and ethical considerations and its
measurement may incorporate indicators of poverty, unemploym ent, inequality
and self-reliance.
Along with the changing in notion of development the measurement tools have
changed and encompassed environmental, socio -cultural and ethical aspects
Roozbeh &Mirzaei (2013). Friedmann (1980, p.4) states: “Development is always
of something, a human being, a society, a nation, an economy, a skill … It is often

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Page |30associated with words, such as under or over or balanced: too little, too much, or
just right … which suggests that development has a structure, and that the s peaker
has some idea about how this structure ought to be developed. We also tend to
think of development as a process of change or as a complex of such processes
which is in some degree lawful or at least sufficiently regular so that we can make
intelligent statements about it”.
Goldsworthy (1988) states that, the term “development” can be considered in three
aspects: a process, the result of that process, and the activities that support the
process, each of which surrounded by social, economic, political and
environmental ideological perspectives.
Andriotis (2004, p.14) argues that “tourism can offer to a destination a natural path
to economic growth through various stages, ranging from traditional non -tourism
where no tourists visit the destination, to the precondition to take off where
explorers and drifters make their appearance, to maturity where the destination is
visited by mass individual tourists, to the final stage of mass consumption where
the destination is visited by mass organized tourists”.
Andriotis (2000, p.13) argued that the concept of development has been discussed
for many years and referred to the Friedmann (1980, p.4): “ Development is always
of something, a human being, a society, a notion, an economy, a skill … It is often
associated with words, such as under or over or balanced: too little, too much, or

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Page |31just right … which suggests that development has a structure, and that the speaker
has some idea about how this structure ought to be developed. We also tend to
think of developme nt as a process of change or as a complex of such processes
which is in some degree lawful or at least sufficiently regular so that we can make
intelligent statements about it”.
According to Wall (2005, p.31) “the evolution of research on tourism has
paralleled the evolution of development studies as a whole, with an early emphasis
on economic aspects now increasingly being complemented with a more balanced
perspective incorporating environmental and socio -cultural matters”.
Rostow (1996 ) identified five st ages which all societies have to pass them if they
want to be developed: the traditional society, the precondition for take -off, the
take-off, the drive to maturity and high mass production.
2.3Evolution of Development Paradigms
2.3.1 Sustainable Developm ent
Masud (2010) states that since the 1980s, sustainable development has become a
popular word in development studies, in general, and in tourism research in
particular and the main focus of sustainable development is on society, and its aim
is to include environmental considerations in the steering of societal change,
especially through changes to the economic activities. He also mentioned there

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Page |32that the concept of sustainable development has caused debate from academics
and policy makers and it is diffic ult to define sustainable development because
there are no globally accepted definitions of sustainable development.
In 1960 the concept of sustainable development emerged as a result of the
perceived clash between the environment and the development proc ess. The term
‘sustainable development’, initially offered in the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) World Conservation Strategy (IUCN, 1980) and
later on generalized by the Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987). Many tourism
scholars and organ izations have outlined sustainable tourism principles and
frameworks (Inskeep, 199 1; Swarbrooke, 1999; Pigram, 1985 ; Wall, 2005;
Wheeler, 2006; WTO, 1993).
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN) report (1980: Se ction 1.2) defined it as: “ the integration of conservation
and development to ensure that modifications to the planet do indeed secure the
survival and wellbeing of all people”. But the definition of sustainable
development has been criticized because it p uts more emphasis on environmental
morality and ethics.
Sharpley (2000:7) argues that this definition does not take into account social and
political barriers to development. He also claims that these barriers to development
also militate against sustaina ble tourism development and says that “ sustainable

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Page |33development may be conceptualized as a juxtaposition of town schools of thought:
development theory and environmental sustainability”.
Sharpley (2009, p.45) identified three key principles underpinning su stainable
development are that “ (a) aholistic perspective is required, both development and
environmental sustainability are global challenges; (b) the emphasis should be on
the long-term future; and (c) although the focus of development should be people –
centered, the challenge is to achieve both intra and inter -generational equity;
development should be fair and equitable for all people both within and between
generations”.
Baker (2006, p.7) argued that “adopting sustainable development principles is
about steering societal change at the interface between:
●The society perspectives : this relates to human morals and values,
relationships and institutions.
●The economic perspectives : this concerns the allocation and distribution
of scarce resources.
●The environmental perspectives : this includes the contribution of both the
economic and the social perspectives and their effect on the environment
and its resources”.

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Page |34The Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987, p.43) formulated the well -known definition
of sustainable development as, “sustainable development is development that
meets the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs”.
Sustainable development insures that next generations all over the world will have
enough resources to adequately sustain themselves and maintain a reasonable
quality of life (Harris, Griffin & Williams, 2002; Keyser, 2002). After the Earth
Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, pressure has grown for the tourism
industryto lift its environmental performance in common with other economic
sectors, and to work towards ecologically sustainable forms of tourism
development (Pigram & Wahab, 2005, p. 14).
Butler (1980) criticizes the concept of sustainable development for its l imited
concentration on ecological and economic issues. After 10 years of the Earth
Summit where policies were recommended, there has been little achievement.
The fast growth of international tourism after the World War II has resulted in the
raising of c oncerns over how the cultural and natural environments of destinations
are affected by tourism (Holden, 2000, p.64). As a result, similar to the trends in
development theory of dissatisfaction with development philosophies (Telfer,
2002), many tourism anal ysts turn away from past methods of tourism
development in favor of ‘alternative tourism’ (Brohman, 1996a).

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Page |352.3.2 Sustainable Tourism
Sustainable tourism as an emerging paradigm seems to enhance the existing
conceptual frameworks on tourism planning and de velopment by making the
residents its focal point. Indeed, both direct and indirect support of community
residents’ participation is the foundation of the sustainability paradigm (Butcher
1997; Jamieson & Jamal, 1997).
Thus, according to UNEP & UNWTO susta inable tourism should:
-“Make optimal use of environmental resources that constitute a key element in
tourism development, maintaining essential ecological processes and helping to
conserve natural heritage and biodiversity.
-Respect the socio -cultural authe nticity of host communities, conserve their built
and living cultural heritage and traditional values, and contribute to inter -cultural
understanding and tolerance.
-Ensure viable, long -term economic operations, providing socioeconomic benefits
to all stake holders that are fairly distributed, including stable employment and
income-earning opportunities and social services to host communities, and
contributing to poverty alleviation.

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Page |36-Sustainable tourism should also maintain a high level of tourist satisfactio n and
ensure a meaningful experience to the tourists, raising their awareness about
sustainability issues and promoting sustainable tourism practices amongst them.”
(2005, p.11).
In recent years, changing attitudes toward the nature of the tourist experien ce
together with the growing realization that tourism takes place in fragile areas was
the notion that it consumes environmental resources (Mason, 2003). Increasingly,
groups of tourists became more concerned and feel more responsibility about the
impactsof their activities were having on the environment, this led to the growth
of what some consider as more environment friendly forms of tourism, such as
ecotourism (Wearing & Neil, 1999 cited in Mason, 2003).
Sustainable tourism, is a kind of development mo del, which administrates all of
the resources for the economic, social and aesthetical needs of locals and visitors
and prove the same conditions for future generations and meets their needs while
protecting the artificial natural environment and cultural wholeness, proving the
continuity of the ecological process, the biological variety; and the life systems,
without any changes (WTO, 1998, p: 32).
Swarbrooke, (1998, p:14) states that sustainable tourism means the tourism which
is economically viable but d oes not destroy the resources on which the future of

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Page |37tourism will depend, notably the physical environment and the social structure of
the host community.
2.3.3 Sustainable Tourism Development
The concept of sustainable tourism development as per Godfrey, “achieved virtual
global endorsement as the new [tourism] industry paradigms in the late 1980s”
(Godfrey, 1996:60).
Hunter (2002) says that “For sustainable tourism to occur, it must be closely
integrated with all other activities that occur in the host region”.
According to WTO, sustainable tourism development meets the needs of present
tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the
future. It is very important management of all resources in such a way that
economic and so cial needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity,
essential ecological process, biological diversity and life support systems (WTO,
1993, p: 10).
"Sustainable tourism development requires the informed participation of all
relevant stakehold ers, as well as strong political leadership to ensure wide
participation and consensus building. Achieving sustainable tourism is a
continuous process and it requires constant monitoring of impacts, introducing the
necessary preventive and/or corrective me asures whenever necessary. Sustainable

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Page |38tourism should also maintain a high level of tourist satisfaction and ensure a
meaningful experience to the tourists, raising their awareness about sustainability
issues and promoting sustainable tourism practices amo ngst them." (WTO, 2004).
UNWTO (2005) suggested sustainable tourism development as:
“Sustainable tourism development guidelines and management practices are
applicable to all forms of tourism in all types of destinations, including mass
tourism and the var ious niche tourism segments. Sustainability principles refer to
the environmental, economic and socio -cultural aspects of tourism development,
and a suitable balance must be established between these three dimensions to
guarantee its long -term sustainabili ty”.
The management of sustainable tourism in Ecologically Critical Areas in Cox’s
Bazar (January 2008) observed that the current tourism pattern is marginalizing
locals; poor communities in the area are receiving no significant benefits from
tourism rathe r than paying some of the social and environmental costs of this
activity. It also states that involving locals in management can be done either by
delegating tourism rights to community level or by ensuring that government
planning processes are participa tory and responsive to local needs.

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Page |392.4Tourism Impacts
2.4.1Dimensions of tourism impacts
The increasing growth of tourism both at domestic and international level has been
matched by the corresponding increase in the numbers of those who study touris m
and its impacts (Sharma, 2004:255). Mathieson and Wall (1982:2) notes that
literature on tourism has expanded immensely with the result that research has
become ‘highly fragmented with researchers following different paths.’ There are
many ways of catego rizing the impacts of tourism. Mathieson and Wall (1982:37)
divided tourism impacts into economic, social and physical (environmental
categories).
For some time, it has been popular for most academia to think about tourism
impacts in three domains which ar e; social, economic and environmental. Weed
(2008:396) echoes the use of the word ‘triple bottom line’ to encompass impacts
of tourism. An understanding of the triple bottom line with regards to tourism
impacts is of utmost importance. Weed (2008:396) note s that the community
perceive impacts differently as they redistribute resources resulting in some sub –
groups reaping rewards at the expense of others.
When analyz ing tourism impacts it is very important to notice that there is a
possibility of tourism to pose negative impacts on the community (Keyser,

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Page |402009:18). As Keyser (2009:19) further testifies, environmental damage and social
disruptions are some of the negative impacts of tourism. This therefore
necessitate sfor the need assessing tourism impacts fro m two dimensions, positive
and negative. The term tourism impact is used as a kind of shorthand to describe
changes in the state of something related to tourism over time (Hall & Lew,
2009:3). The complexity of tourism industry requires an integrated appro ach when
assessing tourism impacts as postulated by Hall and Lew (2009:16). This is
because as tourism grows great economic opportunities are noticed and at the
same time economic problems arise (Hall & Lew, 2009:17).
Tourism development can enhance a coun try's economy through numerous
positive economic impacts. However, tourism development can also cause
negative outcomes. With the rapid expansion of tourism in the late 20th century
came a noticeable change “in the structure of society…[and] the expansio n of
international tourism has increased the contact among different societies and
cultures” (Brunt & Courtney, 1999, p.495). The change brought about by tourism
development, questions the development of tourism on the basis of its damage to
the social, cu ltural, and environmental characteristics within a destination.
Furthermore, Ko & Stewart (2002) state the economic benefits resulting from
tourism development must be compared to tourism's potential for social
disruption. The purpose of this section is t o provide a conceptual background of

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Page |41tourisms' positive and negative impacts on a country's economic, social and
cultural characteristics.
2.4.2 The economic impacts of tourism
Positive economic aspects of tourism development revolve around increased
employment opportunities, improved standard of living, support for infrastructure,
and economic growth. In Faulkner & Tideswell's (1997) study of the Australian
Gold Coast, tourism development contributed to economic growth and increased
employment opportuniti es within the region. Liu & Var (1986) reported that
Hawaiian residents strongly agreed that tourism development led to economic
benefits, with regards to job opportunities and increased investments in the state's
economy. Similarly, residents in North Wal es believed that tourism brought more
investment and spending in the country's economy in addition to creating an
increase in job opportunities (Sheldon and Var, 1984). Easterling suggests the
positive economic impacts (Table, 1 ) include “contributions to standard of living,
increased employment, improvement of development, and infrastructure
spending” (2004, p. 54). Tourism development further improves public utilities,
transport infrastructure, and increase tax revenues (Ap & Crompton, 1998).

Dhaka University Institutional Repository
Page |42Table2.1:Positive Economic Impacts of Tourism Development (Source:
Easterling, 2004, p.51).
Findings Researcher
Employment
OpportunityTourism results in
increased employmentAhmed, 1986; Ap & Crompton, 1998;
Belisle& Hoy, 1980; Brayley et al. 1990 ;
Carmichael et al., 1996; Davis et al., 1988;
Fauklner & Tideswell, 1997; Forster, 1964;
Hudman, 1978; Keogh, 1990; Lawson et
al., 1998; Liu & Var, 1986; Manspenger,
1995; Milman & Pizam, 1 988; Prentice,
1993; Weaver & Lo wton, 2001
Standard of
LivingTourism has
significantly increased
standard of living for
the communityAkis et al., 1996; Belisle & Hoy, 1980; La
Flamme 1979; Liu & Var, 1986; Long et
al.; 1990; Pizma, 1978
Support for
InfrastructureTourismenhances
investment,
development, and
infrastructure spend ingAkis et al., 1996; Ap & Crompton, 1998;
Fritz, 1982; Sharply, 1994
Economic
GrowthTourism is perceived to
increase economic
growth; a dominant
factor in the economyAhmed, 1986; Brayley et al. 1990; Cook
1982; Greenw ood, 1972; Sheldon & Var
1982

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Page |43Even though tourism development brings positive economic benefits, it can also
result in negative economic impacts. Tourism development can have the potential
to cause over -dependence of residents on tourists, and to commercialize
relationships between resid ents and visitors (Table, 2). For example, the economic
crisis of 2001 in Asia lead to a drastic reduction in the number of Japanese tourists
to Canada, making several tourist operators who specialized in supplying tourist
services to the Japanese market, go bankrupt (Wall & Mathieson, 2006). Negative
economic impacts also include increased land and housing prices, higher taxes,
and inflation levels (Ap & Crompton, 1998). According to Wall & Mathieson
(2006), another negative impact of tourism on the econom y of a destination is the
propensity to import. In other words, the possibility of leakage occurring from the
destination. This is highly likely to occur in developing countries as they are
“frequently unable to supply the quantity and quality of goods and services
required to meet the demands created by tourists” (Wall & Mathierson, 2006, p.
103).

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Page |44Table 2.2: Negative Economic Impacts of Tourism Development (Source:
Easterling, 2004, p.51).
Findings Researcher
Increased Cost
of LivingTourism results in
increased costs of
living for the host
communityCarmichael et al., 1996; Faullner &
Tidewell, 1997; Greenwood, 1972;
Lawson et al., 1998; Liu & Var, 1998;
Staynes & Stewart, 1993
Increased Price Residents perceived
that tourism results in
increased pr ices (i.e.,
food, services, goods,
land)Ahmed, 1986; Akis et al., 1996; Belisle
& Hoy, 1980; ; Lawson et al., 1998;
Liu & Var, 1998; Staynes & Stewart,
1993 La Flamme 1979; Liu & Var,
1986; Long et al.; 1990; Pizma, 1990 ;
Stonich, 1998
Benefits nor
distributedResidents believe that
economic benefits
accure to minority of
the host populationBelisle & Hoy, 1980; Freitag , 1994;
Getz, 1994; Joshson et. al., 1994;
Lindbarg et al., 2001; Touson, 2001
Employment is
Seasonal,
TemporaryEmployment is
Seasonal a nd is
typically for low
wages and long hoursElo & Kyngas, 2008; Jordan, 1980;
Loval & Feuerstein, 1992; McCool,
1994; Sharply 1994; Tousan, 2001;
Increased
Economic
InstabilityResidents believe that
tourism is responsible
for fluctuations in
income and pricesGetz, 1994

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Page |45Most studies on economic impacts of tourism have dwelled on the positive side
andslightly giving a blind eye on the negative imperatives (Andereck, Valentine,
Knopf & Vogt, 2005:2). Tourism is widely perceived as a potential economic
base, it provides elements that may improve quality of life such as employment
opportunities, tax revenues, economic diversity, festivals, restaurants, natural and
cultural attractions,and outdoor recreation opportunities. Arguably, tourism is the
second largestindustry in the world; estimates from the World Travel and Tourism
Council (WTTC) suggest that it generate s around 200 million jobs worldwide and
accounts for10% of global GDP (WTTC, 201 3).
Tourism is a consumption -based industry and cannot be wholly classified under a
single code as it cuts across various industries. Swarbrooke (2002:25) asserts that
tourism brings foreign currency and contributes to improving the balance of
payment as a country as a whole. Cooper et al.,(1993:114) note that tourist s spend
their money on a variety of goods and services. Tourist money may be spend on;
accommodation, food and beverages, services, good sfrom retail operations and on
activities. This money is seen as an injection into the economy and is viewed to
have effects on demand (Cooper et al.,1993:114). Tourism is argued to bring
income to the central government; this is through tax espaid by employees and
taxes on purchased items (Swarbrooke, 2002:25). Ryan (2003:149) views tourist
spending as a profit generatin g mechanism for tourist businesses such as

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Page |46accommodation, food and beverage and activities. The tourist spent is thereby
used for expansion and growth of businesses ,hence the growth of the local
economy.
In trying to explain the impacts of tourism in econ omic terms, Kreag (2001:6)
highlighted positive and negative impacts. According to Kreag (2001:6) tourism
increases employment opportunities ,although it is argued that most of these jobs
are low paying and seasonal. Swarbrooke (2002:25) is also of the vie w thatmost
tourism jobs are part -time due to the seasonality nature of the industry. This
necessitate for effective planning to promote tourism during the low season. Weed
(2008:498) suggested hosting of many events, extensive marketing, and strategic
pricing as ways to boost tourism during the shoulder season.
As tourism grows, additional opportunities are created for investment,
development, and infrastructure spending (Kreag, 2001:7). Tourism often
encourages improvements in public utilities such as wat er, sewer, sidewalks,
lighting, parking, public toilets, waste control, and landscaping (Frost & Hall,
2009:295). Such improvements as Kreag (2001:7) notes benefit tourists and
residents alike. In addition, tourism promotes improvements in transport system s
resulting in upgraded roads, airports, public transportation -rail and buses. Jina
(1994:36) declares that transport facilities are necessary for tourism development;
he claims that without transport facilities, it is “a dead body with no life.” Jina

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Page |47(1994:36) further claims that tourism development is anchored on improved
transport facilities. In this regard, the writer is of the notion that tourism
development results in improved transport systems at the destination. Tourism
encourages new elements to join the retail mix, increasing opportunities for
shopping and adding healthy competitiveness. Tourism is however affected by
leakages which Keyser (2002:288) described as siphoning of income from the
income flow of a destination. Leakages have an effect of diluting income whereby
tourism receipts leave the destination economy. Page (1995:48) notes that
leakages are mostly felt when the economy heavily depends on imports. Page
(1995:56) went on to suggest ways of combating leakages which includes;
reducing the openness of an economy, maximizing local economic linkages
reduction of imports such as labour, goods and services and promotion of local
investment.
The perceptions from local residents are influenced by a number of factors
together with the extent of contact that they relate with tourists which also
includes personal economic dependence on the tourism industry (Marzuki,
2012:201). Based on the argument that rural communities are very fragile, the
growth of tourism could rapidly affect local communitie s in the destination. The
impacts from tourism also influence local perception in each community in
different degrees depending on the factors and local r esidents’ interaction with the

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Page |48industry. Nevertheless, it is understood that local residents’ percepti ons are
important to strengthen economic growth from tourism development and provide a
good image of the tourism industry (Marzuki, 2012:202).
2.4.3The social impacts of tourism
Tourism development also affects the social, cultural and environmental aspec ts
within a destination. Socio -cultural impacts are concerned with the “ways in which
tourism is contributing to changes in va lue systems, individual behavio r, family
relationships, collective lifestyles, moral conduct, creative expressions, traditional
ceremonies and community organization” (Pizam & Milman, 1984, cited in
Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996, p.503).
Socio-cultural aspects within a destination may be positively affected through
increased tourism (Table, 3). Research (Ap & Crompton, 1998; Easterl ing, 2004)
suggests that tourism brings an increased understanding of other cultures, and
strengthens the cultural identity of the host destination and increases community
pride. Furthermore, tourism development increases and promotes cultural
exchange bet ween tourists and residents. For example, the majority of Hawaiian
residents agreed that tourism development promoted “cultural exchange giving
[residents] better understanding of the world” (Liu & Var, 1986, p. 201). Tourism
can also be a force to preserv e and revitalize the cultural identity and traditional

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Page |49practices of host communities and act as a source of income to protect heritage
sites (Easterling, 2004).
Table2.3: Positive Socio -Cultural Impacts of Tourism Development (Source:
Easterling, 2004, p .53)
Findings Researcher
Increased
Understanding
of Different
CulturesResidents report enhanced
understanding of differencesAp & Crampton, 1998; Liu & Var
1986; Mathison & Wall, 1982;
Milman & Pizma, 1988; Pizma,
1978; Sheldon & Var, 1984
Revitalized
Traditional
PracticesResidents believe that
tourism has revitalized
traditional practices leading
to their preservationBesculides, Lee, & McCormick
2002; DeKadt, 1970 ; Esman, 1984
Increased
Demand for
Local ArtsTourism has increased the
demand for loca l crafts and
artsAp & Crampton, 1998 ; Liu & Var
1986;
Preserves
Cultural Identity
of HostsResidents believe that
tourism has helped to
preserve the cultural identity
of the local communityLiu & Var, 1986; Evans, 1976
Greater Pride in
CommunityAs a result of the tourism
development, there are
greater community pride andAp & Crampton, 1998; Delamere &
Hinch, 1994 ; Inskeep, (1994).

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Page |50cohension
Improve Quality
LifeTourism development its
believed to improve residents
overall quality of lifeBurns 199 6; Pizma, 1978; Milman
& Pizma, 1988; Perdue, Long &
Alien, 1990
Promotes
Cultural
ExchangeBelisle & Hoy, 1980; Brougham &
Butler, 1991; Elo & Kyngas (2007);
Liu, Shaldom & Var, 1987; Liu &
Var, 1986; Sheldom & Var, 1984
Tourism has at least four positive social impacts on host communities (Mthembu,
2009:70). Firstly, tourism is known to bring greater understanding between people
ofdifferent cultures. McIntosh and Goeldner (1995:17) are of the view that
tourism can contribute to peace, particularly when t ourists make at least a casual
contact with their hosts. Secondly, tourism can bring a new awareness of old
culture, traditions and fading local arts and crafts, as tourists attach great value to
what is different and unfamiliar. This is especially true in the lesser developed
countries of the world.Once local residents recognize that their indigenous culture
has the potential to attract more tourists, they will try to preserve it. (Mtembu,
2009:70). Thirdly, destination areas are often greatly enriched by the new ideas
and new social interest conveyed by tourists. Fourthly, tourism regularly facilitates
a transition from an inflexible dictatorial social structure to one that is more

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Page |51sensitive to the needs of the individual; societies that are closed to outs ide
influences tend to be somewhat rigid. Encouragements of tourism contacts within
these areas stimulate more moderate policies. This has benefits for both hosts and
tourists (Bennet, 1995:95).
Just like negative impacts of tourism development on develope d countries, tourism
development in developing countries has also led to negative socio -cultural change
(Table, 4). The nature and degree of tourism impacts varies from one country to
the other depending on the country's social and cultural structure (Doga n, 1989).
Brunt & Courtney (1999) state that the degree to which tourism generates socio –
cultural impacts depends on the number and type of tourists, the nature of tourism
development within the area, and on many aspects of the host community ( e.g.,
size,strength, resiliency, and traditions).
Brunt & Courtney (1999) indicate that social impacts are those with an immediate
effect on tourists and host communities with regards to quality of life. However,
these impacts are liable to change over time in respo nse to the industry's structural
changes and the extent of the host population's exposure to tourism development.
Tourism development can affect the habits of individuals, their daily routines and
social life, their beliefs and values (Dogan, 1989).

