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See discussions, st ats, and author pr ofiles f or this public ation at : https://www .researchgate.ne t/public ation/261937248
Strategic Plans in Arts Organizations: A T ool of Compromise Between Artistic
and Managerial Values
Article    in  International Journal of Arts Manag ement · Mar ch 2010
DOI: 10.2307/41065025
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Volume 12, N umBeR 3 • SPRING 2010
13Introduction
Despite their apparent similarity to other
types of organizations, arts organiza-
tions have a number of characteristics
that set them apart when it comes to manage-ment. To the extent that their members are
involved in the production and diffusion of art-istic creations, arts organizations are dedicated
to the arts (Colbert et al., 2007). Therefore, the
artistic project is at the centre of the mission for
this type of organization. Art and management
can thus be said to form a fundamental duality at the heart of the arts organization (Abdallah,
2007). Because art and management are grounded
in historically contradictory, not to say con –
flicting, values, this duality contributes to the
ideological tensions that are intrinsic to arts
organizations (Chiapello, 1998; Maitlis and
Lawrence, 2003). In contrast to the rationalism of management, manifested in its emphasis on
calculation, routine, regularity, order and meas-
urement, art is associated with such elements as
sensitivity, imagination, uniqueness, autonomy,
creativity and pleasure.
According to Chiapello (1998), the need to
reconcile art and management, as well as the opposing values characterizing these organiza –
tions, gives rise to numerous conflicts within
them. Nevertheless, their survival depends on
the capacity of these organizations to arrive at
agreements on a regular basis (Townley, 2002).
To the extent that the different stakeholders of an
arts organization are able to agree on the con -tent of a strategic plan, that plan will constitute
a form of agreement between the competing
values present in arts organizations. However, we know little about how these agreements can
be reached (Maitlis and Lawrence, 2003) and
even less about the writing techniques and dis –
cursive effects that make them possible.
This article proposes a textual analysis of
the orientations of the strategic plans of three performing arts organizations. Our analysis is based on the model of common values pro –
posed by Boltanski and Thévenot (2006). Our
results show that the reaching of an agreement
between art and management in the strategic plans studied is based on a double structure of
compromise. Overall, the orientations of these
strategic plans are dominated by managerial values rooted in the discourse of economic
rationality and emphasizing efficiency and per –
formance. However, a deeper analysis of these
orientations reveals that in addition to the pre –
dominant managerial values aimed at attract –
ing the interest of stakeholders, a number of linguistic devices, including juxtaposition, a rhetoric of certainty and ambiguity, are used to
embed a series of micro-compromises within
the text, the majority of which emphasize artis –
tic values. These linguistic devices accentuate
the polyphony of the strategic plans, making it
possible to seduce, persuade and mystify the organization’s different stakeholders.
This analysis contributes to the knowledge
of strategic planning in arts organizations in Pascale Daigle is a PhD
student in management at HEC Montréal. She also acts as a consultant for arts orga-nizations. Her dissertation research is concerned with strategic management in
arts organizations. She is a student member of GéPS (Strategy-as-Practice Study Group) and a FQRSC (Fonds québécois de recherche sur
la société et la culture) fellow.
Linda Rouleau is a professor
in the Department of Man-agement at HEC Montréal, where she teaches strategic management and organiza-tional theories. Her research focuses on strategy-making and the transformation of
the control and identity of middle managers in the
context of reorganization.
She is co-director of GéPS (Strategy-as-Practice Study Group) and a researcher with CRIMT (Interuniversity Research Centre on Globalization and Work).Strategic Plans in Arts Organizations:
A Tool of Compromise Between Artistic
and Managerial Values
Pascale Daigle, Linda RouleauStrategic Management

INteRNatIoNal jou RNal of a RtS maNaGeme Nt
14three ways. At the theoretical level, it provides
a better understanding of how the tensions
between art and management are articulated
and reconciled within the arts organization. At
the methodological level, our analysis proposes a systematic and rigorous approach to textual
analysis based on the conventionalist systems of common values proposed by Boltanski and
Thévenot (2006). Finally, at the managerial level, this study offers practical insight into the
production of strategic plans in arts organiza –
tions with the aim of facilitating the task of the
different stakeholders typically involved in the
writing of these plans.
This article is divided into five sections. In
the first, we explore the links between art and
management in the literature on arts organiza –
tions as well as discussing the analysis of strate –
gic plans. We then present the conventionalist
framework we draw on to conduct an in-depth
analysis of the strategic orientations of the plans
studied. Next, we explain the research method –
ology used as well as the context in which the strategic plans under study were written. Finally,
we present and discuss the results of our analysis
and suggest further avenues of research.
Arts Organizations and Strategic Plans
Chiapello (1998) identifies the potential for tension between artistic and managerial
values in arts organizations. Arts organizations are made up of individuals and groups with
diverging interests and different ways of per –
ceiving and evaluating the artistic project. In
addition, these organizations operate within
complex networks composed of multiple part-
ners with diverse interests (Voss, Cable and Voss, 2000). As such, arts organizations are said to
evolve in a pluralistic context (Denis, Langley and
Rouleau, 2005, 2007) characterized by multiple
sources of tension reflected both in their internal dynamics and in the relations of the organiza-tion’s actors with external stakeholders.
According to Chiapello (1998), agreements
between art and management can be achieved
despite their conflicting essence. However, while
the works of this author remain a seminal refer –
ence for anyone interested in the tensions between art and management, they do not explain how agreements between these values can be fabri –
cated on a daily basis. Nor do they provide insight into the discursive practices and skills
that allow the actors involved to participate or
to not participate in the implementation of such agreements. Moreover, in addition to knowing
very little about how such agreements take shape
within arts organizations, we have little under –
standing of the processes required to sustain them over time (Maitlis and Lawrence, 2003). All these aspects are very important for arts
organizations, particularly when it comes to
agreements that are strategic in nature. Indeed,
not only do such agreements serve to ensure the
survival of the organization, but they are a cen –
tral link in the organization’s relationships with
its environment and its various stakeholders.
Since the late 1990s, a number of researchers
in the fields of both management and strategy
have taken a turn towards the “practice” per –
spective (Gherardi, 2000; Orlikowski, 2000;
Whittington, 1996, 2006). This perspective is
concerned with examining human activities in
order to understand how groups work and how
they are linked to broader organizational and social structures (Rouleau, Allard-Poesi and Warnier,
2007). In the field of strategy, this entails a focus
Arts organizations are built on multiple tensions between artistic and managerial values. The ability to reach
agreement between these two value systems is key to ensuring the viability and long-term survival of the
organization. An arts organization’s strategic plan represents the agreements it has established between art
and management. This article proposes a conventionalist analysis of the justifications underlying the orien-
tations contained in the strategic plans of three performing arts companies. The results of the analysis reveal
a predominance of economic justifications emphasizing efficiency and performance in the three plans stud-
ied. The goal of these justifications is to attract the interest of stakeholders. However, the analysis also reveals
the use of a number of linguistic devices by means of which artistic values are disseminated throughout the
text. By accentuating the polyphonic and ambiguous nature of the strategic plan, these linguistic devices
have the effect of seducing, persuading and mystifying stakeholders.
Arts organization, strategy as practice, strategic plans, conventionalist analysis, stakeholdersABsTrAcT
K E Y W O rDs

