Școala: LICEUL ATANASIE MARIENESCU, [310132]
[anonimizat] – ȘTIINȚIFICĂ
PENTRU OBȚINEREA GRADULUI
DIDACTIC I ÎN ÎNVĂȚĂMÂNT
COORDONATOR ȘTIINȚIFIC:
Conf. univ. dr. VANDA CRISTINA STAN
CANDIDAT: [anonimizat]: CARMEN-MIRELA BUTACIU
Școala: LICEUL “ATANASIE MARIENESCU”,
LIPOVA, JUD. ARAD
ARAD
2017
[anonimizat]:
Conf. univ. dr. VANDA CRISTINA STAN
CANDIDAT: [anonimizat]: CARMEN-MIRELA BUTACIU
Școala: LICEUL “ATANASIE MARIENESCU”,
LIPOVA, JUD. ARAD
Arad
2017
[anonimizat].
— MADELEINE L’ENGLE
I’ve always thought best when I wrote.
— TONI MORRISON
It’s a matter of piling a little piece here and a [anonimizat], [anonimizat].
— DAVE BARRY
I write to find out what I’m thinking. I write to find out who I am. I write to understand things.
— JULIA ALVAREZ
Writing is the act of saying I, [anonimizat], [anonimizat].
— JOAN DIDION
Sitting around waiting for inspiration is for amateurs.
— TOM ROBBINS
The beautiful part of writing is that you don’t have to get it right the first time—unlike, say, brain surgery.
— ROBERT CORMIER
If you want to be a writer, you must do two things above all others: read a lot and write a lot.
— STEPHEN KING
Writing is a political instrument.
— [anonimizat], [anonimizat], and relearn.
— ALVIN TOFFLER
1.A. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I started working on the paper when I was spending my sabbatical at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE), [anonimizat] 2015. I [anonimizat], for granting me sabbatical leave during the second semester of 2014–2015 so that I could work on the book project. I am grateful to Professor Alister Cumming for hosting me as a visiting professor at OISE and for allowing me to use his office. I [anonimizat], during which time I was able to work on my writing without any disruption. I [anonimizat], keeping me company most of the time when I was working in front of the computer. I wish to thank all the teachers with whom I [anonimizat]. [anonimizat]-[anonimizat]. I [anonimizat] (all former doctoral students from the Chinese University of Hong Kong: [anonimizat], and Eric Yuan). Their insights have played a significant role in sharpening my ideas for the book. On a personal level, I’d [anonimizat], and my sons, Tony and Gareth Chan, who have constantly made me believe that I can balance my multiple roles as a wife, a mother, and a university teacher-researcher. I dedicate this book to my deceased father, who could not read English but instilled in me a great passion for English, and to my Heavenly Father, the source of inspiration for this book.
1.B. TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.A. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS____________________________________________p2
1.B. TABLE OF CONTENTS ___________________________________________p3-12
1.C. INTRODUCTION __________________________________________________p12
1.D. LEARNING TO WRITE_____________________________________________p13
1.1 Guiding Concepts in EFL/ ESL Writing Teaching_____________________________p13
1.2 Focus on Structure of a Text ______________________________________________p14
1.3 Focus on Text Functions __________________________________________________p14
1.4 Focus on Creative Expression ______________________________________________p15
1.5 Focus on the Writing Process______________________________________________p16
1.6 Summary of the Principal Orientations to ESL/ EFL Writing Teaching___________p17
1.7 Syllabus Design and Lesson Planning _______________________________________p17
1.8 Texts and Materials in the Writing Class ____________________________________p17
1.9 Tasks in ESL/ EFL Writing Class __________________________________________p18
1.10 Responding to Student Writing ___________________________________________p18
Assessing the Student Writing _____________________________________________p19
2.WRITING IS COMMUNICATING _____________________________________p20
2.1.2 Freewriting ____________________________________________________________p21
2.1.3 Listing ________________________________________________________________p21
2.1.4 Wh- Questions _________________________________________________________p21
2.1.5 Clusters or Branches ____________________________________________________p22
2.1.6 Looping _______________________________________________________________p22
2.1.7 Cubing _______________________________________________________________p22
2.1.8 An outline _____________________________________________________________p23
2.1.9 Discussion _____________________________________________________________p23
2.2 Concept of Audience ______________________________________________________p23
Types of Purposes for Writing ______________________________________________p24
2.4 Self-Analysis (Pre-Draft) __________________________________________________p24
2.5 Formal Features of a Paper _____________________________________________p25
2.5.1 Indentation____________________________________________________________p25
Margins_____________________________________________________________p26
2.5.3 Paging _______________________________________________________________p26
2.6 Self-Analysis (Post-Draft) _________________________________________________p26
3. THESES AND TOPIC SENTENCES ____________________________________p27
3.1 Making Main Ideas and Text Fit ___________________________________________p27
3.2 Invention for Writing Assignment: Using Personal Experience, Using Objective Data, Using Specifics _____________________________________________________________p27
4.SELECTING SUPPORTING MATERIAL _________________________________p28
Types __________________________________________________________________p28
4.2 Unity __________________________________________________________________p29
Amount ________________________________________________________________p29
5.ARRANGING SUPPORTING MATERIAL ________________________________p29
BEGINNING AND ENDING DRAFTS __________________________________p30
6.1 Introductions ___________________________________________________________p30
6.1.1 Getting Attention ______________________________________________________p30
6.1.2 Giving the Background _________________________________________________p31
6.1.3 Establishing a Viewpoint ________________________________________________p31
6.2 Conclusions _____________________________________________________________p31
Titles __________________________________________________________________p32
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN IDEAS ___________________________________p32
7.1What to Revise: Revision Strategies _________________________________________p33
Polishing Revised Drafts __________________________________________________p33
7.2.1 Rephrasing____________________________________________________________p34
Alternative Sentences__________________________________________________p34
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN IDEAS ___________________________________p34
9. EDITING ____________________________________________________________p35
9.1 When to Edit ___________________________________________________________p35
9.2 What to Edit ____________________________________________________________p35
9.3 How to Correct Errors in Your Own Writing ________________________________p36
10. SUMMARISING, PARAPHRASING AND QUOTING SOURCES ___________p36
10.1 Summarising __________________________________________________________p36
10.2 Writing Paraphrases ____________________________________________________p37
10.3 Quoting Sources ________________________________________________________p37
10.3.1 Documenting Sources __________________________________________________p37
10.3.2 How to Use Citations __________________________________________________p38
11. ANALYSING ISSUES ________________________________________________p38
11.1 Analysing Both Sides ____________________________________________________p38
11.2 Analysing Written Arguments ____________________________________________p38
11.3 Arguing from Written Material ___________________________________________p39
12. CONSTRUCTING YOUR OWN ARGUMENT __________________________p39
12.1 The Writer’s Credibility _________________________________________________p39
12.1.1 Tone ________________________________________________________________p40
13. DANGERS IN DEVELOPING YOUR ARGUMENT ______________________p40
13.1 Exaggeration and Unsubstantiated Generalisations __________________________p40
13.2 Oversimplification ______________________________________________________p41
13.3 False Dilemma _________________________________________________________p41
False Analogy __________________________________________________________p41
13.5 Logical Fallacy/ Flaw: Arguing in a Circle __________________________________p41
13.6 Logical Fallacy/Flaw: Irrelevancies ________________________________________p41
13.7 Logical Fallacy / Flaw: Non- sequitur ______________________________________p42
13.8 Logical Fallacy/ Flaw ____________________________________________________p42
13.9 Inappropriate Authorities ________________________________________________p42
13.10 Bandwagon ___________________________________________________________p42
13.11 Changed Words _______________________________________________________p42
13.12 Out-of-Date Facts ______________________________________________________p43
14. ORGANISING YOUR ARGUMENT: INDUCTIVE/ DEDUCTIVE ________p43
15. PREPARING FOR AN ESSAY EXAM ________________________________p43
15.1 Examining the Exam Questions ___________________________________________p44
15.2 Invention ______________________________________________________________p44
15.3 Writing an Answer _____________________________________________________p44
16. PRACTISING ESSAY EXAMS _______________________________________p45
16.1 Organising an Exam Division and Classification _____________________________p45
16.2 Organising an Essay Exam: Cause and Effect _______________________________p45
16.3 Organising an Essay Exam: Definition _____________________________________p46
16.4 Organising an Essay Exam: Comparison/ Contrast __________________________p46
17. UNDERSTANDING THE QUESTION__________________________________p47
17.1 The Instructions ________________________________________________________p47
17.2 Key Terms ____________________________________________________________p47
17.3 Analysing the Question _________________________________________________p47
17.4 Finding the Focus _______________________________________________________p48
17.5 Understanding the Context _______________________________________________p48
18. SELECTING AND PRESENTING IDEAS _______________________________p48
18.1 Finding Ideas __________________________________________________________p48
18.2 Brainstorming _________________________________________________________p49
18.3 Finding More Ideas _____________________________________________________p49
18.4 Using Examples ________________________________________________________p49
18.5 The "What if Not" Situation _____________________________________________p50
18.6 Looking of the Other Side ________________________________________________p50
18.7 Selecting Ideas _________________________________________________________p50
18.8 Solutions to Problems ___________________________________________________p50
18.9 Evaluation _____________________________________________________________p50
18.10 Classification of Ideas __________________________________________________p51
18.10.1 Types of Classification ________________________________________________p51
18.10.2 Selecting Relevant Ideas _______________________________________________p51
18.10.3 Level of Generalisation ________________________________________________p52