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Page |52Table2.4: Negative Socio -Cultural Impacts of Tourism Development (Source:
Easterling, 2004, p.53)
Findings Researcher
Loss of Native
LanguageResidents report that as a
result of the influx of tourist
languages, their native
language has been lostCoppock 1 987; Cybrisky,
1970; White, 1974
Increased
ProstitutionResidents believe that tourism
results in increased
prostitutionBelishe & Hoy, 1990; Liu &
Sheldon, 1987; Liu & Var,
1996
Tourism
Destroy
Community
CharacterTourism erodes social fabric
of commun itiesFaukenberry et a l., 2000;
Allen et al., 1988; Bi sillat,
1979; Braytey et al., 1990;
Delamere & Hinch, 1994;
Residents
Attitude
Worsen Over
TimeResidents negative attitude
may become hostile behaviorsDoxey, 1975; Dogan, 1989;
Husband, 1989; Munt, 1994
Tourism
Intensifies
labor burdensBurden of accom modating
tourists intensifies residents
stress and exploits workersBraytey et al., 1990; Freitag
1994
Tourism Leads
to a Loss of
AuthenticityTourism creat es inauthentic
behaviors on the part of the
host populationBrougham & Butter, 1961

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Page |53The White Paper on Tourism Development has attempted to focus on strategies
which should negate or perfect the negative impacts of tourism on local
communities. These impacts are frequently cited in literature. Tou rists are often
inclined to discard many of the social norms which regulate their behavior in their
daily lives when they travel away from home. Some tourists tend to relax their
dress code; they manifest loose sexual morals or indulge in theillegal drug
consumption and heavy drinking. This behavior may bring them into direct
conflictwith the host population, or it may undermine the local traditions or
customs of the host country. This in turn,leads to many of the other negative
social impacts of tourism(Bennet, 1995:98). These negative impacts, if not
addressed directly, could lead to increased negative perceptions of tourism hence
residents would not support tourism development program s (Sharma & Dyer,
2012:39). Locals working in the tourist industry o ften remain in low -key jobs,
while outsiders fill the more demanding and better -paying jobs. This might have
economic and social repercussions: it could lead to conflict in the workplace and
locals could be made to believe that they are inferior to foreign cultures or people.
The negative effect of a perception like this on the social values of the local
community is self -evident(Mthembu, 2009:72). This phenomenon often surfaces
in Southern Africa, where many of the hotels and those in top managerial posit ions
working in the tourist industry are foreigners (Mthembu, 2009:72). Some
managers are not familiar with the South African environment, including the

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Page |54cultural values and traditions of this numerous African subcultures. This may lead
to unnecessary confl ict in the organization.
According to Haralambopoulos & Pizam (1996), tourism has an impact on the
transformation of the social system within communities, by changing “the socio –
economic stat us of some individuals” . For example, due to tourism, some resid ents
could have a better social and economic status than others if the land they own
suddenly acquires a higher value than it did before.
Cultural impacts of tourism a re those that influence a long -term and gradual
change in the values, beliefs and traditi ons of a society. Research suggests that
tourism can have a harmful influence on the culture of a country
(Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996). However, tourism is also believed to
“contribute to the 'renaissance' of traditional art forms in host societies”
(Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996, p.508). A majority of countries within the
Arabian Gulf (i. e.,Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Kuwait) have very
conservative views guided by Islam. The influx of Western tourists poses a threat
to the culture and tradition s of the country. As Tosun (2002) suggests, tourism
generating from developed countries can have a negative socio -cultural impact
(e.g., decline in traditions, materialization, and social conflicts) on members of
developing countries. Further, the demonstr ation effect of tourism is seen as the
main cause of change within community values, where the influx of Western

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Page |55tourists could mean the imitation of Western traits along with a shift of community
morals from traditional, Islamic values (Haralambopolous & Pizam, 1996).
Haralambopolous & Pizam (1996) further reported that residents believe tourism
development would increase rates of individual crime, drug taking and abuse, and
sexual harassment. Mason & Cheyne (2000) suggest that residents express
concern i n fear of the perceived changes and loss of control over their
environment as a result of tourism development. Dogan (1989), states that tourism
leads to a decline in traditions, social conflict, environmental deterioration and an
increased crime rate. For example, in a study on the impacts of tourism on the
Amish of Pennsylvania, tourism development led to changes in the quilting
designs produced by the Amish. Quilts designed for tourists, were not traditional
Amish designs and not of the same quality of t he quilts made for the Amish use
(Besculides et al.,2002). Even though the Amish population were benefiting from
selling the quilts, the quilt design did not reflect their culture.
The study of social impacts of tourism has been combined with cultural imp acts
resulting in socio -cultural impacts (Keyser, 2002:346). To give a clear distinction
between the two, Keyser (2002:346) refers social impacts as changes in the norms
and values of society that are more noticeable in the short term. Cultural impacts
arelong term changes in art forms, rituals, community structures and so forth
(Keyser, 2002:346) Tourism has brought lot of changes world -wide, some of these

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Page |56impacts might have positive influences and some are negative and Keyser
(2002:349) views tourism asonedriver in societal change. These impacts are two
sided; they might bring good and bad things in the destination as pointed out by
(Mthembu, 2009:70). Weed (2008:394) reiterates that any impact on the society
should be classified within the social domai n. Malthieson and Wall (1982:4)
suggest that in categorizing or defining social impacts in tourism, anything that
affects the quality of life has to be considered. In this regard, changes in quality of
life of residents of a tourist destination constitute social impacts.
Sociologists view tourism as a social p henomenon whilst anthropologist considers
itas a cultural phenomenon (Keyser, 2002:344). The social phenomenon involve s
social interaction between tourists and residents and between tourists and the
touristindustry (Keyser, 2002:344). According to Keyser (2002:344), such form
ofinteraction causes social change. Keyser (2002:344) further identifies factors
whichinfluence tourism. These are for example fashion, social status, norms and
valuesof a society.
The cultural phenomenon involves cont racts between the different cultural
backgrounds of tourists and host communities and tourism industry and residents
(Keyser, 2002:345). This form of contact is referred to as cultural exchange
(Keyser, 2002:345). Sharma (2004:94) notices that cultural exchange can be
possible even with a well -managed small -scale tourism development.

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Page |572.4.4Factors Influencing Residents' Attitudes.
What one perceives can be substantially different from objective reality. Brida,
Disegna and Osti (2011:5) argue that residents do not form a homogenous group
in terms of their perceptions of tourism impact therefore, perceptions differ from
one person to the other. It is believed that those who obtain more benefits perceive
tourism posit ively whereas those who have less benefit would perceive tourism
impact negatively (Brida et al., 2011:5).
A number of facto rs influencing residents’ perceptions have been identified in the
literature. Tourism planners and developers are interested in know ing how
community members view tourism activities in their area. This is important for
themto gain residents’ support when it c omes to the development of tourism
policies (Ap, 1992:665).
Previous studies have examined residents' attitudes towards tourism development
by identifying certain socio -demographic and independent variables. Variables
such as age, income, gender, length of residence, and ethnicity have been used to
understand and explain how attitudes towards tourism development differ from
one resident to the other (Table, 5).

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Page |58Table2.5: Socio-demographic Factors Resulting in Positive and Negative
Impacts ( Source: Easterling, 2004, p.50)
Positive Impacts Researchers Negative (or Neutral)
ImpactsResearchers
Age Younger
residents more
favorable toward
developmentHaralambop
oulis, 1996;-Middle aged residents
concerned about
infrastructure
-Older residents less
tolerable of tourism
and more concerned
about community
impactsBastiaset al.,
1993
Tomljenovic,
Renata and
Faulkner, 1999
Education More educated
residents are
more involved
and supportiveAyres and
Potter,
1989;
Korca, 1998-More educated
residents resent
Tourism
-Higher education
leads to higher
awarenessAhmed, 1986;
Bastias et al.,
1993
Gender More
opportunity for
women worker s
in tourism
industryTooman,
1987; Urry,
1991

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Page |59Income The higher the
income, the
more positive the
attitude toward
tourismHaralambop
oulis, 1996;
Length of
Residence- Newer
residents more
favorable
-Longer term
residents become
more attached,
moreinvolvedStynes,
1993; Ayres
and Potter,
1989;
Haralambop
oulis, 1996;
McCool,
1984-Residence has no
effect on tourism
attitude
-Long term residents
are less favorableAllen et al.,
1993; Clements
et al., 1993;
Haralambopoul
is, 1996;
Residentia
l
Location-
Proximity
to Tourist
activities-Urban residents
more favorable
-As distance
increased
tourism viwed
more favorablyWall, 1986;
Pearce,
1980;
Belislay &
Hoy, 1980The closer the
proximity the greater
the concernsFaulkner &
Tideswall,
1997;
Ciements,
1987; Korce,
1998; Teo,
1994
Translenc
eThe greater the number
of tourists, the more
transient the resident
population becomeAllen et al.,
1988
Personal benefits such as personal or family job opportunities, additional income
andso forth are noted to affect the manner in which residents view tourism

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Page |60impacts(Mensah, 2012:275 -276). Interestingly, the behavio r of residents towards
tourismpredicts their attitudes and perceptions as noted by Ap (1992:670). Ap
(1992:668) postulated that members of the host community with business or
employment interests in tourism will generally be more positively disposed to it
because they trade off resulting costs with benefits. Conversely, those who are not
involved in the tourism derive no considerable direct benef its, yet may still
experience some costs and are more inclined to hold negative perceptions
(Mensah, 2012:276).
Yoon (1998:17) identified ten factors which determine residents’ perceptions on
tourism impacts. The se factors have been widely debated in past research and they
are; length of residency, community attachment, tourism related jobs, recreational
activity, tourist contacts, tourism policy participation, travel experience, the levels
of tourism development and growth of community. Additionally, resid ents’
perceptions are influenced by demographic characteristics (Ap, 1992). Factors
suchas age, gender, income, occupation, religion, ethnicity and marital status are
examples of demographic characteristic having an influence on residents’
perceptions.
Perdue,et al.(1990) suggest that very little variation in residents' attitudes are
explained by these variables. However, McGehee & Andereck (2004) suggest that
the individuals' age determines how they form their attitudes towards tourism. For

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Page |61example, McG ehee & Andereck's study suggests older residents are less likely to
agree with “statements concerning the negative impacts of tourism” (2004, p.
136).
Tomljenovic & Faulkner (1999) found older residents to be more tolerant to the
presence of international tourists than younger residents. However, older residents
were more concerned with tourism's impact on crime and safety levels and
disturbance in the neighbo rhood, than younger residents (Tomljenovic &
Faulkner, 1999). Contrary to Tomljenovic & Faulkner's (1999) study, Cavus &
Tanrisevdi (2002) found older Turkish residents hold more negative perceptions
towards tourism development than younger residents. Varying relationships
between 'age' and residents' attitudes towards tourism development could depend
on the values and culture of residents. Tomljenovic & Faulkner suggest that
because older residents grew up with values conflicting with modern lifestyles,
they are likely to oppose tourism development because of the social change
associated with it.
Regarding gender; Mason & Cheyne (2000) found women to be more opposed to
tourism development than men, due to increases in traffic, noise, and crime.
According to Harrill (2004), women could be more opposed to tourism due to
traditional wage and occupational difference. Iroegbu & Chen (2001) found urban
male residents holding a college education and making more than $25,000 per

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Page |62year, were more likely to support the development of tourism than female
residents of the same age and income (McGehee & Andereck, 200 4). Residents
whose livelihoods depended on tourism were found to perceive tourism
development more positively (Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996). McGehee &
Andereck also found that residents who depended on the tourism industry “or
perceive a greater level o f economic gain tend to have a more positive perception
of tourism's economic impact than other residents” (2004, p.133).
Other factors such as length of residence, level of community attachment, and
distance from tourism facilities and attractions have a lso been studied. Lankford &
Howard (1994) suggest that the longer residents live in a destination, the more
they opposed tourism development. For example, long -term residents of Mo ntana
& Virginia held less favo rable perceptions than more recent residents towards
tourism development (Harrill, 2004). Easterling (2004) suggests that residents
living further away from tourism facilities and attractions are less likely to have
negative perceptions towards tourism than those who live closer to tourism
centers.Further, Harrill (2004) suggests residents who were more attached to the
community were less likely to hold positive perceptions towards tourism impacts.
However, McGehee & Andereck suggest that the relationship between community
attachment and its influen ce on residents' attitudes was not yet conclusive, “given

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Page |63that other [researchers] have found the opposite relationship or no definitive
relationship in their studies” (2004, p.133).
2.5Attitudes towards Tourism Development
This section describes some t heories of residents' attitudes towards the
development of tourism. Carmichael et al., defines attitudes as the “enduring
predisposition towards a particular aspect of one's environment [and] can be
reflected in the way one thinks, feels and behaves with r espect to that aspect”
(2000, p.603). Attitudes of individuals can be classified along the following three
dimensions: cognitive (beliefs, knowledge, perceptions), affective (likes and
dislikes), and behavioural (action taken or expressed) (Carmichael et al., 2000).
Residents of host destinations can base their attitudes towards tourism
development on any of the aforementioned attitude dimensions.
According to Getz, attitudes are “reinforced by perceptions and beliefs of reality,
but are closely related to deeply held values and even to personality” (1994,
p.247). Andriotis & Vaughan, state that the important aspect of residents' attitudes
is that “what is perceived does not have to be true” (2003, p.173). It is perceptions
rather than reality that motivate an individual to act in a certain way. Hence,
perceptions become the meaning associated with an object. It is suggested that
“residents might attribute meaning to the impacts of tourism without necessarily
having the knowledge or enduring predispositions” (Getz, 1994, p. 248).

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Page |64When residents feel that tourism development threatens their identity, they are
more likely to develop attitudes that are “at best ambivalent and at worst actively
hostile”. For example, Hernandez, et al.’s(1996) study of residents in Puerto Rico
suggested mixed feelings towards tourism development. Residents were concerned
with possible changes to their way of life, ending the tranquillity and increasing
crime (Mason & Cheyne, 2000). Similarly, in a study by Haralambopolous &
Pizam(1996) investigating social impacts of tourism as perceived by local
residents of Samos (Greece), mixed attitudes towards the industry were held.
Residents reported positive impacts of tourism to include job creation, increased
tax revenue and increased p ersonal income. In addition, “residents felt local
hospitality benefited and the area's image improved as a result of tourism” (Mason
& Cheyne, 2000, p.393). Moreover, suggestions have been made (Fredline &
Faulkner, 2000) that community members benefiting from tourism through
investment, ownership, or employment are more likely to form positive attitudes
towards tourism development than residents who do not directly benefit from
tourism.
Capenerhurst (1994) argues that the concern of residents towards tou rism
development arises when tourism is perceived as a threat to the status quo, to the
community identity, or to local culture. The reaction of residents towards tourism
development also depends on the number of people in the host community. For

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Page |65example, smaller host communities might have stronger reactions towards tourism
development than larger host communities as development is more visible. It is “at
the local level where facilities are seen to be built, where land and other resources
are allocated be tween competing users, and where the wishes of permanent
residents need to be accommodated as well as visitors” (p.152, cited in Mason &
Cheyne, 2000, p.395). Moreover, it is noted that “the consequences of tourism
have become increasingly complex and cont radictory [and] are manifested in
subtle and often unexpected ways” (Mathieson & Wall, 1982, p.4 -5).
It is assumed that three factors influence on residents' perceptions, namely:
economic dependency, resident’s social factor and level of local participatio n in
tourism activities. There has always been a controversial debate f the influence of
these factors on residents’ attitudes. Many scholars have been searching for its
universal model but it seems there is no such proved model existing until now.
Sirakaya et al. (2002, in Nunkoo & Gursoy 2011, 2) mention that there are
differences in the determinants of residents’ support for tourism between the
developed and developing regions. Ward and Berno (2011, 1564 -1565) through
their research between Fiji and New Zealand-twodeveloping and developed
states respectively indicate that residents who belong to a growing economic
region have more positive attitude toward tourism activities in their community.
Although Fijians acknowledged some negative consequences of tourism, generally

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Page |66they held a positive view of tourism. In contrast, New Zealanders were more
ambivalent and uncertain about the personal benefits of tourism for their own wills
although they did not deny the economic benefit that tourism has brought to their
state.
Economic factor is quite complex determination affecting residents’ support for
tourism activities. However, Blau (in Kayat 2002, 175) proposes that the partner in
asocial exchange with less power of alternative opportunities (or the so -called “no
–power”residents) is prone to be more dependent on the exchange relation. Kayat
(2002) conducts his study in Langkawi Island, which was one of the least
developed districts in Malaysia but has been undergoing substantial changes in its
economy thank s to tourism. He finds out that the “no -power” respondents who
presented strong support for tourism also showed great dependence on this
industry. In fact, these dependent residents have no alternative than tourism to
sustain themselves. In their perceptio n, the money and material wealth that
tourism brought to them were so important that any other negative impacts were
underestimated or neglected (Kayat 2002, 181 -182).
However, McGehee and Andereck (2004, 136) reveal that residents who benefit
economically from tourism also reported its negative impacts. Their research was
conducted in twelve communities in Arizona and the finding was that respondents
who are living in more tourism dependent communities are more likely to agree

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Page |67that tourism has negative imp acts than residents of less tourism dependent
communities. Supporting this result, Latkova and Vogt (2011,62) in a study of
three rural areas in Midwest expose that there is a positive relationship between
tourism dependence and tourism ‘negative impacts’. In order to clarify these
results, Nunkoo and Ramkisson (2010, 56) explain that residents depending on
tourism who display negative attitude towards the industry might believe that their
local economy is strong enough not to depend on tourism and there co uld be other
possibilities for them to make income rather than tourism sector. The perceived
local economic level therefore is more likely to influence tourism dependent
residents on their perceived tourism impacts.
To what extent one economically benefite d from tourism predict perceived
positive or negative impacts of tourism is questioned to examine the authentic
meaning of tourism development in an area. In the context of volunteer tourism
that benefitting the poor is the core objective, residents’ perce ptions hence could
be stereotyped when the economic benefit might be over evaluated than other
impacts. It is therefore very important to apply both social and economic factors in
order to gain a more precise insight into residents’ perceptions towards tou rism
development generally and volunteer tourism specifically.
There has been a controversy about the influence of social factors on residents’
attitudes towards tourism. While some researchers have found a significant

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Page |68difference in residents ’perceptions related to some social elements such as age,
length of residency, ethnicity, contact with tourists, others recognized a relatively
minor role of these factors in explaining residents’ attitudes toward tourism
development. However, these variables are consi dered as standard part of survey
implementation (Harrill 2004, 252). The social factors have helped many studies
in forming different clusters within a community. Brida et al. (2010) demonstrate
that this way of dividing into cluster groups allows “easy id entification of group
membership, so the positives about tourism development and possible solutions to
potential negative impacts can be distributed to key people”.
Some studies indicated that gender is a determinant of residents’ attitudes toward
tourism. Nunkoo and Gursoy (2011, 18) report that residents with feminine
identity were more aware of the negative impacts of tourism and more supportive
for tourism development in the community. The explanation lies in the fact that
femininity is more community -oriented, emphasizing on sensitivity and concern
for others. Regarding age, McGehee and Andereck (2004, 136) discover that the
older the respondent is the more likely he or she is to agree with the positive
impacts of tourism. Similarity, Ward and Berno (20 11) also find that older peop le
show more tolerance to tourists and have more positive attitude toward them.
However, Williams and Lawson (2001, 283) in their findings conclude that the
older group tend sto least approve of tourism in the town. They are co nsidered the

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Page |69most “community oriented” group as they care for natural environment,
community values including the role of local people in maintaining control over
their community.
Community attachment has been applied in many studies as an important
determinant intourism perceptions (McGehee & Andereck 2004, Andereck et al.
2005, Nunkoo & Ramkisson 2010, Latkova &Vogt 2011). McCool and Martin
(1994, in Nunkoo & Ramkisson 2010, 56) define community attachment as the
“extend and pattern of social participati onand integration into community life, and
sentiment or affect toward the community”. Community attachment was measured
by the length of residency, birthplace (Mc Gehee & Andreck2004). Nunkoo and
Ramkisson (2010) use the concept of community commitment in stead of
community attachment. This is characterized “as the extent to which local
residents internalized the community as their own, feel loyal to it and would not
consider moving away from the area at will” (Grzeskowiak et al. 2003, Theodori
2001, in Nun koo & Ramkisson 2011b , 177). Similarly, Stockon (2011) besides
length of residency, attempts to modify the dimension of community attachment
by the questions of belonging, emotional bond and fond memories about the
community. Latkova and Vogt (2011) add tw o more features in this category as
social and environmental attach (family ties, local culture and tradition, natural
landscapes, opportunities for outdoor recreation as well to be involved in

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Page |70community). Harrill (2004, 259) concludes that in general, the tourism researchers
have discovered a direct negative relationship between community attachment and
residents’ perceptions towards tourism. It is explained by the fact that tourism is
an industry with the potential consequences of degrading community life quality.
Therefore the more attached residents are to their community, the more negative
they are feeling towards tourism development. However, in the case of four
researchers under this study, except Stockon (2011), there are some inconsistent
results as McGehee & Andreck (2004) and Latkova& Vogt (2011) discover a
contradictory result while Nunkoo and Ramkisson (2010) do not find any
relationship between community attachment and residents’ tourism perceptions.
Generally, there is no consistent relationshi p when testing the correlation between
socialvariables and attitudes. This might be because these variables are applied in
different areas in which the geography, the tradition as well as the tourism
development level vary greatly. Thus, these results are only related to specific
environments and cannot be generalized to other states. For a particular
community in this study, an examina tion of social factors should alsobe
investigated in order to clarify which social factor would have aneffect on the
local residents’ perceptions towards volunteer tourism.
Local participation is one principle of sustainability in tourism. This element is
considered as the key difference between conventional mass tourism and

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Page |71sustainable forms of tourism (Mowforth & Munt 200 9, 101-107). The involvement
of local community in thedecision-makingprocess has not only enhanced
individual learning but al so for potential future endeavo rs ofthe community
development (George et al. 2009, 168).
The importance of loca l involvement in area-development projects could not be
therefore under -estimated. Supporting for this cause, Kayat (2002) discovers that
the more power local residents in Langkawi, M alaysia is given, the more favo rable
and supportive attitude they express towards future tourism development of the
town. Similarly, Nunkoo and Ramkisson (2011b) in their study of Grand -Baie-a
tourist resort in Mauritius find out a direct positive relationship between residents’
perceived level of power to influence tourism and the perceived benefits of the
industry.
Harsanyi (1971) and Nagel (1975) (in Kayat 2002, 175) identify the resources
owned by residents as an important source of power because they imply the
residents’ ability to influence the tourism development (such as labor, capital,
cultural and natural resources) in their state. Consistent with social exchange
theory, these resources represent residents’ power in an exchange with tourism
development to satisfy their needs (Kayat 2002, 175). Ap (1992, in Nunkoo &
Ramkisson 2010, 57) also agrees that thestudy of residents’ power in tourism is

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Page |72necessary since it determines the residents’ capacity to take advantage of tourism
benefits.
Whether the community is involved passively or could actively participate in
tourism policy makingprocess is dependent on the barriers of community capacity
in tourism development which includes the lack of community participation
opportunities, the power imbalance between local authority, the lack of tourism
knowledge and the availability of short -termfundingprograms (Hunt 2005, in
Aref & Redzuan 2009, 22). The local expected to be involved more in tourism
development activities but there was no or little support from government. In
addition, the finding also shows that the residents in Shiraz saw inc onsistent
activities in terms of tourism planning in their community.
The purpose of involving the variable of residents’ participation in this study is to
examinethe level of local power that “to make people central to the development
by encouraging beneficiary involvement in interventions that affect them and over
which they previously had limited control and influence” (Cooke & Kothari 2001,
in Nunkoo & Ramkisson 2010, 57).
2.6Tourism Impact Models
This part describes the tourism impact models which co nsidered residents’
perceptions as the foundation. The three models which are introduced are Doxey’s

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Page |73Irridex Model, Butler’s TouristAreaLifeCycle(TALC) Modeland Social
Exchange Process Model.
2.6.1Doxey’s Irridex Model
In the Irridex model, Doxey d eveloped a useful framework for the analysis of
community attitude towards tourists, the irridex (derived from irritation index)
represents the escalating irritation of the residents as the impacts of the visitors
number increases.
Doxey’s Irridex Model (1 975) presents an analysis of the effects of tourism
development on the social relationship between host and tourists. Its four stages
describe different stages of tourism development and their influence on hosts and
tourists. At the first stage, tourism de velopment is minimal, few tourists visit the
destination area, tourists want to mix with the local population and they welcome
the tourists. At this stage, limited commercial activities take place. At the second
stage, the number of tourists increase, the local population perceives that more
tourists will visit their destination and the relationship between tourists and the
local community becomes formal.
At the third stage, there is significant tourist growth demanding more resources. A
competition of res ources creates tension between the local population and tourism.
The local population becomes concerned about tourism and its impact on their

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Page |74livelihood. At the fourth stage a conflicting situation is presented where tourists
are seen in a negative way. To urists and tourism becomes the victim of society’s
wrong doings.
Stages Host Community
AttitudeCharacteristics
Stage 1 Euphoria Small number of visitors
Visitors want to merge with local community
Host community welcome tourism
Limited commercia l activity in destination area.
Stage 2 Apathy Visitors number increases
Visitors are taken for granted
The relationship between tourists and the host
community is more formalized
Stage 3 Irritation The number of tourists grow significantly
Increased involvement of external commercial
organizations
Increased competition for resources between tourists
and residents
Locals concerned about tourism
Stage 4 Antagonism Open hostility from locals
Attempts to limit damage and tourism flows
Figure 2.1:Doxey’sIrridex Model ;Source: Adapted from Keyser (2002)

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Page |75Doxey (1975) cites the physical presence of tourists, the differences between
tourists and locals and the foreign ownership of local resources as possibly
constituting the primary factors cau sing social impacts. This model is a useful
simplification of the complex relationship and set of attitude that developed
between tourists and host communities. The specific abilities of the host
communities to accommodate or tolerate tourism, and the atti tudes that are formed
in consequences, are different from community to community and are determined
by a number of factors, including the number and type of visitors, length of visit,
and cultural distance between host and guests (Doxey, 1975).
2.6.2Butler’sTouristAreaLifeCycle(TALC)
TourismAreaLifeCycle(TALC)isamodeldeveloped byButlertoexplainthe
stagesinvolved inthedevelopment ofatourismdestination. TALCmodelhas
identified sixstagesinvolved inthelifecycleofatouristdestination.Thesestages
include; exploration, involvement, development, consolidation, stagnation and
decline/rejuvenation. WhilemanytourismscholarshaveadoptedButlersTALC
modelastoolfortourismdestination planning, therearestillafewtourism
scholarswhothinkthatthemodelthatnotprovideacomprehensive understanding
ofthedevelopment oftourismdestination. Butler’sTALCmodelprovidesauseful
meansofunderstanding thehistorical evolution oftourismdestination. Though

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Page |76thismodelisnotcomprehensive, itprovides aneffective toolthatcanbeusedin
tourismdestination planning.
According toButler’sTALCmodelatourismdestination goesthroughsixstages.
Thefirststageisexploration. Thisstageinvolvesafewtouristsdiscovering anew
tourismarea(Butler,2011).Thisstageisusuallycharacterized withminimal
numberofvisitorsduetolimitedaccess,limitedknowledge andinadequate
facilities. Thetouristvisitingsuchareasaremainlytheallocentric oradventure
seekingtourists.Thesecondstage,involvement, beginswhenlocalcommunity
beginstoparticipate inthetourismdevelopment process.Onseeingafewtourists
interested withtheirarea,members ofthelocalcommunity begintodevelop
simpleinfrastructures andfacilitiessuchasaccessroadsandsmallaccommodation
andcateringfacilities(Butler,2011).Moretouristgainknowledge oftheareaand
thenumberofvisitorsbegintorise.Atthisstagetheareaisstillpopularamong
theallocentric typeoftourists.
Thedevelopment stagebeginstosetinwhenthegovernment andsmallscale
investors takenoticeoftheinterestoftouristonthisarea(Butler,2011).The
government setintoprovidenecessary infrastructure suchasroadsandelectricity
whileinvestors begintoprovide sophisticate infrastructures suchas
accommodation andtransport facilities. Theareasalsobecomewidelymarketed as
tourismdestination furtherincreasing thenumberoftouristvisitingthearea.The

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Page |77mid-centrictouristsbegintohaveconfidentwiththisareaandstartvisitingfurther
increasing thenumberofvisitation. Consolidation stageismarkedbyentryofthe
bigplayersinthetourismindustryintothisarea(Butler,2011).Smallfacilitiesare
replacedbylargetourismestablishments designtoservelargemassesoftourist.
Moreandmoretouristflockintotheareasasthepsychometric beginstogain
confident withthisdestination.
Figure 2. 2:Butler’s Tourist Area Life Cycle (TALC)
Thestagnation stageismarkedbystabilization inthegrowthofthenumberof
tourist(Butler,2011).Thisismainlyasaresultoftheallocentric touristleaving
theareaasitbeginstoloseitsnoveltystatusandtheirnumberisreplacedbythe
psychometric touristswhoareappealed bythecomfortandfamiliarity offeredby
thearea.Therisingnumberoftouristsbeginstoirritatelocalsastheybegintofeel

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Page |78thepressureassociated withthelargenumberoftourists.Declineorrejuvenation
stagemayfollowthestagnation stage.Declinestageresultsfromthetourismareas
undergoing degradation asaresultofincreased pressurefromthelargenumberof
tourists.Environmental andsocialproblems begintohauntthearealeadingtothe
arealosingitsappeal.However, theareastourismappealmayberejuvenated
throughvariousmeanssuchasdeveloping newproducts besidetheproductthat
hadinitiallyattractedtouristintothearea.
2.6.3Social Exchange Process Model
For assessing the social impacts of tourism many writers used (Lankford and
Howard, 1994; Ryan and Montogomery, 1994; Haralambopoulos and Pizam,
1996; and Faulker and Tideswell, 1997 ) socialexchange theory. Modern social
exchange theory has evolved through the works of Emerson (1972). Homans
(1961) claims that social exchange theory is based on the premise that human
behavioror social interaction is an exchange of activity.
The main components of the model are need satisfaction, exchange relations,
consequences of exchange, and the no -exchange outcome. The figure presents a
set of proc esses that link the main components of the model. They are: (1)
initiation of exchange; (2) exchange formation; (3) exchange transaction
evaluation; (4) positive evaluation of exchange consequences, that is,
reinforcement of behavior.