Volume 12, N umBeR 3 • SPRING 2010
15on the activities, routines, discourses and every –
day conversations of the managers involved in
the formation of strategy for their organization,
as opposed to a focus on the content of the
strategy and the processes of strategic change
(Balogun, Huff and Johnson, 2003; De La Ville and Mounoud, 2003; Golsorkhi, 2006; Johnson, Melin and Whittington, 2003; Jarzabkowski, Balogun and Seidl, 2007). From this perspec –
tive, management, strategy and the organiza –
tion – in this case, arts organizations – are seen as being the result of social practices. This approach makes it possible to identify and understand the hidden dimensions of actions,
whether social, political, discursive or otherwise.
We thus propose to adopt the strategy-as-
practice perspective in seeking to understand
how agreements between art and management
are reached in arts organizations. Such agree –
ments can emerge during the artistic program –
ming phase, during the preparation of an artistic
performance or during the planning of the organization’s activities (Colbert et al., 2007). Studies that draw on the practice perspective
generally focus on one of the key dimensions of
the following social practices: activities (Maitlis and Lawrence, 2003; Jarzabkowki, 2003), skills (Samra-Fredericks, 2003; Rouleau, 2005) and
strategic tools (Stenfors et al., 2007; Detchessaar
and Journé, 2007).
We have chosen to focus on the strategic
tools used by arts organizations, specifically
on their strategic plans. These plans constitute objects of mediation between the different
stakeholders of an organization. Their devel –
opment requires that a consensus be reached
through the fabrication of agreements between
people having diverging interests (Denis, Langley and Rouleau, 2007). Moreover, the writing of the strategic plan in itself is an exercise in which
the choice of words can reveal a great deal about the political and organizational issues
within and around the organization (Chanal
and Tannery, 2005). The choice of words and the frequent use of certain terms also reflect the
values conveyed in the organization’s strategic
documents (Czarniawska-Joerges and Sevon, 2005). Finally, these texts are not “inactive”; rather, as Cooren (2004) points out, they are endowed with “textual agency” and therefore
offer a key to understanding the discursive prac –
tices that shape arts organizations.
Strategic plans must first be written and
then be appropriated (Abdallah, 2007). Chanal
and Tannery (2005) highlight the importance of strategic writing through an in-depth analy –
sis of the discursive practices of the CEO of the Lafarge Group in France. Their study illus –
trates the importance of using different forms of logic and rhetorical strategies in accordance with the organization’s different stakeholders. Among other things, they underscore the dif –
ficulty encountered by the CEO in choosing the right words to define the company’s strate –
gic positioning in a new sector. According to the authors, lexical choice and the writing tech –
niques used in texts make it possible to inte –
grate divergent or even contradictory logics rooted in different sectors. With regard to the appropriation of strategic documents, Detchessaar
and Journé (2007) show that the way in which
strategic management documents are written influences their appropriation within the orga –
nization. They postulate that the writing/reading
dialectic can take different forms provided that
a shared intertextuality is maintained between the different texts, which are in any case rarely interpreted in the same way by the different
actors.
Les organisations artistiques doivent composer avec de multiples tensions internes entre les valeurs artistiques et mana-
gériales. Leur maintien et leur survie dépendent d’accords entre ces deux systèmes de valeurs. Le plan stratégique d’une organisation artistique reflète les accords entre l’art et le management que celle-ci a réussi à établir. cet article propose
une analyse conventionnaliste des justifications à l’appui des orientations stratégiques contenues dans trois plans straté-giques de diffuseurs dans les arts de la scène. Les résultats de la recherche montrent que les justifications de type écono-mique, misant sur l’efficacité et la performance, sont prédominantes dans les trois plans étudiés. ces justifications servent à
susciter l’intérêt des parties prenantes. Toutefois, l’analyse révèle des procédés d’écriture permettant d’introduire subtilement dans le texte des justifications secondaires, dont certaines sont plus près des valeurs associées à l’art. En accentuant la nature polyphonique et équivoque des plans stratégiques, ces procédés d’écriture ont pour effet de séduire, de persuader et de confondre les parties prenantes.
Organisation artistique, pratique de la stratégie, plan stratégique, analyse conventionnaliste, parties prenantesrÉsU M É
M O T s cL És

INteRNatIoNal jou RNal of a RtS maNaGeme Nt
16Although very different, all these works are
based on the assumption that, in order to result
in a consensus or agreement, strategic tools
must embrace a certain ambiguity so as to
allow for multiple readings of the tools or plans (Czarniawska and Sevon, 2005; Pälli, Vaara and Sorsa, 2009). This principle is underscored in the work of Abdallah (2007), which examines the strategic plan of an artistic organization.
According to the author, the analysis con –
ducted reveals a certain number of dualities
(identity-related, axiological and strategic) that are nearly uniformly present in the text and
that emphasize its polyphony. She found that
although these elements facilitated the appro –
priation of the plan and built a consensus around it in the early stages, in the longer term
the dualities contained in the plan gave rise to
very different interpretations that ultimately resulted in organizational inertia. In spite of the longer-term difficulties, however, the author concludes that it is important to propose strategic plans that are built on organizational dualities,
failing which action is practically impossible.
There has not yet been a study focusing
specifically on the values conveyed by strategic
documents. This article proposes to explore in
greater detail the conclusions of the studies
conducted to date from a strategy-as-practice perspective, while attempting more specifically to understand how an agreement between artistic values and managerial values is reached
in arts organizations. We propose to do so by
conducting a detailed analysis of the orienta –
tions outlined in the strategic plans of three arts organizations specializing in the performing arts.
To do so, we will use a conventionalist frame –
work as presented in the following section.Conventionalist Analysis
The conventionalist analysis presented in this
section draws on the work of the French
sociologists Boltanski and Thévenot (2006), who propose a framework to explain the processes
by which individuals are able to cooperate despite holding conflicting values. By drawing
on the logics of action related to the production
of justified and legitimate arguments, the con-
ventionalist framework enhances our understand –
ing of the making of agreements between art
and management in arts organizations. Our analysis will focus on five key notions: conven-
tion, common worlds, justifications, controversial
situations and conventional solutions.
The notion of convention generally refers to
the idea of an agreement. Specifically, a conven –
tion makes the coexistence of competing values
possible by establishing an acceptable agreement
between divergent or conflicting positions (Denis, Langley and Rouleau, 2007). Hence a
convention is an artifact, an object that crystal –
lizes agreement between different values. A strategic plan can thus be defined as a conven –
tional object – that is, a sustainable agreement
between divergent values that is acceptable to
the extent that the different actors both within
and outside the organization consent to it and
deem it to be satisfactory.
In order to better understand how the agree –
ments found at the centre of strategic plans are
reached, one must explore the different values embedded in them. To do this, we will attempt
to identify the common values in these plans
based on Boltanski and Thévenot’s (2006)
framework for analyzing “common worlds.”
According to the conventionalist framework,
common worlds are institutionalized principles
Las organizaciones artísticas se articulan en torno a numerosas tensiones entre los valores artísticos y los gerenciales. Su
perennidad y supervivencia dependen de acuerdos establecidos entre ambas escalas de valores. El plan estratégico refleja los acuerdos entre el arte y la gestión que este tipo de organización ha logrado alcanzar. En este artículo se propone un análisis convencionalista de la argumentación sobre la cual se apoyan las orientaciones estratégicas contenidas en tres planes estraté –
gicos de difusores de las artes escénicas. Los resultados de la investigación muestran que en los planes estudiados predominan los argumentos de índole económica que apuntan hacia factores de eficacia y desempeño, argumentos que buscan suscitar el interés de las partes interesadas. El estudio revela, sin embargo, métodos de redacción que permiten introducir sutilmente en el texto argumentos secundarios entre los cuales se encuentran algunos más próximos a valores relacionados al arte. Estos métodos de escritura, al acentuar la naturaleza polifónica y ambigua de los planes estratégicos, seducen, persuaden y conectan con las partes interesadas.
Organización artística, praxis de la estrategia, planes estratégicos, análisis convencional, partes interesadas.rEsU M E N
P A L A B rAs cL A V E