18.10.4 Overgeneralisations ond Exaggeration ___________________________________p52
18.11 Organising Ideas ______________________________________________________p52
18.11.1 Ranking Ideas _______________________________________________________p52
18.11.2 Consequences _______________________________________________________p53
18.11.3 Comparisons ________________________________________________________p53
18.11.4 Speculation__________________________________________________________p53
19.WRITING: USING THE RIGHT GRAMMAR, VOCABULARY AND STYLE __p53
19.1 Grammar _____________________________________________________________p54
19.2 Vocabulary ____________________________________________________________p54
19.3 The Sections of the Essay ________________________________________________p54
19.3.1 The Introduction ______________________________________________________p54
19.3.2 Grammar and Vocabulary in the Introduction _____________________________p55
19.3.3 The Body ____________________________________________________________p55
19.3.4 Vocabulary in the Body ________________________________________________p55
19.3.5 The Conclusion _______________________________________________________p56
19.3.6 Grammar and Vocabulary in the Conclusion ______________________________p56
19.3.7 The Style ____________________________________________________________p56
19.3.7.1 Modifiers ___________________________________________________________p57
19.3.7.2 Over-generalisation __________________________________________________p57
19.3.7.3 Overemphasis _______________________________________________________p57
19.3.7.4 Understatement and Confusion ________________________________________p57
19.3.7.5 Waffle _____________________________________________________________p58
19.3.7.6 Formulaic and Thoughtless Writing ____________________________________p58
19.3.7.7 Immature Writing ___________________________________________________p58
19.3.7.8 Cultural Differences in Style ___________________________________________p59
19.3.7.9 Different Types of Writing ____________________________________________p59
19.3.7.10 Proof-reading ______________________________________________________p59
19.3.7.11 Appearance ________________________________________________________p59
20. THE IMPORTANCE OF WRITING IN LITERARY STUDIES ____________p60
20.1 Four Basic Principles ____________________________________________________p60
20.2 Practice and Experimentation ____________________________________________ p61
20.2.1 Preparing for Work ___________________________________________________p62
20.3 Handing In ____________________________________________________________p62
20.3.1 Meeting Your Deadline ________________________________________________p62
20.3.2 Judging When Your Essay Is Finished ____________________________________p63
20.3.3 Bibliography _________________________________________________________p63
20.3.4 Bibliographic software _________________________________________________p64
20.3.5 Footnotes and Endnotes ________________________________________________p64
20.3.6 Abstract or Summary __________________________________________________p64
20.3.7 Table of Contents _____________________________________________________p65
20.3.8 Acknowledgements ____________________________________________________p65
20.3.9 Final Stage Before Submitting ___________________________________________p65
21. PREPARING FOR A VIVA____________________________________________p66
21.1 Functions of a Viva _____________________________________________________p66
22. PUBLISHING YOUR WORK _________________________________________p66
23. FROM PARAGARPH TO ESSAY _____________________________________p67
23.1 Organisation ___________________________________________________________p67
23.1.1 A Paragraph _________________________________________________________p67
23.1.2 Paragraph Form ______________________________________________________p67
23.1.3 Editing ______________________________________________________________p68
23.2 Grammar and Capitalisation _____________________________________________p68
23.2.1 Capitalisation ________________________________________________________p68
23.2.2 Sentence Structure ____________________________________________________p69
23.2.3 Listing-Order Transition Signals ________________________________________p69
23.2.4 Paragraph Unity ______________________________________________________p70
24. WRITING PROCESS ________________________________________________p70
25. ASSESSMENT CRITERIA ___________________________________________p71
25.1 Marking criteria ________________________________________________________p72
25.2 Outline of Assessment Criteria _________________________________________p73-76
26. AVOIDING PLAGIARISM ___________________________________________p77
26.1 Acknowledging Sources _________________________________________________p77
26.2 Avoiding Plagiarism by Summarising and Paraphrasing ______________________p77
26.3 Research ______________________________________________________________p78
27. OUTCOMES/ OBJECTIVES/ COMPETENCES ________________________p78
27.1 Rhetorical Knowledge ___________________________________________________p78
27.2 Critical Thinking, Reading, and Composing ________________________________p79
27.3 Processes ______________________________________________________________p79
27.4 Knowledge of Conventions _______________________________________________p79
28.WRITING MODELS/ TEMPLATES ___________________________________p79
28.1 Formal Letters and E-mails ______________________________________________p79
28.2 A CV (US Resumé) ______________________________________________________p79
28.3 Essays/ Reports _________________________________________________________p80
28.4 A Case Study __________________________________________________________p81
28.5 Surveys _______________________________________________________________p81
28.6 Long Essays _________________________________________________________p81-82
29. CONCLUSION _______________________________________________________p83
30. METHODOLIGIGAL-PEDAGOGICAL SAMPLES _______________________p84
Appendix A: Main Idea of the Whole Paper (thesis) ______________________________p84
Appendix B: Diagram of Organisation by Subtopic ______________________________p84
Appendix C: Task Bank __________________________________________________p85-86
Appendix D: Glossary of Terms Used to Discuss Academic Writing _____________p86-87
Appendix E: Lesson Plan for a Writing Class ___________________________________p87
Appendix F: Grade Characteristics ____________________________________________p88
Appendix G: Transition Signals _______________________________________________p89
Appendix H: Writing Portfolios ____________________________________________p89-90
Appendix I: Error Code, Error Log Chart, _____________________________________p91
Appendix J: Tasks and Teacher Roles in the Teaching-Learning cycle, Stage-Purpose- Teacher- Role- Sample Tasks ___________________________________________________
Appendix K: Scoring Guide for Argumentative Writing _____________________________
Appendix L: Category Description of Argumentative Writing Classes __________________
Appendix M: Checklist for All Essays—Creation and Writing ________________________
Appendix N: Analysing Scholarly Writing in the Humanities _________________________
Appendix O: Reader's Response and Writer's Self-Check Worksheets __________________
Appendix P: Some Useful Websites for Writing Teachers ____________________________
Appendix Q: Writing Lessons ___________________________________________________
Appendix R: Writing Tests ______________________________________________________
Appendix S: Before and After Example __________________________________________
Appendix T: Writing Strategies ________________________________________________
Appendix U: Editing Symbols, Problem Symbols ___________________________________
31. BIBLIOGRAPHY_______________________________________________________
1.C. INTRODUCTION
Irrespective of what career you decide to pursue, your ability to communicate clearly and effectively will bear a direct impact on your success. Within a classroom environment, your teacher or assessor often evaluate your command of a subject by the papers and examinations you write. Prospective employers make judgments about your qualifications and resolve whether to ask you for an interview on the grounds of your job application letter and résumé. In the working environment, you will be required to write clear, correct reports, memorandums, and letters. There is nothing uncanny about successful writing because it does not necessitate a special talent, nor does it rely on inspiration, being simply a skill, and like any other skill, it calls for strategies which are acquirable. Once students understand them and the more they are drilled and carried out, the easier writing becomes. Strategies for Successful Writing will help you become a successful writer, and upon graduation, it can serve as a useful on-the-job reference. I organised my thesis in according to the process of exploring the fundamentals of writing and the genera steps in planning, drafting, and revising papers. Other units deal with paragraphs, sentences, and writing style, besides explanations of the basic writing strategies one can apply for most writing projects. The following subsections focus to specialised writing, such as essay examinations, and papers based on your own original research results. The chapters on writing strategies are supplemented with methodological sample appendices of student essays, in addition to a wide a range of instruments of priceless value in developing writing skills in English classes. These student examples represent realistic, achievable goals; even though they are compared to the professional examples, I have all confidence that my students can indeed do excellent work, and that by teaching them to apply the principles which I thoroughly examine in my thesis, they will be able to become high achievers in the English language writing.
1.D. LEARNING TO WRITE
In a second or even a foreign language, this is one of the most challenging feature of language learning. This may not come as a surprise in taking into account the fact that even for those who speak English as a first language, the ability to write effectively is something requiring extensive and specialised instruction, consequently spawning a vast freshman composition industry in American as well as British colleges and universities. Within the domain of second and foreign language teaching, the teaching of writing has come to occupy a much more central position than it assumed twenty or thirty years ago, this being perhaps the result of two factors. On the one hand, command of good writing skills is increasingly viewed as vital to equip learners for success in the twenty-first century. The ability to get across ideas and information effectively by means of the global digital network vitally depends on good writing skills. Writing has been identified as one of the essential process skills in a world that is more than ever ruled by text and numerical data. A further empowering of the status of writing within applied linguistics has come from the comprehensive knowledge base on the nature of written texts and writing processes that has been boosted by scholars in fields such as composition studies, second language writing, genre theory, and contrastive rhetoric. As a result, there is an active interest today in new theoretical approaches to the study of written texts, as well as approaches to the teaching of second and foreign language writing, including current theory and research findings.