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Page |79Figure 2. 3:Social Exchange Process Model ;Source: Adapted from Ap
(1992:670) .
According to Ap (1992), Social exchange theory suggests individuals engage in
exchange if three preconditions are realized: (1) the rewards are valued (2) the
exchange produces valued rewards and (3) the costs do not exceed e xpected
rewards. This principle suggests that residents will be willing to enter into anNeed
Satisfact
ion
-MotiveANTECEDEN
TS
-Rationality
-Satisficing
-Beliefs
-Reciprocity
-Justice-
PrincipleFORM OF
EXCHANGE
RELATION
-Balanced
-UnbalancedExchange Relation
21
Exchan
ge
Initiatio
nCONSEQUE
NCE OF
EXCHANG
E
Outputs
Actions
Outcome
3
Transactio
n
Evaluation
No
ExchangeNegative evaluation of consequences (Withdrawal of
behaviour
Positive evaluation of consequences (Reinforcement
of behaviour)

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Page |80exchange with the tourists if they can reap some benefits without incurring
unacceptable costs.
The exchange process follows a sequence of events. The first event is
identification of need. Ap (1992:672) says: “an actor will initiate an exchange
relationship when there is a need to satisfy”. To initiate an exchange there must be
a need to satisfy and satisfaction of need justify the rationale for engaging in social
exchange. Therefore, unless a community has a need to develop tourism or
perceives tourism as a means of achieving social and economic benefits, it is
unlikely to welcome the development of tourism (Ap, 1992; Ap and Crompton,
1998). The social exchange must be reciprocal, i.e. the resource exchange between
parties should be roughly equivalent. Social exchange theory which is generally
concerned with explaining the exchange of resources (physical or symb olic)
between people or group of people is similar to Nash’s suggestion.
2.7Tourism Impact and Residents’ Attitude Scales
This section looks at the different resident attitude scales that have been devised.
The Index of Tourism Impacts will be discussed in more detail as it will b e used
throughout the research.
Perdue,et al.(1990:595) developed a model looking at resident perceptions and
possible relationships between “perceived impacts and resident support for

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Page |81additional tourism development and specifi c development policies”. The model
was applied to 16 rural communities in Colorado. According to Perdue, et al.
(1990), residents who directly and personally benefit from tourism are more likely
to support further tourism development. Perdue, et al.'s (1990) model
hypothesized that if personal benefits from tourism development were not
included in the model, then the perceived impacts are unrelated to resident
characteristics. In other words, by excluding a resident's personal economic,
social, and cultural benefits he/she would encounter from tourism development, a
residents perception towards tourism impacts are not related to characteristics such
as age, gender, and length of residence. The model showed general support for the
aforementioned hypothesis. T he model further supported that even when personal
benefits were controlled for, “support for additional tourism development would
be positively related to the perceived positive impacts of tourism and negatively
related to the perceived negative impacts” (p.597).
Lankford & Howard (1994) devised a 27 -item, two -dimensional scale to measure
community attitudes toward tourism development known as the Tourism Impact
Attitude Scale (TIAS). TIAS applies standardized scaling techniques for gauging
host community attitudes toward tourism. The scale tests the influence of
independent variables on residents' attitudes towards tourism. The TIAS was

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Page |82tested in two rural tourism communities in the Columbia River Gorge region of
Oregon and Washington.
To assess the exte nt to which independent variables influenced resident attitudes,
Lankford and Howard (1994) used canonical correlation analysis and multiple
regression analysis. The authors found that if local residents felt tourists affected
their use of outdoor recreati on areas, positive resident attitudes towards tourism
development were reduced dramatically. Results also indicated that residents with
the most favorable attitudes towards tourism development were those most likely
to be employed in a job catering to tour ists. Results of the study further suggested
that Doxey's (1975) Irridex does not consider the “complexity of factors that can
influence, either positively or negatively, residents' attitudes toward tourism”
(p.135). Reliability scores for the TIAS were hi gh with an alpha scale coefficient
of 0.964, however scale validation remained incomplete. Despite the scale's
reliability, the two dimensions identified were not consistent with classified
frameworks of perceived impacts. According to Ap & Crompton (1998) , Lankford
and Howard's (1994) scale lacked compatibility with taxonomic frameworks of
tourism impacts as it “better reflected prevailing conceptual classifications of
perceived impacts” (p.123).
Based on these limitations, Ap & Crompton (1998) developed a 35-item scale, the
Index for Tourism Impacts (ITI) (Appendix, A) .Data for the study were collected

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Page |83from three Texas communities heavily affected by tourism (Ap & Crompton,
1998). The purpose of the scale was to measure the physical/ecological/social or
cultural environments, and the residents' acceptance of visitors. The index consists
of two components: (1) belief measured by asking respondents the level of change
associated with the 35 community indicators, and (2) evaluation measured by
asking respond ents “their level of like or dislike with each item” (Ap & Crompton,
1998, p. 124). For example, rating the level of change, like or dislike brought
about by tourism development, with thelevel of traffic congestion, opportunities
to learn about other peop le and cultures Ap & Crompton's (1998) study
demonstrated the following three domains: economic, social/cultural, and
physical/environmental. The study further led to the emergence of four other
domains: crowding and congestion, services, taxes, and commun ity attitude.
Factor analysis was used to verify the scale and confirm the underlying perceived
impact dimensions. The results confirmed the dimensional distinctiveness of the
instrument (Ap & Crompton, 1998). The ITI is believed to have acceptable
internal consistency levels and relatively high convergent validity. Because the
index was tested on three Texas communities with different characteristics, the
authors concluded, “the consistency of results that emerged across such diverse
samples, suggests that the instrument is likely to be applicable across a broad
spectrum of communities that are impacted by tourists” (Ap & Crompton, 1998,
p.129).

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Page |842.8Tourism and Community Participation
2.8.1Community
There are various definitions related to community and t hese terms are confusing,
some academics (Stacey, 1969; Thorns, 1976) realize that the term community is
difficult to define. Based on Hillery’s (1955, p.65) review on 94 community
definitions, he concluded that no agreement had been achieved but every
definition deal with people. In addition to his review, he found that there are three
main components related to the term c ommunity: area, common ties and social
interaction. The word community is derived from the Latin word “ communities ”.
Examples are as a c ity, a town, a village or parish. This definition pinpoints that
the concept of community is endowed with demographic, geographic, economic
and political dimensions which leads the community to rule itself as an
autonomous social unit. This autonomous soci al unit is strengthened by common
values and experienced feelings of belongingness. On top of that, Jamal and Getz
(1995) defined community as a body of people living in the same locality.
Swarbrooke (1999) points out the complexity of the term community w ithin the
tourism context and suggests that it involves geography, ethnicity, demography,
governance, stakeholders and the power structure that exists within the
community.

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Page |85Singhet al(2003:7) define community as: “a set of people l iving together,
symbioticallybound to each other and their habitat, thereby rendering themselves
a distinct collective personality”. Here they point out that collective living creates
a unique personality which separates on e community from other communities .
Tourism academics r efer to communities as locals, native, residents, indigenous
people, destina tion people and hosts. They usually put much emphasis on the term
host. Therefore, it can be said that tourist destination community bears all the
characteristics of community disc ussed above. Yet one significant difference is
that it has to accept the impacts of tourism activities because as a community they
have tourist attractions and are providing tourism services to tourists.
2.8.2Community participation
Community participati on is an important component of community development
and reflects a grassroots or bottom -up approach to problem solving. In social
work, community participation refers to “the active voluntary engagement of
individuals and groups to change problematic co nditions and to influence policies
and programs that affect the quality of their lives or the lives of others” (Weil and
Gamble, 1995). Effective community participation may lead to social and personal
empowerment, economic development, and socio -political transformation. Yet
there are obstacles: the power of central bureaucracies, the lack of local skills and
organizational experience, social divisions, and the impact of national and

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Page |86transnational structures. There is no clear -cut agreement in the literat ure of
community development on the nature of community participation or on a
prescription to ensure it. The need for community participation in development
and management is nonetheless accepted and recognized in the professional
literature. Brohman (1996 ) says community participation in the tourism
development process as if it is a panacea to overcome tourism related problems in
Third World countries. He asserts that community participation in the tourism
development process will achieve a more equal dist ribution of the benefits,
discourage undemocratic decision -making and meet the needs of the local
community in a better way.
Through citizen participation, a broad cross -section of the community is
encouraged to identify and articulate their own goals, de sign their own methods of
change, and pool their resources in the problem -solving process (Harrison, 1992).
It is widely recognized that participation in government schemes often means no
more than using the service offered or providing inputs to support the project
(Smith, 1998). This is contrasted with stronger forms of participation, involving
control over decisions, priorities, plans, and implementation; or the spontaneous,
induced, or assisted formation of groups to achieve collective goals (Smith, 19 98).
Most community development work involves the participation of the communities
or beneficiaries involved (Smith, 1998).

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Page |872.8.3Community participation and tourism
Community participation in tourism is concerned around the issues of their
participation i n the decision -making process and how the benefits of development
of tourism can be enjoyed by them (Murphy, 1985; Inskeep, 1994; Tosun, 2000
and 2006).
The concepts of community involvement and communication participation which
are one and the same thing , have received considerable academic interest.
However, (Arnstein, 1969) seminal work, Ladder of Participation has often served
as a useful reference point. Arnstein (1969) recognized that there are different
levels of citizen participation, ranging from manipulation or therapy of citizens,
where participation is a sham, through consultation, to citizen control regarded as
genuine participation. The ladder of participation identifies eight levels of citizen
participation (Figure 2). According to Arnstein (1969), citizen participation is the
redistribution of power that enables have -not citizens to be deliberately included in
the developmental decision -making process. It is the “means by which they can
induce significant social reform, which enables them to share in the benefits of the
affluent society” Arnstein (1969). In this definition of participation, the most
important point is the degree of power distribution. Arnstein (1969) has
conceptualized the degree of citizen participation in terms of a ladder o r typology
of citizen participation comprising of eight levels, which are classified into three

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Page |88categories relative to the authenticity of citizen participation. While the lowest
category represents non participation, the highest category refers to degrees of
citizen power and the middle category indicates degrees of citizen tokenism.
However, some of the criticisms leveled against Arnstein’s typology are that it
was developed in the context of developmental studies in general and not related
to a particul ar sector of an economy Tosun’s (2006), it does not specifically deal
with tourism development and it provides misleading results within a developing
country context Choguill, M. B. G. (1996). Tosun’s (2006) Model of Community
Participation (Figure 2 .4) however, is situated within the context of community.
For Askew (1989), it is an educational and empowering process in which people,
in partnership with those able to assist them, identify problems and needs and
increasingly assume responsibility themselves to plan, manage, control and assess
the collective actions that are proved necessary. To encourage the tourism
development process, planners and community leaders need to provide educational
information and programs such as workshops and awareness program s to residents
(Sirakaya, 2001). For an ideal condition of community participation, it requires a
transfer of power, from those who had major decisions -making roles to those who
traditionally have not had such a role (Willis, 1995). This means, readjustmen t of
power between local community and developers or the local authority need to be
con-ducted in professional way as not to manipulate the participation process.

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Page |89Arnstein's (1969) typology of
community participationTosun's (1999; 2006) typology of
community participation
8. Citizen control
Degrees
of Citizen
Power3. Spontaneous Participation Bottom -up:
active participation; direct participation;
participation in decision making; authentic
participation; self-planning7.Delegated
power
6.Partnership
5. Placation
Degrees of
Citizen
Tokenism2. Induced Participation Top -down;
passive; formal; mostly indirect; degree of
tokenism, manipulation; pseudo
participation; participation in
implementation and sharing benefits;
choice between propos ed alternatives and
feedback4. Consultation
3.Informing
2.Therapy
Nonparticipa
tion1. Coercive Participation Top -down,
passive; mostly indirect, formal;
participation in implementation, but not
necessarily sharing benefits; choice
between pr oposed limited alternatives or
no choice; paternalism, non/participation,
high degree of tokenism and manipulation1.Manipulation
Figure 2.4:Normative Typologies of Community Participation; Source: Tosun
(2006)

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Page |90Tosun (2000) defined community partici pation as a form of action in which
individuals confront opportunities and responsibilities of citizenship. The
opportunities may include joining in the process of self -governance, responding to
authoritative decisions that impact one’s life and working co -operatively with
others on issues of mutual concern (Til, 1984).
Different arguments have emerged regarding community participation in tourism
from many scholars and practitioners (Murphy, 1985; Lea, 1988; Pearce, 1994;
Brohman, 1996; Dei , 2000; Tosun an d Timothy, 2003 ), one of the pioneers on
community participation in tourism activities, argues that the local community
who live in the tourism destination bear the main impacts of tourism whether it is
positive or negative. Murphy (1985:165) says -“the industry uses the community
as a resource, sell it as a product, and in the process affects the lives of everyone”
Dei (2000) suggests that community involvement in tourism development helps to
create entrepreneurial opportunities for locals and engages the m in development
related decision -making processes particularly regarding socio -cultural and
environmental consequences associated with tourism. Tosun and Timothy (2003)
outline seven arguments to support the necessity of community participation in
tourism:
i.community participation is a crucial component in the implementation of
tourism plan and strategies;

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Page |91ii.sustainable tourism development can be achieved;
iii.tourists’ satisfaction can be increased;
iv.better tourism plans by tourism professionals can be facilit ated;
v.fair distribution of costs and benefits among community members;
vi.local identity needs can be satisfied; and
vii.the democratization process can be strengthened in tourist areas.
Tosun (2000) says that community participation in tourism helps implemen tation
of sustainable tourism development by creating better opportunities for local
community to gain larger and balanced benefits. Mitchell and Reid (2001) find
that 90% of respondents from the local population of Peru feel that they can
increase their e arnings if can enjoy greater participation in tourism activities. The
views of the local community must be taken into account if the industry is to be
sustainable in the long run (Williams and Lawson, 2001). Scheyvens (2004)
claims that community involveme nt and their control over tourism resources lead
to better distribution of economic benefits among the community.

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Page |922.9Summary of Literature Review
Akis,et al.(1996), Easterling (2004), and Harrill (2004) suggest that tourism has
become one of the wor ld’s fastest growing sectors, pursued by many destinations
for its econom ic potential. Easterling (2004) however, suggests that despite its
economic benefits, tourism can have adverse effects to both the destination and the
host population. Problems of ove rcrowding, increased cost of living,
environment aldegradation, and an increase in crime are a few of the many
negative impacts that may result from tourism development.
However, residents sometimes gradually lose their hospitable attitudes towards
tourists and tourism development, and become more hostile and irritated with
tourism. Ap (1992) suggested that residents' attitudes towards tourism depended
on the exchange between a resident and a tourist. Cavus and Tanrisevdi (2003)
suggests that it is crucial to consider residents' attitudes for successful tourism
development. Numerous authors (Gursoy & Rutherford, 2004; Haralambopoulos
& Pizam, 1996; Mason & Cheyne, 2000) have touched upon and evaluated
attitudes and behaviors of residents towards tourism dev elopment. Researchers
(Perdueet al.,1990; Lankford & Howard, 1994; Ap & Crompton, 1998) have
developed scales to measure r esidents' attitudes and behavio rs towards tourism
development, taking into consideration independent resident variables.

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Page |93CHAPTER T HREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1Introduction
Chapter Three is designed to justify and describe the research methodology and
used to test the concept which is derived from the literature. The process ranges
from the justification of the methodology, procedures of th e survey, sampling
technique, sampling design, structure of thequestionnaire, pilot study, data
collection procedure and data analysis process of the target population. To obtain
information from the respondents , descriptive questionnaire followed by
structured questionnaire is employed in the present study. The main purpose of the
study is to examine the socio -economic impact of tourism towards the attitude of
local residents of Cox’s Bazar in Bangladesh. The study uses the formal
questionnaire as a mediu m to follow thestructured data collection method whereas
the order of the questionnaire is pre -arranged. Survey questions are administered
using the major modes which arepersonal interviews ;where the respondents are
asked many types of questions that in clude,behavior, intention, attitude,
motivation, awareness and lifestyle to demographic characteristics (Malhotra,
2004). Lastly, this chapter ends with a discussion on the statistical techniques used
to analysis the data.

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Page |943.2 Research Approach
Fundamenta lly, depending upon the purpose and the nature of the study, one can
use inductive or deductive research approach. In a deductive approach, previous
understanding of an aspect of the world isdrawn which lead to the hypothesis to
be developed and tested. I f the hypothesis are supported, thentheexisting
theoretical understanding remains unchanged whilethe underst anding
should be modified if not supported .This is stated as the common view in
drawing the relationship between research and t heory (Bryman & Bell, 2003). In
contrast, in the case of an inductive approach, prior theories and attempts to build
up an understanding of the world from the data are set aside. According to
Mallhotra (1999), if there is notenoughknowledge aboutthephenomenon or
ifthisknowledge isfragmented, the inductive approach is recommended. On
the other hand, inductive approach does not consider the prior theory in
developing a new study. If the prior knowledge is not adequate enough to explain
a phenomena or its shaped is fragmented, inductive approach can be applied (Elo
& Kynga, 2007). In addition, inductive approach shifts the data from specific to
general in examining the particular cases to be merged into a general or a greater
statement.

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Page |953.3Research Design
The selection of a suitable research approach is critical to the success of a
research work (Sekaran, 2003). An appropriate research design is vital to identify
the kind of data, data collection technique, and sampling procedure. Moreover ,
these research designs are treated a significant issue to materialize the research
objectives (Burns & Bush, 2002). This study is cross -sectional where data were
collected once, to answer the study’s research questions. A cross -sectional study
usually in volves the measurement of all variables for all cases within a short time
span so that the measurements may be viewed as contemporaneous. Thus, cross –
sectional method was suitable for this study because the researcher was interested
to examine the attitude s of the local residents towards tourism impact in
Bangladesh. Moreover, cross -sectional method can be conducted within a short
period and it can be used for a large number of individuals.
A survey method was employed because this study strongly believed that the
survey method was best adapted to obtain personal and social facts, beliefs, and
attitudes (Kerlinger, 1973). The study intended to use quantitative research
design to investigate the socio -economic factors that influence the local residents’
attitudeof Cox’s Bazar in Bangladesh. Quantitative research design was used as it
permitted the researcher to anticipate only via evaluating opinion of respondents
about the targeted phenomenon, and grasp a certain perspective of human

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Page |96perceptions. Neuman ( 2006) noticed that the objective of quantitative research is
to test the cause -effect relationship and to generalize it for the population. As the
findings of this study would be generalized for Bangladesh, the basic research
design for this study was a quantitative survey design and the data were collected
through a self -administered questionnaire. Usually, a survey can be conducted
with a large sample size which helps to generalize the result. According to
Sukamolson (2005), the main reasons of using quan titative approach are as
follows:
1.Offers inferences about the characteristics of populations at large.
2.Specifies the richness of attitudes held by people.
3.Provides results that can be condensed to statistics.
4.Permits for statistical contrast between di fferent groups.
5.Have accuracy, perfectness and consistency.
6.Measures level of occurrence, actions, trends, etc.
7.Can answer such questions as "How extent?" and "How often?”.
The objective of a quantitative research is to investigate the relationship betw een
one factor (dependent variable) and another (independent variable) in a population

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Page |97designed for either descriptive (subjects usually measured once) or experimental
(subjects measured before and after a treatment) (ALhroot, 2007). Moreover,
quantitative research tried to quantify relationships between variables featured in
this study.
3.4Nature and purpose of research
Usually, research is classified into three main categories based on the nature and
purpose of the research. First is the exploratory rese arch that is conducted if there
is insufficient knowledge about a specific issue to examine new concepts or
phenomena (Sekaran, 2006). In exploratory research, qualitative approach is more
often being used than quantitative metho ds (Hair, Money, Page & Sam ouel
(2007).
The second category of research is the descriptive research that describes answers
of questions about current situations (Sekaran, 2006). Descriptive research can be
cross-sectional or longitudinal. In cross -sectional approach, data are coll ected only
once in a certain time whereas in longitudinal approach data are collected more
than once over a period of time (Hair et al., 2007). Data are collected usually
through interview, observation or questionnaire and central tendency, variance and
correlations are the statistical tools for data analysis (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001).
Lastly, research can be classifi ed as causal research (hypothesi s testing) which
employed a testable scheme to investigate the relationships between two or more

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Page |98variables (Saun ders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2007). Mainly this type of research
explains the variance on the dependent variable or predicts the outcome of this
relationship between independent and dependent variable (Sekaran, 2006).
The present study can be considered as des criptive and causal research (hypothesis
testing) in nature because the main objective of this study is to examine
relationships between variables. Descriptive statistics identify the major attributes
of research that can provide a better realizing of the nature of that population.
Moreover, descriptive statistics determine the attributes of the study variables to
answer t he research questions. Hypothesi s testing usually examine sthe
relationships between the dependent and independent variables. The main
objective of this study was to examine the influence of living standard,
employment opportunity, earning capability, cultural development and social
value as independent variables on local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact
in Bangladesh. The purpose was also to determine correlations among variables
and therefore, this study is considered as both descriptive and causal in nature.
3.5Research P aradigm
A research paradigm is fundamental in leading the belief or world view of the
researcher which will eventually guide a study. It’s a framework upon which the
researcher works (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). The researcher is committed to follow a
specific belief in knowledge generation which can be implicit or explicit in the

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Page |99scientific paradigm (Kuhn, 1996). T he stand of the present study is based on the
positivism approach. The fundamental idea behind that is to treat the knowledge as
separated from the researcher while most of other paradigms do not separate the
researcher from the knowledge to be known (Wier sma, 2000).
Positivism paradigm is based on the rationalistic philosophy which originated
from Francis Bacon, Aristotle, John Locke, Emmanuel Kant and August Comte
(Mertens, 2005) and is used to treat as “scientific research” or “scientific method”
while it reflects the deterministic approach that causes the effects of output
(Creswell, 2003). However, positivism is applied in the social science based on the
assumption that it can be studied in the same way like the natural world. These are
the methods f or investigating the social phenomenon that is value free, and the
description of a causal nature may be illustrated (Mertens, 2005).
Positivism intends to test the concerned theory or explain the experience with the
measurement and observation to predictandcontrol the surrounded social forces
(O'Leary, 2004). As far as research method is concerned, positivism paradigm is
usually aligned with the quantitative technique in collecting and analyzing data.
On the other hand, the constructivism or interpretive paradigm generally operates
using predominantly qualitative techniques or methods (Wiersma, 2000; Burns,
1997; Cohen & Manion 1994). The review of the literature suggests that the study
that belongs to positivism or post positivism paradigm is supposed to use the

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Page |100quantitative techniques as the means of data collection techniques (Mertens, 2005;
O’leary, 2004).
3.6Survey research
Survey research is considered as one of the most used tools to gather primary data
(Zikmund, 2003). There are four basic types of methods that can be applied to
survey, namely telephone interview, in person interview (drop off method),
electronic interview and last of all personal interview (Malhotra, 2008). Electronic
interview has recently been developed and has been shaped into many forms such
as computer assisted interviewing or any other online or off line survey such as
email interview. In describing the purpose of the survey research, Sekaran (2010)
focuses on two major points; to analyze the population and to test the obser ved
hypothesis which is expected in certain phenomena .Todesigntheeffective
strategies inmanagement and marketing field, get better service and product
offer, enhance business standard and to find out a solution for a specific research
problem; the survey method is considered to be the most effective means to obtain
a response from the objects (Asker et al., 2000). This study uses drop off method
and further details is explained in self -administered questionnaire sub -section.

