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The entrepreneu rial u niversity: an exploration of “value-creation” in a non-
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Journal of Management Development
The entrepreneurial university: an exploration of “value-creation” in a non-
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Nnamdi O. Madichie, Ayantunji Gbadamosi,
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The entrepreneurial university:
an exploration of “value-creation ”
in a non-management department
Nnamdi O. Madichie
Centre for Research and Enterprise,
London School of Business and Management, London, UK and
School of Business and Law, University of East London, London, UK, and
Ayantunji Gbadamosi
School of Business and Law, University of East London, London, UK
Abstract
Purpose –The purpose of this paper is to highlight the strategies undertaken by “entrepreneurial ”universities
to leverage their bottom-line especially in response to withdrawals of public funding. Internationalisation has
been the most prominent from setting-up overseas branch campuses to aggressive recruitment drives for
international students, and more recently, the launch of new programmes to attract a wider market.Design/methodology/approach –Based on a documentary analysis, this study explores the future of
curriculum development in entrepreneurial universities, using narratives around an “unconventional course ”
launch as a case illustration.Findings –The findings reveal an interesting interaction of innovation, opportunity recognition, risk taking
and pro-activeness at play within a university environment. The study also highlights how instructors have,
in the past, based their syllabi on celebrities –from the Georgetown University to the University of South
Carolina, University of Missouri and Rutgers University cutting across departments from English through
sociology to Women ’s and Gender Studies.
Practical implications –Overall this study captures the relationship between hip-hop artistry and
poetry, as well as meeting the demands of society –societal impacts –not the least, bringing “street cred ”into
the classroom.Social implications –The case illustration of a course launch at the University of Missouri linking hip-hop
artists to curriculum development and pedagogy, opens up the discourse on the future trajectory of teaching
and learning in higher education, with its attendant social implications –not the least for life after graduation.
Originality/value –This study provides fresh insights into the entrepreneurial potential of universities in
co-branded/marketing activities with the hip-hop industry.
Keywords Qualitative research, Celebrity course launches, The entrepreneurial university
Paper type General review
1. Introduction and research context
The transformational role of entrepreneurship in the context of education is reasonably
well-established in the literature (Gartner and Vesper, 1994; Etzkowitz, 2003; Hytti and
O’Gorman, 2004; Hartshorn and Hannon, 2005; Johnson et al., 2006; Heinonen and Poikkijoki,
2006; Jones and Iredale, 2010; Draycott and Rae, 2011; Foss and Gibson, 2015a, b). However,
considering that the sheer volume of extant studies in this direction is on entrepreneurship
training (Matlay, 2007), there seems to be a palpable lacuna on how universities themselves
embrace entrepreneurship as a platform for fulfilling the demands of the third mission.
Accordingly, this study seeks to highlight the strategies undertaken by universities toleverage their bottom-line and marketing strategies entrepreneurially, and especially in
situations where public funding has been replaced with self-funding, in order to remain
competitive (Hemsley-Brown and Opla tka, 2006; Mazzarol and Soutar, 2012).
University management strategies have ranged from setting-up overseas branch
campuses (Madichie, 2015; Fantazy and Madichie, 2015) to aggressive recruitment drives
for international students (George, 2000; Binsardi and Ekwulugo, 2003); and launch of newJournal of Management
Development
Vol. 36 No. 2, 2017
pp. 196-216
© Emerald Publishing Limited
0262-1711
DOI 10.1108/JMD-06-2016-0098Received 19 June 2016
Revised 15 September 201617 October 2016Accepted 13 December 2016The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com /0262-1711.htm
196JMD
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programmes to attract a wider market segment (Gutman and Miaoulis, 2003; Gbadamosi
and Madichie, 2014), and enhance their brands (see Chapleo, 2007, 2010, 2011; Chapleo et al.,
2011; Opoku et al. , 2006; Brown and Mazzarol, 2009; Judson et al. , 2009; Sultan and Wong,
2012). This study focusses on an examination of a course launch at the University of
Missouri, tapping into hip-hop artists ’fans as a means of extending higher education
provision to a supposedly disengaged and diverse audience and/or market (Gbadamosi and
Madichie, 2014). As paraphrased from the university website, the programme which is
entitled “English 2169: Jay-Z and Kanye West ”is designed to examine the power-duo ’s joint
and respective careers from three different angles:
(1) Where do they fit within, and how do they change, the history of hip-hop music?
(2) How is what they do similar to, or different from what poets do?(3) How does their celebrity status power alter what we understand?
The proposed delivery mode revolves around “[…] listening to music and watching videos ”,
as well as “reading critical works on rap music, poetry studies, and Jay-Z ’s 2010 biography
Decoded ”. The justification of the course is presented as “likening the academic study of hip
hop now to the study of film back when movies were still seen as ‘trash for the masses ’[…]”
and the need to think out of the box. Hence, this viewpoint study critically examines the
entrepreneurial nature of the move concerning extending the current understanding on the
extent to which Universities are embracing opportunity recognition, risk taking and other
dimensions underpinning entrepreneurship. Following this opening section is the review of
the literature, which is followed by the research methodology and a detailed discussion of
the case illustration of a celebrity course launch. The study ends with a discussion and
practical implications derived from our analysis.