Writing ranks as an utterly important skill that second language students need to acquire, and the competence to teach writing is central to the expertise of a well-trained language teacher. But, while interest in second and foreign language writing and approaches to teaching it have sharpened dramatically over the last decade, teachers often have to cope with their own resources in the classroom because much of the relevant theory and research fails to reach them. This paper addresses this issue by attempting to provide a feeble synthesis of theory, research, and practice to support teachers of language in becoming teachers of writing with informed choices about the methods, materials, and procedures to make use of in the classroom, based on a clear insight of the current attitudes and practices in his or her profession. A strong teacher is a reflective teacher, and reflection requires the knowledge to relate classroom activities to relevant research and theory.
1.1 Guiding Concepts in EFL/ ESL Writing Teaching
A real host of theories supporting teachers’ efforts to understand writing and learning have developed since EFL/ESL writing first identified as a clear field of bursaries in the 1980s. In most cases, each has been enthusiastically taken up, translated into appropriate methodologies, and carried out in classrooms. However, each also has typically been regarded as another piece in the puzzle, a further outlook to illuminate what learners have to learn and what teachers need to offer for effective writing instruction. Thus, while usually treated as historically evolving movements, it would be inappropriate to see each theory fading and replacing the last. They should be more accurately seen as complementary and overlapping perspectives, standing for potentially compatible modes of understanding the complex reality of writing. It is advisory therefore to regard such theories as curriculum options, each revolving writing teaching around a different language structures, text functions, themes or topics, creative expression, composing processes, content, and genre and contexts of writing
Consequently, teachers are apt to acknowledge and draw on a number of approaches, but
usually display a preference for one of them. So, even if they rarely represent distinct classroom approaches, it is necessary to examine each conception separately in order to comprehend more clearly what each gives us in regard of writing and in what ways it can support our teaching.
1.2 Focus on Structure of a Text
One mode to consider writing is to see it as marks on a screen or a page, a coherent arrangement of words, clauses, and sentences, structured complying with a set of rules. Conceptualising ESL/ EFL writing in this way draws attention to writing as a product and encourages a focus on formal text units or grammar traits of texts. From this viewpoint, learning to write in a foreign or second language entails mostly knowledge of language and the vocabulary choices, syntactic patterns, and cohesive devices which represent the main building blocks of texts. A stress on language structure as a ground for writing teaching is mainly process made up of four stages:
1.Familiarisation: Learners are taught certain grammar and vocabulary, usually through a text.
2. Controlled writing: Learners manipulate fixed patterns, often from substitution tables.
3. Guided writing: Learners imitate model texts.
4. Free writing: Learners use the patterns they have developed to write an essay, letter, and so forth. *
1.3 Focus on Text Functions
While ESL/ EFL students clearly need an acquisition of appropriate grammar and vocabulary when learning to write in English, writing is obviously not only such things. If language structures are to be part of a writing course, then we need principles for selecting which patterns to teach and how they can be used effectively. An underlining principle here is to connect structures to meanings, making language usage a criterion for teaching materials. This engenders the idea that certain language forms perform particular communicative functions and that students can be taught the functions most relevant to them under certain circumstances. Functions are the means for attaining the purposes of writing. This stream is sometimes labelled “current traditional rhetoric” or simply a “functional approach”, being affluential where ESL/ EFL students are being trained for academic writing at college or university. One end of this focus is to assist students so as to develop effective paragraphs through the creation of topic sentences, supporting sentences, and transitions, and to produce different kinds of paragraphs. Students are guided to put out connected sentences by following prescribed formulas and tasks, tending to concentrate on form to positively reinforce model writing patterns. As with the activities at the sentence level, composition rubrics typically include so-called free writing methods, which mainly involve learners reordering sentences in scrambled paragraphs, selecting appropriate sentences to complete gapped paragraphs and write paragraphs from provided items. Obviously, this orientation is under the heavy influence of the structural model mentioned above, since paragraphs are viewed almost as syntactic units like sentences, in which writers can fill particular functional units into particular slots. From this onwards, it is a short way to apply similar principles to whole essays. Texts can then be seen as consisting of structural entities such as Introduction-Body-Conclusion, and
*Adapted from http://research-all.blogspot.ro/2010/10/second-language-writing-ken-hyland
particular organisational patterns such as narration, description, and exposition are described and
reinforced. Usually, courses are constructed according to common functions of written English. Each unit commonly contains comprehension checks on a model text which are followed by exercises drawing attention to the language used to express the target function and that develop students’ abilities to use them in their writing. Such tasks include expanding an outline into an essay, or imitating the mould of a parallel text in their own essay. Indeed, these offer good ground for writing by supporting learners’ development. While meaning is involved in these tasks and instructional strategies, they essentially deal with disembodied patterns rather than writing activities with any meaning or purpose for students. An exclusive focus on form or function means that writing is cut off from the practical aims or personal experiences of the writer. Methods such as guided compositions are dependent on the assumption that texts are objects which can be taught being taken out of particular contexts, writers, or readers, and that by pursuing certain rules, writers can represent their intended meanings to the full. Nevertheless, writing amounts to more than an issue of arranging elements in the best order, and writing instruction is more than assisting learners to remember and drill these patterns. An awareness of this has led teachers to take great pains in order to introduce the writer into their models of writing and writing teaching.
1.4 Focus on Creative Expression
The third teaching mainstream considers the writer, rather than form, as the point of departure. Following L1 composition theorists such as Elbow (1998) and Murray (1985), many writing teachers from liberal arts backgrounds deem their classroom goals as developing L2 students’ expressive abilities, encouraging them to create their own voices to produce fresh and spontaneous writing. Such classrooms are organised around students’ personal experiences and viewpoints, and writing is considered a creative act of self-discovery. This can help generate self-awareness of the writer’s social position and literate possibilities as well as facilitate clear thinking, effective relating, and satisfying self-expression. From this orientation, writing is learned, not taught, so writing instruction is nondirective and personal. Writing is a way of sharing personal meanings and writing courses lay emphasis on the power of the individual to construct his or her own views on a subject. Teachers’ role is simply to provide students with the space to make their own meaningful insights within the framework of a positive and cooperative environment. Due to the fact that writing is a developmental process, these teachers more often than not avoid imposing their views by supplying models, or suggesting responses to topics. Thus, they try to spark off the writer’s ideas through prewriting tasks, such as journal writing and parallel texts. Since writing is also an act of discovering meaning, an eagerness to engage with students’ assertions is of crucial importance, and response is an essential way to initiate and guide ideas. This orientation further urges teachers to be responsive to the ideas that learners put forward, rather than dwell on formal errors. Students are supplied with extensive opportunities for writing and exercises may attend to characteristics such as style, wordiness, cliches, active versus passive voice, and so on. In sharp contrast to the rigid practice of a more form-oriented approach, writers are encouraged to be creative and take chances through free writing.
Expressivism is a vital approach since it urges writers to explore their beliefs, establish rapport with the ideas of others, and connect with readers. Despite this, it leans largely on an asocial view of the writer, and its ideology of individualism may set back second language students from cultural environments placing a dissimilar value on self-expression. Besides, it is difficult to
extract from the approach any distinct principles from which to teach and assess “good writing.” It simply presumes that all writers have a similar inborn creative potential and can learn to voice themselves through writing on condition that their originality and spontaneity are permitted to flourish. Writing is seen as deriving from self-discovery guided by writing on topics of potential interest to writers and, in consequence, the approach is bound to be most successful carried out by the teachers who themselves write creatively. Murray’s (1985) A writer teaches writing, for example, offers a good account of expressivist methods, but also suggests the importance of the teacher’s own personal insights in the process. As a result, despite proving highly influential in L1 writing classrooms, expressivism has been treated with caution in L2 contexts. Even if numerous L2 students have learned successfully through this approach, others may encounter difficulties, as it tends to be negligible of the cultural backgrounds of learners, the social outcomes of writing, and the aims of communication in the real world, where writing really matters.
1.5 Focus on the Writing Process
Similar to the expressive orientation, the process approach to writing teaching lays stress on the writer as an independent text producer, but it goes even further to tackle the issue of what teachers should do to assist learners to perform a writing task. The numerous occurrences of this perspective are consistent in recognising basic cognitive processes as central to writing activity and in emphasising the necessity to develop students’ abilities to plan, define a rhetorical problem, and propose and evaluate solutions. In all likelihood, the pattern of writing processes most widely accepted by L2 writing teachers is the original planning-writing-reviewing framework established by Flower and Hayes (Flower, 1989; Flower and Hayes, 1981). This perspective regards writing as a “non-linear, exploratory, and generative process whereby writers discover and reformulate their ideas as they attempt to approximate meaning” (Zamel, 1983: 165). Planning, drafting, revising, and editing do not occur in neatly, linearly sequencing, but are overlapping, interactive, and virtually simultaneous, and all work can be reviewed, assessed, and revised, even before any text being produced at all. At any point, the writer can move backward or forward to any of these activities: turning back to the library searching more data, revising the outline to adjust to new ideas, or rewriting with a view to the quality of being readable upon getting peer feedback.
A process model of writing instruction can comprise:
Selection of topic: by teacher and/or students
Prewriting: brainstorming, collecting data, note taking, outlining, etc.