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Page |1013.6.1Justificat ion of survey methodology
The question that is asked to obtain information from the respondent ought to be
designed systematically (Hair et al., 2010). To elicit quantitative data, particularly
through the structured and pre -determined questions, survey me thod works very
well. Since the present study uses a questionnaire that facilitates a variety of
objectives by illuminating the purposes of the study into a series of inquiries,
surveymethod is appropriate for it .Firstly,theanswerandquestion str ucture
isdeveloped anddesigned inamanner topresentpreciseandclear
inquiries to motivate the respondents to understand and respond efficiently.
Secondly, for simplification and facilitation of administrative process, most of the
questions are pre coded (Malhotra, 1999).
Survey method is used as a means to collect responses from the subjects. There are
many reasons to choose survey as a data collection method. First, in survey
method there is little or no chance to manipulate the response , whereas the method
is considered to be free from subjective bias (Emory & Cooper, 1991). In addition,
in the academia of marketing research, survey is treated asthebetterapproach
tojustifytheperception andconsumer behavior ofthe respondents
(Hakansson & Johnson, 1992). The questionnaire is designed to obtain accurate,
specific andcomplete information onthespecific research agendaor

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Page |102question whilethe objective of the questionnaire is to translate the research
objectives into a series of questions (Malhotra, 1999).
Finally, survey methods facilitate the administering and the processing of data
since most of the questions are pre coded or used a standardized response format.
Deploying the standard response format or pre c oded questionnaire facilitates and
simplifies the data processing and analyzing of the researcher (Malhotra 1999).
3.6.2Self-administered questionnaire
Depending upon the nature of administrative process, survey method varies. The
questionnaire is adminis tered in many different ways; drop off questionnaire, mail
or postal questionnaire and online questionnaire.
As stated earlier, the current study uses the drop off method. In thedrop off
method, the questionnaire is administered using the face to face tec hnique and
returned in the same way (Saunders et al., 2009). The method is applied to
administer the questionnaire in collecting the responses from both from the staff of
marketing and public relation department and students as the key stakeholders.
The drop offmethod or face to face communication for administering the
questions is treated as the best method to conduct a survey of the social science in
particular (Malhotra, 1999 ) where the success rate of collection is relatively higher
compared to other methods (Hair et al., 2010).

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Page |1033.7Selecting the format of responses
Fundamentally, there are four types of scales available to form the level of
evaluation, namelyasordinal,nominal, ratioandintervalscale(Malhotra ,
1999).
A nominal scale is a primary tool to identify the object where respondents can
only calculate the object as a group and have no chance to mark the distance
between them (Malhotra, 2008). Here, the respondents cannot even mark the level
of the group. An ordinal scale allows respondents not only to place a tag on the
object, but also show the relative position of the group. However, the exact
difference of the group cannot be measured with this scale. It is also referred to as
the ranking scale that shows the relative positio n of the object, though the
difference between the two group s is not observed (Bagozzi, 1999 ). Usually the
relationship is placed with the computation like medium, quartile and in percentile
form. In the management field at large and marketing field in par ticular, interval
scale is the most commonly used measurement scale. Numbers are distributed to
identify the level and stage of the response for the particular instance. More
importantly, the difference between each numbers can clearly show the extent of
the given response acros s the scale range (Bagozzi, 1999 ). The ratio scale consists
of all the above mentioned characteristics. It allows the study to rank and identifies
the object which assists in analyzing the difference. However, there is a key

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Page |104difference between interval and ration scales. In interval scales, the allocation of
point starts from one whereas in ratio zero is arbitrary and the distribution of point
canalso be negative (Malhotra, 2008 ). The following table shows the key
characteristics of the above mentioned scales in a single table which is adopted
from Cooper and Schindler (2008).
Type of
ScaleCharacteristics of Data Basic Empirical
OperationExample
Nominal Classification (mutually
exclusive and collectively
exhaustive categories), but no
order, distance and natural
originDetermination of
equalityGender (male,
female)
Ordinal Classify and order, but no
distanceor natural originDetermination of
greater or lesser
valueDoneness of meat
(well, medium well,
medium rare, rare)
Interval Classification, order,
distance, but no natural originDetermination of
equality intervals
or differencesTemperature in
degrees
RatioClassification, order,
distance, and natural originDetermination of
equality of ratiosAge in years
Table 3.1 Measure ment Scales; Source: Adapted from Cooper and Schindler
(2008)

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Page |105Cooper and Schindler (2008) categorized measurement scales into four types
namely: ranking, rating, sorting and categorization. In the rating scale without
having any comparison with another poi nt or subject, respondents allocate a
pointer to an object. In ranking scale, as the name suggests, respondents are
allowed to make ranking among two or more objects, though the difference
between the objects can be seen. In categorization, respondent put the object in
the category, or make the distinct grouping. In sorting, respondents are allowed to
represent and sort the constructs or concepts into the piles as per the standard set
by the study.
Amongst all the rating scales, Likert scale is recognized as the most common tool
which is widely used as a rating scale. It gives the respondents flexibility to
choose between favourable, unfavourable and even the neutral answers. Hence,
the study uses the scale in structuring the questionnaire.
The scale gives the respondents the flexibility of choosing a point ranging the
point from one to seven which is translated to Strongly Disagree to Strongly
Agree. Though there is a controversy regarding Likert scale in terms of whether it
is interval or ordinal in nature , many social scientists prefer Likert scale to be the
intervalin character (Neuman, 2000). There are many rationales to take Likert
scale as the interval scale in the study at hand. Likert scale is discovered to

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Page |106transform the interval property before th e participants and then generate data like
the interval scale.
Traditionally, Likertscaleneedstherespondents totaketheirposition
amongthe provided levels usually five or seven points. The number typically
shows the value to be placed in every single response, whereby one denotes the
point “least likely” and five indicates “most likely”. Nevertheless, Likert scale can
take the form of a 7 point scale (Cooper & Schindler, 2008). Indeed, there are
logical justifications behind the use of a seven point Likert scale in the
questionnaire. The first and foremost is the wide use of this scale in management
study so as to allow the desires degree of intensity of feelings and opinion to be
expressed (Ganesan 1994) while it also deals with the direc t measure to elicit the
information needed (Luck & Rubin, 1987). In addition, it is easy to administer,
code and most importantly conduct a good statistical analysis of the response with
the use of a seven point Likert scale (Burn & Bush, 2000). In line wi th this, the
present study will use a seven point Likert scale. The details are explained in the
instrument development sub section.
3.8Research Population
Population is the list of elements from which the sample is drawn (Sekaran, 2003).
In other words, a population is the whole people, events, or things of interests that
the researcher wants to investigate (Sekaran, 2006). The target population of this

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Page |107study is local residents of Cox’s Bazar. Local residents’ attitude is important,
because how they percei ve Cox’s Bazar as a tourist destination and what factors
impact on their attitudes should be understood by tourism concern parties to
develop the industry. Therefore, the local residents of Cox’s Bazar were
respondents irrespective of gender, race and reli gion through which the influence
of tourism could be examined.
The main objective of the study is to measure the socioeconomic impact of
tourism on the local community. For that purpose, we need to identify the
population size of the study area. Tourism i n Cox’s Bazar is mainly concentrated
in some specific area like Kolatoli Beach, Labonni Point, Himchori. These areas
are situated in the Cox’s Sadar Upazila. Cox’s Bazar is divided into eight
administrative areas which are locally called upazilaand has th ree municipalities
with a population of 22, 89,990 (BBS, 2011). Cox’s Bazar sadar is one of the
administrative areas of the district which is the study area as most of the tourist
activities are concentrated in this area. Cox’s Bazar Sadar upazila consists of 1
municipality, 12 wards, 95 mahallas, 10 unions and 144 villages. The average size
of the population of each ward which is under the municipality area is 13,946 and
the average size of the population of each mahalla which are outside the
municipality area is 1,763. From these two data, we can easily presume the
tourism impact of tourism in the local community life. As major tourist spots are

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Page |108located in the municipality area, the p opulation density in municipal area is higher
than other administrative a rea.
Cox’s Bazar Municipality consists of twelve wards but all of these wards are not
directly involved with the tourism activity. The main objective of this study is to
identify the socioeconomic impact of tourism on the local people. So, here we
identify four wards of the municipality which are directly involved in tourism
activities. The following table shows the details about the four wards.
Ward No. Major Area Population
Ward No-02 Airport Area, Russia Fishery 16,467
Ward No-03 Anderson Road, Ba zar Ghat 8,513
Ward No-09 Stadium Para, Mohajer Para,
Govt. High School Road10,133
Ward No-12 Kolatoli, Light House Para 19,683
Total=54796
Source: BBS, 2011
The population size of these four Wards is about 54,796. So, we have taken 54,796
residents as the population size of the study who are directly or indirectly involved
with tourism activities.

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Page |1093. 9Sampling Method
Sampling refers to the element, units of samples, time and extent of the study
Malhotra (2004). It defines elements as the object worked as a source of desired
information. The research that deals with a survey use respondents as elements
while sampling unit contains the elements. Extent refers to the boundary,
generally, the geographic location of the study.
The sampling technique applied in this study was Stratified Random Sampling.
The stratified random sampling technique is used to select the respondents as it is
the best method of sampling, particularly when the respondents are scattered and
the study needs to get the response f rom the entire stratum (Malhotra, 1999).
In respect of the attachment with a higher learning institution, students and staff at
marketing and public relations department are chosen as the set of individual and
treated as a sample. Next, the entire populati on is divided into two or more strata
fromwhere random sampling is applied for each stratum. Random sampling is a
technique that shows the better possibility of having a representative sample unit
in comparison to other methods. Gay and Airasian (2003) de fine random sampling
as the method where each respondent has an equal chance to be chosen for the
study.

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Page |110The sampling technique applied in this study was Stratified Random Sampling.
According to Johnson (1994) “stratified sampling is a technique in which a
population is divided into mutually exclusive groups (called strata) and then a
simple random sample or a systematic sample is selected from each group (each
stratum)”. In stratified random sampling, the researcher divides the population into
groups and randomly selects sub samples from each group and therefore, ensures
representation of all groups in sample (Zikmumd, 2003 ).
There are many advantages of stratified sampling. First and foremost, separate
estimate is generally deployed within each and every stratum that is different from
the application of simple random sampling. Even when the respondents or sample
are in due course pooled, it cannot indulge the sample to be divided into different
group primarily. Increasing accuracy in the population estimat es with the use of
correctly measured stratum is another crucial benefit of thestratified random
sampling technique.
It was difficult to have a ready list of local residents in Bangladesh because the
country did not maintain current residents’ staying sc enario centrally and as a
developing country Bangladesh is poor in digitalization and updated information is
scarce. So stratified random sampling is more appropriate in this case. Moreover,
according to Sekaran, (2003 ) “The stratified sampling design co nstitutes
geographical clusters. That is, when the research pertains to populations within

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Page |111identifiable geographical areas such as counties, city blocks, or particular
boundaries within a locality, stratified sampling can be done. Stratified random
sampling is less expensive than most other probability sampling designs and it is
not dependent on a population frame. The stratified random sampling is used when
no list of the population elements is available”. Thus, this research was conducted
using stratifie drandom sampling, where Cox’s Baz ar was divided into twelve
wards and then four Wards were selected for the study. In the last stage, local
residents were chosen randomly from those Wards.
3. 10Sample Size and Sampling Design
The selection of sampl e sizeis based on Yamane (1967 ). It is explained further
with the following equation;
n = N / [1+N (e²)]
Where;
n= the sample size
N= the population size
e= the level of precision

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Page |112With an assumption of 95% confidence level and ±5% precision level, the number
of population in Cox’s Bazar’s four Wards (9891) was then used as a basis for the
calculation and the sample size obtained was 397 respondents.
During data collection, the stratified random sampling approach was used to select
the respondents that represe nt the whole group of the population that lives in the
four Wards within the Cox’s Bazar Municipality area; Ward no. 2, 3, 9, and 12.
The sampling frame was designed to obtain a greater degree of representativeness
from local residents to achieve a broad r ange of representatives from the whole
population of Cox’s Bazar. The actual population number in every district was
based on the 2011 data from the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS).
Therefore, based on the 397 sample size, the ratio of the respondent s in each
district was calculated based on a proportion which resulted in 119 for Ward No.
2; 62 for Ward No. 3, 73 for War d No. 9 and 143 for Ward No. 12 (Table 3.2 ).
Table 3.2 : Stratified sampling frame of the study area
Location Population Stratified Ra ndom
SamplingSample Size
Ward No-02 16467 16467/54796×397 119
Ward No-03 8513 8513/54796×397 62

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Page |113Ward No-09 10133 10133/54796×397 73
Ward No-12 19683 19683/54796×397 143
Total N=54796 n=397
3.11Selection Criteria for Respondents/Sampling Crite ria
In order to get reliable and valid data, which is required to fulfill the purpose of
the study, required number of respondents from each Ward are selected on the
basis of some criterion which are as follows:
1. All respondents must be a householder.
2.All respondents must be at least 18 years old.
3. All respondents must be enlisted in the corresponding Ward voter list of the
study area.
4. All respondents must be lived, at least for five consecutive years in the study
area.

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Page |1143. 12Questionnaire Desi gn
According to Sekaran (2003, p. 236). ), a structured questionnaire is an appropriate
method for data collection when “the researcher knows exactly what is required
and how to measure the variables of interest. Moreover, questionnaires can be
easily anal yzed, be managed cheaply, liked by majority of people, and biasness
can be reduced as researcher cannot influence on respondents’ answer (Sekaran,
2000). The questionnaire (Appendix A) applied in this study was prepared based
on objectives, problems and hy potheses of the study to examine the socio –
economic impact of tourism on the local residents’ attitude. The questionnaire had
two parts: part one -attitude of local residents towards socio -economic impact of
tourism and part two -demographic profile of the respondents. There was close –
ended type of questions in the questionnaire. The content and wording of the
questions were designed to be short, simple, understandable; free of ambiguity and
double-barreled condition (Kassim, 2001). The questions were adapt ed mostly
from the past studies.
3.13Questionnaire Scale
For this study, Likert scale was used to measure responses since this scale is
widely used in the field of tourism marketing research and has been extensively
tested in both marketing and social sci ence (Burns & Bush, 2002). However, there
is no hard and fast rule for fixing up the appropriate categories that should be used

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Page |115(one to five -point Likert scales or one to seven -point Likert scales). Some
researchers opined that a five -point scale is just a s good as any other where it may
minimize confusion with offering more options to the respondents. Thus, for
ensuring consistency among variables and for avoiding confusion among
respondents, all items were measured using one to five point Likert type scal e.
The study used five -point Likert scales for measuring all variables from (1)
strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. Table 3.3 presents five point numerical
scales. There are various researchers who used these five point Likert scales for
data collect ion of their studies (Morgan & Hunt, 1994; Luck & Rubin, 1987; Ryu,
Han, & Kim, 2007).
Table 3.3 :Five Point Numerical Scale
ScalesStrongly
DisagreeDisagree Neutral AgreeStrongly
Agree
Items 1 2 3 4 5
The five -point Likert scale is appropriate be cause it has the ability to detect
smaller differences of opinions. The respondents find convenience to respond as
they get more freedom to choose from the options .

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Page |1163.14Conducting Data Collection
The data for the study will be collected through both the sources, primary and
secondary.
A. Primary Data
Primary data will be collected through the structured questionnaire from the
respondents at study area. The respondents of the survey were local residents of
Cox’s Bazar in Bangladesh. The researcher personal ly supervised the total data
collection procedure. The respondents were asked in Bengali to fill out the
questionnaire as al most allof thelocal residents’ mother tongue is Benga li.
According ly,the researcher along with two assistants filled out the ques tionnaire
written in English properly.
B. Secondary Data
Secondary data will be collected through various books, journals, theses and
websites. The information brochures and bulletins released by the Ministry of
Tourism at the central and division levels w ill also be utilized. The annual reports
of United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), World Travel and
Tourism Corporation (WTTC) along with Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (BPC)
will be used as valuable sources of secondary data.

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Page |1173.15ValidityandReliability Test
The acceptability of a questionnaire depends upon its validity and reliability. In
other words, the questionnaire shouldprecisely andconstantly measure what
itissupposed tomeasure. According to Churchill (1979), a measure to become
reliable should be independent and composed with the similar measures that pose
the similar measures. With multiple indicators, accurate statements and pre testing,
the questionnaire may have a reliability index.
Validity refers to the solid sca le of measurement that is leading the accuracy of the
elements (Davis & Cosenza, 1993). The right approach in developing a scale is
fundamental in assessing the questionnaire validity. There are many types of
validity. Researcher nowadays focuses on the fo ur types of common validity that
ranges from a face or content validity, construct validity, convergent validity and
discriminant validity.
First, content validity refers the extent to which extent the context is going to
reflect the proposed concept ( Newman, 2000). Face validity can beassessed by
the literature review, experts’ feedback, pre -test of the questionnaire and
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).
Second, construct validity refers to the extent to which the constructs gain
theoretical and empiricalsupport (Steenkamp & Trijp, 1991).Like face or content

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Page |118validityit can also be assessed by the relevant literature review and pretesting the
questionnaire. Convergent validity refers the extent to which two different
measurement scales are similar to measure the same elements (Davis & Cosenzen,
1993). Furthermore, it also focuses what extent the measurement is not similar
from other measures to justify the different constructs.
In ensuring the content validity of this study standard recommended action s have
been used whereby prior literature is examined to come up with the possible
dimensions while an expert review is obtained to justify the revealed actions. Once
multiple indicators are justified to form a single measure consistently, convergent
validity takes place. In the current study, multiple measures are deployed to
confirm the high convergent validity once data are statistically analyzed. With the
clear conception of the construct in addition to the precision and consistent
measurement, the reli ability of the study was achieved when it is intended to use
multiple indicators of constructs. More details on validity are discussed in the data
analysis subsection.
The following table shows the Assessment of Reliability and Validity of the
Questionnai re.

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Page |119Table 3.4: Assessment of Reliability and Validity of the Questionnaire
Types of
reliability and
validityDefinition Assessment strategies
Reliability The consistency of the results obtained from
a measuring instrument in a piece of
research, and a measure is reliable to the
extent that independent but comparable
measure ofthe same traitorconstruct
agrees(Churchill, 1979)Clear statements and
multiple indicators in
thequestionnaire,
pretesting ofthe
questionnaire
Validity The accuracy of measurement that is a valid
scale measures what it is designed for,
whether the instrument measures what it is
supposed to measure (Bollen, 1989; Davis
andCosenza, 1993; Finn et al., 2000)Theapproach
takentoscale
development
(Churchill, 1979)
Construct
validityThe degree to which a construct achieves
empirical and theoretical meaning
(Steenkamp and Van Trijp, 1991). It has
three main dimensions namely content,
convergent and discriminant validity.Literature review,
pretesting
questionnaire, data
analysis
Content or face
validityThedegreetowhichthecontent of
an indicator reflects the intended concept
(Neuman 2000; Burns & Bush, 2000)Literature review,
feedback from experts,
pretesting of the
questionnaire,
confirmatory factor
analysis.

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Page |120Convergent
validityThedegreeofassociation between two
different measurement scales which are
supposed to measure the same concept
(Davis and Cosenza, 1993)Data analysis
Discriminant
validityThedegreetowhichthemeasurement is
different fromotherscalessupposed to
measure different constructs (Davis&
Cosenza, 1993)Data analysis
Source: The table is adapted from Hair et al. (2010) with other acknowledged
sources in the tabl e.
Validity is the ability of measuring instrument for measuring accurately what it
claims to infer (Sedlack & Stanely, 1992). For establishing both face validity and
content validity for this research, the questionnaire was chalked out based on the
previous studies. Moreover, a panel of professors from Dhaka University
(expertise in tourism field) in Bangladesh reviewed the questionnaire to examine
the complete list of attributes to eliminate redundancies and add any missing
attributes as well as to ensure that the intent and spirit of t he English text was
maintained.
3. 16Pilot Study
A pilot study is helpful to carry out before data collection (Saunders, Lewis &
Thornhill, 2003). Sekaran (2003) comments that a pilot study is conducted to

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Page |121rectify if there is any inadequacy in the instrument before data collection. Usually,
this is done by testing and checking the questionnaire on a small sample of the
subjects. It brings out the flaw and stream in constructing and revising the
questionnaires and the researc her can take all the necessary modifications. In fact,
the objective of the pilot study is to check the reliability, validity and viability of
the research instrument as well as to grasp the time needed for completing the
main study. Pilot study gives time to the researcher to make changes and
modifications before conducting the main study by which errors and mistakes of
the questionnaire items can be avoided.
Before applying the actual instrument in this study, a pilot study was conducted
using a small sam ple of 30 respondents. To make easier the data collection, the
researcher sat and discussed with the respondents to identify difficulties in
wording. In this context, the researcher piloted the main study in November, 2015.
After getting back filled up que stionnaires from respondents, the questionnaire
was checked and revised for any inadequacies that were emerging during the
respondents' answer on the items. Then, the data were analyzed and the
questionnaire was ready for launching the main study. The reliability test for each
item was calculated using the pilot study data. The reliability coefficient
(Cronbach's Alpha) for multiple used items in the pilot study was verified its

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Page |122acceptability as the values above .60 is acceptable ( Hair, Black, Babin,
Anderson& Tatham, 2006).
3.17Measurement of Variables
A survey questionnaire, that included all the variables of interest, was used to
measure attitude of local residents towards socio -economic impact of tourism.
Most of the variables were adopted and modified from previous studies. The
framework of this study comprises by independent variables such as living
standard, employment opportunity, earning capability, cultural development,
social value and one dependent variable namely attitude of local residents . Based
on this theoretical framework, related measurements of the variables are identified
as follows.
3.17.1Living Standard
In this study, living standard of local residents was examined using scales adapted
from (Var & Kim, 1990). Therefore, this study incl uded 04 items on five -point
scale format, ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. The items
used to measure living standar d are shown below in Table 3.5 .

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Page |123Table 3.5 : The items used to measure living standard
SL. No. Items
1Tourism gen erally causes an increase in living standards
2Tourism has led to an increase of infrastructure for local people.
3Tourism helps diversify the local economy
4Tourism brings economic benefits to the residents of the community.
3.17.2.Employment O pportunity
In this study, employment opportunity of local residents was examined using
scales adapted from (Liu & Var, 1986; Sheldon & Var, 1984). Therefore, this
study included 07 items on five -point scale format, ranging from (1) strongly
disagree to (5) strongly agree. The items used to measure employment opportunit y
are shown below in Table 3.6 .

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Page |124Table 3.6 : The items used to measure employment opportunity
SL. No. Items
1Tourism creates employment opportunities for local residents
2Entrepreneurial attitude grown among the local residents
3Tourism creates jobs more for externals than local residents
4Local people do not get the management level jobs.
5Local people are poorly paid by the tourism business operator
6A large portion of tourism jo bs is part -time due to the seasonal
character.
7Tourism creates new markets for our local products.

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Page |1253.17.3.Earning Capability
In this study, earning capability of local residents was examined using scales
adapted from (Belisle , Franceis, Don and Hoy, 1980; Gursoy and Jurowski, 2002;
Harrill and Potts, 2003; Korça, 1998; Pearce, 1980; Pizam, 1978; Tyrell and
Spaulding, 1984; Akis et al., 1996; Andressen and Murphy, 1986). Therefore, this
study included 04 items on five -point scale format, ranging fro m (1) strongly
disagree to (5) strongly agree. The items used to measure earning capabil ity are
shown below in Table 3.7 .
Table 3.7 : The items used to measure earning capability
SL. No. Items
1Development of tourism increases earnings of local people.
2Local businesses benefit the most from tourists.
3Most of the tourism money goes to out of the local community.
4Tourism increased our living expenditure.

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Page |1263.17.4.Cultural Development
In this study, cultural development of local residents was exa mined using scales
adapted from (Alister and Wall, 1982; Travis, 1982; Furnham, 1984; Flecher,
1984; Shoup, 1985; Gupta, 1987; Herbert, 1989; Teye, 1982; King et al., 1993 ).
Therefore, this study included 05 items on five -point scale format, ranging from
(1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. The items used to measure cultural
developm ent are shown below in Table 3.8 .
Table 3.8: The items used to measure cultural development
SL. No. Items
1Tourism encourages a variety of cultural activities by the local residents
(e.g., crafts, arts, music)
2Tourism has brought positive change in local traditional life style.
3The cultural exchange between residents and tourists is valuable for the
residents.
4Tourism is damaging to the local culture and tradi tions.
5Tourism causes cultural invasion.

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Page |1273.17.5.Social Value
In this study, social value of local residents was examined using scales adapted
from (Pandey et al., 1995). Therefore, this study included 05 items on five -point
scale format, ranging fro m (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. The items
used to measure social va lue are shown below in Table 3.9 .
Table 3.9 : The items used to measure social value
SL. No. Items
1Tourism upgrades the social value of local people
2Tourism development increases the number of recreational
opportunities for local residents
3Tourism is responsible for creating social problems such as crime, drug
use, prostitution, and so forth in the community.
4Tourism has limited the use of the recreational faciliti es like
entertainment centers and beaches by the local people.
5Tourism causes environmental pollution.