Volume 12, N umBeR 3 • SPRING 2010
17that are recognized as socially legitimate and
referred to by individuals in evaluating the quality or worth of objects and people. In refer –
ence to these common worlds rooted in politi –
cal philosophies, Amblard et al. (1996) explain that they represent principles corresponding to “systems made of shared equivalencies, shared
worths ( grandeurs communes ), that provide indi –
viduals with reference points that will guide
their interactions” (translated from French; p. 78).
By identifying the regimes of justification used
by actors, we can better understand the origin
of the tensions and incompatibilities between actors as well as the sources of potential agree –
ments. Justifications provide the key to identi –
fying common worlds. It should be noted that the conventionalist framework makes it possi –
ble to identify the justifications referred to by actors as opposed to the actual motives of indi –
viduals. These justifications are socially legiti –
mate and it is the conflict between the different justifications put forward that is reconciled in conventions (Denis, Langley and Rouleau, 2007). Therefore our analysis will centre on the justi –
fications invoked in the texts presenting the organizations’ strategic orientations. In the stra –
tegic plans considered, the focus will be on
identifying the justifications on which the actors have agreed and linking them to the common values to which they refer based on the conven –
tionalist model.
Conventionalist analysis does not purport
to account for all types of action. Rather, it
seeks to shed light on the controversial situa –
tions through which individuals justify their points of view by invoking values associated
with common worlds that either they share or are divided by. These exchanges give rise to tensions, disagreements and in some cases even conflicts. The process of formulating a strategic plan within an arts organization requires inter –
action between several individuals, including the executive director, the artistic director and
members of the board. Though these individu –
als do not necessarily share the same point of
view, they must arrive at an agreement on the content and form of the final plan. The stra –
tegic plan makes it possible to negotiate the
organization’s strategic choices with external stakeholders who also defend specific values; in the case of arts organizations, these external
stakeholders include the different government
agencies that provide funding to these organi –
zations.
The justifications identified in the strategic
plans considered will be linked to the different common worlds proposed by conventionalist
analysis. In the case we are concerned with,
these common worlds, depending on their nature,
can be associated with one or another of the founding dimensions of the arts organization – either art or management. The seven com –
mon worlds, and their potential incarnation in
the arts organization, can be described as fol –
lows (see Appendix 1 for an overview of these worlds):
• The inspired world is one in which worth is
attributed to objects associated with creative
genius. Creation and inspiration are valued
over commercial considerations. In the arts
organization, this world refers to the primary
importance placed on the artistic project and the values associated with it, such as autonomy,
imagination, sensitivity and creativity.
• The domestic world is rooted in tradition,
family and lineage. One’s worth depends on
conformity with rules of honour as well as with
the hierarchy associated with lineage and fulfil –
ment of one’s duty to one’s peers or father. As Becker (1988) explains with reference to the
worlds of art, there are different spheres of art
and they are differentiated mainly by the dif –
ferent artistic disciplines. These spheres appear to be compartmentalized, with each being
governed by standards for how things are done
and how works are evaluated. The relationship
between peers is very important; the artist con –
forms with and is answerable to his or her peers as well as to the artistic community to which
he or she belongs. Recognition of artistic excel –
lence comes chiefly from peers.
• The opinion world is based on the recognition
of others or on the renown an individual can
earn by means of an action. For artists, recog –
nition of artistic excellence by their peers is a fundamental notion that constitutes one of
their greatest sources of satisfaction. Recogni –
tion also plays an important role for art critics and audiences who come into contact with the
activities of the artist or the arts organization
(Voss, Cable and Voss, 2000).
• The civic world is based on the collective good
and equality. The notions of equity, freedom,
solidarity and democracy are valued. Not-for-
profit arts organizations that depend largely on
public funding have civic obligations in terms
of education and the democratization of art
(Voss, Cable and Voss, 2000).
• The market world is associated with the pri –
macy of principles related to the laws of the