2. Literature review
With the pressures facing universiti es, and prompting them to become more
entrepreneurial, most of these institutions have adopted a number of strategic
approaches –from engaging more with the business community, setting-up centres for
entrepreneurship, launching new courses on entrepreneurship and bolstering their
internship programmes especially in the case of the UK (see Madichie, 2014). It is logical to
posit that introduction of programmes that suit the needs of the societal members in terms
of their aspirations is very essential for the survival of HEIs (Helgesen and Nesset, 2007;
Heinonen and Poikkijoki, 2006). While this could imply creating new programmes, it couldalso mean laying less emphasis on the existing provision as a means of paving way for new
ideas, thereby encouraging innovation and creativity with a view to boosting the image of
these Universities (Sevier, 1994; Palacio et al. , 2002; Sexton, 2011).
Nevertheless, the extent to which Univ ersities embrace entrepreneurship vis-à-vis value
co-creation is yet to be fully appreciated in the literature. From a broad perspective,
entrepreneurship is typicall y associated with innovation and creating new businesses
(Huarng and Yu, 2011; Gbadamosi, 2015). In the view of Rogers (1995, p. 11), innovation
could be explained as “an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an individual
or other unit of adoption ”. With reference to a body of literature (see e.g. Van de Ven., 1986;
Pisano, 1997; Ennen and Ritcher, 2010), O ’Regan (2012) notes that innovation can be both
product and process oriented. He then argue s that innovation is a value co-creation
exercise. Meanwhile, it has been noted that ent repreneurship education will continue to be
an increasingly crucial contributor to econ omic growth and development in the society
(Hynes, 1996). It is a broad-based tool that ha s benefited from numerous definitions
spanning a number of years (Hytti and O
’Gorman, 2004; Rae, 2007; Jones and Iredale, 2010;
Draycott and Rae, 2011; Beynon et al. , 2014).197Value-creation
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While the argument of whether entrepreneurship could be taught or not is widely
discussed in the literature, Henry et al. (2005) show that there is a consensus that at least
some aspects of entrepreneurship can be taught. In fact, it has been shown that the
completion of one entrepr eneurship course increas es the likelihood of having
entrepreneurial intention by 1.3 times (Dehghanpour Farashah, 2013). Hence, there are
many initiatives to stimulate people to act in an entrepreneurial manner in the context of HE
provision (Klofsten, 2000; Beynon et al. , 2014). Meanwhile Gürol and Atsan (2006) identify
entrepreneurial traits to be higher in entrepreneurially inclined students when compared to
their entrepreneurially non-inclined students ’counterpart. They have higher risk-taking
propensity, internal locus of control, higher innovativeness and higher needs for
achievements (Elenurm, 2012; Jones and Iredale, 2010, 2014).
Furthermore, in their exploration of enterprise education, Hytti and O ’Gorman (2004)
developed a conceptual schema used to analys e5 0e n t e r p r i s ep r o g r a m m e sa c r o s sf o u r
European countries (Austria, Finland, Ireland and the UK) –highlighting the need for
institutional support for education and training. It has been shown that the proliferation of
enterprise education in the UK underscores the importance of understanding the meaning of the
term enterprise competency (Caird, 1990a, b; Stanworth and Gray, 1992). Moreover, Rae ’s (2007)
study extended early experiences of connecting graduate enterprise and employability in the UK
and proposed the need for further research enqui ry into the field as it develops in complexity
(another key area when it comes to enterprise education –i.e. employability).
However, Jones and Iredale (2010) made what they describe as partly a plea for a more
rigorous, practically informed analysis of the different strands (pedagogy, entrepreneurship,
citizenship and civic responsibility) of enterprise education. According to these scholars, the
“most appropriate way to construe the concept of enterprise education is from a pedagogical
viewpoint ”. They also opined that enterprise education should not be equated solely with
business, as it is a broader, deeper and richer concept. From this study our focus would beon the first two strands –pedagogy and entrepreneurship. Draycott and Rae (2011, p. 127)
undertook a “critical review of competency frameworks introduced in England to assist with
enterprise education primarily for the 14-19 age group [comparing] their educational
purpose and rationale (why?), their content (what skills and knowledge they include),
and the approaches to teaching, learning and assessment they recommend (how?) ”.
Interesting elements here include why, what and how –we should be concerned with
enterprise education. For the purpose of this study, the “what ”makes for curious exploration.
Indeed, the “how ”element is equally significant as we seek to explore the entrepreneurial
learning at the University of Missouri following in the tradition of Gbadamosi and Madichie
(2010) in their case study of the development of the SME Marketing course at the Business
school of a London University. Atherton (2004) once recognised the need to unbundle the
terms in order to identify the similarities and differences of purpose between them. This is in
addition to a study by Price (2004, p. 4) offering a succinct distinction between enterprise,
entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship thus[1]:
Enterprise is an inclusive concept, which provides both the context in which subject disciplines can
be explored, as well as an approach, through skill development, which can be taken to theexploration and discovery of a discipline. In these respects, it can provide a challengingenvironment within which to explore a variety of teaching areas (the small business context) as wellas provide a dimension to learning, that of developing the skills of being enterprising,which provide students with an attitude towards learning, which rewards and supports innovation,change and development.
While enterprise has been well documented to support the recognition of new market
opportunities as well as the development of opportunity to change and develop at the
individual, business and industry levels –ranging from the exploration of new ideas and198JMD
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developments from a corporate perspective (as intrapreneurship) to the creation of new
ventures, social programmes and the exploration of new opportunities (Price, 2004, p. 4) –it
also has other applications. Indeed, enterprise education, as identified by Jones and Iredale
(2010), it involves attempts to maximise opportunities for the development of enterprising
skills, behaviours and attributes in young people in the expectation that these will be
utilised, deployed and developed at some future point whatever the envisaged career choice.