Composing: jotting ideas down on paper
Response to draft: teacher/peers respond to ideas, organisation, and style
Revising: reorganising, style, adjusting to readers, refining ideas
Response to revisions: teacher/peers respond to ideas, organisation, and style
Proofreading and editing: checking and correcting form, layout, evidence, etc.
Evaluation: teacher evaluates progress over the process
Publishing: by class circulation or presentation, noticeboards, Website, etc.
Follow-up tasks: to address weaknesses
1.6Summary of the Principal Orientations to ESL/ EFL Writing Teaching
Orientation Emphasis. Goals. Main Pedagogic Techniques
Structure Language: Grammar accuracy, controlled composition, fill-in-the-gaps, substitution, form, vocabulary boosting, mistake avoidance, indirect assessment, proficiency drilling of rhetorical patterns.
Function Language: Paragraph and text free producing, unscrambling, gap-fill, imitation of use, organisational patterns, parallel texts, developing texts from graphs and tables.
Expressivist Writer: Individual creativity, reading, pre-writing activities, diary writing entries, self-discovery, multiple drafting, and peer reviews.
Process Writer: Technique controlling, brainstorming, outlining, multiple drafting, peer critiques and cooperation, postponement of editing, portfolio evaluation, content matter writing by means of pertinent extensive and intensive reading, group issue content and research projects, process or focusing on structures, genre characteristics and control of the cycle of rhetorical modelling-negotiation-construction, context structure of specific, rhetorical in order to raise awareness of text typology.
1.7 Syllabus Design and Lesson Planning
Building up a syllabus and the units of work and lessons applying it in the classroom environment can be provoking for writing teachers. This section therefore enumerates principles and approaches to make these instructions more manageable. The main points are as following: -Course design lies on a deep acknowledgement of learners’ backgrounds, interests, expectations, and abilities, and on knowledge of the texts and contexts of their target circumstances. – All writing courses should take into consideration the realities of the constraints in institutions and cultures and requirements within which they are taught. – All syllabuses are created by our views on writing, including our views on language and learning. – “Theory-free” teaching does not exist. – Successful syllabi, units of work, and lesson plans obey to clearly formulated and achievable course goals and instructional objectives derived from pre-course and ongoing needs analysis. – Planning needs to address the processes, genres, contexts, language features, and content that will be tackled in the course. – Effective lessons and work units must have a balance of tasks, patterns relying on interaction, and opportunities for writing, but they also need to supply enough ground for learners regarding language input, content, contextual data, and process abilities at early stages of learning to write a genre. – Flexibility is a key part of all planning and assessment.
1.8 Texts and Materials in the Writing Class
This section tries to provide a practical introduction to materials design, outlining the roles played by materials in the writing class, exploring the principles of textbook selection and
evaluation, and offering suggestions for locating and devising texts and other materials. Most authors put great emphasis on the importance of suitability of materials to the proficiency and learners’ target necessities and the value of providing students with varied material from a wide variety of sources. The main points can be summarised as follows: – Similarly to syllabus design and lesson planning, the selection and design of materials should be carefully anchored on students’ needs and present abilities, as well as our own outlooks on how learners can understand
texts best and develop their writing skills. – Teachers need awareness of the different functions played by materials in issuing instruction in order to make the best selection and their application. – Authentic materials prove of great value when used as models of target texts, but teachers should not be censored by the “authenticity ruling” when picking out materials to foster writing. – Loose principles of background learning, orientation, and student characteristics can help us assess textbooks, with more specific criteria working when consulting and using certain books delivery. As a result, it almost always turns out imperative to supplement or alter textbooks, this engendering balancing work on process and product to enhance an understanding of language, content, and skills. -The selection of input texts needs to take into account both the language requirements it will make on learners and the opportunities provided for developing subject and rhetorical patterns. – Flexibility should, once again, always be an important component of both planning and submitting.
1.9 Tasks in the ESL/ EFL Writing Class
Tasks constitute the core of writing teaching. Not only are they a fundamental planning device for teachers assembling syllabus objectives, materials, and methods, but they are also the means by which students come to understand and enhance their abilities to write efficiently. This unit explores assignments from a practical point of view so as to help teachers select, project, and plan their use. The key points may be contracted as follows: -Tasks differ in several extents, regarding their focus on language, subject, context, forms, and writing processes; in the cognitive and performance- requirements they make from learners; in the assistance they provide to writers; and in the emphasis they give to real-world or pedagogic aims. -Teachers are able to provide a variety of assignments through manipulation of the general task components: input, objectives, settings, roles, and activities. – Tasks can be classified according to whether their main focus is graphology, language fostering, or composing, even though teachers should ensure that all activities make a contribution to students’ actual and target needs. – Tasks which foster foreign novice writers’ gradual control of the grammatical and rhetorical features of target texts can be crucial to their ability to reach potential levels of writing performance. – The development of writing skills is greatly facilitated by the analysis and handling of authentic text models and the use of composing heuristics. – The teaching-writing cycle, which relies on the principle of different interactional stages in acquisition, offers a principled mode of selecting and sequencing writing tasks.
1.10 Responding to Student Writing
Feedback is fundamental to learning to write in a second/ foreign language. Not only can it provide writers with a concept of audience and sensitise them to the readers’ needs, but it also offers an additional scaffolding layer to expand writing skills, develop accuracy and clear ideas, and boost an understanding of written genres. Different kinds of feedback each have their own advantages and likely setbacks, and teachers may corroborate them to offer students best perspectives. The main principles of the unit are: -Teachers ought to ask students for their feedback options at the beginning of the course and make use of these in their responses. – The response practices the teacher plans to use in the course should be explained from the beginning. This should include the type of the feedback that will be applied on specific drafts, any systems that will be
used, either written, oral, or whether peer forms will be utilised etc. – Expectations concerning student responsiveness to feedback have to be clearly explained at the outset in order that students can understand what they are asked in what concerns the follow- up to feedback. – Teachers should supply both margin and end comments in their written feedback, time allowing and, bearing in mind that learners have a tendency to find comments vague and hard to respond to, search for a balance between praise and suggestions for revision. Criticism should be mitigated as far as possible while remembering the potential of indirectness for misunderstanding. – Both teachers and students need to prepare thoroughly to obtain best results from face-to-face conferences. – Peer response can be useful in supplying learners with a different audience and an alternative source of commentary, but students may need to be coached to respond effectively in such contexts. – Students should be urged to ponder on the feedback received from any source by keeping diaries or writing summaries in which they act on the comments.
1.11 Assessing Student Writing
Performance assessment is a crucial aspect of the writing teacher’s job, providing valuable insights on students’ strengths and weaknesses and scaffolding further tasks, materials, and syllabus revisions. Whereas establishment constraints may not always concede teachers to administer the assessment tasks they might opt for, the uitilisation of obvious rubrics and prompts anchored in needs and course objectives, attention to matters of validity and reliability, and the application of explicit and coded grading criteria may come into play to ensure correct and efficacious assessment. The principal ideas pointed out in this section are: Every assessment task should be reflective of the specific course goals and connect to the writing skills and comprehension having been taught. – Assessment is not an independent part of educational process, but is an intrinsic constituent of the curriculum, reflecting back into and impacted by needs analysis, course design, and choice of tasks and materials. – Teachers should put forward clear reasons for any writing scoring and make sure that achievements are not put to unsuitable purposes. – It is of utter importance to put into practice the principles of reliability and validity to ensure a fair and meaningful assessment. – Teachers should consider assignments and tasks carefully to create rubrics that are clear, enticing, and pertinent to students’ needs and what they have learnt. – Various scoring systems have their own advantages and disadvantages and are related to a range of views upon writing and assessment. The selection of method should be made taking into careful account matters of reliability, validity, practicality, and the data it can provide on students’ writing skills. – Designing and applying scoring criteria is a challenging task most efficiently done as a collaborative exercise with all graders and implying the benchmarking of texts to reach consistency. – Portfolio assessments are advantageous over single essays by providing learners with possibilities to prove their abilities in a variety of genres and their comprehension of different writing processes.
WRITING IS COMMUNICATING
Good writing helps your reader understand your ideas as clearly as possible. The following are suggestions for making the task of writing easier in English assignments-or any other writing you may need to do.
1.Whenever possible, write on issues in which you are really interested. 2. Note down
on subjects that you are knowledgeable about or wish to find out about. 3. Before setting on writing a draft, investigate your ideas freely by means of invention techniques. 4. One should have some information about the audience you are targeting, and bear that person or group in your mind as long as you write. 5. You ought to make a decision on your purpose and what you desire your writing to realise, such as whether it will inform, persuade, entertain, or it will help you discover your own ideas. 6. There is no need for worry about details in your first draft, trying merely to get your ideas down on paper while your ideas can be shaped later. 7. Rereading of one’s own writing frequently is advisable, trying to be as objective as possible, as if not being the author and seeing it for the first time. 8. Letting others read what you have written and giving you feedback proves valuable. 9. Do not be afraid to add, erase, or change your ideas around. 10. Once your ideas are put down on paper, check the grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and punctuation to make the written text as accurate as you can.