INteRNatIoNal jou RNal of a RtS maNaGeme Nt
18market. Connecting with customers, deploying
competitive advantages, offering the best price, making a profit – these are all imperatives asso –
ciated with this common world. In the Quebec
context, the stagnation of public funding has
placed enormous pressure on arts organizations and forced them to integrate market values to a greater extent in the deployment of their activi –
ties (Colbert et al., 2007).
• The industrial world values productivity and
competencies. Science and technology, as foun –
dations of efficiency, are central to this world.
In the case of arts organizations, these elements
are related to objectives such as access to resources – especially financial resources – that require close ties with public and private stake –
holders. In arts organizations, the pursuit of profit is replaced by the imperative to break even financially (Chiapello, 1998).
• The project-oriented world is based on the
notion of network, wherein the project is seen
as an opportunity to forge connections that
allow objects and subjects to exist. Worth is attributed to the capacity to develop activities, participate in projects and join networks
(Boltanski and Chiapello, 1999). The activities
of arts organizations are generally carried out on a project basis (Colbert et al., 2007), which requires different types of relationships depend –
ing on the project being developed.
The agreements between art and manage –
ment in arts organizations can be expected to emphasize the inspired world and the industrial world. However, the above examples reveal that
art and management can also be associated
with other worlds. The domestic and civic worlds, for example, are more readily associated with artistic values, while the market, opinion and project-oriented worlds are more closely related
to managerial values.
As stated at the beginning of this section, we
view the strategic plan as a conventional object that proposes a conventional solution. As
Amblard et al. (1996) point out, conventional solutions can take three forms: clarification within a world, local arrangement and com –
promise. Clarification within a world involves
rallying actors around a single position, a single common world. In the case of a local arrange –
ment, a temporary agreement is reached, with everyone holding fast to their position and its
attendant justifications but agreeing momen –
tarily or locally on a decision. Compromise pre –
supposes an agreement on values or principles that are shared by each of the actors. It repre –
sents a more lasting form of agreement based
on a hybrid of different common worlds.
To date, the few studies that have examined
strategic plans suggest that these plans should
reflect a conventional solution of the com –
promise type (Chanal and Tannery, 2005;
Abdallah, 2007). However, other types of con –
ventional solutions may also be relevant. It is also important to understand the linguistic
devices through which the values reflected in
the common worlds are conveyed and inte –
grated in the strategic plan. In this way, we can identify the discursive effects underlying these plans, thereby gaining a better understanding
of how the strategic plan can serve as a tool
of negotiation and compromise between the different stakeholders. The following section presents the context in which the strategic
plans examined were formulated and explains
the methodological approach used to identify and qualify the justifications invoked in these
plans.
Methodology
Strategic Plans
The aim of our study is to shed light on how
compromises between art and management are
articulated in the strategic plans of arts organi –
zations. In accordance with our exploratory
approach, the strategic plans examined consti –
tute a convenience sample (Contandriopoulos,
Bélanger and Nguyen, 1990). These three stra –
tegic plans are the result of a strategic planning
exercise carried out over the past two years by the leaders of the respective arts organizations.
Each organization also had access to the ser –
vices of an external consultant. For reasons of
confidentiality, the arts organizations are iden –
tified using fictional names. The necessary
authorization was obtained to conduct an anal –
ysis of the strategic plans.
The strategic plans were developed by three
Quebec-based not-for-profit performing arts organizations. These organizations are posi –
tioned at the end of the chain that connects the
creator to audiences. This chain is made up of various organizations whose functions range
from creation to production to presentation.
Two of these organizations – we will call them the Rendez-vous and the Festival – produce an international arts event in a performing arts

Volume 12, N umBeR 3 • SPRING 2010
19discipline. The third organization, the Diffu –
sion Centre, is a multidisciplinary organization
offering artistic productions in theatre, music and variety throughout the cultural season. Both
the Rendez-vous and the Diffusion Centre
have been in operation for 15 years. They have established strong roots in their respective milieus and are highly regarded by their peers.
The Festival is a younger organization, having
been created in the early 2000s.
These three organizations are small in size,
with three to 10 full-time employees. They
receive funding from various public agencies
at the three levels of government in Quebec: provincial, federal and municipal. Their main partners in the public sector pursue artistic and
social objectives, with an emphasis on artistic
excellence and democratization of the arts. The interests pursued by the three organizations’ other public partners and most of their private partners are more commercial or economic in
nature. Public bodies are facing a situation of
stagnation in the availability and allocation of public funds.
Both of the organizations that produce an
annual artistic event are facing difficulties, par –
ticularly in terms of their financial health. They are hoping to take advantage of the stra –
tegic planning process to find solutions that
will allow them to revitalize their organizations
and ensure their growth and long-term survival. The Diffusion Centre’s financial situation is somewhat less serious. Consequently, in this case the planning process is seen more as an
opportunity to reflect on whether the organiza –
tion should do more than it is already doing or
whether it should do it better.
All three organizations received dedicated
public funds to partially support the strategic
planning exercise. Each plan was presented to
and validated by the organization’s board at different stages of the planning process. Although some of the board members of the three orga –
nizations come from the arts community, most are active in the business sector. The main con –
cerns of the board members of all three organi –
zations are to fulfil the organization’s mission while minimizing financial risk and balancing the budget.
The three strategic plans have a similar struc –
ture. They begin by summarizing the current
context and the objectives pursued through the strategic planning process. This is followed by the presentation of the mission statement, the strategic orientations chosen and, finally, the presentation of the implementation plan based on these orientations.
Identification and Description of Justifications
Conventionalist analysis focuses mainly on the justifications invoked in a controversial situa –
tion. In the case of a strategic plan, we consider
that the section presenting the organization’s
strategic orientations constitutes a controversial situation because it contains the most crucial component of the plan: the strategic choices that have been made. It is this section that is
subject to the most debate once the content of
the plan has been prepared by management and the consultant and communicated to the
members of the arts organization and its external
stakeholders. Accordingly, our analysis focuses exclusively on this portion of the strategic plan.
This section contains a statement of each of the
organization’s orientations along with a brief text justifying the statement. The number of strategic orientations varies from one organiza –
tion to the next: There are four orientations in the plan of the Diffusion Centre, five for the Rendez-vous and seven for the Festival.
The justifications used to support these 16
strategic orientations were subjected to two
levels of analysis. We first undertook to iden –
tify the conventional solutions characterizing
these strategic plans. We then examined the linguistic devices underlying these orientations
in order to understand how the agreement
between art and management is integrated and reflected in these strategic plans.
In the first level of analysis, we identified the
common worlds associated with the statements of the orientations chosen by each organiza –
tion. To do this, we needed a more precise unit
of analysis. We thus chose a unit of meaning
that was sufficiently small and narrow to allow a systematic and detailed analysis of the justi –
fications while containing sufficient elements
to identify the worlds underlying this unit of
meaning. The sentence was thus selected as the
unit of meaning to be used. Each sentence has at least one main corresponding justification. The 16 orientations studied comprise 151 sen –
tences that express justifications (Table 1). A sentence generally refers to a main justification but in some cases it may be accompanied by a
secondary justification. Hence some sentences
include more than one justification at the same level. For each of the 151 sentences, we identified

INteRNatIoNal jou RNal of a RtS maNaGeme Nt
20the common worlds, or common values, pres –
ent based on the table of common worlds
(Appendix 1). Each sentence was analyzed; that is, based on the words or expressions used in each sentence, the justification(s) were deter –
mined and associated with the 13 categories of
hierarchical criteria characterizing each of the
seven common worlds that make up the ana –
lytical grid. These criteria, which include higher common principles, subjects, objects and forms of evidence, are all indicators that make it pos –
sible to recognize the corresponding common worlds and determine the meaning of the justi –
fication from a conventionalist perspective.
The results of this analysis were weighed
against those of an external researcher for pur –
poses of comparison and validation. Based on the same method used by the principal researchers, the task of the external researcher was to break down each of the 151 sentences according to common worlds using the same grid of hierarchical criteria. However, for approximately one third of the sentences, the researchers agreed that a second level of inter –
pretation was possible. Indeed, the researchers determined that some of the sentences studied
referred to more than one justification or that
more than one common world could be associ –
ated with a justification due to the fact that the choice of words or expressions left some room for interpretation in terms of classification in the common worlds. For this first level of anal -ysis, we agreed to reach a consensus in order to identify a main justification associated with a common world for each sentence.
This process led us to perform a second level
of analysis in which we examined each of the
sentences more closely in order to determine
the linguistic devices used to present the jus –
tifications that made identifying a common world more or less difficult (Table 2). Three linguistic devices were identified as playing an important role in the wording of these justifi –
cations. First of all, a number of sentences contained more than one justification; in most cases there were two – a main justification and a secondary justification – referring to different, apparently contrasting worlds. A case in point
is the following excerpt from the Festival’s stra –
tegic plan: “The aim of this increase in supply is
thus to expand and diversify the Festival’s pro –
gram (main justification rooted in the market
world), while preserving the Festival’s artistic
specificity and avant-gardism (secondary justifi –
cation rooted in the artistic world).”
By using juxtaposition, the same sentence
combines justifications that refer to different
common worlds. These justifications are pre –
sented as being simultaneously possible or desir –
able. Secondly, other sentences were found to
contain arguments marked by a rhetoric of cer –
tainty, making the proposed justifications
appear indisputable. According to Young (2003),
RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS OF JUSTIFICATIONS INVOKED IN THE STRATEGIC
ORIENTATIONS OF THE PLANS STUDIED BASED ON THE GRID OF COMMON WORLDS
By orientation By sentence
Common
worlds RV Festival Centre Total RV Festival Centre Total
Inspired 1 4 5
Domestic 2 9 2 13
Opinion 1 2 1 4 12 8 20
civic 6 4 4 14
Market 1 2 3 10 10 1 21
Industrial 3 3 3 9 17 25 23 65
Project-oriented 8 4 1 13
Total 5 7 4 16 56 64 31 151TA B L E 1