This is distinct from the pursuit and/or reliance on entrepreneurship education, which is
aimed more at encouraging people to start-up a business –perhaps more along the launch of
an SME Marketing course in a London Business School (see e.g. Gbadamosi and Madichie,
2010). In the light of the above, Jones and Iredale (2010, p. 11) teased out the different foci
and emphasis given to enterprise and entrepreneurship education:
Entrepreneurship education focuses primarily on the needs of the entrepreneur, whereas enterprise
education addresses the requirements of a wider range of stakeholders, including consumers andthe community. However, the key difference between the two terms is that the primary focus ofentrepreneurship education is on starting, growing and managing a business, whereas the primaryfocus of enterprise education is on the acquisition and development of personal skills, abilities andattributes that can be used in different contexts and throughout the life course.
According to these authors, the primary focus of entrepreneurship education was on a series
of hows –notably ( Jones and Iredale, 2010): How to start a business including the key
processes of business start-up; How to plan and launch a new business venture; enhancing
the necessary skills and behaviours needed to run a business; the deployment of
entrepreneurial skills and knowledge in a business context; imminent use of the knowledge
and skills needed to start a business; and self-employment.
However, they highlight the primary focus of enterprise education to be on developing an
active learning enterprise education pedagogy; knowledge needed to function effectively as
a citizen, consumer, employee or self-employed person in a flexible market economy;
development of personal skills, behaviours and attributes for use in a variety of contexts; the
person as an enterprising individual –in the community, at home, in the workplace or as an
entrepreneur; use of enterprising skills, behaviours and attributes throughout the life
course; and understanding how a business works (see Heinonen and Poikkijoki, 2006).
Indeed, enterprise education pedagogy (Beynon et al., 2014) can be used across subject areas
and throughout different phases of education –delivered through subjects like business or
economic studies at secondary and further education levels or via business school modules
at university level. As Jones and Iredale (2010, p. 12), point out, “using creative, action and
experiential learning pedagogies means that the enterprise education approach can be
applied in different teaching and learning contexts, through different subject areas [ …]t o
best meet different pupils/students ’needs ”.
Furthermore, and in addition to the detailed analysis of Jones and Iredale (2010), Draycott
and Rae (2011, p. 137) in their discussion, posed a similar question: What does “enterprise ”
mean in the context of 14-19 education? They argue that enterprise has been “hijacked ”by
schools as a convenient vehicle for them to evidence a range of “soft ”skills which they
cannot easily do in other ways. As part of their observation, they opine that in some schools
it is even the practice for “less academic ”or“challenging ”students to be directed towards
enterprise, whilst academic “high fliers ”are steered towards attainment of qualifications
which improve school league-table performance (see e.g. Thomas, 2009). While we would
hope that students who may be marginalised by their educational experiences may be
energised by enterprising learning, it does seem wrong to steer “the more able ”away from
enterprise, for, as argued below, they are as likely to need to be enterprising in their lives
and careers (see the case of African students as reported in Madichie and Madichie, 2013).
It seems that the rationale and philosophy of enterprise is poorly articulated and understood199Value-creation
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in the educational policy literature: is it free-market political ideology, the development of
soft skills or the development of employable young people? Some of these positions would
raise ideological and other difficulties for many educators.
As an alternative, Draycott and Rae (2011, p. 138) argued that enterprise should be
“about developing a mind-set, goals (self-efficacy) and skills (personal capabilities) to equip
young people for their futures ”. Enterprising learning is the process of learning in
enterprising ways as well as becoming enterprising. It is conative and affective as well as
cognitive (Gibb, 2008), but education is often most comfortable in the safety of cognitive
learning. Indeed, Draycott and Rae (2011, p. 138) viewed the definition of enterprise, in the
context of secondary education (and beyond), to fall under three broad classifications –
personal, situational and economic.
First, in the personal context, these authors argued that the development of self-
knowledge and -efficacy to be able to investigate, develop and act on ideas and
opportunities. Second, in the situational context, they argued that “being enterprising is
contingent on subjects and situations, hence learning and acting in enterprising ways will
be different in, for example, performing arts, biological sciences, or mathematics; yet there is
a role for enterprising learning in all of these, as there is in, or between, all subjects.
Enterprise is also concerned with the practical applications of taught subjects, and can be
usefully described as “practical creativity ”, especially in situations where the term
“enterprise ”is considered too value-laden. Third, and finally, they contended that in the
economic context, an “outcome of enterprise is the creation of new value. That should be
wider than simply financial value or the generation of personal profit, and include social,
environmental, aesthetic and intellectual value that may be shared in a range of ways.
Students have to survive in an economic world and an understanding of responsible
enterprise should assist them in this ”.
Moreover, in his study on universities and enterprise, Rae (2010) suggested that the
international financial and economic crisis in 2008 produced a new economic era with
significant implications for enterprise and entrepreneurship education. He, therefore, sought to
explore the consequences of changing economic, social and cultural movements, and how
entrepreneurship education and learning can respond to these challenges (Gbadamosi and
Madichie, 2014). Likewise, this study proposes that the nature of entrepreneurship is changingin response to social and cultural movements in the new economic era –notably
entertainment. Indeed, the implications for the future development of enterprise and
entrepreneurial education highlighted in Rae (2010), which include factors shaping
change –from social and economic context, learners, learning and teaching, and
institutional change –are all identified in this study. Consequently, the study presents new
thinking on the future challenges and directions for entrepreneurship and related education in
the context of fundamental economic and social change.
3. Research methodology/approach
The qualitative study is based on a documentary analysis of the future of higher
education in general and using the exemplar of an unconventional course launch –notably
“English 2169: Jay-Z and Kanye West ”, at the University of Missouri, as a case illustration.