2.1.1 Suggestions for Keeping a Writing Journal
Write on subjects that actually interest you as often as possible. 1. Write your journal on loose leaf paper as by using this kind of paper, you can fill in entries to your journal even when you do not carry your notebook with you, but get a binder in which to store all your entries. 2. Each entry should be started on a blank sheet of paper. 3. Date each entry. Besides, write down at the top of the entry in which setting you are as you are writing and ensure you write in a place where you are not likely to be distracted. 4. Before beginning to write anything, just relax and let your mind empty itself, since sometimes it helps to focus only on your own breathing for one minute. 5. Once beginning, keep writing continuously for at least fifteen minutes. 6. Write legibly and leave plenty of space in case you want to insert any comments afterwards. 7. Use the hints for journal entries provided throughout this paper to sparkle off your thoughts. However, allow your thoughts to take whatever bearing they will. If you run out of ideas to express on the topic suggested, just keep writing on whatever subject is in your mind. Even if you can think of nothing to put down, either say again what you have been voicing or give a description of what you feel like to find nothing to elaborate on. In this way, you will most probably discover that the actual process of writing itself stimulates your thinking. 8. After fifteen minutes pass, you can go back and review what you wrote, adding any comments if you feel like. 9. This can be performed three times weekly, and one should keep all the journal entries dated, numbered, and located-in the journal binder which should contain nothing but your journal entries. 10. It would be noticeable that such a writing journal does not amount to a diary, for your journal is intended to be a source of raw material from which ideas can be drawn out for your formal writing. It should comprise notes about life surrounding you, yourself, or about other people, as well as descriptions of important activities, memories, thoughts, and viewpoints. Most probably you need not introduce information such as the time you woke up and what you ate for breakfast whereas any ideas can
be included which you think might eventually come in handy to you in an essay. Finally, determine with your teacher whether these journals are to be private, i.e. no one reads what you write except you, semiprivate, i.e. you sometimes read from your journal to your classmates, or public, that is, your teacher or your classmates are going to read your entries.
2.1.2 Freewriting
There are broadly two kinds of this. One type allows you to free your mind temporarily of daily concerns so that you cannot be distracted from the task at hand whereas the other helps you begin to seek your ideas on a particular topic. If you need to work on a writing assignment but cannot be focused, the former type of freewriting may be useful to empty your mind by taking a paper and writing about the thoughts you bear in mind at that moment. While writing continuously for five minutes, this is usually enough get rid of distractions. If you still feel off concentration, carry on for further five minutes, or until you have driven out all distractions. If you have picked out a general issue to elaborate about, but have not yet made up about what element of that subject you wish to explore, the latter type of freewriting may be useful. Thus, after writing your general topic at the top of a sheet, you can proceed to write down everything that crosses your mind on this subject, doing it continuously for ten minutes while timing yourself or having someone else time you and not letting your pen stop moving. If you cannot come up with anything to say, you can write exactly this until something occurs to you as something will, so you can just take time and keep writing steadily. If you cannot find the word in English, write the word in your mother tongue or in some abbreviation or just leave a blank and keep on, the idea being to jot down as much as you can about the subject, irrespective of its disorganisation. Once decided on an aspect of a topic to write about, you have to learn what you know about that topic and anything in connection to it.
2.1.3 Listing may prove quicker than freewriting, but it works on the same general principle. When you list, you put down everything that dawns on you in terms of your subject, but you do not write whole sentences, only words or swift phrases. Again, you are making an attempt to get down swiftly as many pieces of information as possible and turns out particularly useful when it comes to getting examples or specific information about a topic. Also, this technique is one of the most useful for writers to restart in case their ideas become blocked as they are writing a draft out of a particular reason.
2.1.4 Wh- Questions. Especially reporters writing newspaper articles usually try to write the first sentence so that it will answer the following questions: who, what, when, where, why, and sometimes how, which can be used to produce ideas for your texts as well. Asking questions like these may help you to distinguish precisely what subject you are going to discuss in your composition. Similar to listing, this technique is also useful for obtaining details related to your subject and for getting started again if for some reason you get dried up. The writer is the one
who both asks and answers the questions, in which case you can think of as many questions as possible.
2.1.5 Clusters or Branches. The human mind seems to stock information in one process by associating new information with some already stored. As a result, conjuring up one piece of information may trigger a whole string of other memories. You can best employ the mental capacity to associate when preparing to write essays by writing the subject of your composition in the middle of a piece of paper, and then all the details you associate with it. Then continue the process by finding associations for each of the items written down, carrying this on as long as you can think of associations. After looking at all the associations you have written down, one must proceed to grouping items into clusters or categories.
2.1.6 Looping is similar to freewriting, but it is more restrictive, and is especially useful when many ideas cross your mind simultaneously. Looping can help you concentrate your thinking on a subject, find the hub of your thought, and underline a main point which to develop. According to this technique, begin by writing down the subject considered, keeping that subject in your mind as you write continuously for five minutes. You have to keep the pen moving and your mind focused on the subject. In case you become distracted, just keep writing any ideas you think of until your subject emerges again. Like freewriting, one does not need to worry about grammar or punctuation, and even if you cannot think of the word you need in English, just write the word in your native language or leave a blank space. Also, you may make use of abbreviations or your own personal shorthand spelling forms. After five minutes, while timing yourself or having someone else time you, read what you have written, then make up one complete sentence which summarises the gist of your notes, which you may find to be the most important idea of the writing, or you may have to come up with a new one. In either case, by writing that sentence down, you have come to the end of your first loop. Now a second loop can begin by focusing on your summary sentence, trying to bear this sentence in your mind as you write continuously for another five minutes. When you finish this second session, read what you have just put down, looking for the main idea or core round which all the other ideas revolve. Summarising that core idea in one sentence represents the end of your second loop. The same procedure is to be followed for your third loop, at the end of which on reading the third text you can summarise it in one sentence. For the majority writers, this last sentence typically captures the essence of what they need to express on their subject.
2.1.7 Cubing involves viewing an idea from six different points of view, each standing for one of the six sides of a cube. You will look quickly at your subject from these six angles so that you have several perspectives on the subject available to you. You should spend three to five minutes examining your subject from each of the following angles: 1. Describe it. (What does it look like? What do you see?) 2. Compare it. (What is it similar to? What is it different from?) 3. Analyse it, (What is it made of? What are its parts?) 4. Associate it, (What does it remind you of? What do you associate it with?) 5. Apply it. (What can you do with it? What can you use
it for?) 6. Argue for or against it. (Take either position. Give any reasons, even crazy ones.) Upon drawing to the end, reread what you wrote to select the ideas that you enjoy best, which you should write down and mull over. It is highly likely that one of them is considered particularly interesting and may be a good perspective for an essay on the subject.
2.1.8 An outline is an organised technique of exploring thoughts on a subject. Some writers tend to use the freer invention strategies in order to generate ideas, after which point they draw up an outline so as to organise their ideas. Therefore, outlining can represent a transition between inventing and writing a first draft. When used this way, the outline works as a plan for writing. It proves of extreme help in dividing up the larger task of writing a formal paper into the much more manageable small parts that will eventually be assembled into a unified and structured whole. Others tend to make an outline of their paper after completing a draft, which represents not a plan but rather verifying that the paper displays the ideas logically and covers all aspects of the topic. In either case, the outline is not an end in itself, but a mere tool to help you generate a structured discussion or to help you check that the discussion is organised. Basically, an outline helps you divide up a large topic.
2.1.9 One method for generating ideas that has not been brought up yet is simply talking to somebody else about your ideas. Discussion is a powerful way to generate and test ideas, but unfortunately it is more restricted. You may not always be capable of finding someone eager to listen to you, or you may be in a circumstance where discussion is inappropriate, for example writing an essay exam. The discussion may well make you clarify your thoughts. Finally, perhaps the most common way of getting ideas is reading about a subject. Reading what others have written can both familiarise you with other people's ideas and stimulate you to think of new original ideas. When using reading and research to find ideas, one should ensure to read more than one text on the subject so that you will not become heavily influenced by only one writer while being extremely careful not to present the ideas of another writer as your own.
2.2 Concept of Audience
The concept of audience is extremely helpful because if you identify clearly in your own mind who the members of your audience/ target readers are, you will better manage to assume what they know or do not know, as well as what they desire to know. This will help you make knowledgeable decisions about all elements of your paper: what explanations must be offered to make your ideas clear to your reader, what types of explanations would be most helpful, how to structure your explanations, whether to write in a formal or informal style, how careful to be of accurate grammar, spelling, and punctuation One special writing situation is doing it for your teacher, since writing for teachers are different from writing for other audiences, with your English teacher’s expectations when she or he reads your writing or other teachers’ expectations from your writing.
2.3 Types of Purposes for Writing
Another important idea besides target readers to keep in mind as composing and revising a draft is your reason for writing, for wanting to share your opinions about your subject with your audience. Basically, there are two reasons for writing, which can even overlap: to express yourself and communicate with somebody else. When you keep a journal, your reason for writing is to express yourself and it is of little or no importance whether anyone reads, grasps, or enjoys what you have written. On the other hand, when you write with a view to communicating, it is helpful to know not just whom you want to communicate with and what message you want this piece to get across, but also what you are trying to accomplish by writing. Asking yourself questions like the following ones may help to inform, persuade you to discover your purpose, entertain, help you discover your own ideas etc. 1. Is the author trying to inform the audience about a subject they have little knowledge about, but would like to find out more? 2. Is the writer presenting his/her audience a fresh way to look on this subject, a way of which they may not have thought before? 3. Is the writer taking pains to talk the audience into agreeing with his/her point of view on this matter? 4. Is the writer trying to make a demonstration to the audience, for example, to a teacher, that he/she is conscious about this subject? 5. Is the writer attempting to entertain the target readers with something funny, nice or dramatic?