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Page |1283.17.6.Socio-demographic Variables
Respondents’ socio -demographic information collected in this study was gender,
age, education level, marital stat us, professional status and income. Respondents
were asked to tick one of two categories of male or female. They were required to
indicate their age level by ticking the appropriate answer from five categories.
They were required to indicate their educatio nal level by mentioning the
appropriate one from six different levels. For marital status, respondents were
asked to specify their marital status. For professional status, respondents were
required to indicate their professional status by mentioning the ap propriate one
from three different categories. Household income had five categories ranging
from under Taka 10000 to Taka 40000 and above.
3. 18Data Analysis Procedure
A few steps such as coding the responses, screening the data and selecting the
appropriate data analysis strategy are necessary for data analysis (Churchill &
Lacobucci, 2004; Sekaran, 2000). Data were screened out to check data entry
errors and examined how accurately data meets the statistical assumptions that
relate with descriptive stat istics of variables, missing data, and treatment of outlier
response bias, normality, homoscedasticity, multicollinearity, and reliability. To
describe the relation between the variables, correlation analysis was used. For
analyzing the data and testing th e hypotheses, different statistical tools and

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Page |129methods were used from SPSS software 20.0 version. Finally, the data were
analyzed by multiple regressio n models through SPSS software.
3. 19Data Editing and Coding
After collecting the data, coding is require d so that it can be stored systematically
(Zikmund, 2003). The completed questionnaires were checked and edited before
entry. A data entry format was prepared using Microsoft Access 2000. The entered
data were checked and edited using the logical arguments in the computer
software. After checking and editing, the cleaned data were analyzed by using
SPSS 20.0 version.
3. 20Data Screening
Data screening is used to make sure that the nature of data may not negatively
affect the result of the analysis. It inv olves some steps such as missing data,
detecting outlier, linearity, normality, homoscedasticity and multicollinearity test.
These are shown in the following steps.
3. 20.1.Missing data
In the past studies, missing data were treated in many ways such as by deleting
them, distributing them, and replacing them (Kline, 1998). In the data screening
process, detecting missing data is the first important step. Usually, missing data

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Page |130occur as respondents may not be willing to answer personal questions relating to
their income, age or other confidential matters or they do not know a specific
topic. This study found 18 missing data and those were deleted as there was
enough number of data to analyze.
3. 20.2.Treatment of outlier
To detect outlier is the next step a fter the missing data are treated. Normally,
outlier occurs due to incorrect data entry or missing values or if observations in the
population are extreme in their combination of values across the variables (Hair et
al., 2006). Some outliers were found in this research and their treatment is going to
be discussed in the next chapter.
3. 20.3.Linearity, normality and homoscedasticity
Regression analysis significantly checks whether the basic assumption of linearity,
normality and homoscedasticity are met (H air et al., 2007). By analysis of
residuals and partial regression plots, linearity was tested and it was found that
there is no nonlinear pattern in the current data. The scatter plot diagrams indicate
the variance of dependent variable was the same for a ll values of independent
variables and no different pattern in the data was detected. Thus, the data have met
the linearity and homoscedasticity criteria for regression analysis. Skewness and
kurtosis values were applied for normality test. Normality occur s if the standard

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Page |131error for skewness and kurtosis ratios is between plus or minus 2 at the
significance level of .05 (Hair et al., 1998). A histogram of the distribution of the
residuals showed the data normality assumption of the regression model.
3. 20.4.Multicollinearity
For testing multicollinearity level, the variance inflation factors (VIF) and the
tolerance values of entire variables were examined. Before conducting regression
analysis the predictor variables were checked for the existence of
multicollinearity. Usually, multicollinearity presence if the independent variables
are greatly correlated with each other (Hair et al., 2007). The variance inflation
factor (VIF) approach identify the severity of multicollinearity and ensures
whether or not the re is any severe error that may weaken the correctness and
stability of the model’s parameter estimation. Normally, there is little or no
multicollinearity if the tolerance value is more than .1 or the VIFs value is less
than 10.00. When VIF value exceeds 10.00, this is a signal of having
multicollinearity which affects the least squares estimates. The large VIF value
and small tolerance value indicate a serious problem in the correlation items and it
seems that the items are redundant.

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Page |1323. 21Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics provide a precise scenario of the main summary statistics
which was used to determine attributes and attitudes of local residents towards
tourism impact in Cox’s Bazar. Descriptive analysis transforms raw data into a
formthat provides information to describe a set of factors in a situation that makes
them easy to understand and interpret (Sekaran, 2003). For a clear meaning of data
this study did frequency distribution, mean, and standard deviation, which enabled
the study to identify differences among groups, for all the variables of interest.
3.22Correlation
Pallant (2011) noted that analysis of correlation, a statistical technique, is used to
interpret the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two
variables. The correlation’s degree infers the strength and significance of a
relationship among variables. The ideal correlation of 1 or -1 refers that the value
of one variable can be determined correctly by knowing the value of other
variable. The correl ation value 0 refers no relationship between two variables.
Cohen (1988) suggests a rule to explain the strength of the relationship between
two variables. This study used Pearson correlation to portray the strength and
direction of the relationship betwee n two variables. The positive correlation
among variables indicates that as one variable increases the other variable also

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Page |133increases simultaneously. Whereas a negative correlation indicates that as one
variableincreases the other decreases.
3.23Factor A nalysis
There are two main types of factor analysis: a) exploratory factor analysis and b)
confirmatory factor analysis. Coakes, Steedand &Dzidic (2006) and Hair et al.
(2006) said that exploratory factor analysis is normally used when a researcher
wantsto summarize the structure of a set of variables or to identify the underlying
dimensions of a variable. Confirmatory factor analysis, on the other hand, is
appropriate when there is an intention to test and confirm a theory about the
structure of a partic ular domain (Coakes et al., 2006; and Hair et al., 2006). This
study wanted to get a summary of the structure for all variables used and to
observe the underlying dimensions among the variables in the analysis. Thus,
exploratory factor analysis was conside red as appropriate and justifiable. In other
words, factor analysis is conducted to identify the structure of interrelationship
(correlation) among a large number of items. This is done by defining common
underlying dimensions, known as factors ( Hair, Ande rson, Tatham & Black,
1998).
Hair et al. (2006) suggested that as a general rule, the minimum is to have at least
five times as many observations as there are variables to be analyzed. The more
acceptable size would have a ten -to-one ratio. Another test to determine the

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Page |134appropriateness of factor analysis is the Barlett test of sphericity which examines
the presence of sufficient number of significant correlations among the variables.
It provides the statistical probability that the correlation matrix has si gnificant
correlations among at least some of the variables (Hair et al., 1998). The factor
analysis examines the factors of sample proportions by reducing a large number of
variables to a meaningful, explainable and usable number of factors (Sekaran,
2000). Factor analysis is also used to examine construct validity (Hair et al.,
2007). The KMO/MSA quantifies the degree of inter -correlation among the
variables and to determine the suitability of factor analysis. Hair et al. (2007)
opine that the MSA values .90s are marvellous; 80s are meritorious; .70s are
middling; .60s are mediocre; .50s are miserable and below .50 is unacceptable. In
this study the KMO values were found acceptable in addition to test of Sphericity
value and total variance was explained.
Lastly, to obtain a summary of the format for all variables used in the study and to
prove the underlying facets among the variables in the analysis, factor analysis is
conducted. Thus, exploratory factor analysis was considered as suitable and
justifiable for this study and it established a goodness of measurement for the
scales as they were adapted from past studies.

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Page |1353.24Reliability Test
Reliability is the variability of the individual evaluations around the true value
(McTavish & Loether, 2002). A sc ale’s reliability is measured by internal
consistency (Rubin & Babbie, 2010 ). Rubin and Babbie ( 2010) state that
coefficient alpha is the most powerful approach for calculating internal
consistency reliability that can be easily done by using accessible co mputer
software. This study used 5 -point Likert -type scales and implemented SPSS
version 21 .0 windows software to examine the coefficient alpha of each question.
In general, the closer the reliability coefficient gets to 1.0, the better it would be.
Sekaran (2000) noted that reliability less than .60 is considered to be poor, that in
the .70 range is acceptable, and those over .80 are good. However, for the purpose
of the present study, a minimum reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha) value was .60,
which is the ac ceptable level by previous researchers.
3.25T-Test and ANOVA Test
T-test was used to see if there is a statistically significant difference in the mean
scores for two groups of variables in terms of their socio -demographic dimens ions
like gender and mar ital status. One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used
to examine whether there exist any differences in the level of perceptions by
demographic variables like age, education level, professional status and income.

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Page |1363.26Multiple Regressions
Multiple reg ressions are more sophisticated extension of correlation and are used
to explore the predictive ability of a set of independent variables on one dependent
variable (Pallant, 2011). In order to test the hypotheses developed in the present
study, multiple re gression analyses were conducted. Before proceeding with the
analysis, basic assumptions of the linearity (represents the degree to which the
change in the dependent variable is associated with the independent variable),
normality of the error terms distri bution and homoscedasticity (constant variance
of the error terms) were examined. In this study, the hypotheses were tested using
the multiple regression analysis (standard regression) to determine influential role
of independent variables on a dependent v ariable.
3.27Summary
The chapter discussed the research design of quantitative approach using a
structured and close ended questionnaire. There was a brief description about
stratified random sampling technique where 385 respondents were selected for th is
survey. The chapter also discussed the population, sampling process, questionnaire
formation and data collection procedure. It also focused about pilot study and
statistical tools employed for data analyzing. In the following chapter, the results
of theanalysis of the study are presented.

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Page |137Chapter Four
Data Presentation and Analysis
4.1Introduction
This chapter presents the results of the study. Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) 20.0 was used to analyze the data. This chapter gives an
overview of the findings of the study in accordance to the objectives formulated in
chapter one. It starts with description of data collection and response rate,
followed by the profile of the respondents. Then reliability and validity test to
measure goodn ess of data and data screening, which includes description of the
missing data, outliers, normality, linearity, homoscedasticity and multicollinearity
are reported. The results of the factor analysis are discussed next. Then descriptive
analysis of local r esidents’ att itude towards tourism impact is presented. In order
to explore the relationship between tourism attitude and differ ent tourism impact
factors, corr elation analysis has been performed. The differences in the level of
local residents’ attitude t owards tourism impact in terms of different demographic
characteristics have been evaluated through T -test and ANOVA test. Final ly, the
results of the hypothesi s testing using multiple regression analysis are presented.

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Page |1384.2Overview of the Data Collecte d and Response Rate
For this study, data collection was conducted from 10 November till 05 December
2015 through questionnaire on local residents of Cox’s Bazar Municipality using
stratified random sampling method. A total of 500 local residents were appro ached
in four Wards (Ward No. 02, 03, 09 and 12) who were directly or indirectly
involved with tourism activities. Out of 500 residents, 403 agreed to participate
and filled out the questionnaires. Hence, a total number of 385 responses were
usable and use d for subsequent analysis after rejecting 18 questionnaires as
missing data, giving the study repose rate of 77%. According to Sekaran (2003),
385 responses are considered as an acceptable number for researchers to proceed
with data analysis.
4.3Profileof Respondents
In this section, the background information of the participants of the survey is
presented. Particularly, it provides the socio -demographic information about
respondents’ gender, age, education level, marital status, professional status and
monthly income.
4.3.1Gender
Results showed that 59% of the sample populations were m ale and 41% were
female (Table 4 .1). One possible explanation is that rate of employment in men is

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Page |139higher and men as family breadwinners are more conscious of the contr ibution of
tourism to the economy.
Table 4.1: Gender of Respondents
Gender Frequency Percent
Male 228 59
Female 157 41
Total 385 100
Source: Field Survey
4.3.2Age
Table 4.2 shows, the majority of respondents (25%) are between 31 -40 years,
followed by 21-30 years and 41 -50 years age group with 23 %. The lowest
frequency (12%) belongs to age group over 50 years.

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Page |140Table 4.2: Age of Respondents
Age category Frequency Percent
Up to 20 years 64 17
21-30 years 90 23
31-40 years 97 25
41-50 years 88 23
Above 50 years 46 12
Total 385 100
Source: Field Survey
4.3.3. Education Level
Table 4.3 shows, the majority of respondents (43%) are without any formal
education, followed by primary education with 28%. The lowest frequency (1%)
belongs to post -graduate degree followed by (2%) with University level education.

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Page |141Table 4.3: Education Level of Respondents
Category Frequency Percent
No education 164 43
Primary education 108 28
S.S.C 66 17
H.S.C. 36 9
University level 8 2
Others 3 1
Total 385 100
Source: Field Survey
4.3.4Marital Status
The majorities (73%) of r espondents were married. Table 4 .4 displays the marital
status of respondents.

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Page |142Table 4.4: Marital Status of Respondents
Category Frequency Percent
Married 280 73
Non-married 105 27
Total 385 100
Source: Field Survey
4.3.5.Professional Status
According to results, 60% of respondents are businessmen, 32% are service holder
and 8% belo ngs to other profession (Table 4 .5).
Table 4.5: Professional Status of Respondents
Category Frequency Percent
Service 125 32
Business 230 60

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Page |143Others 30 8
Total 385 100
Source: Field Survey
4.3.6Income
Table 4.6 shows level of respondents’ income per month. 36% of respondents
have income within 11000 -20000 Taka and 28% have relatively low income (less
than 10000 taka). On the other hand, only 4% have an income over 40000 Taka.
Table 4.6: Income Level of Respondents
Category Frequency Percent
Under 10000 Taka 107 28
11000-20000 Taka 139 36
21000-30000 Taka 78 20
31000-40000 Taka 46 12

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Page |144Over 40000 Taka 15 4
Total 385 100
Source: Field Survey
4.4. Goodness of Data
To assess the goodness of a measure one should consider its reliability and
validity. While reliability focuses on accuracy in measurement, validity refers to
whether we are measuring the rig ht thing. i.e. the intended concept. This section
discusses the tests elaborately.
4.4.1Reliability of Data
The reliability of a measure is an indication of the stability and consistency with
which the instrument measures the concept and helps to assess t he goodness of a
measure. While stability refers to the ability of the measure to repeat the same
results over time with low vulnerability to changes in the situation, consistency
indicates how well the items measuring a concept hang together as a set (Sek aran,
2003). There are different forms of reliability: test retest, parallel form reliability,
inter-coder reliability, and internal consistency. Parallel form reliability needs two
comparable forms that have similar items and the same response format but with

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Page |145different words and different sequence of the questions. This form of reliability
focuses on the error variability resulting from wording and ordering of the
questions. Inter coder reliability requires more than one coder which is impractical
in the current study which is considered to be individual project. However, test –
retest reliability can be used to examine stability while consistency can be
measured by internal consistency reliability.
Based on the above discussion, the current study tests cons istency of the
measurement scale using statistical tests of internal consistency reliability. One of
statistical measures that commonly used to assess the consistency and reliability is
Cronbach's alpha. It is a reliability coefficient that indicates how w ell items in a
set are positively correlated to one another. It is computed based on the average
inter correlations among the items measuring the concept. The closer Cronbach's
alpha is to 1, the higher the internal consistency reliability (Sekaran 2003). Several
researcher s (Nunnally, 1978; Pallant, 200 1) opined that a measurement scale
should have Cronbach’s alpha coefficients above .70. The present study followed
the recommendations noted by the scholars and uses Cronbach's alpha as
reliability measure. Table 4.7 shows the results of the reliability of five factors.

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Page |146Table 4.7: Reliability Analysis
Factors No. of items Cronbach’s Alpha
Living Standard 4 .789
Employment Opportunity 7 .795
Earning Capability 4 .817
Cultural Development 5 .728
Socialvalue 5 .766
The above table summarized the reliability tests of the items of the scales. The
Cronbach’s alphas shown in the table for all factors range from .728 to .817 which
indicates acceptable internal consistency.
4.4.2 Validity of Data
The validity of a scale instrument is the extent of its ability to measure what it sets
out to measure (Dunteman, 1994). Three common types of validity can be
identified: content validity, criterion -related validity, and construct validity.

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Page |147Content validity ensures th at the measure includes an adequate and representative
set of items that tap the concept. Several ways can be employed to attest the
content validity, for example careful definition of the research through the
literature review and using a panel of judges. In this regard face validity is
considered as a basic and a very minimum index of content validity. (Sekaran,
2003).
Sekaran (2003 ) states that 'criterion related validity is established when the
measure differentiates individuals on a criterion it is exp ected to predict'. There are
two types of criterion related validity, concurrent validity and predictive validity.
Concurrent validity is established when the measure discriminates different
individuals. Predictive validity refers to the ability of the mea sure to make
accurate predictions, i.e. differentiate among individuals with reference to a future
criterion. However, content validity is seen as not sufficient to conclude the
validity of a measure. Moreover, criterion related validity is not often used with
social science measures (Hassan, 2006).
The third type of validity is construct validity that shows 'how well the results
obtained from the use of the measure fit the theories around which the test is
designed' (Sekaran, 2003, p.207). As such construc t validity focuses on the
consistency with theoretical expectations and evidence from literature.

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Page |148Based on the above discussion, the validity of measurement scale is assessed by
construct validity and content validity.
4.4.2.1 Construct Validity
The major ity of the items used to measure the attitude of local residents towards
tourism impact has been adapted from the literature review that has confirmed
them of discriminant and convergent validity (Bianchi, Pikeand Lang , 2009). As
most of these studies me asuring attitude of local residents towards tourism impact
focuseson western countries where the environment and culture are totally
different from Bangladesh, it was needed to re -examine the validity of these
measures in the context of Bangladesh.
Factor analysis is used to define primarily the underlying structure of a data matrix
(Hair et al., 2006; Pallant, 2001). According to Zikmund (2003) it as a tool of data
reduction approach employed to discriminate the basic dimensions from the
original variabl es. For determining the construct validity of this study, exploratory
factor analysis was conducted for all items used in this study to confirm that these
items can measure what they have to measure and are appropriate for the
accomplishment of the objecti ves of the study.

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Page |1494.4.2.2Content Validity
A scale is said to have content validity if the survey items being combined can be
judged to give a comprehensive and balanced coverage of all the characteristics of
each factor (Dunteman, 1994). For the purpose s of content validity, all the items
being combined must clearly relate theoretically to the factor in question. If a
measure or scale is adequately sampled from the targeted universe or domain of
content then it can be regarded as valid content (Pallant, 2001).
For this study, the content validity was measured for the variables like living
standard, employment opportunity, earning capability, cultural development and
social value. Sekaran (2003) opines that there are three ways by which content
validity o f scales can be measured: the judgment of the instrument developers or
other area experts, conceptualizing the domain or universe of interest, and high
internal consistent reliability. For this study, the content validity of the instruments
was ensured by obtaining expert opinions. Two University teachers (expertise in
tourism field) were selected for expert opinion.
4.5 Data Screening
After examining descriptive statistics and frequency distribution data were
screened. Values of out of ranged and improp erly coded were identified and
deleted.

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Page |1504.5.1Missing Data
Missing data is a common event that frequently occurs as respondents do not
answer one or more questions in a questionnaire (Sekaran, 2006). Missing data
means where valid values of one or more v ariables are missing for data analysis,
particularly for multivariate analysis (Hair et al., 2006). Sekaran (2006) notes that
normally respondents leave the items blank when they fail to answer some items
in the questionnaire. Mostly, this happens as the r espondents do not understand the
question, do not know the answer, not intend to answer etc. The main concern is to
detect the nature and relationships underlying the occurrence of missing data for
handling those (Hair et al., 2006).
Sekaran (2006) suggest s that the problem can be solved by omitting the case
especially when the sample size is large. Hair et al. (2006) suggest a four step
process to identify and solve this problem: detect the nature of missing data;
identify the scope of missing data; diagno se the randomness of the process; and fix
up the imputation method. Moreover, Hair et al. (2006) suggest a common rule of
thumb that if missing data is less than 10 percent for an individual case or
observation, it can be avoided but that number must be ad justed with the chosen
analysis technique. Variables with less than 15 percent missing data can be
deleted, but a greater level of missing data for example, 20 percent to 30 percent
need to be remedied.

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Page |151A frequency test was conducted for all variables to detect any missing data in the
study and 18 incomplete questionnaires were found. After deletion these missing
data, 385 usable questionnaires were found for analysis. The missing data were
handled by case -wise deletion and this technique is preferred to o ther methods of
mitigating missing problem (Malhotra, 1999 ).
4.5.2Outliers
In the data screening process, the treatment of outliers is an important matter. For
detecting outliers, an examination was conducted for the observations of each
variable (Hair e t al. 1998). Fortunately, no outlier was detected. So, the net
number of sample size was 385 observations.
4.5.3 Normality
For most of the analyses to work properly, normal distribution of data is essential.
Even where it is not needed, normality provides a stronger assessment (Hair et al.,
2006). A test was done to check normality of the data of the regression model. A
histogram and a normal probability plot of the distribution of the data show that
the distribution was symmetric with a normal curve, indic ating the normality
assumption (Appendix, 2). To verify the data normality, skewness and kurtosis
were calculated. Skewness refers to how data are distributed and kurtosis relates to
how their peakedness is. Usually, a distribution is meant to be normal wh en the

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Page |152value of skewness and kurtosis are close to zero (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001).
When standard error for skewness and kurtosis ratios fall within ±2 at the
significance level of .05, normality is there (Hair et al., 2006).
In the present study, all of the skewness and kurtosis ratios have fall between the
normal distribution ±2 that met the normality assumption. In addition to these
initial verification on multivariate normality, a test of the normal probability plots
was conducted in this study to asse ss normality to support the results (p -p plots),
as shown in Appendix 3.
4.5.4Linearity
The assumption of linearity implies that there is a straight -line relationship
between dependent and independent variables. There are a number of ways to
check the ty pe of linear relationship that exists between the variables. One can plot
the dependent variable against independent variable, and then visually inspect the
scatter plot to see how well the fitted regression line represents their relationship.
Linearity ca n also be checked by plotting the residuals against the independent
variable values, and if the relationship is linear, then there will be no obvious
clustering of positive residuals or a clustering of negative residuals. In the present
study linearity has been checked through an analysis of residuals and partial
regression plots (Appendix, 2) that expresses no nonlinear relation in the present
data.

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Page |1534.5.5Homoscedasticity
The Homoscedasticity of residuals implies that variance of the residuals is
constantfor each observation. The present study has employed graphical method
(residual plots where residuals are plotted against predicted value) to check the
assumption of Homoscedasticity of residuals. Homoscedasticity tests through
scatter plot diagram of stan dardized residuals indicate the variance of dependent
variable is the same for all values of the independent variables as normal pattern in
the data point was found
So the results of the homoscedasticity tests (Appendix 2) show that
homoscedasticity exists in the set of independent variables and the variance of
dependent variable. In addition, a visual verification of the distribution of residuals
provided an absence of heteroscedasticity.
4.5.6Multicollinearity
For estimating the hypothesized conceptual model it is necessary to test
multicollinearity among variables (Hair et al., 2006). Multicollinearity refers to the
strong linear relationship between two or more independent variables. With
multicollinearity, the variables are very highly correlated (say , .90 and above).
According to Murrary (2006), multicollinearity tends to create difficulty in
differentiating the individual effect of explanatory variables. As a result, the

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Page |154estimates for a regression model cannot be uniquely computed and therefore may
be biased.
Two popular tests are conducted for estimating multicollinearity which are:
tolerance (R²) value and the variance inflation factor (VIF) value (Hair et al.,
2006). Usually, the tolerance value ranges from 0 to 1 where 1 means that the
variable h as no correlation with other variables, and a value of 0 indicates that it is
completely correlated. Hair et al. (2006) opine that tolerance expresses the amount
of variability of a specific independent variable not interpreted by other
independent variabl es. VIF is the opposite of tolerance value. The rule of thumb
for tolerance value is .10 and VIF is 10. The VIF which is close to 1.00 means a
little or no multicollinearity. Thus, multicollinearity happens when the model
portrays small tolerance and a lar ge VIF (more than 10).
Table 4.8: Testing Multicollinearity through Tolerance and VIF Values
Variables Tolerance VIF
Living standard .834 2.367
Employment opportunity .556 1.272

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Page |155Earning capability .672 2.549
Cultural development .844 2.385
Social valu e .479 1.604
The present study has applied VIF (Variance Inflation Factor) with tolerance value
to assess the problem of multicollinearity. The results of VIF and tolerance values
indicate that there is no unacceptable level of multicollinearity. Based on these
results, it can be concluded that there is no potential multicollinearity problem in
the present study.
4.6Factor Analysis
Factor analysis is a generic term for a family of statistical techniques concerned
with the reduction of a set of observabl e variables to a small number of latent
factors (Rummel, 2002; Massey, 2003). It has been developed primarily for
analyzing relationships among a number of measurable entities (such as survey
items). The primary purpose of factor analysis is data reduction and summary.
Factor analysis includes a variety of correlational analyses designed to examine
the interrelationships between variables (Reisinger & Turner, 2003). The main
applications of factor analytic techniques are therefore (1) to reduce the number o f

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Page |156variables and (2) to detect structure in the relationships between variables, in other
words, to classify variables. For the purpose of this study, exploratory factor
analysis was performed to combine the large number of statements into a smaller
set offactors
4.6.1Satisfying Factor Analysis Assumptions
There are some requirements that should be considered before factor analysis can
be applied.
•Firstly, Hair et al. (2006) mentioned that as a general rule, the minimum
sample size should be at least ten times as many observation as there are
variables to be analyzed. The present study has 25 variables, and thus, the
minimum sample size needed was 250 observations. This study consists of
385 respondents and the ratio between the variables used in factor an alysis
and sample size is1: 15. So, the first assumption for factor analysis was
met.
•The second test to determine the appropriateness of factor analysis is the
kind of data used for analysis. Hair et al. (2006) mentioned that the data
should be metric m easurement for factor analysis. All the variables in this
study except demographic variables had adopted metric scale for factor
analysis; hence, factor analysis can be carried out.

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Page |157•The last assumption is the factor ability of the correlation matrix. The d ata
matrix need to have sufficient correlations for justifying the applications for
factor analysis (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, and Black, 1998). Two common
tests are used to measure the correlations among the variables like Bartlett
Test of Sphericity (BTS)and Kaiser -Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Measure of
Sampling Adequacy (MSA) that generate an index which range from 0 to 1
(Hair et al., 2006). Kinnear and Gray (1994) suggest that the KMO value
requires to be more than 0.50 for doing factor analysis. Hair et al. (20 06)
noted that the KMO values in the .90 or above are marvelous; .80 or above
are meritorious; .70 or above are middling; .60 or above are midiocre; .50
or above are acceptable; and less than .50 is not acceptable. When the
Bartlett test value is significa nt (that is, its associat ed probability is less
than .05) then it is very good to consider the correlation matrix as an
identity matrix ( where the diagonal elements are 1 and the off diagonal
elements are 0) and is thus ap propriate for factor analysis ( Kinnnear &
Gray, 1994). The meaning is that when the sphericity value is larger and the
associated significance is smaller (less than .05) then further analysis is
appropriate. The data matrix in the present study satisfies the requirement
of sufficient corr elations for conducting factor analysis.