This research approach is becoming increasin gly popular in recent times as evident in the
literature (Elton and Fulop, 2002; Momeni et al. , 2008; Paul and Hill, 2013; McGraw and
Drennan, 2014). The informatio n relating to this course –i.e. English 2169: Jay-Z and
Kanye West –was obtained from a variety of sources, but primarily from the website of
the University of Missouri, which detailed the objectives of the course. Besides, comments
on this programme has also been docume nted in other published sources such as
Riverfront Times (Toler, 2014) Consequence of sound (Coplan, 2014), Hollywood 360
(Gargiulo, 2014) and MU News Bureau (2014).200JMD
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If succinctly explained, documentary anal ysis is about the scrutiny of the manifest
dimensions of documents, in which explicit words, and phrases are noted as indicators of
values (Masterson, 1998; McGraw and Drenn an, 2014). It was considered appropriate for
this study based on the numerous a dvantages it provides. As Momeni et al. (2008) point
out, documentary analysis is cost-efficient and does not involve the researcher ’s physical
presence for data collection. This strengthen s the case for relying on the data obtained for
this study without physical presence at the University of Missouri which is the
organisation used for case illustration, as arg ued that engaging from a distance is possible
through the use of documentary evidence and analysis (see also Bowen, 2009). Weaving
the discussion around documentary evidence, based on both an analysis of media reports
(see e.g. Knibbs, 2014; Moore, 2014; O ’Neill, 2014; Gbadamosi and Madichie, 2014), and a
review of the extant literature (Hommel et al. , 2016; Foss and Gibson, 2015a, b; Doherty
et al., 2015; Jones and Rowley, 2009; Morrish, 2011; Hills et al., 2008; Hoy, 2008; Morris et al.,
2002; Stokes, 2000; Low and MacMillan, 1988), t his study explores an emergent trend, and
through narrative, extends the boundaries of the discourse in the domain of the
entrepreneurial university.
Indeed, the approach undertaken in this study is deemed appropriate considering the
trend in research in this area. For example, Foss and Gibson (2015b) in their edited book,
relied on a series of case analyses drawing upon a narrative tradition that builds on an
epistemological and ontological position that denies the possibility of a theory-neutral
language. The explorative character of another but related publication by these authors also
follows a theory-building approach in which they use case narratives written by participant
observers from their unique perspectives as a key investigative tool to support other
methods used (Foss and Gibson, 2015a, p. 252).
Overall, our chosen methodological approach is consistent with established scholarship
that advocates using a case study to build theory (Eisehardt and Graebner, 2007) and
highlighting the basis by the use of narratives (Gartner, 2010, 2007; Gartner and Birley,
2002; Pentland, 1999; Phillips, 1995). This is also corroborated by Gummesson (2003, p. 492)
who sounds out that researchers should, “evaluate the research on its own terms with
adequate criteria and not on the terms of mainstream quantitative research ”. Indeed,
Gartner and Birley (2002) highlighted the appropriateness of qualitative approaches toentrepreneurship research. According to them:
Qualitative researchers are likely to be the connoisseurs of entrepreneurship scholarship only in
that they are more likely to immerse themselves to a greater depth and in a wider variety ofsituations where entrepreneurship occurs. “We encourage all entrepreneurship scholars to
develop a critical eye in their efforts to explore entrepreneurship, and hope that more work will beundertaken to utilize qualitative me thods for seeking such an understanding ”(Gartner and
Birley, 2002, p. 394).
Likewise, Eisehardt and Graebner (2007, p. 27) contend that:
A frequent challenge to theory building from cases concerns case selection. Some readers make thefaulty assumption that the cases should be representative of some population, as are data in large-scale hypothesis testing research [ …] they ask, how can the theory generalize if the cases aren ’t
representative? A key response to this challenge is to clarify that the purpose of the research is todevelop theory, not to test it, and so theoretical (not random or stratified) sampling is appropriate.Theoretical sampling simply means that cases are selected because they are particularly suitablefor illuminating and extending relationships and logic among constructs.
This contention also strongly explains the chosen methodological stance adopted in this
study which also aligns very closely with the perspective of repeatedly raised by Gartner
(2010, p. 16) that “the challenge then, for entrepreneurship scholars, is to be willing to build
their own ‘big pile ’of knowledge, facts, theories, experiences, and insights about the201Value-creation
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phenomenon of entrepreneurship [ …]”It is, in our view, that from this big pile –
incorporating media reports and scholarly papers, meaning within the story told emerges.
As Koch (1998, p. 1189) surmised in relation to the use of text and stories:
Meaning emerges as the text and the interpreter engage in a dialogue, in a hermeneutic
conversation [ …] The goal of this dialogue is an intersection of the horizon of the author and the
horizon of the interpreter [ …] I believe that careful, reflective, systematic study of phenomena or
experience taken to advance human understanding can count as research.
This point is further reinforced by Gartner (2010, p. 12) who opines that “theories and
methods only illuminate aspects of the text. But, the text, itself, is always at the basis of any
analysis ”. Furthermore, Goles and Hirschheim (2000, p. 264) point out that while “methods
and perspectives are important [ …] they are secondary to the contributions of ideas [ …]”
It is along the lines of such contribution to ideas that we narrate how a university ’s
department has demonstrated an entrepreneurial flair by reaching out to audiences outside
of its traditional market.
Meanwhile, like most other studies, there are some limitations to our methodological
choice, which may have been supported by complementary approaches (see Table I for a
sample of studies in this area), and should, therefore, be considered potential areas for future
research pursuit. The subject matter could have been investigated using alternative
methodological approaches such as action research using participant observation
techniques, experiments (Kraus et al. , 2016). Another approach may well have been the
use of focus groups (both on and off line) to explore the destination of graduates on the
programme and conduct a follow-on longitudinal study tracking alumni of these
programmes and how other university departments might link with the business school and
local business community.