2.4 Self-Analysis (Pre-Draft)
Reaching this stage, the following queries should be resolved.1. You should clarify who your audience is right now, what your audience already knows concerning this subject, as well as what special terms or concepts you might use that you will have to be explained to this audience. It is likely that you will eventually change your views about your audience. 2. Then, you must establish your purpose in writing about this topic, bearing in mind what you want to communicate to your audience and the reason why you do this. Your purpose may be to supply items of unknown information to your classmates and/or teacher about a subject you consider they do not know about but ought to; or you would like them to learn about an experience you have recently had; or you may want to demonstrate what you have found out about the topic under discussion. You may shift you aim eventually, but the writer must be intent on what wanting to attain for the time being. 3. Through looking over your invention writing again, you can list what you think relevant to concentrate on so as to convert that invention writing into a good draft. To achieve this, you should determine which ideas you want to get across, how much information to be said and in what order your ideas will be presented. There seems no call for worrying about grammar, spelling, punctuation, or the appropriate vocabulary choice in English, as this can be performed afterwards. Momentarily, for a word which you cannot find in English, you just can write it in your own language or leave a blank space. 4. What the writer should think next is in
what manner to succeed in making a good draft. a. The writer must make sure what to mention about respective subject. b. what should be discussed first, second, third, and so on to facilitate its understanding by the audience, c. what background information may have to be provided in order to help the audience comprehend, d. what specific terminology may be found unfamiliar by the audience, which will have to be explained. Finally, one can wonder what else will have to be kept in mind while writing and whether having to continue the list or not.
Your invention writing is probably a blending of general and specific written utterances and thoughts. Prior to generating your draft, it may come in handy to consider what English-speaking readers typically expect when reading a text. They are not cut and dried rules, but may guide you in approaching your draft. English-speaking readers, particularly in academic writing, seem to foresee this common three-part schema: 1. A brief but precise beginning serving two roles: a. that of mentioning the subject of the paper, and b. presenting the direction the discussion will turn. This beginning amounts to a general summary statement of what the entire paper is about and what will come under scrutiny. 2. A longer middle section in which the writer usually a. explains, b. illustrates, c. demonstrates what the beginning announced or asserted by describing, comparing, giving examples, or showing supporting proofs. 3. A fairly brief conclusion where the writer a. asserts the implications of the discussion, b. relates the specific details to broader issues, or c. summarises the main points in the text.
2.5 Formal Features of a Paper
Even though this is not the final draft, there are certain formal conventions you must commonly abide to when writing in English.
2.5.1 Indentation
Paragraphs signalled by indentation mark off sections in the written text. A new paragraph normally signals a change in perspective to the reader, meaning that the writer is about to commence approaching a different aspect of the subject at hand. But not every sentence should begin a new paragraph in English, even if it makes some sense that every sentence represents a new idea. Instead, categories of ideas should be grouped into sentences, since every paragraph constitutes a group of sentences on a related idea. Paragraphs in English are various in length, but most are made up of several sentences, rather than just one or two. Indentation, that is, leaving blank about an inch of space from the left-hand margin or five spaces if you are typing, occurs each time one starts a new paragraph.
2.5.2 Margins
Left-hand margins come usually printed on lined paper, beyond which writing must not appear. There are no right-hand margins lined on the paper, but an imaginary margin of one half to one inch on the right side should be maintained. Also, it is advisable not to squeeze words in as they will be too hard to read. The same holds true for words into the bottom line of your paper whereas in typed papers, a margin of about one inch on all four edges of the paper is to be kept.
2.5.3 Paging
Typically, the first page holds the title in the middle of the top line, followed by a blank line, then the beginning of the text with the first line being indented. As a rule, the first page is not numbered, but the subsequent pages may be numbered either at the top or at the bottom of the page, either in the middle or on the right-hand side. After the first page, most people begin writing on the next line after the top line. With regard to formal papers, only one side of the page should be written on. this format is not necessary in a first draft, because the draft will be rewritten by any means. In contrast, some writers like to produce neat copies even of their first drafts, in which case, you may want to follow this row and become used to writing in such a manner.
Self-Analysis (Post-Draft)
Drawing to this level, one should supply appropriate answers to some check-questions as well. 1. One needs to know who was in the back of their mind in the process of writing and whether that audience changed during it. 2. You can reread your draft assuming you were your target readers encountering the draft for the first time. Besides, you can note any comments or questions you think your audience might raise on any part of the draft, in a different colour ink, especially those asking for further or clearer data. 3. It also holds some relevance if your purpose changed during writing, or if you changed your mind with regard to what you wanted to communicate. 4. It is likely that the draft can be compared in a way with the ideas you had about it before beginning. 5. In case you feel that you achieved what you set out to do, you can turn back to the list you made in the third pre-draft question as well as check the items carried out in your draft, in which case you may find some of the things you set out to do were not necessary. 6. The question also arises if enough is written in your draft, or perhaps it is necessary to gather more material and enlarge your draft writing. 7. In the end, it is pertinent to know what was easy about writing this draft and what was difficult about it. 8. Lastly, you should determine if you feel satisfied or disappointed in your draft.
3. THESES AND TOPIC SENTENCES
It is common knowledge that an academic paper typically begins with a general idea, gives the details supporting that generalisation, and finally returns to another general statement on the same issue.
The main idea or central point of a piece of writing in English is often explicitly, or directly, stated at the beginning of the text. This assertion is traditionally named the thesis. In addition, if the article comprises several paragraphs, the core of each paragraph, commonly called the topic sentence of the paragraph, is often placed somewhere near the beginning of the paragraph. We may these explicit assertions of the main ideas in a written work as labels because a thesis enhances the reader’s instant understanding of the content of an essay, and a topic sentence located near the beginning of each paragraph indicates the reader the direction the author intends to move in that paragraph. What you assert in a thesis or in a topic sentence will develop certain expectations on part of the reader for specific items in your discussion, and English-speaking readers do trust you to fulfill their expectations.
3.1 Making Main Ideas and Text Fit
As aforementioned, the main idea of an essay is usually placed somewhere near the beginning of the paper although the writer does not have be accurate in terms of what the main idea is before proceeding. You may well be sure about the topic you want to elaborate on, but you may not know what ideas to express concerning it until after having done some invention writing and seeing your ideas displayed on paper. Expressing a thesis or a topic sentence accurately fitting your elaboration may be viewed as a type of revising and concentrating more clearly. As soon as you establish your main idea roughly, namely, once you know what you intend explain or prove in your paper, this idea must be borne in mind while seeking information, writing or checking your draft. Firstly, the manner your gist idea is formulated will importantly affect what you then write about it, as keeping your main idea in mind will help you to pick out what to be included in your essay and also to acknowledge irrelevancies. In contrast, as you delve into data or write your draft, your main idea may well switch or you become attached to it in various terms, upon which point your thesis or topic sentences should be altered so that they will become suitable summary assertions of the ideas under discussion in the essay or paragraph. Revising your paper will bring about removal of any statements now seemingly irrelevant to your changed main idea. Most authors agree on the fact that no rule of the English language states that the main idea must occur near the beginning of a paper. As a result, whereas there is always an occurrence of a main idea in published writing, it sometimes encountered towards the end of the piece, particularly in editorials published in newspapers and journals and there are situations when the main idea is not explicitly
formulated whatsoever throughout the article. Nevertheless, in most academic writing, readers hold dear being informed early about the principal idea, and one would be better off if they met the readers’ expectations.
3.2 Invention for Writing Assignment: Using Personal Experience, Using Objective Data, Using Specifics
The typical schemata that English writers pursue is to state something rather general go on to supply more specific information in order to prove, illustrate, or explain that general statement. Student writers find difficulty in dealing with this apparently easy pattern because they often find it difficult to tell what is more general from what is more specific. In English writing, the writer is usually expected to perform roles of explaining, showing, and/or proving. With the exception of fictional works, the English-speaking reader, especially at the university level, seldom expects to be under the obligation to attain conclusions or draw generalisations relying on the specific details scattered in the text while expecting the writer to accomplish this. However, but for specific support, proof or explanation, the English reader would not believe a writer's generalisation or assertion. English writing moves backwards and forwards between saying something to the reader, i.e. an assertion, and then demonstrating the reader that the assertion holds true, i.e. the evidence due to the fact that merely by telling is not believable while only showing is too hard on the reader.