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Page |1584.6.2Factor Analysis Procedure
The factor analysis was conducted based on the following procedure, as
recommended by various researchers (Hair et al., 2006; Pallant, 2007; Sekaran,
2006).
● Based on the measure of sampling adequacy (MSA), ite ms having less than .500
in the anti -image matrix were deleted as they possess the negatives of the partial
correlation coefficients and the negatives of the partial covariences. In a good
factor model, most of the off diagonal elements are small and which is portrayed
on the diagonal of the anti -image correlation matrix where acceptable level is
above .50.
● Items that did not load with a particular factor were deleted based on the factor
matrix of load ings or correlation between the items. Items which had loadings less
than .50 on a single factor were also removed.
● Double loaded items were deleted as they make explanation of the result tough.
Usually, double loading happens when the factor score show s more or equal to .50
for a single item on various factors.
● In the present study, the Bartlett test of sphericity was found significant and the
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequ acy was higher than .6. The KMO
measure of sampling adequacy test is appropriate when the partial correlations

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Page |159among variables are small. Whereas, BTS test is suitable when the correlation
matrix is an identity matrix.
The above mentioned process was repeatedly used each time and lastly the final
data were found after s everal iterations of item analysis and evaluation. The initial
construct and discriminant validities were supported by principal component
factor analysis with varimax rotated matrix. Hair et al. (2006) opined that the
minimum requ irements for factor loadi ng range from .30 to .40, and loadings of
.50 or greater are treated more significant. In t he process of selecting the items for
each factor, only ite ms having loading of .50 and above were included.
4.6.3Resultsof Factor Analysis
4.6.3.1Factor Analys is on Living Standard
Exploratory factor analysis for liv ing standard is shown in table 4 .9.
Table 4.9: Factor Analysis for Living Standard
SL. No Items Factor loading
1 Tourism generally causes an increase in living
standards.733
2 Tourism brings econ omic benefits to the residents
of the community.725

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Page |1603 Tourism has led to an increase of infrastructure for
local people.687
4 Tourism helps diversifying local economy .683
Eigen values 5.247
Percentage of variance explained (%) 48.349
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin .686
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi -Square 2455.059
Df 06
Sig. .000
Figure 4.1: Scree plot of Living Standard

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Page |161The Kaiser -Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy (MAS) for living
standard ite msshow the value .686 (in table 4 .9) which is adequately ‘midicore’
and suitable for factor analysis (Hair et al., 2006; Pallant, 2007). The Bartlett’s
sphericity value is also large (2455.059) and its level of significance is low (.000).
Therefore, both of the KMO and BTS results show the appropriateness of the
factor analysis.
Using principal component analysis (PCA) and varimax rotated matrix with Kaiser
Normalization the factor analysis was conducted. The principal component
analysis with Eigen value o f more than 1.0 means the data is significant and can be
used for extracting factors (Hair et al., 2007). One factor loading with Eigen value
more than 1 were found in this study as sho wn by the scree plot in Figure 4 .1,
where the plot slopes steeply downw ard second factor before slowly getting
approximately horizontal.
The results in Table 4 .9 indicates that all four items of living standard show large
factor loadings. Hair et al., (2006) suggest that factor loadings with value +.50 or
greater are meant h ighly significant; factor loadings of +.40 are considered more
important; and factor loadings of +.30 are considered significant.

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Page |1624.6.3.2Factor Analysis on Employment Opportunity
Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted on employment opportunity
that had 07items. The result of factor analysis on employment opp ortunity is
presented in Table 4 .10.
Table 4.10: Factor Analysis for Employment Opportunity
Sl.
NoItems Factor loading
1Tourism creates employment opportunities for
local residents.876
2Tourism creates new markets for our local
products.844
3A large portion of tourism jobs is part -time due to
the seasonal character.779
4Local people do not get the management level
jobs..759
5Local people are poorly paid by the tourism
business operator.721
6Tourism creates jobs more for externals than local
residents.698

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Page |1637Entrepreneurial attitude grown among the local
residents.659
Eigen Value 3.660
Percentage of variance explained (%) 55.158
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin .720
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi -Square 2025.569
Df 21
Sig. .000
The Kaiser -Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy (MAS) for
employment opportunity items sho w the value of .720 (in Table 4 .10), which is
adequately ‘midling’ and suitable f or factor analysis (Hair et al., 2006; Pallant,
2007).The Bartlett’s sphericity value is also large (2025.569) and its level of
significance is low (.000). Therefore, both of the KMO and BTS results signal the
appropriateness of the factor analysis.
Usingprincipal component analysis (PCA) and varimax rotated matrix with Kaiser
Normalization the factor analysis was conducted (Hair et al., 2006). The principal
component analysis with Eigen value of greater than 1.0 means the data is

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Page |164significant and can be us ed for extracting factors (Hair et al., 2007). Three factors
loading with Eigen value more than 1 were found in this analysis as sho wn by the
Scree plot in Figure 4 .2, where the plot slopes steeply downward before slowly
getting approximately horizontal.
The results in Table 4 .10 demonstrate that all seven items of employment
opportunity show large factor loadings of greater than .50, indicating that they
correlate highly.
Figure 4.2: Scree plot of employment opportunity

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Page |1654.6.3.3Factor Analysis on Earning Capability
Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted on earning capability that had
04 items. The result of factor analysis on earning ca pability is presented in Table
4.11.
Table 4.11: Factor Analysis for Earning Capab ility
Sl. No Items Factor loading
1 Development of tourism
increases earnings of local
people..854
2 Local businesses benefit the
most from tourists..789
3 Most of the tourism money
goes to out of the local
community..703
4 Tourism increased our living
expenditure..658
Eigen Value 4.684
Percentage of variance explained (%) 48.443
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin .715

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Page |166Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi -Square 1886.554
Df 6
Sig. .000
The Kaiser -Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling ade quacy (MAS) for
motivation items sh ow the value of .715 (in Table 4 .11), which is adequately
‘middling’ and appropriate for factor analysis (Hair et al., 2006; Pallant, 2007).
The Bartlett’s sphericity value is also large (1886.554) and its level of signif icance
is low (.000). Therefore, both of the KMO and BTS results signal the
appropriateness of the factor analysis.
Using principal component analysis (PCA) and varimax rotated matrix with Kaiser
Normalization the factor analysis was performed. Onefactorloading with Eigen
value more than 1 were found in this analysis as sho wn by the scree plot in Figure
4.3.The results in Table 4 .11 demonstrate that all four items of earning capability
show factor loadings of greater than .50, indicating that they correl ate highly.

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Page |167
Figure 4.3: Scree plot of motivation
4.6.3.4Factor Analysis on Cultural Development
Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted on cultural development that
had 5 items. The result of factor analysis on cultu ral development is presented in
Table 4.12.

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Page |168Table 4.12: Factor Analysis for Cultural Development
Sl. No Items Factor
loading
1Tourism encourages a variety of cultural activities by the local
residents (e.g., crafts, arts, music).844
2Tourism has b rought positive change in local traditional life
style..823
3The cultural exchange between residents and tourists is valuable
for the residents..788
4Tourism is damaging to the local culture and traditions. .719
5Tourism causes cultural invasion. .665
Eigen Value 4.378
Percentage of variance explained (%) 46.558
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin .824
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi -Square 1668.448
Df 10
Sig. .000

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Page |169The Kaiser -Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy (MAS) for
personality items sh ow the value of .824 (in Table 4 .12), which is adequately
‘meritorious’ and suitable for factor analysis ( Hair et al., 2006; Pallant, 2007).The
Bartlett’s sphericity value is also large (1668.448) and its level of significance is
low (.000). Th erefore, both of the KMO and BTS results signal the
appropriateness of the factor analysis.
Using principal component analysis (PCA) and varimax rotated matrix with Kaiser
Normalization the factor analysis was conducted (Hair et al., 2006). Two factors
loading with Eigen value more than 1 were found in this analysis as sho wn by the
scree plot in Figure 4 .4.The results in Table 4 .12 demonstrate that all five items of
cultural development show factor loadings of greater than .50, indicating that they
correlate highly.
Figure 4.4: Scree plot of cultural development

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Page |1704.6.3.5Factor Analysis on Social Value
Exploratory factor analysis for social value is shown in Table 4 .13.
Table 4.13: Factor Analysis for Social Value
SL. No Iteams Factor loading
1 Tourism upgrades the social value of local
people.744
2 Tourism development increases the number
of recreational opportunities for local
residents.732
3 Tourism is responsible for creating social
problems such as crime, drug use,
prostitution, and so forth in the community..712
4 Tourism has limited the use of the
recreational facilities like entertainment
centers and beaches by the local people..688
5 Tourism causes environmental pollution. .674
Eigen values 2.554
Percentage of variance explained (%) 60.376
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin .848

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Page |171Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi -Square 2234.558
Df 10
Sig. .000
The Kaiser -Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy (MAS) for
attitudes towards service quality items show the value .848 (in Table 7.13) which
is adequately ‘marvelous’ and suitable for factor analysis (Hair et al., 2006;
Pallant, 2007). The Bartlett’s sphericity value is also large (2234.558) and its level
of significance is low (.000). Therefore, both of th e KMO and BTS results show
the appropriateness of the factor analysis.
Using principal component analysis (PCA) and varimax rotated matrix with Kaiser
Normalization the factor analysis was conducted. The principal component
analysis with Eigen value of mor e than 1.0 means the data is significant and can be
used for extracting factors (Hair et al., 2007). Two factors loading with Eigen
value more than 1 were found in this study as sho wn by the scree plot in Figure
4.5, where the plot slopes steeply downward before slowly getting approximately
horizontal.

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Page |172The results in Table 4 .13 indicate that all five items of attitude towards social
value show large factor loadings.
Figure 4.5: Scree plot of Social Value

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Page |1734.7Local Residents’ Attitudes towards Tourism Impact: Descriptive
Statistics
4.7.1Overall Attitudes towards Tourism in Cox’s Bazar
In developing the attitude statements an attempt was made to relate them to two
dimensions of tourism: attitudes towards the economic impact of tourism and
attitudes towards the social impact of tourism. To examine the attitudes of
residents towards the economic and social impacts, 25 Likert scale statements
based on a five -point scale were used. The scores were reversed for negative
statements. H ence the higher the score the more favorable the attitude towards
tourism. The mean scores and standard deviations for the 25 statements on
attitudes are shown in Table 4.14.
Table 4.14: Means and Standard Deviations for the 25 Statements
Statements Mean SD
Tourism generally causes an increase in living standards 4.2000 .74931
Tourism has led to an increase of infrastructure for local
people.3.8000 .74931
Tourism helps diversifying local economy 2.8000 .74931

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Page |174Tourism brings economic benefits to the res idents of the
community.4.6000 .49054
Tourism creates employment opportunities for local
residents4.3506 .69158
Entrepreneurial attitude grown among the local residents 4.1013 .76894
Tourism creates jobs more for externals than local residents 3.5143.89584
Local people do not get the management level jobs. 2.8649 .78888
Local people are poorly paid by the tourism business
operator3.9221 1.06025
A large portion of tourism jobs is part -time due to the
seasonal character.4.3506 .69158
Tourism cre ates new markets for our local products. 3.9506 .77403
Development of tourism increases earnings of local people. 3.1766 .89266
Local businesses benefit the most from tourists. 3.3610 1.07628
Most of the tourism money goes to out of the local
community.4.3584 .75093
Tourism increased our living expenditure. 4.1013 .76894
Tourism encourages a variety of cultural activities by the 3.5143 .89584

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Page |175local residents (e.g., crafts, arts, music)
Tourism has brought positive change in local traditional life
style.2.8649 .78888
The cultural exchange between residents and tourists is
valuable for the residents.3.9221 1.06025
Tourism is damaging to the local culture and traditions. 4.3506 .69158
Tourism causes cultural invasion. 3.9506 .77403
Tourism upgrad es the social value of local people 3.1766 .89266
Tourism development increases the number of recreational
opportunities for local residents3.3610 1.07628
Tourism is responsible for creating social problems such as
crime, drug use, prostitution, and so forth in the community.4.3584 .75093
Tourism has limited the use of the recreational facilities like
entertainment centers and beaches by the local people.4.1013 .76894
Tourism causes environmental pollution. 3.5143 .89584
*When the statements are neg ative the reversed order of rating should be
considered.
This level of analysis, at this stage, suggests that local residents show a favorable
attitude towards the economic and social impact supporting tourism in general.

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Page |176The following task was to get an o verall measure of the attitudes (positive or
negative) from each subject. Therefore each row was summarized and compared
with the mid score of 75 (25×3), more than 75 means a positive attitude, less than
75 means a negative attitude, 75 was considered neut ral. This helps to examine in
a representative way the attitudes of local residents towards tourism in general.
Table 4.15: Overall Attitudes towards Tourism in Cox’s Bazar
Positive Attitude Neutral Negative attitude
Attitudes 345 8 32
Mean 3.34
Standard
Deviation1.17
As shown in Table 4 .15 a total of 345 respondents displayed a positive attitude
toward tourism with only 32 showing a negative attitude and 8 with a neutral
attitude. Clearly the respondents substantially support tourism. However, a gran d
mean of 3.34 for the attitude scales shows that overall the positive attitudes are
fairly mild. Within this a standard deviation of 1.17 indicates a heterogeneity in
the responses that is likely to range from strongly positive attitudes to attitudes

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Page |177which are fairly neutral. This suggests different patterns of responses and attitudes
from residents towards the economic and social impacts of tourism.
4.7.2Local Residents’ Attitude towards Socio -Economic Impact of Tourism
This section presents the results of local residents’ attitude towards tourism
impacts in Cox’s Bazar in more details. In this study, the tourism impact has been
presented under two points of view: economic and social. Each point of view has
been further classified in order to get greater insights of local residents’ attitude.
For example, economic impact has been discussed under three heads: Living
Standard, Employment Opportunity and Earning Capability and social impact has
been discussed under two heads: Cultural Development and Social V alue.
4.7.2.1Local Residents’ Attitude towards Economic Impact of Tourism
4.7.2.1.1 Living Standard
Table 4.16 presents the responses to 4 statements on living standard impacts of
tourism in Cox’s Bazar. It should be noted that the impacts associated wit h
increasing standards of living has been considered both as economic or
socioeconomic impact in several studies. In this study it has been considered
among economic impacts.

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Page |178Respondents generally have positive attitude towards living standard impacts of
tourism. Approximately 76% of people stated that tourism resulted in an increase
in the standard of living.
More than 70% of respondents believe that tourism development has increased the
infrastructure for local people. The role of tourism in diversifying local economy
was supported by 50% of local residents. 88% of local people appreciated tourism
for bringing econ omic benefits to the community.
Table 4.16: Attitude of Local Residents towards Tourism Impact on Living
Standard
No.Tourism Impact 1
%2
%3
%4
%5
%Mean SD
1Tourism generally causes an
increase in living standards132032444.2000 .74931
2Tourism has led to an increase of
infrastructure for local people.352234363.8000 .74931
3Tourism helps diversifying local
economy12183028222.8000 .74931

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Page |1794Tourism brings economic
benefits to the residents of the
community.12933554.6000 .49054
Source: Field Survey
4.7.2.1.2 Employment Opportunity
Table 4.17 presents the responses to 7 statements on employment opportunity
impactsof tourism in Cox’s Bazar. Respondents generally have positive attitude
towards employment opportunity impacts of tourism. Approximately 79% of
people stated that tourism resulted in an increase in the employment opportunities
for local residents. More th an 71% of respondents believe that tourism has helped
to grow positive entrepreneurial attitude among local people. The role of tourism
in creating jobs more for externals than local residents was supported by 60% of
residents. More than 30% were disagree and 21% were neutral that local people do
not get the management level jobs created by tourism. 71% of local people
appreciated that local residents are poorly paid by the tourism business operator.
Over 77% of responses approved the statement that most of tourism jobs are part –
time due to the seasonal character. The role of tourism in creating new markets for
our local products was supported by 73% of local residents.

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Page |180Table 4.17: Attitude of Local Residents towards Tourism Impact on
Employment Opportunity
No.Tourism Impact 1
%2
%3
%4
%5
%Mean SD
1Tourism creates employment
opportunities for local residents121833464.3506 .69158
2Entrepreneurial attitude grown
among the local residents442131404.1013 .76894
3Tourism creates jobs more f or
externals than local residents782528323.5143 .89584
4Local people do not get the
management level jobs.13172126232.8649 .78888
5Local people are poorly paid by
the tourism business operator362030413.9221 1.06025
6A large portion of tourism jobs
is part-time due to the seasonal
character.261532454.3506 .69158
7Tourism creates new markets
for our local products.551731423.9506 .77403
Source: Field Survey

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Page |1814.7.2.1.3 Earning Capability
Table 4.18 presents the responses to 4 statements on earning capability impacts of
tourism in Cox’s Bazar. Respondents generally have positive attitude towards
earning capability impacts of tourism. Approximately 61% of people stated that
tourism increases earnings of local people. More than 70% of respondents believe
that local businesses benefit the most from tourists.
Respondents also confirmed some negative economic impacts. Over 75% of
responses approved the statement that most of the tourism money goes to out of
the local community. 69 % of local people appreciated that tourism increased their
living expenditure.
Table 4.18: Attitude of Local Residents towards Tourism Impact on Earning
Capability
No.Tourism Impact 1
%2
%3
%4
%5
%Mean SD
1Development of tourism
increases earnings of local
people.7122032293.1766 .89266

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Page |1822Local businesses benefit the
most from tourists.381933373.3610 1.07628
3Most of the tourism money
goes to out of the local
community.271631444.3584 .75093
4Tourism increased our living
expenditure.562030394.1013 .76894
Source: Field Survey
4.7.2.2Local Residents’ Attitude towards Social Impact of Tourism
4.7.2.2.1 Cultural Development
Table 4.19 presents the responses to 5 statements on cultural impacts of tourism in
Cox’s Bazar. Resp ondents generally have negative attitude towards cultural
impacts of tourism although some positive impacts have been appreciated. The
vast majority of residents (more than 72%) blamed tourism for damaging to the
local culture and traditions. 72% of local people appreciated that tourism causes
cultural invasion.
Respondents also confirmed some positive cultural impacts. Approximately 70%
of people stated that tourism encourages a variety of cultural activities (e.g., crafts,

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Page |183arts, music) among the local re sidents. 49% of local people appreciated and 21%
were neutral that tourism has brought positive change in local traditional life style.
More than 71% of respondents believe that the cultural exchange between
residents and tourists is valuable for the local residents.
Table 4.19: Attitude of Local Residents towards Tourism Impact on Cultural
Development
No.Tourism Impact 1
%2
%3
%4
%5
%Mean SD
1Tourism encourages a variety
of cultural activities by the
local residents (e.g., crafts, arts,
music)471932383.5143 .89584
2Tourism has brought positive
change in local traditional life
style.12182125242.8649 .78888
3The cultural exchange between
residents and tourists is
valuable for the residents.661730413.9221 1.06025
4Tourism is dam aging to the 181932404.3506 .69158

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Page |184local culture and traditions.
5Tourism causes cultural
invasion.3101530423.9506 .77403
Source: Field Survey
4.7.2.2.2 Social Value
Table 4.20 presents the responses to 5 statements on social impacts of tour ism in
Cox’s Bazar. Respondents generally have negative attitude towards social impacts
of tourism although some positive impacts have been appreciated. The vast
majority of residents (more than 85%) blamed tourism for creating social
problems such as crim e, drug use, prostitution, and so forth in the community.
67% of local people appreciated that tourism has limited the use of the recreational
facilities like entertainment centers and beaches by the local people. More than
70% of respondents believe that tourism causes environmental pollution
Respondents also confirmed some positive social impacts. Approximately 63% of
people stated that tourism upgrades the social value of local people. 73% of local
people appreciated and 17% were neutral that tourism dev elopment increases the
number of recreational opportunities for local residents.

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Page |185Table 4.20: Attitude of Local Residents towards Tourism Impact on Social
Value
No.Tourism Impact 1
%2
%3
%4
%5
%Mean SD
1Tourism upgrades the social
value of local p eople7111933303.1766 .89266
2Tourism development increases
the number of recreational
opportunities for local residents371735383.3610 1.07628
3Tourism is responsible for
creating social problems such
as crime, drug use, prostitution,
and soforth in the community.151834424.3584 .75093
4Tourism has limited the use of
the recreational facilities like
entertainment centers and
beaches by the local people.482129384.1013 .76894
5Tourism causes environmental
pollution.491733373.5143 .89584
Source: Field Survey

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Page |1864.8 Correlation Analysis
The strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables is
described by correlation (Pallant, 2001). Similarly, the degree of correlation
expresses the strength and signific ance of relationship among variables. For
obtaining this, the bivariate association was done which computes Pearson’s
correlation coefficient with significance levels. Pearson correlation take only one
value in between -1 to 1. Ignoring the sign, the magni tude of the absolute value
means the strength of the relationship b etween two variables. Cohen (199 8) and
Pallant (2007) suggest a guideline to explain the strength and weakness of the
relationship between two variables (r) as shown in Table 4.21.
Table 4.21: Cohen and Pallant’s Guidelines of Correlation Strength
r value Strength of relationship
r= +.10 to .29 or r= -.10 to-.29 Small
r=+.30 to .49 or r= -.30 to-.49 Medium
r= +.5 to 1.0 or r= -.5 to-1.0 Large
From Table 4.22 to 4.26 show a brief of the correlation analysis results where the
Pearson correlation coefficient was conducted to grasp the relationship among the

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Page |187variables in the present study. The correlation coefficients shown in the following
tables indicate the strength of the relationship am ong the variables.
Pearson Correlation Coefficient among dependent variable (attitude towards
tourism impact) and independent variable items
Table 4.22: Correlation between Attitude Towards Tourism Impact and
Living Standard Items
ATTI Item 1 Item 2 Item3Item 4
ATTI 1.000
Item 1 .753**1.000
Item 2 .512**.518**1.000
Item 3 .078 .098..057 1.000
Item 4 .882**.558**.433**.345**1.000

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Page |188**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 -tailed).
ATTI= Attitude towards Tourism Impac t, Item 1= Increase in standard, Item
2=Infrastructure Development, Item 3= Diversifying Local Economy, Item 4=
Resident Benefits
Results: Increase in standard, infrastructure development and resident benefits
factors of living standard have highly signifi cant relationship with attitude
towards tourism impact but diversifying local economy factor has no significant
relationship.
Table 4.23: Correlation between Attitude Towards Tourism Impact and
Employment Opportunity Items
ATTI Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item4Item
5Item
6Item
7
ATTI1.000
Item 1.633**1.000
Item 2.485**.347**1.000

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Page |189Item 3.032 .067..122**1.000
Item 4.565**.438**.478**.388**1.000
Item 5.009 .013 .067 .167**.289**1.000
Item 6.107**.378**.211**.390**.045 .255**1.000
Item 7.773**.556**.443**.125**.098 .663**.0091.000
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 -tailed).
ATTI= Attitude towards Tourism Impact, Item 1=New Employment, Item 2=
Entrepreneual attitude, Item 3= J obholder, Item 4= Job for locals, Item 5=
Remuneration, Item 6= Job Type, Item 7= New Market
Results: New employment, job for locals and new market factors of employment
opportunity have highly significant relationship with attitude towards tourism
impactbut entrepreneual attitude has mediumand job type has small significant
relationship. On the other hand, Jobholder and remuneration have no significant
relationship with local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact.

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Page |190Table 4.24: Correlation betwee n Attitude towards Tourism Impact and
Earning Capability Items
ATTI Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4
ATTI 1.000
Item 1 .854**1.000
Item 2 .598**.321**1.000
Item 3 .033 .121** ..221**1.000
Item 4 .664**.332**.669**.448**1.000
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 -tailed).
ATTI= Attitude towards Tourism Impact, Item 1= Earnings, Item 2=Local
Business, Item 3=Utilization of Earnings, , Item 4= Living Expenditure
Results: Earnings, local business and living expenditure fac tors of earning
capacity have highly significant relationship with attitude towards tourism impact
but utilization of earnings factor has no significant relationship.

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Page |191Table 4.25: Correlation between Attitude towards Tourism Impact and
Cultural Development Items
ATTI Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5
ATTI 1.000
Item 1 .112**1.000
Item 2 .098 .443**1.000
Item 3 .211**.085..396**1.000
Item 4 .035 .117**.119**.667**1.000
Item 5 .056 .275**.092 .012 123**1.000

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Page |192**. Correlat ion is significant at the 0.01 level (2 -tailed).
ATTI= Attitude towards Tourism Impact, Item 1= Cultural Activies, Item 2=Life
Style, Item 3=Cultural Exchange, , Item 4= Negative Impact, Item 5= Cultural
Invasion
Results: Cultural activities and cultural e xchange factor of cultural development
have small significant relationship with local residents’ attitude towards tourism
impact but life style, negative impact and cultural invasion have no significant
relationship.
Table 4.26: Correlation between Attit ude towards Tourism Impact and Social
Value Items
ATTI Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5
ATTI 1.000
Item 1 .093 1.000
Item 2 .111 .597**1.000

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Page |193Item 3 .345**.017..220**1.000
Item 4 .035 .185**.129 .334**1.000
Item 5 .006 .009**.088 .077 214**1.000
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 -tailed).
ATTI= Attitude towards Tourism Impact, Item 1= Social Status, Item
2=Recreational Opportunities, Item 3=Social Problem, , Item 4= Utilization of
Entertainment Facilities , Item 5= Environmental Pollution
Results: social problem factor of Social value have small significant relationship
with local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact but social status, recreational
opportunities, utilization of entertainment facilitie s and environmental pollution
have no significant relationship.