However, these were not considered appropriate for the study due to the issue of access –
the current study was undertaken many miles away from the Missouri by UK-based
researchers. It would be useful if future research could consider these avenues. Meanwhile,
it is important to state that these highlighted limitations do not appear to have comprised
the contribution of this paper on its stated objectives.
4. Findings and discussions
Prior studies have highlighted differences in opportunity recognition (see Hansen and Hills,
2004), and the “evolution and development of entrepreneurial marketing ”(Hills et al. , 2008)
in a bid to remain customer centric (see e.g. Gummesson, 2008). There is also evidence ofinstructors having, in the past, based their syllabi on celebrities –from “Sociology of Hip-
Hop –Urban Theodicy of Jay-Z ”in 2011 (Georgetown University ’s sociology department),
“The Sociology of Fame and Lady Gaga ”in 2009 (the University of South Carolina),
“Politicizing Beyoncé ”in 2012 (the department of Women ’s and Gender Studies at Rutgers)
and a class based on The Simpsons (the University of California Berkeley) although these
have not been full course launches per se . As evidenced from the case illustration in this
study, the attempt to link rap with poetry is both entrepreneurial and marketing-focussed,
and thereby arguably culminating in the unchartered waters of the entrepreneurial
university. Broadly speaking, Lumpkin and Dess (1996) pointed out the existence of five
dimensions that constitute entrepreneurial orientation –notably risk taking, opportunity
orientation, innovativeness, pro-activeness and autonomy –all of which are unpacked in
this study. Our focus in this section is to treat these dimensions in three sub-categories:
innovation and opportunity recognition, risk taking, and pro-activeness. By so doing, we do
two key things to the five dimensions. First, we combine innovation with opportunity
recognition. Second we exclude autonomy based on the fact that universities operate within
institutional constraints (see Foss and Gibson, 2015a, b).202JMD
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Authors Methodology Main Highlights
Kraus et al.
(2016)Experiments Discusses the potential and disadvantages of experimental
methods while arguing for experiments as the method ofchoice for answering causality questions
Tipu and
Ryan (2016)Survey, 309 questionnaires The study explores the current debate on value intention link
by hitherto unexplored relation between multidimensional
work ethic profile and entrepreneurial intentions in a bid to
offer specific insight into the work values of UAE nationalyouth and their entrepreneurial quest
Kwong and
Thompson(2016)Survey of UK business
studentsThose intending to enter entrepreneurship right away place
less emphasis on avoiding stress and responsibility, seeingthemselves as natural leaders. They were also confident ofsucceeding, but not because superior knowledge
Pucci (2016) Quantitative study The results show a trade-off between scientific reputation
and university-industry relationships. The achievement of a
certain level of scientific quality initially favours the
performance of commercial activities (consulting, patenting,and spin-off creation), but beyond a certain thresholdscientists begin to focus primarily on research and theirengagement with industry decreases
Kolk andRivera-Santos
(2016)Literature review An in-depth analysis of the 139 Africa-focused articles
shows and important imbalance in terms of publication
patterns, topics covered, theoretical groundings, types of
contributions, approaches to the African contexts,and empirics (p. 1)
Lindeman
(2015)Single case study The case study that points towards the reinvented identity of
Kyamk. It shows how the discourse on entrepreneurship haschanged from a disciplinary discussion to a conversationabout how to deliver higher education with anentrepreneurial twist regardless of discipline (p. 185)
Foss and
Gibson (2015a)Case analyses. The entrepreneurial university is [ …] an emerging
organisational form that in many instances has yet to be
legitimized and instutionalised (p. 249)
Refai et al.
(2015)Qualitative empirical study/
semi-structured interviewsThis paper offers a holistic conceptual framework of Social
Constructionism that draws on the “Gestalt Approach ”, and
highlights the harmony between the ontological,epistemological and methodological underpinnings of socialconstructionism [ …] as a suitable underlying philosophical
paradigm [ …] which adopts relative realism ontology,
transactional epistemology, and Gadamer ’s hermeneutic
phenomenology, offers a relevant,multi-perspectival philosophical foundation for[entrepreneurship education] research, supportingtransactional relationships within contexts ofmultiple possibilities
Jones and
Iredale (2014)Literature review The study draws on the literature around enterprise and
entrepreneurship education. It argues that comparative
analysis of enterprise education is an important
methodological tool that can enrich, deepen and informresearch processes, findings and outcomes. Comparativeanalysis can take a number of forms and can includewithin country, cross-country, historical, temporal,longitudinal, spatial, pedagogical, policy or other
types of comparison
(continued )
Table I.
Selection of
methodological
considerations
in higher
education research203Value-creation
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Authors Methodology Main Highlights
Rice et al.