SELECTING SUPPORTING MATERIAL
4.1 Types
Inserting specifics may facilitate understanding of a written text. Therefore, writers provide explanations for their generalisations in variegated ways: using examples to illustrate an idea or to show how a general statement functions in a common or typical case, using reasons, causes, or effects connected it in order to make it easily comprehensible, supplying descriptive details to allow imagining the generalisation better, using the familiar to explain the uncommon, or discussing gradually a topic. Moreover, examples and anecdotes are intended to help a reader grasp a general assertion by showing how it is operable in a specific circumstance, since perceiving a specific situation makes the abstract concept easier to understand. Being clear is not usually enough; more than that, a writer must persuade the reader the assertions are valid by giving evidence to support them. As a rule, writers make use of data for giving support, such as facts or statistics that put forward objective evidence to make a point, personal experiences, typological cases, observations, or anecdotes meant to prove that a generalisation is valid owing to the fact
that it relies on a particular real incident, references to acknowledged authorities or experts in the respective domain. Such kinds of support as facts, statistics, real events, or references to authority are objective proofs able to support and prove a generalisation.
4.2 Unity
There are the two vital requirements for gathering material to prove or explain your message: 1. The evidence must be pertinent. 2. There must be sufficient support. Being relevant means that the support must be explicitly linked to the generalisation or the thesis you are trying to explain. One common hindrance arising to student writers is producing irrelevant statements, that is, those which do not directly validate the main idea.
4.3 Amount
The precise answer to the issue of the quantity of sufficient support is unattainable because the answer relies largely on the type of the audience and the purpose of the text. In certain situations, one sole example or a particularly striking anecdote seem enough to support an idea clearly, but in other cases, three or four are required in one paragraph for one point to bring the reader round to the writer’s point of view. Moreover, one specific item of evidence may be so convincing that it outdoes three or four less convincing pieces. In the role of a writer, it is required from you to make judgements about your audience, and by using your intuition and feedback from your readers you will manage to estimate how much support is needed to be persuasive of your point. Furthermore, you will have to decide on the type of support such as facts, statistics, examples, anecdotes or mixtures of them will prove most effective in achieving your aim with a particular audience.
ARRANGING SUPPORTING MATERIAL
Once having gathered sufficient pertinent, particular material to support your point, you must decide how to arrange it; what is more, after selecting and grouping your material, the order to present the material must be determined. English-speaking readers are acquainted to encountering different types of ordering. 1. Least to Most: One begins with the least significant or powerful datum, and then go on to the more persuasive or important ideas. 2. Most to Least: with a view to drawing your reader's attention quickly, such as in an essay exam, business report, or newspaper article, you should proceed with the most striking information and change to less important points or facts. 3. Known to Unknown (or Accepted to Controversial): First, the writer
establishes common ground with the reader, then adding the new material you are trying to illustrate or prove. 4. Step-by-step: This type uses chronological order, that is, what happens first, second, and so on or spatial order, namely, describing one part at a time. 5. By Categories or Divisions: Dividing your subject into parts or separate your supporting material into categories, are followed by describing one part or category separately. 6. For Comparisons: You can discuss all the traits of one item first, then all the analogical features of the other item, or you can discuss one characteristic of each item, then the following feature and so on.
In any written piece, taking into account the audience and aim of the text, the author has to make informed decisions on an overall organisational layout and on some ordering for the ideas in each paragraph. Most texts include a mixture of the methods mentioned to attain an intrinsic detailed discussion as well as sophisticated schemata of organisation like division/classification, cause/effect, definition, and comparison. Finally, it is worth remembering that English-speaking readers need to be led in a systematic way from one point to the following for expecting a writer to present all pieces of relevant evidence with the conclusions drawn from those.
BEGINNING AND ENDING DRAFTS
Typically, term papers, formal essays, articles, theses, dissertations, and books contain an introduction and a conclusion apart from the discussion of the issue. In this section, we will examine introductions, conclusions, and titles and the practices to produce them.
Introductions
One may find it odd to learn that many a writer do not proceed with the introduction at all, although the introduction is the first part the reader casts eyes on. In practice, there are some writers who formulate the conclusion first, develop their ideas, and write the introduction last, only after the draft is already completed. Almost all introductions perform three roles: 1. hooking readers and persuading them to occupy their time with reading the article, essay, or book 2. gathering and assembling any background information necessary to understand the piece.3. asserting the information or argument the reader is going to come across in the article, essay, or book, and sometimes the manner it will be discussed.
6.1.1 Getting Attention
The first sentence, or even first few sentences in a short introduction, is generally intended to be the hook that will entice or grip as many readers as possible to carry on with the reading.
6.1.2 Giving the Background
Once having drawn the reader's attention, the writer now wishes to move toward their main target for producing the essay, but the reader may first possess some background information to be able to follow the author's line of thinking. More often than not, that background piece of information is solely a reminder of information of which the reader most likely is already aware, therefore establishing a common level ground of understanding between the writer and the reader.
6.1.3 Establishing a Viewpoint
The third and last part in an introduction usually occurs as a fairly clear statement of the role and stance the writer will take on in the paper. In a traditional way, this statement lies toward the end of the introduction, even though it may appear at the beginning as well, especially if the introduction is rather short.
This part of the introduction is generally called the thesis statement. Because it is a one- or two-sentence summary of the entire article, it is formulated to enable the reader to anticipate fast just what the writer is going to show, argue or discuss, and in some way how the writer plans to organise the discussion. As a result, the thesis statement proves of most help to the reader when it is specific enough to summarise that sentence and thesis in that particular essay. The following hints will make you boost your ability to write a clear statement of your main idea, especially when you are writing an argument. To synthesise the basic idea in your essay, this formula: Although X Y because Z may successfully be applied.
6.2 Conclusions
The last part out of the three in a typical essay in English is the conclusion. As with the introduction, the conclusion may be contracted or eliminated in some writing conditions, especially again in an essay exam. However, normally, an article, essay, or research paper without a conclusion may look highly bizarre as they all require a conclusion, after having all the important points on the topic discussed, which are laid out clearly in the thesis statement. The conclusion usually starts either with a comment referring to the last point mentioned or with a transitional phrase signalling the conclusion. A conclusion may: 1. briefly summarise the main ideas or main points raised in the discussion 2. interpret the line of thought or explain the importance of the discussion and its suggestions 3. connect the main idea of the text to future action or to some wider issues not specifically covered in the article.
The conclusion in a short composition may contain only one sentence, but in a longer essay, the conclusion is often made up of an entire paragraph of several sentences, and in a book, the conclusion stands out as a separate section or chapter. Concluding assertions generally start with a reference to something stated prior or with a transition. Moreover, in a long essay or speech, the writer may bring in a transitional phrase such as In conclusion, but in short essays or paragraphs the conclusion is signalled less intensely with expressions such as the following: Thus, Therefore, As we have seen, In short etc. These phrases announce the beginning of the conclusion, especially when the conclusion summarises, repeats, or displays the outcomes of ideas having already been discussed. Another modality for conclusions to begin is by simply repeating a key word or phrase from the start of the text with a view to relating the beginning more tightly to the last sentences.
6.3 Titles
Even more profoundly than the introductory sentences, a title is meant to catch a reader's attention. In writing a title, one should remember that titles are usually short-a phrase rather than a sentence, although a question or sometimes an exclamation may also be used. Then, the first word and all the others except articles (a, an, the), conjunctions (and, but, or), and short prepositions (in, at, on, of) must be capitalised. Putting a period at the end of a title is forbidden, as well as underlining the title or putting quotation marks around it.
7. REVISING
At this very stage, the writer has several first drafts and responses to their drafts from classmates. Getting feedback is of great help in itself, but you can develop your skill even faster if you act on the feedback and thus revise your first draft.
Why revise? Even professional writers revise, cutting out sections, rereading again, moving parts from one place to another, rereading what they wrote, continuously drawing a comparison between what is laid out on a paper with their mental image of the message they want to communicate. Actually, revising can be found as pleasant, even easier and more interesting than sketching the first draft. Revising represents both rereading and rewriting. Thus, such rereading is very important in allowing you to compare what you wrote with your attempt to communicate. In addition, rereading proves necessary as every section crossed out, added, or moved around must be smoothly reintegrated into the text surrounding it. While reading again, one must begin from the beginning or at least several sentences before spotting what needs to be altered so that you can form a definite mental picture of the parts with which you are fairly delighted prior to reaching the part needing bettering.
7.1 What to Revise: Revision Strategies
There are different styles of composing and revising displayed by numerous writers. Thus, being afraid to accumulate ideas, some find it easier to write a great deal in their first drafts, delete them, or move them around. and to revise by crossing material out. Their sketches tend to be long and disorganised, oriented in many directions. on the other hand, other writers like to jot basic ideas down and then to expand on these, but such writers may encounter hindrances in taking material out. Becoming aware of your own writing skills and practices can make you focus on particular problems you have and possible solutions to them. Whatever practices you use, it is recommended to experiment by inserting ideas, taking them out, or even shifting parts of your text around. Unless you dispose of anything, you can always fall back on your invention writing and drafts, if you are still not agreeable of your alterations. When ready to revise, analyse your draft by looking first at its main characteristic, such as your audience and your purpose, facts which might be written on a short note to yourself asserting clearly for whom and for what purpose this draft is being revised. Afterwards, outlining your draft can begin by writing down the main idea for the whole essay in the margin and then extracting the central idea of each paragraph, finally checking how the main ideas of the paragraphs connect to one another as well as to the gist of the paper. Contrasting each paragraph with its main idea in mind can validate the connection between the paragraph and its thesis.