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Page |194Table 4.27: Correlation between Attitude towards Tourism Impact and
Demographic factors
Resident
s’
AttitudeGende
rAgeEducationMarita
l
StatusProfession
al StatusIncom
e
Residents’
Attitude1.000
Gender .012 1.000
Age .211**.0111.00
0
Education .112**.219**.188
**1.000
Marital
Status.063 .077.088.105 1.000
Profession .213**.174**.029.276**.1011.000

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Page |195al Status
Income .187**.147**.077.078 .155**.023 1.000
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2 -tailed).
Results: Age, education, professional status and income factors of demographic
characteristics have small significant relationship with local residents’ attitude
towards tourism impact but gender and marital status hav e no significant
relationship.
4.9 T-Test Analysis Results
To evaluate the differences in the level of local residents’ attitude towards tourism
impact in terms of gender and marital status independent T-test was used.
Table 4. 28: Local Residents’ Attitude towards Tourism Impact Based on
Gender
Independent variable Mean Std. deviation t-value P-value
Male 3.71 1.13
1.341 .835
Female 3.59 1.11

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Page |196Table 4. 29: Local Residents’ Attitude towards Tourism Impact Based on
Marital Status
Independent variable Mean Std. deviation t-value P-value
Married 3.68 1.13
1.298 .755
Non-Married 3.67 1.09
A summary of the test of differences in terms of gender and marital status is
tabulated in Table 4.28 and 4 .29 respectively. Bas ed on gender and marital status,
there were no statistical differences in the mean scores of local residents’ attitude
towards tourism between male and female.
4.10ANOVA Test Results
The differences in the level of local residents’ attitude towards touri sm impact
were explored in terms of age, education level, professional status and income
using ANOVA test. Table 4.30 summarizes the results of the test.
It is found that local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact based on age varies
significantly a t the p< .05 level among the respondents (F= 5.879, P=.039).
Despite reaching statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores

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Page |197among groups was quite small. The effect size, calculated using eta squared, was
.03. As Cohen (1988, pp. 284 -7) classifies .01 as a small effect, .06 as a medium
effect and .14 as a large effect.
Table 4. 30 :Local Residents’ Attitude towards Tourism Impact Based on
Age, Education Level, Professional Status and Income
Independent variable Mean Std. deviation F-value P-value
Age
Up to 20 years 3.72 1.15
5.879 .03921-30 years 3.65 1.11
31-40 years 3.71 1.10
41-50 years 3.55 1.02
Above 50 years 3.34 1.14
Education Level
No education 3.48 1.14
3.036 .042 Primary education 3.55 1.11
S.S.C 3.65 1.13

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Page |198H.S.C. 3.63 1.09
University level 3.56 1.11
Others 3.48 1.00
Professional Status
Service 3.22 1.18
3.445 .029 Business 3.68 1.13
Others 3.77 1.12
Income
Under 10000 Taka 3.39 1.08
2.743 .044 11000-20000 Taka 3.41 1.11
21000-30000 Tak a 3.52 1.14
31000-40000 Taka 3.64 1.16
Over 40000 Taka 3.68 1.19
The result shows that education level has significant impact on local residents’
attitude towards tourism impact. Local residents were divided into six groups
according to their educ ation level. There were statistically significant differences

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Page |199at the p< .05 level for six education groups: F= 3.036, P= .042. Despite reaching
statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the groups
was quite small. The effect si zes, calculated using eta squared, were .02.
The result shows that professional status has significant impact on local residents’
attitude towards tourism impact.There was statistically significant difference at the
p< .05 level in for professional status : F= 3.445, P= .029.Despite reaching
statistical significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the groups
was quite small. The effect sizes, calculated using eta squared, were .03.
Table 4.30 shows that income has significant impact on local residents’ attitude
towards tourism impact. Local residents were divided into five groups according
to their income. There were statistically significant differences at the p< .05 level
for five income groups: F= 2.743, P= .044. Despite reaching statistica l
significance, the actual difference in mean scores between the groups was quite
small. The effect sizes, calculated using eta squared, were .02.
4.11Multiple Regression Analysis
For hypotheses testing of this study, multiple regression analysis was con ducted.
Some assumptions of the relationship between dependent and independent
variables need to be met for performing multiple regression analysis like,
normality, linearity, homoscedasticity and multicollinearity (Hair et al., 1998). As

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Page |200mentioned earlier , the required assumptions have already been met and multiple
regression analysis was appropriate.
Usually, multiple regression analyses are performed to interpret the relationship
between one dependent variable (outcome) and various independent variables
(predictor). Multiple regression analysis can be done in three ways such as
standard regression, hierarchical or sequential, and stepwise regression (Pallant,
2007). All independent variables are used at a time in the equation in standard
multiple regressi on (Pallant, 2007). For this study, a standard multiple regression
was conducted to test the relationship between dependent variable and
independent variables.
In reviewing literature, it can be noticed that the attitude of local residents towards
tourismimpact are affected by several variables. The present study has mainly
focused on the impact of socio -economic variables on the attitude of local
residents towards tourism impact. The present study use living standard,
employment opportunity and earning ca pability (economic variables) and cultural
development and social value (social variables) as possible determinants of the
attitude of local residents in Cox’s Bazar towards tourism. To answer the research
question addressing the determinants of the attitu de of local residents towards
tourism impact, five hypotheses related to socio=economic characteristics have

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Page |201been tested in this section. Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression model has
been used to test the hypotheses.
4.11.1Model Development
Regressio n analysis is commonly and widely used in disclosure literature to test
the hypotheses. The present study examines the relationship between the attitudes
of local residents towards tourism impact as dependent variable and a number of
independent variables. The Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression is considered
to be a powerful technique in case of investigating the relationship between
dependent and independent variables.
The following Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression model is developed in
order toassess the effect of each independent variable on the dependent variable,
the attitude of local residents:
Y = β0+ β1X1+ β2X2+β3X3+ β4X4+ β5X5+e
Where, Y= the attitude of local residents
β0= The intercept
X1= Living standard
X2=Employment oppo rtunity

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Page |202X3= Earning capability
X4= Cultural development
X5= Social value
e= Residual error
For all analyses, overall model fit was assessed using the likelihood ratio test or
adjusted R -squared measure while individual variable significance was assess ed
using the t -statistic. Standardized beta weights were used for discussion of
statistical significance of independent variables in OLS regression, as they allow
for comparisons of variables with different metrics or when metrics are arbitrary,
as in Like rt-type scales (Menard 2002). The size of beta weights was also
examined to determine which variables had the strongest predictive value. The
independent variable with largest beta weight, after controlling for all other
variables, has the largest unique e xplanatory effect on the dependent variable for a
standard unit increase in the independent variable. Regression results were
examined at 0.5 levels of significance to determine whether the relationship
between dependent and independent variables was stat istically significant.

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Page |2034.11.2Empirical Analysis of Multiple Regression Model
For finding out the answers of the research questions and to verify the research
hypotheses multiple regression was conducted. Between a set of variables multiple
regression s detect every individual variable’s contribution and identify the best
predictor variable. For instance, R² shows how well a set of variables are able to
predict a specific outcome. The value for R²= 1 indicates that the continuous
dependent variable and a set of independent variables have a perfect linear
relationship whereas the value R²= 0 expresses zero linear relationship between
them. Standard multiple regression also shows an adjusted R² value which
‘corrects’R² value to provide a better assumption of the true popu lations value
(Pallant, 2007). The results of the OLS regression analysis of the association
between socio -economic characteristics and local residents’ attitude towards
tourism impact are documented in Table 4.31.
Table 4.31: OLS Regre ssion Results
Model Summary
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the
Estimate
1 .831a.691 .687 .27440

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Page |204ANOVAa
Model Sum of
Squaresdf Mean
SquareF Sig.
1Regression 63.862 512.772 169.625 .000b
Residual 28.538 379 .075
Total 92.400 384
a. Dependent Variable: Local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact
b. Predictors: (Constant), Living Standard, Emplo yment Opportunity, Earning
Capability, Cultural Dvelopment, Social Valuea. Predictors: (Constant), Living Standard, Employment Opportunity, Earning
Capability, Cultural Dvelopment, Social Value

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Page |205Coefficientsa
Model Unstandardized
CoefficientsStandardized
CoefficientstSig.
BStd. Error Beta
1(Constant) 6.088 .457 13.309 .000
Living
Standard.628 .046 2.37913.727.025
Employment
Opportunity.013 .016 .093 .833 .046
Earning
Capability.276 .015 1.04718.070 .019
Cultural
Development.095 .022 .4864.416 .601
Social Value .099 .022 .5074.529 .773
a. Dependent Variable: Local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact

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Page |2064.11.2.1 Evaluating the model
ANOVA was performed to assume the statistical significance of the result
provided in Table 4.31. The result shows that the F -ratio is 169.625 (P=.000),
which statistically supports the significance of the mode l. Thus, the hypotheses are
accepted since the model of this study is statistically significant at p= 000. The
adjusted coefficient of determination (R Squared) implies that 69.1% of the
variation in the level of local residents’ attitude towards tourism i mpact can be
explained by the variations in the whole set of independent variables of the
proposed model in the present study.
4.11.2.2 Evaluating Independent Variables
The levels of influences the independent variables have on the dependent variable
are going to be discussed in this section. In brief, this study wants to identify
which variables in the model have the most significant influence on the dependent
variable through Beta value.
As indicated in the table 4.31, the coefficients of the independent variables show
the direction and the magnitude of the relationship with the dependent variable
.The results show that majority of the variables (three variables: living standard,
employment opportunity and earning capability) contributed significantly to the
local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact. Living standard has the highest

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Page |207contribution to Local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact among the
independent variables (Beta = 2.379). Cultural development and social value are
found tobe insignificant but with positive association with local residents’ attitude
towards tourism impact.
4.12Results of Hypothesis Testing
OLS regression analysis results have been used to test the hypotheses of the
present study. Table 4.32 summarizes the resu lts of OLS regression analysis
employed in the current study.
Table 4.32 Summary of Regression Results
Variables Reported Sign Significance of
Association
Living Standard + Significant at .05 level
Employment Opportunity + Significant at .05 level
Earning Capability + Significant at .05 level
Cultural Development + Insignificant at .05 level

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Page |208Social Values + Insignificant at .05 level
Hypothesis 1
The hypothesis H1predicted a significant positive relation between living standard
and the level of local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact. The study result
supports this hypothe sis. As indicated in the table 4 .32, living standard has been
found positively correlated with local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact at
the .05 significance level . The findings suggest that local residents’ attitude
towards tourism impact is significantly affected by the enhancement of living
standard created by tourism .
Hypothesis 2
The hypothesis H2predicted a significant positive relation between employment
opportunity and the level of local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact. The
study result supports this hypothe sis. As indicated in the table 4 .32, employment
opportunity has been found positively correlated with local residents’ attitude
towards tour ism impact at the .05 significance level. The findings suggest that
localresidents’ attitude towards tourism impact is significantly affected by
employment opportunity created by tourism.

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Page |209Hypothesis 3
The hypothesis H3predicted a significant positive relation between earning
capability and the level of local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact. The
study result supports this hypothe sis. As indicated in the table 4 .32, earning
capability has been found positively correlated with local residents’ attitude
towards tourism impact at the .05 significance level. The findings suggest that
local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact is significantly affected by
increase of earning capability created by tourism.
Hypothesis 4
The hypothesis H4predicted a significant positive relation between cultural
development and the level of local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact. It
can be seen from the table 4 .32 that cultural development has positive but
insignificant association with local resid ents’ attitude towards tourism impact
Thus, hypothesis 4 is not supported. This finding suggests that cultural
development does not affect the local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact.
Hypothesis 5
The hypothesis H5predicted a significant positiv e relation between social value
and the level of local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact. It can be seen
from the table 4 .32 that social value has positive but insignificant association with

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Page |210local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact Thus, h ypothesis 5 is not
supported. This finding suggests that social value does not affect the local
residents’ attitude towards tourism impact.
4.16Summary
Data analysis and findings have been presented in this chapter, particularly
response rate, profile of respondents, data screening (missing data, outlier,
normality, linearity, homoscedasticity multicollinearity), goodness of data
(reliability, content validity, construct validity), factor analysis, descriptive
analysis of local resident’s attitude toward s tourism impact, correlation analysis,
T-test and ANOVA test to evaluate the differences in the level of local residents’
attitude towards tourism impact in terms of different demographic characteristics
and hypotheses testing with multiple regression an alysis. A total number of 385
responses (response rate of 77%) were finally used for the study. The collected
data was reliable and valid and fulfills the necessary criteria for further statistical
analysis such as factor analysis and multiple regression a nalysis. The analysis of
profile of respondents indicates that, in general, respondents are male, aged
between 31 -40 years and married. Most respondents are businessmen without any
formal education and their mothly average income is within the range of 110 00-
20000 Taka. The analysis of local residents’ overall attitude towards tourism
impact reveals that local residents show a favorable attitude towards the economic

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Page |211andsocial impact supporting tourism in general. From the factor analysis, five
tourism impa ct factor are found:, cultural development and social value. From
multiple regression analysis, it is found that three (living standard, employment
opportunity and earning capability) out of five determinants have statistically
significant positive relatio nship with the attitude of local residents towards tourism
impact.
In the next chapter, the findings and their implications are going to be discussed in
detail.

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Page |212CHAPTER FIVE
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the find ings portrayed in the prior chapter of the local
residents’ attitude towards tourism impact. The chapter also provides academic
and practical implications of the findings which can be considered as a
contribution to the research arena. Finally, the limitat ions, and the
recommendations for future research, and the overall conclusions are narrated.
5.2 Discussion on Findings of the Study
The main objectives of this study were: (1) to analyze the attitude of local
residents of Cox’s Bazar about the impact of t ourism on their economic
development; (2) to analyze the attitude of local residents of Cox’s Bazar about
the impact of tourism on their social changes; (3) to examine the influences of
demographic factors on the attitude of local residents towards tourism impact in
their area; and (4) to make recommendations for all tourism stakeholders and the
local community to maximize the benefits of this sector and for the development
of tourism. The following sections explain in detail the findings and hence the
accomplishment of the first three research objectives. The fourth objective will be
discussed in the following chapter named “Conclusion and Recommendation”.

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Page |213Characteristics of respondents
The majority of the population was male (59%) and this is because the r ate of
employment among men is higher than the female population (41%). The majority
of the respondents (81%) was 21 to 50 years of age range in three age categories,
and most was married (73%). In terms of the education level, about half of the
population have no education (43%) some of them have primary education (28%),
while university at secondary school level it was 17% of the sample, and 9% had
completed higher secondary school level. There was only 2% of them who have
gone through there university le vel study. Most of them do business for their
livelihood (60%) besides 32% are service holder. 36% of respondents have income
within 11000 -20000 Taka and 28% have relatively low income (less than 10000
taka). On the other hand, only 4% have an income over 40000 Taka.
5.2.1 First Objective
The first objective of the present study was to examine the attitude of local
residents of Cox’s Bazar about the impact of tourism on their economic
development such as living standard, employment opportunity and earning
capacity. For obtaining this objective, three hypotheses were tested through
regression analysis that is described chronologically as follows.

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Page |214Hypothesis 1: There is a significant positive relation between living standard and
the level of local residents’ a ttitude towards tourism impact.
As shown in Table 4.31, living standard has been found positively correlated with
local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact at the .05 significance level.
Because regression analysis indicates that local residents’ a ttitude towards tourism
impact is significantly associated with living standard after adjusting for the effect
ofall other predictor variables ( Beta value 2.379 and P -value = 0.025). The
findings suggest that local residents’ attitude towards tourism impa ct is
significantly affected by the enhancement of living standard created by tourism. In
terms of the impact of tourism on living standard of local residents in Cox’s Bazar,
respondents generally have positive attitude (Table 4.16). Approximately 76% of
respondents stated that tourism resulted in an increase in the standard of living.
More than 70% of respondents believe that tourism development has increased the
infrastructure for local people. The role of tourism in diversifying local economy
was support ed by 50% of local residents. 88% of local people appreciated tourism
for bringing economic benefits to the community. Through correlation between
Attitude towards tourism Impact and living standard items it is found that increase
in standard, infrastructu re development and resident benefits factors of living
standard have highly significant relationship with attitude towards tourism impact
but diversifying local economy factor has no significant relationship.

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Page |215The findings suggest that the respondents have a strong positive attitude in the
statements related to consequences of tourism impact on the local residents of
Cox’s Bazar in terms of living standard. This result can be explained in a sense
that once a community becomes a destination, the lives of resi dents in the
community are affected by tourism (Jurowski, 1994). The development of tourism
affects the lives of residents in better or worse ways. Crotts and Holland (1993)
showed that tourism affects positively the quality of life of local residents in t erms
of income, health, recreation, personal services and per capita sales, and
negatively affects the level of poverty. So, generally tourism increases the
standard of living of host residents. Like most of the previous studies, this study
found a positiv e relationship between the local residents’ attitude towards tourism
impact and enhancement of living standard created by tourism (Backman &
Backman, 1997; Var & Kim, 1990). Even though there was no study to test the
direct effects of tourism impact on liv ing standard of local residents in the
community, some of the previous study findings suggest that local residents
perceived an improvement in standard of living resulting from tourism activities
(Liu & Var, 1986). This study concludes that the local resi dents of Cox’s Bazar
have acknowledged the positive impact of tourism on the living standard but many
things yet to be done for the sustainable improvement of the living condition,
particularly in infrastructure field.

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Page |216Hypothesis 2: There is a significant positive relation between employment
opportunity and the level of local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact.
As shown in Table 4.31, employment opportunity has been found positively
correlated with local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact a t the .05
significance level. Because regression analysis indicates that local residents’
attitude towards tourism impact is significantly associated with employment
opportunity after adjusting for the effect of all other predictor variables (Beta
value .093 and P-value = 0.046). The findings suggest that local residents’ attitude
towards tourism impact is significantly affected by the employment opportunity
created by tourism. In terms of the impact of tourism on employment opportunity
of local residents i n Cox’s Bazar, respondents generally have positive attitude
(Table 4.17). Approximately 79% of respondents stated that tourism resulted in an
increase in the employment opportunities for local residents. More than 71% of
respondents believe that tourism ha s helped to grow positive entrepreneurial
attitude among local people. The role of tourism in creating jobs more for
externals than local residents was supported by 60% of residents. More than 30%
were disagree and 21% were neutral that local people do not get the management
level jobs created by tourism. 71% of local people appreciated that local residents
are poorly paid by the tourism business operator. Over 77% of responses approved
the statement that most of tourism jobs are part -time due to the season al character.

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Page |217The role of tourism in creating new markets for our local products was supported
by 73% of local residents. Through correlation between Attitude towards tourism
Impact and employment opportunity it is found that it creates new employment,
jobfor locals and new market factors of employment opportunity have highly
significant relationship with attitude towards tourism impact but entrepreneual
attitude has medium job type has small significant relationship. On the other
hand, Jobholder and rem uneration have no significant relationship with local
residents’ attitude towards tourism impact.
The previous researchers explored the relationships between employment
opportunity and local resident’s attitude (Liu & Var, 1986; Sheldon & Var, 1984
Faulkner & Tideswell, 1997 ; Easterling , 2004). The present study results are
consistent with the result of Faulkner and Tideswell's (1997). The local residents
of Cox’s Bazar have acknowledged the positive impact of tourism on the
employment opportunity but many things yet to be done for the sustainable
improvement of the employment opportunity, particularly in creating permanent
and management level job.
Hypothesis 3: There is a significant positive relation between earning capacity and
the level of local residen ts’ attitude towards tourism impact.
As shown in Table 4.31, earning capacity has been found positively correlated
with local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact at the .05 significance level.

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Page |218Because regression analysis indicates that local reside nts’ attitude towards tourism
impact is significantly associated with employment opportunity after adjusting for
the effect of all other predictor variables (Beta value 1.047 and P -value =
0.019).The findings suggest that local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact is
significantly affected by the earning capacity created by tourism. In terms of the
impact of tourism on earning capacity of local residents in Cox’s Bazar,
respondents generally have positive attitude (Table 4.18). Approximately 61% of
respondents stated that tourism increases earnings of local people. More than 70%
of respondents believe that local businesses benefit the most from tourists.
Respondents also confirmed some negative economic impacts. Over 75% of
responses approved the state ment that most of the tourism money goes to out of
the local community. 69% of local people appreciated that tourism increased their
living expenditure. Through correlation between Attitude towards tourism Impact
and employment opportunity it is found that it creates new employment, job for
locals and new market factors of employment opportunity have highly significant
relationship with attitude towards tourism impact but entrepreneual attitude has
medium job type has small significant relationship. On th e other hand, Jobholder
and remuneration have no significant relationship with local residents’ attitude
towards tourism impact.

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Page |219The previous researchers explored the relationships between earning capacity and
local resident’s attitude (Belisle and Hoy, 19 80; Gursoy and Jurowski, 2002;
Harrill and Potts, 2003; Korça, 1998; Pearce, 1980; Pizam, 1978; Tyrell and
Spaulding, 1984; Akis et al.,1996; Andressen and Murphy,1986).The present
study results are consistent with the result of Gursoy and Jurowski (2002) and
Harrill and Potts (2003).The local residents of Cox’s Bazar have acknowledged
the positive impact of tourism on the earning capacity but many things yet to be
done for the sustainable improvement of the earning capacity.
Undoubtedly, tourism has been a main economic activity in Cox’s Bazar with
many benefits for the local community. Residents appreciated tourism for
increasing job opportunities, enhancing earning capacity and living standard,
development of recreational facilities etc. among local resid ents. This may be
because the tourism industry had become a strong and significant industry in
Cox’s Bazar, and subsequently local residents have more income from selling their
products to tourists and most of them work in hotels, as vehicle drivers and in
restaurants. The result indirectly implied that respondents feel that tourism
development in Cox’s Bazar could generate more benefits in developing local
economy. For example, in a study, Sitikarn (2007) found that local residents’
perceived tourism as a contributor to generate income and indirectly helped locals
to have an education. Thus, the infrastructure and environment of Cox’s Bazar

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Page |220needs to be more developed to support and increase the growth of the tourism
industry.
With regards to economic impact s, residents recognized that tourism development
brought changes in investments in entertainment facilities, and wealth -creation
generated in the local economy. For example, investment and development
spending in the area, variety of shopping facilities, and variety of restaurants all
were perceived to have improved. Residents were more pleased with the increase
in entertainment facilities than with the perceptions of increased development
spending, such as infrastructure and hotels. This suggests that r esidents would
prefer more investment in entertainment facilities and services rather than an
increase in infrastructure development as a result of tourism development. And so,
though this finding supports Ap and Crompton's (1998) suggestion that tourism
development was beneficial to the economy, residents preferred that economic
benefits (such as enhanced investments) be spent on entertainment facilities and
services. The researcher speculates that this could be a possible implication that
residents pref er leisure tourism over business tourism, because of the potential to
invest in more entertainment facilities. Although respondents supported that
tourism development increased employment opportunities but admitted the fact
that most tourism occupations ar e perceived to offer relatively low pay and
seasonal in nature.

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Page |221However, although tourism has bought huge economic benefits, it also generates
some negative impacts to local communities as tourism increases prices of land
and housing and increases local residents’ cost of living such as food, water and
electricity bills. These are the negative impacts from tourism that have affected
local residents directly. Despite that, there are some suggestions for future tourism
development to highly consider job str ucture, poor remuneration etc. by providing
more opportunities to the local community to get involved in the decision making
process.
In general, findings from this study suggests that the respondents have positive
attitude about the economic impacts t han the negative economic impacts due to the
benefits received from the growth of the tourism industry in Cox’s Bazar. Their
positive attitudes were mostly influenced by an opportunity to earn greater income
from working in the tourism industry or by selli ng goods and services to tourists.
In fact, those who are not involved in the tourism industry also received the
benefits through domestic and foreign investments in Cox’s Bazar and an
improvement in infrastructure and public facilities. Nevertheless, the respondents
are also rational in terms of the long -term tourism development in Cox’s Bazar
where most of them are very concerned about the negative economic impacts to
local residents.

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Page |2225.2.2Second Objective
The second objective of the present study was t o analyze the attitude of local
residents of Cox’s Bazar about the impact of tourism on their social changes. For
obtaining this objective, two hypotheses were tested that is described as follows.
Hypothesis 4: There is a significant positive relation betw een cultural development
and the level of local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact.
As shown in Table 4.31, cultural development has been found negatively
correlated but insignificant with local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact.
Becauseregression analysis indicates that local residents’ attitude towards tourism
impact is not significantly associated with employment opportunity after adjusting
for the effect of all other predictor variables (Beta value -.486 and P -value =
0.601).The findi ngs suggest that local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact is
not significantly affected by the earning capacity created by tourism. In terms of
the impact of tourism on cultural development of local residents in Cox’s Bazar,
respondents generally h ave negative attitude although some positive impacts have
been appreciated (Table 4.19). The vast majority of residents (more than 72%)
blamed tourism for damaging to the local culture and traditions. 72% of local
people appreciated that tourism causes cul tural invasion. Respondents also
confirmed some positive cultural impacts. Approximately 70% of people stated
that tourism encourages a variety of cultural activities (e.g., crafts, arts, music)

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Page |223among the local residents. 49% of local people appreciated an d 21% were neutral
that tourism has brought positive change in local traditional life style. More than
71% of respondents believe that the cultural exchange between residents and
tourists is valuable for the local residents. Through correlation between Att itude
towards tourism Impact and cultural development it is found that Cultural
activities and cultural exchange factor of cultural development have small
significant relationship with local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact but
life style, negati ve impact and cultural invasion have no significant relationship. It
can be seen from the cultural development has positive but insignificant
association with local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact Thus, hypothesis
4 is not supported. This findin g suggests that cultural development does not affect
the local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact.
Hypothesis 5: There is a significant positive relation between social value and the
level of local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact.
As shown in Table 4.31, social value has been found negatively correlated but
insignificant with local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact. Because
regression analysis indicates that local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact
is not significantly a ssociated with employment opportunity after adjusting for the
effect of all other predictor variables (Beta value -.507 and P -value = 0.773). The
findings suggest that local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact is not

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Page |224significantly affected by the so cial value created by tourism. In terms of the impact
of tourism on social value of local residents in Cox’s Bazar, respondents generally
have negative attitude although some positive impacts have been appreciated
(Table 4.20). The vast majority of residen ts (more than 85%) blamed tourism for
creating social problems such as crime, drug use, prostitution, and so forth in the
community. 67% of local people appreciated that tourism has limited the use of
the recreational facilities like entertainment centers and beaches by the local
people. More than 70% of respondents believe that tourism causes environmental
pollution. Respondents also confirmed some positive social impacts.
Approximately 63% of people stated that tourism upgrades the social value of
local people. 73% of local people appreciated and 17% were neutral that tourism
development increases the number of recreational opportunities for local residents.
Through correlation between Attitude towards tourism Impact and social value it
found that social p roblem factor of Social value have small significant relationship
with local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact but social status, recreational
opportunities, utilization of entertainment facilities and environmental pollution
have no significant r elationship. It can be seen that social value has positive but
insignificant association with local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact thus,
hypothesis 5 is not supported. This finding suggests that social value does not
affect the local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact.