(2014)Case study The study highlights seven key success factors that enable
each of the six universities investigated to achieve asustainable and high-impact entrepreneurial ecosystem
Casidy (2014) Survey –258 questionnaires
for undergraduate studentsin the Faculty of Business
in AustraliaThe study finds that students ’perception of a university ’s
brand orientation significantly moderates the relationshipbetween service quality, loyalty, and WOM communication
behaviour
Warwick
(2014)Literature review/multiple case
study (four cases of UK
universities, p. 96)Contemporary universities are international businesses and
as such should give more serious consideration to how their
internationalisation strategy is managed. UK universitiesneed to pay more attention to their internationalisationstrategies
Madichie and
Kolo (2013)Personal observations and
informal conversationsObservations suggest that the franchise model may be more
appropriate internationalisation strategy into the “crowded ”
UAE HE market (see p. 96)
Lee and
Brown (2013)Qualitative research/dialogue The authors fail to agree, let alone to disagree, on marketing
scholarship in a social business-steeped setting. “We can do
a better job at this than we do currently, whether you
believe the role of academia is to simply create knowledge,
to directly respond to practitioner needs, or even a bit ofboth [it] is not doing a great job at any of these ”(p. 239)
Elliott and
Goh (2013)Qualitative, multiple case
studySought to explore the potential consequences of AACSB
accreditation as perceived by administrators and faculty
members at four Canadian university business schools.
Results indicate that AACSB accreditation facilitatedorganizational learning in three of the four schools.By using a qualitative multiple case study method, theresearch provided a unique opportunity to focus morekeenly on context and its role in influencing the potentiallearning consequences of accreditations
Mpinganjira
(2011)Focus group discussions, in-
depth interviews and an online
structured questionnaireConditions in both the students ’countries of origin and in
the possible hosting countries contribute to the decision to
study abroad
Rae (2010) Practitioner-based educational
enquiry, reflective practice andresearch, education andparticipation with groups of
universities, educators,
students, entrepreneurs andother groupsThe paper explores the changing influences on
entrepreneurship education and learning, what is the new erain entrepreneurship, the consequences of changing economic,social and cultural movements, and how entrepreneurship
education and learning can respond to these challenges.
The paper proposes that the nature of entrepreneurship ischanging in response to social and cultural movements in thenew economic era. Ethical and environmental concerns arecreating a discourse of responsible entrepreneurshipinformed by social entrepreneurship
Jevons (2006) Literature review The purpose of this paper is to present a call to action for
universities to practice what they preach in developing andcommunicating differentiated brands
Rutherford
(2005)Qualitative research/essay As the global corporate demand for educational services
increases, universities are becoming more like businesses.The trend toward a corporate style university can be seenin the way that its educational mission is being subordinated to
the criteria of the flexible la bour market. Argues that we need
to revisit Cultural Studies ’early rejection of humanism and
work out a new kind of humanism without guarantees [ …]t o
restore cultural studies as a critical and engaged practice
(continued )
Table I.204JMD
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4.1 Innovation and opportunity recognition
In our discussion of this dimension to entrepreneurship, we posit that the celebrity course
launch at the University of Missouri is clearly unconventional but, nonetheless, shows
creativity, innovation and opportunity recognition in that department in particular and
across the institution at large. The innovative nature of this course launch seems somehow
confirmed in the study of Hüsig and Mann (2010), which also pinpoints the fact that
remarkable changes do take place in the HE system as exemplified in Germany. According
to Huiru (2009, p. 95), “the ultimate target of the education and teaching reform ”
in Universities is to improve the quality of teaching and talent training. This seems
consistent with the justification given in the case of “English 2169 ”–the focus of this study.
Essentially, it could be stated that this undertaking emerged not only as an opportunity for
institutional competitive advantage, but also to aid its influence and connections to various
relevant stakeholders in the society.
In discussing the notion of value co-creation, we focus on two interfaces. Marketing/
Entrepreneurship interface on the one hand (see Hansen and Eggers, 2010; Morrish
2011; Miles et al. , 2011; Hultman and Hills, 2011), and Entrepreneurship/Innovation
interface (see Windrum and Koch, 2008; Morris et al., 2010) on the other hand. Citing David
Blunkett, one-time minister for education in England, Rutherford (2005, p. 306) observed
that “[…] in the knowledge economy, entrepreneurial universities will be as important as
entrepreneurial businesses, the one fostering the other. The ‘do nothing ’universities will
not survive –and it will not be the job of government to bail them out ”[2]. Logically,
the sensitivity of the University of Missouri to an unconventional target market and
incorporating hip-hop artists and other celebrities is symptomatic of value co-creation
in higher education.
In a separate study, Hultman and Hills (2011, p. 120) investigate the influences between
marketing and entrepreneurship and argued that while this “could be traced to the 1980s [ …]
it is hard to state when the first steps to research the interface [ …]s t a r t e d ”. These authors go
on to argue that “entrepreneurship and marketing share some commonalities: both disciplinesAuthors Methodology Main Highlights
Binsardi and
Ekwulugo(2003)Surveys (62 questionnaires)
and in-depth interviewsThe study shows that UK competitors achieved a
remarkable growth of their international students ’
enrolment while the UK achieves only a marginal growthwith declining market penetration abroad. For many years,the UK universities have enjoyed a high reputation andhave benefited in accelerating its market penetration
worldwide. Unfortunately, this superiority has begun to
decline. Other countries are strongly emerging with theirquality education
Gummesson(2003)Qualitative research/
interpretivismRecognize that interpretive elements are influential and
present in all types of research and see them as an assetrather than a cross to bear. Get familiar and practice the
paradigm represented by hermeneutics and interactive
research, as well as the accompanying methods andtechniques. Evaluate the research on its own terms withadequate criteria and not on the terms of mainstreamquantitative research (see p. 492)
Goles andHirschheim
(2000)Literature review Methods and perspectives are important. They provide
standards on which to judge the rigour and relevance of a
piece of research. But they are secondary to the
contributions of ideas. This is where the true value ofresearch diversity becomes apparent (p. 264)
Table I.205Value-creation
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focus on the identification of opportunities and transforming environmental resources into
value-creation for external clients (customers) ”. These entrepreneurship attributes equally
apply to the marketing discourse especially as “new and innovative marketing methods ”
had the tendency of leveraging to benefits from the innovation, where a high focus on
opportunities, an innovative mind and behaviour, propensity to take calculated risks and
pro-active thinking can together create a very-different situation on the market with
long-lasting implications. Accordingly, this case illustration exemplifies this contention,
as Hultman and Hills (2011, p. 123) point out, “the business community has changed in the last
25 years [and] the academic discipline of marketing needs to adapt ”to this change.