Volume 12, N umBeR 3 • SPRING 2010
21rhetoric is a means or resource used in texts to
create agreement among people and to per –
suade them of the truth of the position being presented. Thirdly, in some cases a justification was seen as having different meanings, depend –
ing, for example, on the manner in which it is
interpreted by the reader. In these cases, the
justifications are underpinned by a literary device that is popular in fiction: ambiguity. Giroux (2006) refers to the “pragmatic ambi –
guity” present in management texts and argues that it is used to facilitate a collective process of mobilizing ( intéressement ) several actors around
a given idea or knowledge project.
In identifying the worlds associated with the
different justifications proposed and analyzing
the linguistic devices underlying these justifi –
cations, our goal was to understand how the
compromise between art and management is articulated within the strategic plans of the organizations studied. In the next section, the results presented in Tables 1 and 2 are analyzed to identify the conventional solutions and dis –
cursive effects on which these strategic plans are based.
Results
To shed light on how the agreement between art and management is integrated and
articulated in the strategic plans, we analyzed the strategic orientations of the plans considered, with a view to identifying the conventional solutions that emerge from these strategic plans.
This section presents these solutions and pro-
vides examples drawn from our analyses in order to demonstrate how agreements between art and management are embedded in these plans. Moreover, it highlights the discursive effects that these conventional solutions can have on the texts’ target readers – in this case the stakeholders of the organizations. The term “discursive effects” refers here to the power of words in the Foucauldian sense of discursive practices (Foucault, 1966) or what Cooren (2004)
calls textual agency.
As our analysis shows, these plans are con –
structed on a conventional solution of clarifi –
cation in the industrial world, leading us to
conclude that managerial values are predomi –
nant in the plans under consideration. How –
ever, underlying this dominant conventional
solution are several additional micro-solutions disseminated throughout the text and generated using different linguistic devices. In addition to attracting the general interest of stakehold –
ers, these conventional solutions have the effect of seducing, persuading and mystifying them. Figure 1 provides an overview of the results outlined below.
The Industrial World as a Dominant
Conventional Solution
To identify the common worlds, we focused on
the justifications contained in the strategic ori –
entations. Our analysis of the 151 sentences conveying the strategic orientations reveals that each of the plans invokes justifications that draw on all seven common worlds (Table 1) but
that certain worlds figure much more promi –
nently than others. Indeed, an examination of
the strategic orientation statements reveals a strong tendency to favour certain dominant values. As shown in Table 1, the 16 orientation statements studied all refer to common worlds that can be associated with managerial values; nine of the 16 orientations draw on the indus –
trial world, four refer to the opinion world and three to the market world.
Though we expected to find strong evidence
of the duality on which arts organizations are built – between artistic and social values on the one hand and the imperatives of efficiency and performance on the other (Abdallah, 2007) –
the case was very different. The inspired, domes –
tic and civic worlds with which artistic and
social values are more closely associated were invoked much less than the worlds associated with management dimensions, namely the indus –
trial, market and opinion worlds. Justifications
referring to the industrial world are by far the most numerous (65), with a virtual tie for sec –
ond place between justifications derived from the market world (21) and those stemming RESULTS OF THE LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS OF THE JUSTIFICATIONS
Number of devices
Linguistic devices RV Festival Centre Total
Juxtaposition 22 21 8 51
rhetoric of certainty 13 8 0 21
Ambiguity 8 16 3 27
Total 43 45 11 99TA B L E 2

INteRNatIoNal jou RNal of a RtS maNaGeme Nt
22from the opinion world (20). They are followed
by a group of justifications associated with three types of worlds: civic (14), domestic (13) and
project-oriented (13). There were very few justi –
fications associated with the inspired world (5).
The following word groups represent a sam –
pling of the justifications associated with the
industrial world that were identified in the plans
at the centre of our study: “growth and signifi –
cant development,” “achieve a level of balance,”
“return to cruising speed,” “sufficient resources,” “obtain an adequate level of funding,” “optimi –
zation of the different sources of operating
income,” “react in a more structured manner”
and “ensure adequate venues.” In addition, the following sentences are examples of strategic orientations that reveal a predominantly indus –
trial justification: “It is thus important to not only
preserve but also to consolidate this foundation
and to expand on this formula by integrating new elements and exploring new avenues”; “The Festival program as a trajectory is a proven for –
mula”; “While still relevant, this formula does not ensure growth in attendance, as occupancy rates for the most part already exceed 90%.”
Thus, the conventional solution that facili –
tates the coexistence of art and management in the plans studied is one of clarification in a world, since the dominant logic found in the plans is rooted in the industrial world. The overall coherence of the message is thus ensured
by emphasizing common managerial values
based for the most part on a discourse of profit -ability and economic rationality. And yet when one looks at the mission statements of these arts organizations, the emphasis seems to be on
their artistic and social vocation. How does one
explain these results?
At first glance, these results are not surpris –
ing considering that management produces the strategic plan as a tool that mainly targets the
organization’s managers and board members as
well as its financial partners. Since artists tend to be somewhat distrustful of these partners and sceptical of their ability to truly under –
stand art and its goals (Chiapello, 1998), it
could be that justifications emphasizing aspects
related to artistic values are avoided out of a concern for protecting artistic autonomy and freedom. Moreover, the fact that the organiza –
tions studied are all performing arts presenters
implies a less direct link with the creative pro –
cess itself; the organizations do not have to make
choices related to artistic creation, but rather artistic choices related to shows that have
already been created. This nuance can also have
an effect on the nature of the justifications used, particularly in terms of the less significant pres –
ence of justifications rooted in the inspired world.
In a society dominated by capitalistic values,
one would expect that to obtain the support of the greatest number one must necessarily choose arguments that are capable of mobiliz –
ing as many people as possible. The economic
language associated with the industrial world is
better equipped to persuade stakeholders such AGREEMENT BETWEEN ART AND MANAGEMENT IN THE STRATEGIC PLANS STUDIEDF I G U rE 1
SEDUCE PERSU ADE MYSTIFYFirst level of analysis:
type of agreement/
discursive effec t
Second level of analysis:
type of agreement/ discursive effectsCLARIFICA TION IN A WORLD
ATTRACT THE INTEREST OF ST AKEHOLDERS
Micro-compromise
between diff erent
common worlds
based on juxtapositionMicr o-compromise
reinf orcing the
industrial model based on a rhetoric of cer taintyMicro-compromise
between diff erent
common worlds based on ambiguit y