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Page |225The findings suggest that the respondents have a slightly negative attitude in the
statements related to consequences of tourism impact on the local residents of
Cox’s Bazar in terms of cultural development and social val ue. This result can be
explained in a sense that once a community becomes a destination, the socio –
cultural activities of the residents in the community are also affected by tourism.
Similar to the previous studies (Brunt and Courtney (1999), Lankford and Howerd
(1994) and Bastias -Perez and Var (1996) the results indicate that tourism
development has created obstacles for cultural development and decreased social
value and are therefore less attractive to residents of Cox’s Bazar. Despite many
economic bene fits, unplanned and unmanaged development of tourism in Cox’s
Bazar in past years has led to widespread negative social impact.
From the very outset of impact studies on tourism generally economic interests of
nations and tourism sector were given prominen ce. However, with the passage of
time and changing scenario of tourism industry, research has been carried out in
determining the impacts of tourism not just on economy but also on the society
and culture. Many studies have been conducted in the area of so cio-cultural
impacts, with conclusion being divided into three different categories: positive
consequences, negative consequences and no real social impacts. However, this is
true that impact differs according to geographical, economic and demographical
aspects of the study area.

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Page |226The previous researchers explored the relationships between socio -cultural impact
of tourism and local resident’s attitude (Alister and Wall, 1982; Travis, 1982;
Furnham, 1984; Flecher, 1984; Shoup, 1985; Gupta, 1987; Herbert, 1989 ; Teye,
1982; King et al., 1993; Archer and Cooper, 1994; Pearce, 1994 ;Pandey et al.,
1995). The present study results are consist ent with the result of Teye (199 2),
Pandey et al. (1995), Brunt and Courtney (1999), Lankford and Howerd (1994)
and Bastias -Perez and Var (1996).
Both community and environment have certain limits, crossing these limits can
cause irreversible changes that may result in an opposition towards tourism
development and tourists. This can have a major influence on socio and
environme ntal aspects of the society and the future success of a destination
(Andriotis, 2002). In general, findings from this study suggests that the local
residents of Cox’s Bazar have acknowledged the negative impact of tourism
(although not significant) on the cultural and social development among local
residents. Thus, tourism development will only be successful in cox’s Bazar if the
planners understand that local communities are heterogeneous not homogenous;
thus, it is necessary to consider their social needs and wants together with
economic needs and wants and their different attitudes towards tourism.

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Page |2275.2.3 Third Objective
The third objective of the present study was to examine the influences of
demographic factors on the attitude of local residents towa rds tourism impact in
their area. For obtaining this objective, the variations in local residents’ attitude
were evaluated through T -test for gender and marital status and Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) for other four demographic factors: age, education leve l,
professional status and income.
8.2.3.1Gender
The majority of the population was male (59%) and this is because the rate of
employment among men is higher than the female population (41%). Most of the
men as family breadwinners are more conscious of t he contribution of tourism to
the economy. To evaluate the differences in local residents’ attitude towards
tourism impact in terms of gender an independent T -test was applied as shown in
Table 4.28.
Based on gender, there were no statistical differences in the mean scores (P
value=.835) of local residents’ attitude towards tourism.
The findings may be explained by the fact that both male and female residents in
Cox’s Bazar have same opportunity of employment, education and cultural
activities in a tradit ional community. Thus, they are disposed to provide the same

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Page |228view that tourism has stimulated their economic and social development. It also
implies a greater opportunity for tourism sector as it is labor intensive sector
gender equity is a necessary eleme nt for the prosperity of the sector.
5.2.3.2Marital Status
The majorities (73%) of respondents were married. To evaluate the differences in
local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact in terms of marital status an
independent T -testwas applied as s hown in Table 4 .29. Based on marital status,
there were no statistical differences in the mean scores (P value=.755) of local
residents’ attitude towards tourism. The previous researchers such as Davis et al.
(1988), Korca (1996), Bastias -Perez and Var (19 96), Teye et al. (2002) and Kuvan
and Akan (2005) found no statistically significant relationship between gender
and this study also found no variation of local residents’ attitude towards tourism
based on marital status.
In this study, non -married respo ndent were only 27% of the total sample and
obviously there is no scope to make a comparison genuinely based on marital
status.
5.2.3.3Age
The majority of the respondents (81%) were 21 to 50 years of age range in three
age categories. The ANOVA result sh ows that there is statistically significant

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Page |229difference at the p< .05 level in local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact
based on age. But, the actual difference in mean scores between the groups was
quite small. The effect size, calculated using eta squared, was .02.
The result of the present study is supported by Brunt and Courtney (1999),
Lankford and Howerd (1994) and Bastias -Perez and Var (1996), all of whom
found age has significant influence on the attitude of socio -economic impact of
tourismbut is contrasted with Seid (1994).
5.2.3.4Education Level
In terms of the education level, about half of the population have no education
(43%) some of them have primary education (28%), while university at secondary
school level it was 17% of the sample , and 9% had completed higher secondary
school level. There was only 2% of them who have gone through there university
level study.
The ANOVA result shows that there is statistically significant difference at the p<
.05 level in local residents’ attitude t owards tourism impact based on education
level. But, the actual difference in mean scores between the groups was quite
small. The effect size, calculated using eta squared, was .02.
Many researchers in the tourism field have investigated the influence of education
on local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact. Several researchers such as

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Page |230Korca (1996), Hernandez et al. (1996), Seid (1994) and Teye et al. (2002) found
differences in the local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact while the work
ofMok et al. (1996) found no such differences in the case of level of education.
The result of the present study is supported by Teye et al. (2002).
The results may indicate that the higher educated residents in Cox’s Bazar tend to
have higher positive atti tude towards socio -economic development of tourism in
terms of image, facilities, standard of living as well as cultural exchange.
5.2.3.5Professional Status
Local residents were divided into three groups according to their professional
status. Most of th em do business for their livelihood (60%) besides 32% are
service holder and 8% belongs to other profession. The ANOVA test result shows
(as shown in Table 7.30) that there are statistically significant differences at the p<
.05 level in local residents’ a ttitude towards tourism impact. Although there is a
statistical significant difference, the real difference in mean scores between the
groups was quite small as the effect size was only (calculated using eta squared)
.03 for local residents’ attitude towar ds tourism impact.
Some researchers found professional status as an influential factor in deciding
local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact. Wang et al. (2006) suggested that
professional status is not always influential on deciding the attitude b ut Brunt and

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Page |231Courtney (1999) found that professional status affect the attitude of a particula r
destination. But, Murphy (1985 ), Lankford and Howard (1994) and Jurowski et al.
(1997) found difference based on professional status. The present study conforms
to the result of Murphy (1983).
The attitude of Asian countries based on professional status varied significantly
than the European and American countries. Thus, professional status is significant
for local residents’ attitude towards tourism impact in Ba ngladesh.
5.2.3.6Income
Local residents were divided into five groups based on their monthly income. 36%
of respondents have income within 11000 -20000 Taka and 28% have relatively
low income (less than 10000 taka). On the other hand, only 4% have an inco me
over 40000 Taka. The ANOVA test resu lt (Table 4 .30) shows that there was
statistically significant difference at the p< .05 level in local residents’ attitude
towards tourism impact for five income groups but the actual difference in mean
scores between the groups was quite small. The effect size, calculated using eta
squared, was .02.
The results indicate that local residents’ various levels of income have different
impact on their attitude towards tourism impact. Income has positive influence on

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Page |232localresidents’ attitude towards tourism impact which means that higher income
group has higher positive attitude towards tourism impact.
A few studies showed the impact of income on local residents’ attitude towards
tourism impact such as Korca (1996), and Te ye et al. (2002); has showed no such
differences for income. The present study result is supported by Teye et al. (2002).

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Page |233CHAPTER SIX
RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUTION
6.1 Introduction
The findings of the first three research questions have been pre sented and
discussed in detail in the previous chapter. This chapter presents the answer of
fourth research question which was t o make recommendations for all tourism
stakeholders and the local community to maximize the benefits of this sector.
Apart from this, it also draws conc lusion from the key findings of the research.
This chapter starts by pointing out recommendations and then continues by
providing suggestions for future research. This chapter ends with the overall
conclusion.
6.2 Recommendations
Based on the main findings of this research, this section outlines several main
recommendations that could assist the related authorities in formulating
appropriate policy and strategy and constructing a framework for developing
sustainable tourism in Cox’s Bazar.

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Page |234One of the major elements of tourism development is to encourage local
communities’ participation in tourism development. Local communities are
important in the tourism development process because all the tourist
activities take place within their premises. Although there are many ways to
involve local community, tourism decision making process is one of the
most appropriate ways of involving the local community in tourism
development. The decision making process is the suitable way to involve
localresidents of Cox’s Bazar in tourism development. While the literature
recognizes that the inclusion of the local community in tourism
development is considerable, there is debate about the degree of inclusion
in the decision -making process to be exercised by local communities,
ranging from passive participation (in which people participate by being
told what has been decided or has already happened) to active participation
(in which people get involved to reach the final decision). For that reason, it
is important to form a committee with the involvement of both local experts
(who would bring in their expertise and professional knowledge) and
elected officials (who represent the local people to ensure the community’s
interests are considered when making dec isions). But before making such
decisions, they (elected officials and local experts) should first consult the
local people so as to collect public views. Local peoples’ interest should be
given priority in all kinds of activities.

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Page |235Tourism carrying capaci ty is now an emerging issue in tourism
development. It is vital for the protection of natural resources and for
ensuring visitor satisfaction. Tourism carrying capacity is the maximum
number of tourists that may visit a destination at a particular time wit hout
causing destruction of physical, ecological, social, cultural, environment
and ensuring visitor satisfaction at the same time. Tourism carrying
capacity incorporates all the dimensions of sustainable tourism and visitor
satisfaction. Tourism carrying capacity needs to assess for a particular
destination om the basis of the destination characteristics. But it is a matter
for regret that, for Cox’s Bazar tourism carrying capacity was never
examined. So, tourism carrying capacity for Cox’s Bazar should be
assessed as soon as possible for the destination management and tourist
satisfaction.
Tourism master plan is the blueprint which provides a comprehensive
planning framework for the development activities in a destination.
Formulate a long -term developmen t framework for tourism with emphasis
on policy and strategy, planning, institutional strengthening, legislation and
regulation, product development and diversification, marketing and
promotion, tourism infrastructure and superstructure, economic impact of

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Page |236tourism and tourism investment, human resource development, and socio –
cultural and environmental impacts of tourism. Cox’s Bazar is known as a
tourist capital in Bangladesh which is more important on the basis of
cultural, social and economic dimension. U nfortunately, there is no master
plan for the tourism development in Cox’s Bazar. For that reason,
development activities in Cox’s Bazar is not well planned but scattered. So
it is the high time to bring all the development activities in Cox’s Bazar
undera master plan. This plan should be formulated by the government and
major tourism bodies in Bangladesh. This master plan should be detail the
timing and sequencing of the major programs, roles and responsibilities of
key players, institutional arrangements and resource requirements for
bringing the vision to fruition.
Development activities in Cox’s Bazar, described in the master plan, should
be guided by the short term plan. A short term plan is essential for the
monitoring and implementation of the maste r plan. Promotional activities
should be emphasized in the short term plan. These short term plans require
a specific time frame for all the activities and need to measure plan with the
master plan.

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Page |237In Cox’s Bazar hotels, motels, restaurants, shopping ce nters are built in a
scattered way without considering the environment and the beauty of the
sea beach. Many Hotels and market have been constructed at near to the
beach that hampered the beauty of the beach. Sometimes these kinds of
construction destroy t he hill and small forest which was adjacent to the
beach. Besides of these problems, hotels, Motels do not follow the proper
rules for waste management that cause serious damage of ecological
balance in Cox’s Bazar. So a plan for infrastructure development should be
developed by the government and that must be incorporated in the Cox’s
Bazar master plan. It is important to identify the ecological critical area and
infrastructure free zones to restrict any kind of activities.
Tourism development and succes s largely depend on the community
participation in tourism activities. If local people directly benefited by the
tourism then they will respond more positively and that will lead the
socioeconomic development of the community. Community based tourism
in one of the most effective ways to involve a large number of people in
tourism activities that will generate more money and improve their
livelihood as well as create a positive. Community based tourism creates an
ownership attitude among the local residents because it is managed and

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Page |238controlled by the local residents. So community based tourism should be
given emphasis on the tourism development plan.
Tourism is a labor intensive industry and tourist satisfaction largely
depends on the service quality. The to urism industry is the fastest growing
sector in Cox’s Bazar which contribute significantly to the local economy.
For that reason, highly trained and qualified personnel are needed for
tourism and hospitality industry in Cox’s Bazar. But our study found tha t
almost 43 % people in Cox’s Bazar are illiterate. For that reason local
business owners and employees are not able to cope with the job in a
competitive business environment. At the present time most of the
employees are thenonresidents of Cox’s Bazar. B ut In Cox’s Bazar
hundreds of people are unemployed or seasonally employed and that
number is growing due to the lack of knowledge and training in hospitality
sector. Government and private sector should take the responsibility of
providing training and ed ucation in tourism for the local people. National
Hotel and Tourism Training Institute (NHTTI) should be involved in
training program as a prime government organization. It is highly
appreciable if NHTTI establish a branch in Cox’s Bazar for the local
manpower development.

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Page |239In order to increase the economic contribution of tourism to poverty
alleviation, local people may need financial support to start -up their
business. The tourism industry can be supported by various ways but micro
credit is the best way to support poor people to establish a low capital
business. Government and other private organization should come forward
to provide financial support to the local people in Cox’s Bazar.
Cultural tourism, which requires relatively low investment capital, can be
the major tourist attraction in Cox’s Bazar. Cox’s Bazar is the place where
people from different cultural background stay together. So, tourist should
be aware about the culture of the local people especially the tribal culture.
Local government, tourism organization and social organization should
work with the local people and the tourist for the cultural richness.
Bangladesh government must be cooperative in the tourism development. It
is important to realize the importance of tourism in the ov erall economic
development. But Bangladesh government does not give any kind of
attention to the tourism development whichis seen at the government
policy and budget allocation. The government must invest some money in
the country’s tourism development an d initial allocation is needed for the
world longest sea beach Cox’s Bazar to implement the master plan. At the

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Page |240same time, private sectors should come forward and must play their role in
the sustainable development process in Cox’s Bazar. But as we mention
earlier, local community must be included in all types of development
activities which will take place in Cox’s Bazar. For that reason, Public
Private Community Partnership (PPCP) is one of the new concept in
tourism development which will help to ensure the sustainable tourism
growth in Cox’s Bazar.
Cultural identity of the local residents should be ensured by any means.
Tourist with Multicultural ethnicities are always influencing the culture of
local people. These factors sometimes destroy the cultur al pride of the local
community. Cultural change affected young generation badly and they are
the most vulnerable segment of the community. This kind of change is a
threat to the sustainability of authenticity and conservation of culture and
heritage of lo cal people. Government and private sectors should take proper
awareness raising initiatives so that cultural believes and norms are not
distorted rather enriched.
Cox’s Bazar is the longest unbroken sea beach of the world. So it has some
unique characteri stics that must be taken into consideration in tourism
development. But our branding strategy does not focus these

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Page |241characteristics. For that reason most of the foreign tourists are not aware
about the longest sea beach of the world. Integrated tourism mark eting plan
should be developed by the Bangladesh Tourism Board (BTB) to promote
and develop Cox’s Bazar as a prime tourist destination in the world. It is
essential to identify some unique selling propositions for Cox’s Bazar then
these should be communica ted to the market through branding. Seminar,
symposium, workshop, tourism fair in the foreign market should be
arranged in the foreign market to create awareness among tourist.
Tourism industry in a country must be rich in terms of tourism statistics
regarding tourism activities, tourist flow that will help to create and to
maintain a tourism database. Tourism Database is not maintained in
Bangladesh so that we do not get enough statistics and data about tourism.
For that reason, it is very difficult to gi ve any kind of recommendation for
the future growth and development in tourism. Tourism related statistics are
also important for the research purpose. Regular research should be
conducted to evaluate the changing trend and impact of tourism on local
economy, environment, and culture . For that reason, sufficient facilities and
infrastructure should be developed for tourism research.

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Page |242Sustainable tourism is one of the vital issues in tourism development and
planning. The concept of sustainable tourism is ap plicable to all forms of
tourism in all types of destinations, including the mass tourism like Cox’s
Bazar. Sustainability principles refer to the environmental, economic, and
socio-cultural aspects of tourism development. Sustainable tourism requires
theestablishment of a suitable balance between these three dimensions to
guarantee long -term sustainability of tourism development. So, it is
important to create a specific guideline for all stakeholders that will be
effective for Sustainable tourism.
6.3 Suggestions for Future Research
Additional studies can be carried out to further investigate in the following areas:
1. Although the local residents’ views and attitudes are critical for analyzing
tourism development, in that the greatest impacts of the tou rism industry are
experienced and judged by the host residents (Andriotis, 2000). Further research
should investigate the attitude of tourism organizations’ managers and local
authorities to identify the real concerns and conflicts pertaining to tourism
development in Cox’s Bazar. Such information would lead to a better
understanding of the tourism industry structure in Cox’s Bazar and help the
relevant authorities to formulate effective tourism development plans and policies.

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Page |2432. This study examined the fac tors and variables that explained the local residents’
attitudes and evaluation of socio -economic impacts of tourism. In order to further
understand “why” and “how” the Cox’s Bazar residents’ react to tourism
development in a particular manner (that is, wh y and how residents perceive a
specific impact as positive or negative), it is necessary to analyze additional data
using qualitative methods.
3. The research instrument and conceptual framework developed and tested in this
research can be expanded and tes ted in other geographical locations to identify and
examine other variables and factors that may influence the residents’ above
mentioned opinions. Such information will be useful in providing more
comparative results and findings in this topic.
4. This st udy was conducted to examine the attitude of local residents towards
socio-economic impact of tourism. Therefore, future studies can be conducted to
investigate the attitude towards other impact of tourism such as environmental,
psychological etc.
5. Additional variables are still recommended to investigate on a larger scale by
future research in Bangladesh with specific attention be given to local tourism
development. These additional variables could include primary and secondary
information sources and pa st experiences. Clearly, there is scope for significant

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Page |244refinement and, perhaps, expansion to incorporate other variables which not
included in this study.
6. The researcher used only one instrument that is questionnaire survey. Thus, the
researcher sugges ts that, the qualitative method, in -depth interview is more
suitable to measure local residents’ attitude. This can be better attained when the
researcher develops close relationships w ith them and speaks intimately.
7. Further and more in -depth analysis n eeds to be done to investigate local
residents’ attitude towards tourism impact. Failure to address this proactively, may
lead to serious social consequences in tourism in the medium to long term. Due to
the dynamic nature of social phenomena, it is essent ial that research should be
carried out on a timely basis. A longitudinal research design is desirable in this
context.

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Page |2458.4 Conclusion
Local residents ’will support tourism development in their society when they will
get benefits from tourism activit ies.The study identified that community has
developed positive attitude about the tourism development and the community is
accepted tourism as a major income source through active and passive
participations. It is suggested that to have more community awa reness and
education programs in order to obtain positive benefits and to minimize the
negative impacts of tourism. Community empowerment and their capacity
building are highly important in this context.
Kayat (2002) suggested, local residents’ dependency on tourism industry would
predict their attitude towards various impacts from tourism development. So
socio-economic benefits from tourism development would certainly influence
local residents’ attitude towards impacts from tourism development. The broade r
message of this study is that while tourism could provide Cox’s Bazar with
economic benefits, careful planning and implementation policies are required in
order to limit its negative social impacts. In addition, different attractions in Cox’ s
Bazar needto be developed in such a way that management can reduce potentially
harmful impacts on the local communities, and at the same time, protect their
interests and well -being. In this sense all parties involved must make much greater
efforts to mobilize local resources to directly benefit local communities in the

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Page |246name of sustainable development. It is not enough for them to participate in
economic activities alone. The sustainability of the tourism industry depends to a
considerable extent upon the preservatio n of cultural and social attributes. So, a
good working relationship must be established in order to develop trust and
commitment fro m the local community members.
The success of tourism development depends on the consistent agreement of views
among local residents, local leaders, professional experts and policy makers.
However the difficulty is that government policy makers continue to accelerate
their planning efforts to stimulate tourism without empirical evidence on the
attitude of local residents towa rds tourism impact. The ignorance of this dimension
results in significant socio -economic consequences, both positive and negative.
Therefore, the policies and strategies of tourism development must reflect or
incorporate local residents' views and attitud es to ensure community consensus on
development policies and programs. If residents’ attitude and preferences do not
support tourism development policies and programs, then such programs are likely
to fail or become ineffective in their implementation (Pea rce 1980). To ensure
development it is desirable to uncover preferences and trade off positions of local
residents at an early stage in the planning process (Murphy 1983). In this study, it
has been found that despite residents' acknowledgement of some neg ative social
impacts, tourism nonetheless, constitutes an important vehicle for their individual

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Page |247and collective economic prosperity. Local Residents had an overall positive
attitude toward tourism impact in Cox’s Bazar. The majority of residents in Cox’s
Bazar, even for those who do not work in tourism sector directly, have benefited
from tourism development. Their positive attitudes are mostly influenced by an
opportunity to earn greater income from working in the tourism industry or by
selling goods and s ervices to visitors. In fact, those who are not directly involved
in the tourism industry also received the benefits through domestic a nd foreign
investments in Cox’s Bazar and an improvement in infrastructure and public
facilities. This is a good sign for the Cox’s Bazar tourism industry, although there
is still room to increase residents’ positive attitudes toward tourism and strengthen
the industry further Nevertheless, the respondents are also rational in terms of the
long-term tourism development in Co x’s Bazar where most of them are very
critical and concerned about the negative impacts to local society and
environments. In light of this, it is inevitable from the part of politicians and
technocrats to place local people at the center of all policies a nd plans, if tourism
is todevelop in accordance with sound sustainable practice. While it is widely
acknowledged that this approach is filled with many obstacles, particularly in
developing countries like Bangladesh, there is no justification for responsi ble
governments to avoid this route. Based on the stage of tourism development in
Cox’s Bazar, it is recommended that actions be taken to increase residents’
awareness of tourism and increase positive attitudes toward tourism.

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Page |248In conclusion, let us reflect on McGehee and Andereck’s (2004:139) views that “a
great deal of progress has been made in the study of residents’ attitudes towards
tourism, but a great deal is left to be done. No matter what future direction resident
attitude research takes, the most i mportant goal must be to assure that the varied
voices of the local community are heard.”

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Page |275Questionnaire
Part 1: (Respondent Attitudes)
The following questions are about your perceptions of tour ism. There are
several statements about the potential impacts that can result from tourism.
Please record where you strongly agree (SA), agree (A), neit her agree nor
disagree (N), disagree (D), or strongly disagree (SD) with each of the
following statements. There are no rights or wrong answers, so please give the
answer which most closely expresses your perceptions.
Please tick the box that most accurate ly corresponds to how strongly you agree or
disagree with the following statements:
Give your opinion:
No Statement Strongly
AgreeAgree Neutral Disagree Strongly
Disagree
01.Tourism has contributed to overall
development of local people5 4 3 2 1
A.Living Standard
No Statement Strongly
AgreeAgree Neutral Disagree Strongly
Disagree
01.Tourism generally causes an increase
in livingstandards5 4 3 2 1
02.Tourism has led to an increase of
infrastructure for local people.5 4 3 2 1
03.Tourism help s diversifying local
economy5 4 3 2 1
04.Tourism brings economic benefits to
the residents of the community.5 4 3 2 1

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Page |276B.Employment Opportunity
No Statement Strongly
AgreeAgreeNeutral Disagree Strongly
Disagree
01.Tourism creates employment
opportunities for local residents5 4 3 2 1
02Entrepreneurial attitude grown among
the local residents5 4 3 2 1
03Tourism creates jobs more for externals
thanlocalresidents5 4 3 2 1
04.Local people do not get the management
level jobs.5 4 3 2 1
05.Local people are poorly paid by the
tourism business operator5 4 3 2 1
06.A large portion of tourism jobs is part –
time due to t he seasonal character.5 4 3 2 1
07.Tourism creates new markets for our
local products.5 4 3 2 1
C.Earning Capability
No Statement Strongly
AgreeAgree Neutral Disagree Strongly
Disagree
01.Development of tourism increases
earnings of local people.5 4 3 2 1
02.Localbusinesses benefit the most
from tourists.5 4 3 2 1
03.Most of the tourismmoney goes to
out of the local community.5 4 3 2 1
04.Tourism increased our living
expenditure.5 4 3 2 1

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Page |277D.Cultural Development
No Statement Strongly
AgreeAgree Neutral Disagree Strongly
Disagree
01.Tourism encourages a variety of cultural
activities by the local r esidents (e.g.,
crafts, arts, music)5 4 3 2 1
02.Tourism has brought positive change in
local traditional life style.5 4 3 2 1
03.The cultural exchange between residents
and tourists is valuable for the residents.5 4 3 2 1
04.Tourism is damaging t o the local culture
and traditions.5 4 3 2 1
05.Tourism causes cultural invasion . 5 4 3 2 1
E.Social Factors
No Statement Strongly
AgreeAgree Neutra
lDisagree Strongly
Disagree
01.Tourism upgrades the social value
of local people5 4 3 2 1
02.Tourism development increases the
number of recreational opportunities
for local residents5 4 3 2 1
03.Tourism is responsible for creating
social problems such as crime, drug
use, prostitution, and so forth in the
community.5 4 3 2 1
04.Tourism has l imited the use of the
recreational facilities like
entertainment centers and beaches
by the local people.5 4 3 2 1
05.Tourism causes environmental
pollution.5 4 3 2 1

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Page |278Part-2 (Socio-Demographic characteristics)
The following background questions a re included to help us to interpret your responses on other
questions. Your answers will be kept strictly confidential and will only be used for the analysis
of this study. Statistics will only be reported in aggregate (average) form, and you will not be
identified in any way.
1.Gender: A) Male B) Female
2.Age:
a) up to20 years b) 21-30 years c) 31-40 years
d) 41-50 years e) above 50 years
3.Education level:
a) No education b) Primary education c) S.S.C
d) H.S.C e) University level f) Others: ………………… ….
4. Are you? A)Married B) Single
5. What is your profession?
A) Service B) Bus iness C) O thers
6.How much is your monthly average income?
a) Under 1 0,000 b) 11,000 -20,000 c) 21,000 -30,000
d) 31,000-40,000 e) Over 4 0,000
Thank you for your time