4.2 Risk taking
In our treatment of this entrepreneurship dimension, and its applicability to the
entrepreneurial university, we rely extensively on Hommel et al. (2016), which sought to
examine the state of risk-management acti vities in business sch ools and evaluates the
presence of discrepancies from first-best practices found in the corporate sector.
Entrepreneurialism is transforming busin ess schools into risk-taking organisations
(see Hommel et al. , 2016). Proprietary revenue streams tend to be highly volatile and are
for instance affected by fluctuations in the school ’s competitiveness due to changes in
accreditation status or ranking position ing as well as structural demand shifts
(e.g. demographic change). They are also a ffected by the business cycle or government
policies (e.g. such as the introduction of studen t visa restrictions). Greater risk dependency
warrants an explicit effort to manage these exposures; in financial terms “risk ”and
“return ”are two sides of the same coin (Hommel et al. , 2016, p. 607). To what extent
business schools have moved forward in for mally establishing risk-management
strategies remains an area of scholarly pu rsuit (see Kirby, 2004; Huber, 2011; Tufano,
2011; Pittaway and Edwards, 2012; Doherty et al. 2015).
Indeed, the rising number of business schools struggling financially also serves as
evidence that risk taking is frequently not matched by formal risk-management policies.
As Hommel et al. (2016, p. 606) point out, “the spread of entrepreneurial rent seeking
(or entrepreneurialism for short) and market-based performance measurement (accreditation,
rankings) have transformed many business schools into risk-taking organizations ”.
The largely uncontested statement of the Dean of a world-leading Business School, RichLyons, that 50 per cent of business schools will disappear within the next five to ten years can
only be rationalised in the context of risk not being appropriately addressed by business
schools (FT, 2015)[3]. We therefore, postulate that the management of such risk –both
financial and reputational –would require some form of coping strategies epitomised by our
final dimension, i.e. pro-activeness.
4.3 Innovativeness and pro-activeness
The use of celebrities in teaching i s not necessarily a new phenomenon, as
Harvard Business School has often relied on this model for its delivery –albeit
as teaching cases (see e.g. Elberse, 2014 ; Elberse and Smith, 2014; Elberse and
Owusu-Kesse, 2012). However, dedicating a complete course around celebrities may be
arguably a pro-active endeavour. Indeed , the attempt to connect the dots between
entertainment, and the university curricul um is arguably a pro-active move which is also
innovative in the sense that rather than usin g case studies, an entire course is dedicated
to this move. The course launch could also b e seen as capturing the relationship between
hip-hop artists and poetry (or poets) as well as optimism enshrined in the American
Dream –notably social justice.
While it is arguably entrepreneurial and in alignment with the third mission, to
“reach out ”to a non-traditional student population (see e.g. Catterall et al. , 1999) using206JMD
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celebrities such as Jay-Z and Kanye West, the mode of instruction raises some interesting
issues for debate (see, e.g. Lewis, 2014). For example, it could be perceived as distracting and
spurious –i.e. “listening to music and watching videos [ …] [and reading] Jay-Z ’s 2010
biography ”[4]. With this pedagogy vis-à-vis entrepreneurship education, a critical question
may be asked. What is the value added and how does it result in skills development? A focus
on the business side of hip-hop will require that the business curriculum recognise this
innovative agenda and, build upon it accordingly. However, audacious it might seem at the
outset, the rationale for the Jay-Z and Kanye West course launch has a long pedigree. It was
based on the notion that a handful of universities have, in the past, incorporated celebrities
into their course syllabi –from the University of South Carolina offering a course on
“The Sociology of Fame and Lady Gaga ”in 2009, Georgetown University ’s sociology
department offering a class on “Sociology of Hip-Hop –Urban Theodicy of Jay-Z ”in 2011,
and the department of Women ’s and Gender Studies at Rutgers offering a course around
Jay-Z ’s wife, “Politicizing Beyoncé ”in 2012, the University of California Berkeley taking a
philosophy class based on The Simpsons , and Julius Bailey ’s edited book “The Cultural
Impact of Kanye West ”(O’Neill, 2014).
5. Conclusions and implications
Enterprise education has become a trendy p attern in higher education provision with
many universities incorporating the concept and embedding the same into their curricula
in one form or the other. Indeed, in Engla nd and Wales, the DfES (2003) recommends that
enterprise learning is integrated throughout the curriculum. Overall the higher education
market has become very competitive in r ecent years (Skinner and Blackey, 2010)
prompting numerous attempts at consolidation of faculties/departments, new course
launches, aggressive internationalisatio n (Madichie and Kolo, 2013; Fitzpatrick et al., 2012;
Paswan and Ganesh, 2009) and now unintentiona l demarketing of traditional provisions
(see Madichie, 2014). However, while it migh t have been entrepreneurial (Leitch and
Harrison, 1999) to see the val ue of hip-hop artistry in poetry, as epitomised by the
University of Missouri ’s English department, there are li ngering questions as to whether
these should be considered full-blown course s in their own right rather than topics or case
studies embedded within courses.