Volume 12, N umBeR 3 • SPRING 2010
23as administrators and funding agencies that
have a limited risk tolerance. It is also common knowledge that, in a context of stagnating pub –
lic funding of the arts, granting agencies tend
to emphasize the capacity of organizations to
generate own-source revenues, to reach out to a broader audience and to break even financially. In this regard, it should be recalled that two of the organizations studied are experiencing
financial problems and need to win the support
of administrators and funding agencies if they are to survive.
It can also be argued that management and
its tools – in this case, the strategic plan – are
essential to the fulfilment of the organization’s
artistic and social mission. Given this context, art espouses the dominant social discourse.
Hiring a consultant to assist with the strategic
planning process has the effect of reinforcing this ideological process of disseminating repre –
sentations associated with management across
all areas of social and organizational life. This
observation tends to confirm Chiapello’s (1998) theory regarding the increasingly strong inter –
dependence of managers and artists, particularly the tendency of the former to occupy more and more space compared to the latter. On the other hand, this observation contradicts Abdallah
(2007) in that the plans we studied are not
necessarily structured according to the type of axiological duality between arts and manage –
ment that she proposes.
Micro-compromises Disseminated
Throughout the Text
Underlying the conventional solution of clarifi –
cation in the industrial world which dominates
in the strategic plans studied are more subtle
linguistic devices that bring to the fore several
conventional micro-solutions dispersed through –
out the text. Indeed, the second level of analysis
described in the methodology section reveals that this dominant solution is supported by three linguistic devices that give rise to solu –
tions in the form of micro-compromises: (1) by
juxtaposing justifications associated with dif –
ferent common worlds within a sentence, micro-
compromises are created between the different
worlds; (2) by employing a rhetoric of certainty,
the values associated with the industrial world are reinforced; and (3) by using ambiguous for –
mulations and terms that leave room for inter –
pretation in different worlds, the text promotes micro-compromises between different worlds (Figure 1). Appendix 2 summarizes the results
of the analysis of the linguistic devices identi –
fied in the plans studied.
Juxtaposition and micro-compromises
between different worlds
In analyzing the 151 sentences, we thus found
that several of them conceal another form of
conventional solution: the micro-compromise.
In fact, it is in these micro-compromises that
the artistic and social dimensions that are seemingly absent from the plans can be seen to
emerge. For example, the micro-compromises
referring to the inspired world indicate a con –
cern for preserving the artistic dimension, as
illustrated in the following examples: “The
optimization of operating income . . . will be pursued in a manner that respects the mission,
guidelines and artistic policy”; “. . . to expand and
diversify the Festival’s program while preserving
its artistic specificity and avant-gardism.” Thus,
the plans express a desire to improve perfor –
mance, but not at the expense of compromising the artistic and social mission of the organiza –
tion. This type of micro-compromise can be observed in all three of the plans studied.
The juxtaposition of main and secondary jus –
tifications accentuates the polyphonic nature of
the text and produces a seductive effect on
stakeholders. Indeed, some of the stakeholders
have well-established priorities to which the strategic plans refer more or less directly. For
example, certain funding agencies take a posi –
tive view of efforts to work in partnership, to
establish forms of collaboration and to share resources. Accordingly, through the justifications
invoked in the Rendez-vous’s plan, for instance, the text indicates that the managers are in favour
of developing partnerships but that additional human and financial resources are necessary.
Elsewhere, one finds passages specifying that priority will be given to working in partnership
provided that doing so makes it possible to optimize a particular function.
Increasing audience reach is also a topic of
interest for certain stakeholders. Thus some of the justifications invoked emphasize objectives
related to audience growth, while at the same
time protecting themselves. For example, the Festival’s plan includes the following state –
ment: “based on the development of supply and
optimal conditions, an objective of x admis –
sions has been established.” Whereas the undif –
ferentiated term “audience” is predominantly
used in the arts world, all of the plans studied

INteRNatIoNal jou RNal of a RtS maNaGeme Nt
24specify the type of audience targeted by the
organization, whether it be professionals, the
general public, the uninitiated or tourists. It may
well be that the aim behind the use of these more specific terms is to appeal to the different
parties targeted by the plans.
Civic contributions can also be found at the
core of the micro-compromises identified. For
example, in the Rendez-vous plan, one finds
this sentence: “Presenting this type of show at other times of the year allows us to expand the current supply, thereby helping to establish the city as a mandatory stop on the arts presenta –
tion circuit.” In the case of the Festival, the plan includes the following (in reference to a
structural choice): “These are perfect vehicles
for promoting both Canadian artists and the event as well as for enhancing the city’s repu –
tation and visibility abroad.” These forms of
juxtaposition of common worlds leading to the establishment of micro-compromises between these worlds are abundant in the plans studied. In conventionalist terms, these tactics allow the
organizations to assert their choices and specific
needs by putting forth widely recognized and legitimized common values that appeal to their stakeholders. Thus, while recognizing economic
rationality as a dominant value, the strategic
plans seek to protect the artistic raison d’être
of their organization through these micro-compromises.
The rhetoric of certainty and reinforcement of
the values associated with the industrial world
Another linguistic device frequently found in
the strategic orientations of the plans studied
are justifications that are similar to “arguments from authority” or arguments whose authority cannot be easily disputed. For example, it is not
rare to see word groups employing figures asso –
ciated with expertise and professional authority,
as in the following: “analyses and consultations confirm,” “in keeping with current standards,”
“must remain on the leading edge of devel –
opments in this field” and “a committee of
experts.” There are also many occurrences of
near absolute qualifiers and even superlatives:
for example, mandatory, deciding, significant,
essential, judicious, recognized and so forth. One also finds superlative formulas suggesting exceptional performance: “top international event of the summer,” “the driving force behind the
city’s artistic and cultural vitality,” “the leading
player in the field of presentation of interna –
tional shows” and so on.Past successful achievements as well as remark –
able performances also figure among the cer –
tainties employed in the plans: “high occupancy
rate,” “proven formula,” “occupancy rates already in excess of 90%,” “attracting a high propor –
tion of tourists,” “subscribers currently account for over 40% of the current audience.” Finally, among the justifications resting on certainties, we also find allusions to the organization’s per –
formance and effectiveness, particularly with regard to the clear benefits for the community:
“a significant social structure that is meaning –
ful for the community at large,” “its contribu –
tion to the development of the field and the
positioning of the city,” “a factor in the city’s artistic vitality and uniqueness,” “to boost the city’s reputation and visibility abroad,” “to allow audiences in the city to enjoy programs featur –
ing international works that would not otherwise be presented here.” In some cases, the text points out that failure to support certain choices will
have the effect of depriving the community of
certain benefits.
The rhetoric of certainty underpinning the
orientations of the strategic plans serves to rein –
force values associated with the industrial world, as attested by the following examples: “While still relevant, this formula cannot ensure
an increase in audience attendance, with occu –
pancy rates at venues for the most part already
exceeding 90%”; “Consultations with cultural actors confirmed the relevance of organizing a world-class event.”
The use of the rhetoric of certainty in the
text thus has a persuasive effect on stakehold –
ers. As suggested by Chanal and Tannery (2005), by reinforcing the organization’s credibility, this rhetoric of certainty can be said to have the effect of convincing the different stakeholders of the validity of the strategic orientations pro –
posed. It is interesting to note in this regard that this linguistic device is mainly used by the two organizations whose financial standing is
more precarious (Table 2). There is no doubt
that both of these organizations have a greater
interest in persuading their stakeholders to sup –
port their strategic orientations; hence their use
of this rhetoric of certainty based on a strategy of appearances aimed at projecting a positive image of the organization (Abdallah, 2007). Relatively speaking, the Rendez-vous makes
more frequent use of this linguistic device. Of
course, the fact that it is older than the Festival
offers the Rendez-vous more possibilities to base
justifications on indisputable elements related
to its history and roots in the arts community.