Indeed, there seems to be more relevant hip-h op music artists who have demonstrated
some entrepreneurial traits worthy of emb edding into the curri culum, such as Dr Dre,
Will.i.am and Jimmy Iovine, the masterminds of the Beats Headphone that captured the
interest of the technology giant Apple (see Garrahan and Bradshaw, 2014; Moore, 2014).
Should all these artists translate to new cours e launches in entrepreneurship education?
From the foregoing, we can only submit, albeit tentatively, that there should be some
clarity on the degree of embeddedness of hip-hop artistry into the university curriculum.
Should these be full-blown course launches or not able, case-by-case, selective case studies?
Is entrepreneurship educatio n at a crossroads? Could entre preneurship education be on
the verge of being unintentionally dema rketed (see Madichie, 2014)? Should other
universities launch new courses on hip-hop artists?
Answers to these questions would be worthy areas for future research enquiry.
This study, in its contribution to the entrepreneurial university discourse, provides
grounds for such scholarly pursuits. Overall this study makes three key contributions to
our understanding of the entrepreneurial univ ersity. First, it provides some fresh insights
into a known, but neglected field, autono my of instructors to c hampion new course
launches with institution-wide “buy-in ”in a manner recognised in the wider literature –in
this case an instructor in the most unlikel y of departments/schools (i.e. the English
department) has demonstrated. Such attributes epitomise the academic entrepreneur
(see Pucci, 2016), who goes all out to justify the course launch as being demand-driven,207Value-creation
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but more importantly, broadens the appeal of university study amongst disengaged
groups –notably the freelancers in the creative in dustry sector (see Carey and Naudin,
2006; Matheson, 2006; Rutherford, 2005). Second , the study highlights the links between
an acclaimed “entrepreneurial university ”in the context of enterprise, as distinct from
entrepreneurship education. Third, it provides an avenue for future research pursuits into
the utility of new course launches, and their im plications for socio-economic developments
in, and around contexts (Madichie, 2017). Not ably, hip-hop may be more appreciated in US
contexts, as opposed to other developed world contexts –notably the UK, Australia,
Canada and Singapore as the case may be.
Notes
1. In our general review, it is a mixture of all three elements that we think defines the entrepreneurial
university, which is focused on the “third mission ”.
2. See the Department of Trade and Industry, DTI White Paper on Enterprise, Skills and Innovation.
Retrieved from available at: www.dti.gov.uk
3.Financial Times (10 April 2015) Haas dean confidently predicts demise of business schools.
Retrieved from available at: www.ft.com/content/9bd8a722-df7e-11e4-b6da-00144feab7de
4. It is worth recounting the opening segment of a book chapter in Bailey ’s edited 2014 book,
where Heidi Lewis, in chapter 5, reported that Kanye was no stranger to academia as his motherwas “Dr Donda West [ …] Professor of English at Clark Atlanta University and Chair of the
English Department at Chicago State University before retiring to serve as his (Kanye ’s) manager ”
(see Lewis, 2014, p. 65).
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About the authors
Nnamdi O. Madichie is currently a Director of Research and Enterprise at the London School of
Business and Management. He has also previously been the Programme Leader of the BA (Hons)Marketing at the University of East London, UK, where he remains Visiting Research Fellow to date.
His research interests straddle marketing (including entrepreneurial and higher education marketing)
and entrepreneurship (diaspora, ethnic, gender and social). He has published in such journals as theInternational Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation ,Journal of Customer Behaviour ,
Management Decision ,Public Relations Review and the Thunderbird International Business Review
amongst others. He is a co-author of Consumer Behaviour: Text and Cases , Tata McGraw-Hill, and an215Value-creation
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author of “marketing Senegal through hip-hop-a discourse analysis of Akon ’s music and lyrics ”
published in the Journal of Place Management and Development in 2011. Nnamdi O. Madichie is the
corresponding author and can be contacted at: nomadichie@yahoo.co.uk
Ayantunji Gbadamosi is formerly the Leader for Research and Knowledge Exchange at the Royal
Docks Business School of the University of East London, UK. He is currently a Senior lecturer ofMarketing in the school. He received his PhD from the University of Salford, UK and has taughtmarketing courses at various institutions including the University of Lagos (Nigeria), University ofSalford (UK), Manchester Metropolitan University (UK), Liverpool Hope University (UK) and variousprofessional bodies. He is a Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Marketing (FCIM) and a Fellow of theHigher Education Academy (FHEA). Dr Tunji Gbadamosi has several research outputs in the form ofjournal articles, chapters in edited books, co-edited books, monograph, conference papers and casestudies. His papers have been published in a variety of refereed journals including Journal of Brand
Management ,Thunderbird International Business Review, International Journal of Market Research ,
International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management, Marketing intelligence and Planning,Social Marketing Quarterly, Nutrition and Food Science, Young Consumers, Journal of FashionMarketing and Management, Society and Business Review, International Journal of Consumer Studies,The Marketing Review, International Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development,Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, International Journal of Entrepreneurship and InnovationandJournal of Place Branding and Public Diplomacy. He is the author of the book entitled Low-income
Consumer Behaviour and the editor of The Handbook of Research on Consumerism and Buying
Behaviour in Developing Nations. His co-edited books are: Principles of Marketing –A Value-Based
Approach andEntrepreneurship Marketing: Principles and Practice of SME Marketing . Dr Gbadamosi
is a member of the editorial board of several academic journals. He has supervised severalundergraduate and postgraduate students including PhD students to successful completion and servedas an Examiner for several doctorate degree examinations. He is the current Programme Chair of theInternational Academy of African Business Development (IAABD). His research interests are in theareas of consumer behaviour, SME marketing, marketing to children and marketing communications.He is listed in Who ’s Who in the World .
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