Volume 12, N umBeR 3 • SPRING 2010
25Ambiguity as a source of micro-compromises
between different worlds
An analysis of the strategic orientations also
reveals the use of vague formulations or ambig –
uous wording that can lead the justifications to
be associated with different common worlds,
depending on the point of view. For example, formulations such as “increase the participation
of the public” or “develop audiences” could be
interpreted in quantitative terms by people more
closely associated with the market world; in this case, the aim would be seen as reaching
more people, which could translate into higher
operating income. People whose values lie in
the civic world, on the other hand, may inter –
pret these expressions more in terms of inten –
tion to promote awareness and discovery. In
this case, a broadening of the audiences reached
by the organization is sought, with a view to
the democratization of the arts. To cite a further
example, the phrase “differentiate the event,”
seen from a market world perspective, signifies
an increase in value or desirability. In the opin –
ion world, its meaning would be associated more
with the idea of enhancing the organization’s
reputation or renown. And, finally, in the inspired
world it is more the uniqueness of the event
that is understood. Thus, the ambiguity of the
phrase leaves room for several interpretations,
with all stakeholders getting something out of
it. In addition to these ambiguous formula –
tions, we noted several words that have more than one meaning depending on the common
world with which they are associated. Exam –
ples of words open to different interpretations include develop, development, evolve, quality,
benefit, reinforcement, progression and affir –
mation.
By playing on the ambiguity of certain words
and expressions, the text makes it possible to reconcile the positions of the different stake –
holders through the establishment of micro-compromises (Pälli, Vaara and Sorsa, 2009). As
with the rhetoric of certainty, a higher occur –
rence of ambiguous terms and expressions was
found in the plans of the two organizations
that are struggling financially (Table 2). By cul –
tivating a certain ambiguity, the strategy text
creates an effect of uncertainty among stake –
holders. As a linguistic device, ambiguity tends
to mystify the stakeholders targeted by the stra –
tegic plan by making it possible for them to agree on references that they share in appear –
ance only. In keeping with Eisenberg (1984), it can also be said that the use of ambiguity in stra –
tegic plans creates zones of uncertainty that give the organization’s managers room to manoeu –
vre while at the same time fostering greater
unity among stakeholders in order to elicit a positive reaction to the strategic orientations proposed.
Discussion and Conclusion
Our analysis of the three strategic plans reveals a number of discursive effects generated
by these orientation and communication tools
for the purpose of persuading and rallying the
organizations’ principal stakeholders, namely
senior managers, board members and public
funding agencies. As Chanal and T annery (2005) note, “The communication deployed must be adapted to the expectations and modes of rea-
soning of each stakeholder, while at the same
time ensuring the overall coherence of the mes-sages conveyed” (translated from French; p. 166). The strategic plans studied attract the interest of stakeholders by invoking common values – in this case those of the industrial world. Artistic and social values also make an appearance, but
in a more subtle form of micro-compromise
created using linguistic devices whose effect is to seduce, persuade and mystify the different stakeholders. To the extent that these micro-compromises are built on different common worlds, they act as a counterweight to the dom-inant conventional solution.
Agreement between art and management is
made possible by the articulation within the strategic plans of different forms of justification
that create a polyphonic text. Surprisingly, and
in contrast to the findings of Abdallah (2007), we found that art occupies a limited place in the justifications invoked in the strategic orien –
tations of the plans studied. The agreement reached between art and management is thus
not structured on the basis of a duality, as
Abdallah (2007) suggests. Rather, it is mainly
structured around economic justifications asso –
ciated with management, as is typically the
case with strategic plans in private companies.
In our view, the predominance of the conven –
tional solution of clarification in the industrial
world in the plans under consideration reveals
a desire to ensure the protection and survival of
the arts organization.
Pursuing this reasoning, it can even be said
that the dominant values in the strategic plans
studied do not fully reflect the values of the senior managers of the arts organizations concerned.

INteRNatIoNal jou RNal of a RtS maNaGeme Nt
26By conveying values associated with the man –
agement and market world, the primary goal of
these managers is to galvanize the interest of
stakeholders in the strategic orientations pro –
posed because the survival and sustainability of their organization depend on it. Moreover, the
fact that these plans employ linguistic devices that make it possible to incorporate references
to artistic values in the text is not insignificant.
Indeed, the linguistic devices underlying the intentional communication strategy of these
organizations allow their managers to protect
artistic values in a pragmatic manner (Giroux,
2006) while at the same time using managerial
discourse.
Moreover, it appears that the more precari –
ous the organization’s financial situation, the
more the strategic plans are based on linguistic
devices allowing for the inclusion of values
capable of mobilizing the greatest number of stakeholders. It would be interesting to verify this conclusion using a larger sample of strate –
gic plans produced by arts organizations. How –
ever, it remains that the much more obvious
use of linguistic devices in the plans of the two
organizations that are struggling financially reinforces the argument that the writing of these plans constitutes a strategic practice.
Our results make several significant contri –
butions to the strategy-as-practice perspective. At the theoretical level, they contribute to the research on the subject, notably that of Chanal and Tannery (2005) and Abdallah (2007), by
shedding light on how the justifications invoked in strategic plans are modulated in such a way as to mobilize certain stakeholders while per –
suading others. In addition, little exploration has been done on the issue of values in strategic
plans from a strategy-as-practice perspective.
As we have demonstrated in this article, the strategic plan can be seen as a tool of compro –
mise between artistic and managerial values.
These compromises are revealed through the
micro-lens of an analysis of values that shows
the subtleties of producing strategic plans in arts
organizations and the multiple readings that can be made of them (Jarzabkowski and Spee, 2009). Therefore this study opens the way for
similar studies in other arts organizations while
revealing the conventional nature of the strate –
gic plans produced by them (Pälli, Vaara and Sorsa, 2009).
By focusing on the strategic plan as a con –
ventional object, this study contributes to research
on strategy as practice, particularly with regard
to texts and documents (Stenfors et al., 2007; Detchessaar and Journé, 2007; Jarzabkowski
and Spee, 2009). Moreover, at the methodolog –
ical level this article proposes a systematic and rigorous approach to the analysis of strategic texts based on the model of common worlds
developed by Boltanski and Thévenot (2006).
Our findings illustrate the impact of this model and its contribution to the advancement of knowledge on strategic documents and strategic discourse.
This study also contributes to work on the
practice of managers of artistic organizations.
For them, being aware of the fact that actors in
controversial situations will position themselves
within different value systems can improve their understanding of the strategic issues they have to regularly deal with. Such knowledge may reinforce their ability to reconcile what may appear to be ideologically irreconcilable
positions. When formulating their organiza –
tion’s strategic plan, arts managers have the choice of words or expressions to put in their
text. In this regard, the research clearly shows that managers have room to manoeuvre in seeking to ensure stakeholder buy-in for the strategic choices selected. Polyphony and ambi –
guity can be particularly useful linguistic devices in the case of arts organizations, in that they
allow them to promote their social and artistic
dimensions while at the same time asserting managerial values capable of attracting the broader interest of stakeholders.
While not without limitations, this explor –
atory approach, which confines its focus to the analysis of strategic plans, nonetheless opens
up several avenues of research. For example,
this type of analysis could be enhanced by soliciting the vision of the stakeholders involved in the strategic planning process in order to iden –
tify and analyze the individual logics mobilized
with regard to the dissemination and reading of the strategic plan. Other interesting paths of inquiry could include a study of the discursive
logics that come into play during the produc –
tion of strategic plans and of the level of appro –
priation of such plans as well as their effects on
the organization’s future courses of action. In addition, it would be interesting to further explore the effects generated by the use of indisputable or ambiguous formulations and terms by seek –
ing the perspective of the individuals at their
origin. It would also be interesting to shed fur –
ther light on how the context and situations in
which arts organizations typically operate influ –
ence the choice of words used to justify the
strategic orientations they propose to pursue.

Volume 12, N umBeR 3 • SPRING 2010
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Volume 12, N umBeR 3 • SPRING 2010
29COMMON WORLDS
Inspiration Domestic Opinion Civic Market Industrial Project-oriented
Higher
common
principleEscapes
measurement,
springs from
inspirationPersonal relations,
hierarchy,
traditionOpinion of othersPre-eminence of collectivitiescompetition science and
technology,
efficiency,
performanceThe activity, projects,
proliferation of
connections
State of grandeurspontaneous,
unusual,
beyond
reasonBenevolent, astuterenowned,
recognizedrepresentative,
officialDesirable, valueViable, functionalFlexible, committed,
autonomous,
involved
Dignity Love, passion,
creationEase, common
senseDesire for
consider –
ationLiberty Interest Work Need to connect
List of subjectschildren,
artistssuperiors,
inferiors,
lineagestars collectivities competitors,
customers…Professionals Mediator, coach,
expert, boss,
innovator
List of
objectsspirit, body . . . Precedence, giftsNames, brands,
messagesLegal forms Wealth Means Technologies,
agreements,
linkage, synapses
Investment
formula risk Duty Give up secretsrenounce
private
interests, solidarityOpportunism Investment,
progressAdaptability, lightness,
tolerance
Relations of
grandeur Uniqueness subordina –
tion, honourIdentifica –
tionAdherence, delegationPossession Mastery Putting in contact, redistribution of
information
Natural relations Dream, imagineEducation, reproducePersuasion Mobilizing for collective
action Business
relations,
interestOperate connect,
communicate, adjust, trust
Harmonious figure Imagination Family, communityAudience republic Market system Network
Model test Inner
adventureFamily ceremonyPresentation of the eventManifestation for a just causeTransaction, dealTest The end of one project and the start of another
Mode of
expression
of judgement stroke of
geniusAppreciation Judgement
of opinionVerdict of the votePrice Effective, correctInsert, incite participation,
avoid, distance
Form of evidencecertainty of
intuitionExample success,
being
famousLegislation Money,
profitMeasurement
State of smallnessroutine shameless, vulgarOrdinary, unknownDivided, isolatedLoser Inefficient Unadaptable, local, immobile,
questionable
Source: Amblard et al. (1996); Mailhot (2004)A P P E N D I X 1

INteRNatIoNal jou RNal of a RtS maNaGeme Nt
30OVERVIEW OF RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS OF LINGUISTIC DEVICES
Linguistic
deviceConventional
solution Goal TacticsExamples (excerpts
from the plans
studied)Desired
outcome
Juxtaposition:
a bringing together of justifications associated with different common worldsMicro-compromiseseduce stake –
holders while protecting the organization’s artistic raison d’être.Integrate artistic and social dimensions in economic justifications.“The optimization of operating income . . . will be pursued in a manner that respects the mission, guidelines and artistic policy . . .”Minimize the risk of distorting the organization’s artistic and social mission.
Play on the sensitivities of stakeholders.“ . . . perfect vehicles for promoting both canadian artists and
the event as well as for enhancing the city’s reputation and visibility abroad.”rally stakeholders
by demonstrating that the strategic choices are aligned with the objectives pursued by these parties.
Certainty: justification, to the extent that it imposes itself on the mind, fosters convergence around a mainly industrial worldMicro-reinforcement of the dominant conventional solutionPersuade stakeholders by presenting recognized or undisputable arguments.Invoke experts or prominent figures.“analyses and consul-tations confirm,” “in keeping with current standards, ” “a commit –
tee of experts”reinforce the
value of the arguments presented.
Highlight achievements.“occupancy rates already in excess of 90%,” “subscribers currently account for over xx% of its current audience”Increase the credibility of the organization in the eyes of stakeholders.
Emphasize the benefits of the strategic choices for the community.“ . . . to allow audiences in the city to enjoy programs featuring international works that would not otherwise be presented here.”Increase and broaden the perceived interest of the strategic choices.
Ambiguity: justification that, by virtue of its ambivalent nature, it can be associated with more than one common world Micro-compromiseconfuse stake –
holders by employing ambiguous arguments that open the door to different inter –
pretations.Employ ambiguous formulations or terms. “develop audiences,” “differentiate the event”; evolve, quality, benefit, reinforcement, progression and affirmationrally stakeholders
with differing interests around a single idea while leaving room for the organization to manoeuvre.
A P P E N D I X 2
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