Responses offered by your classmates and teachers should help you realise which part needs revision. One approach is to gather different reactions and then fill in a sheet summarising all the responses received. Other approaches refer to adding ideas to a draft, which can generate ideas through invention techniques. When trying to clarify ideas, discussing it with some people or even talking into a tape recorder helps to clarify. In case of shortening or deleting information, one can make an attempt at rewriting the same part from memory or you may resort to a friend to to put down whatever he or she remembers after reading the respective section.
7.2 Polishing Revised Drafts
In some situations-for instance, producing an essay exam or an informal letter-the writer may find it unachievable or not compulsory to take the time to polish his/her writing and find an improved way to state ideas. However, in other conditions, expressing yourself attentively and accurately is utterly important, one example of such a situation being writing an essay as part of an application form for a job or for admission to a school. Wanting to make a favourable impression of yourself, you want to write as appropriately and as correctly as possible. The following part will examine some methods how to refine or perfect a written piece.
7.2.1 Rephrasing
When revising, one reconsiders large portions of your essay, your main goal being content- that is, what ideas are expressed and the order in which they are arranged. Once finishing revisions, and you are content with the ideas you have expressed and the order in which arranged them, you have to focus on improving smaller units of your paper, your main concern now being how you express something rather than what you say. As a result, some sentences may need rephrasing and/or editing. Whereas rephrasing deals with making a sentence have a clearer meaning, which often means shorter, editing means making a sentence grammatically and mechanically correct.
7.2.2 Alternative Sentences
It goes without saying that any abstract notion can be rendered in a host of different ways, the target being a version easier to comprehend, for which logical connectors like transitional expressions and subordinators serve as guideposts for the reader. Thus, they tell the reader how the information in one sentence relates to the information in another sentence, leading to some links in some way between sentences facilitating the reading input.
8. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN IDEAS
Some connectors are more probably used in formal situations, while others, in informal situations. Also, depending on where they occur in the sentence, logical connectors have different functions in sentences, are punctuated in a varied way, and switch the emphasis in the sentence. Logical Connectors. Type 1 consists of adverbs, such as however. Type 2 consists of prepositional phrases consisting of prepositions (such as despite) and nouns or pronouns: The preposition can be followed by a noun phrase, a noun clause, a gerund, that is a verb ending with -ing, or a pronoun. Type 3 represents adverbial subordinators or clause markers (such as although), after which clauses follow. Like all clause markers, such subordinators must be followed by a subject and a verb. Depending where these words appear in a sentence, moving these clauses around may switch the emphasis of the sentence, which can also be changed depending on which clause is subordinated. The idea expressed within the subordinated clause sets the context or gives the background for the new idea in the main clause. It is likely for the rest of the text to come logically from the idea expressed in the main clause, rather than from the background in the subordinate clause. Type 4 consists of coordinators such as yet which join two complete sentences.
Although transitional expressions, subordinators, and coordinators signals to the reader how to pursue the logic of a text, there is no call for employing an explicit logical connector in
every sentence. Actually, overuse of these devices can be puzzling for the reader. Instead, by using such kinds of transitional prases and subordinators and on receiving feedback, a writer will manage eventually to develop an acute sense of when such are needed to make clear the meaningful relationships between sentences.
Yet, using logical connectors is not the sole means of connecting ideas in a composition. For instance, the logical flow of writing in English is often from given or already known or already introduced information to something new; as a result, the writer nearly always makes back references in some way to previously expressed ideas when adding a new sentence. By means of merely repeating key words, synonymous phrases, or using pronouns and demonstratives (this, these, that, those, such) referring to them, the writer can guide the reader into viewing the text as a unified form rather than a string of unrelated sentences.
EDITING
9.1 When to Edit
Proof of attentive editing is very important to some readers, who may form a negative impression of a writer due to the mistakes in a piece of writing, but even for readers much less worried about grammar and mechanics perfection, a plentiful of flaws in a final draft can be confusing. As a writer, you have to evaluate your audience from several perspectives, and one of them is whether and to what extent your audience appraises accuracy. Obviously, if your audience lays emphasis on correctness, you must strive to produce a grammatically correct text; on the other hand, if your audience is not so tense, you need not be so concerned with ridding all inadequacies from your paper. In either case, there is not much point in worrying about details of grammar and mechanical perfection until you content with the larger chunks of your paper, such as the explanation of the ideas, the ordering of the sentences, and so on. In brief, editing is one of the last actions to be done to complete a written paper.
9.2 What to Edit
Errors vary from different causes. In this way, some writers sometimes infringe a rule because of lack of knowledge while others may be aware of the rule, but are not sure what it is exactly or may have acquired an incorrect version of it. Lastly, a writer may be fully aware of a rule, but simply takes no notice of it. Almost every writer, native speaker or non-native, makes errors in writing, but some flaws display a higher degree of seriousness than others, either because they make the sentence difficult to grasp, or they are, for some reason, especially baffling for most
native speaker readers like, for example, double negation. In contrast, less serious erring may occur simply as a result of shallow attention due to the writer's familiarity with the piece. Nonetheless, either your writing includes serious or less serious defects, you need to edit with due care if you are keen on eliminating errors.
9.3 How to Correct Errors in Your Own Writing
Editing another person’s paper does not amount to correcting your own, as normally, until being ready to edit your own work, you have looked through it so many times that you may encounter trouble spotting errors. There are some prompts one may find useful to edit more efficaciously. 1. Firstly, if you let some time elapse between working on the content of your paper and editing it, this distancing may help you to concentrate more keenly on form. 2. Reading your essay slowly, uttering the sentences aloud or in your head may prove useful, as well. 3. Only one error should be looked out for at a time, for example, sentence limits, subject- verb agreements, verb tenses and forms, or lack of endings. 4. Beginning reading the text backwards from the end instead of the beginning, with one sentence at a time, you will not be distracted by content and will be able to concentrate on form better. 5. Making marks in the margin where you are hesitant of what you have written should be followed by asking a native speaker, a classmate, or your teacher for the accurate form. Also, your teacher or consulting a grammar textbook or a dictionary can enlighten you about a rule, spelling or word breaks. 6. Each time you apply editing, a note of errors to be particularly careful to avoid next time should be made. Also, in order to understand the grammar rule involved, one needs to write the rule in your own words and ask your teacher to check that you have written it correctly.
10.SUMMARISING, PARAPHRASING AND QUOTING SOURCES
10.1 Summarising
Writing good summaries demands correct reading and the competence to extract the main idea and most pertinent supporting evidence in a written text. Traditionally, summaries are always quite a little shorter than the original texts, about 75 percent shorter. In other cases, especially for a book, the summary is much shorter, maybe 99 percent shorter. When composing a summary, you offer your readers some prompts of the content of an article or book, therefore saving them the time and effort of reading the whole original. To write a good summary, you must bear the following in mind: 1. First, you have to read the original carefully. 2. Then, mentioning the source and the author at the beginning of the summary is compulsory. 3. Stating the author's main idea
must be performed without distorting them or filling in your own. 4. Asserting the author's most
relevant supporting evidence or subpoints should not distort them or should not include details. 5. Your own wording is necessary, but if a phrase in the original is considered particularly striking, interesting, or controversial, you may use the author's exact words provided that you insert quotation marks around them. 6. Don't include your own ideas or comments. The summary should include only the author's ideas; in consequence, your own ideas or comments are prohibited 7. A constant reminder to the reader that you are summarising someone else's idea is advisable as well.
10.2 Writing Paraphrases
There is often the case that in performing academic work, one needs information from material in the library to use in some shape in a paper or report you are producing, in which case paraphrasing, that is, using your own wording to report someone else's ideas permits you to use another writer's material to back up an assertion you are making in your own paper without using the other writer's exact wording. Paraphrasing turns out of use when changing the style or the language used in the original, either to facilitate its comprehension or to fit better into your own piece of writing. Unlike a summary, a paraphrase does not differ in length from the original source, but both the lexical units and the structure of the original must be replaced or altered.
10.3 Quoting Sources
Compared to summarising and paraphrasing, where you use your own words to illustrate or report someone else's material, with quoting, you select not only another author’s ideas or material, but also that writer's actual words. Sources are quoted rather than paraphrased when the original wording proves uncommon or interesting, or when the reader must be informed exactly about what another writer has produced. Quoting a source is somewhat sophisticated owing to all the conventions that are compulsory. In the easiest form, when using someone else's exact words, you put quotation marks, two, not one, on either side of the cited material.
10.3.1 Documenting Sources
Published sources, what authors write, their ideas and their words are considered to be their property. If wishing to use someone else's ideas or words, it is extremely important in English writing to "give credit," that is, to mention exactly who wrote these words or ideas, and when and where they were written. If you do not comply with the conventions of quoting and giving credit,
you are regarded as though you were stealing, or plagiarising another person's ideas or words. Plagiarism is viewed quite a serious offence and in certain circumstances, it actually equals to a crime. You may use another author's words only on condition that you specify exactly that these words were first used by that particular writer. Despite this, quotations are to be used with due attention.
10.3.2 How to Use Citations
Any writer is granted to summarise an article or a paragraph, or quote a fact, statistics, examples, or anything someone else said or wrote, but that person must be given credit, for which there are numerous systems currently in use in both academic and nonacademic writing to be able to document a source. As a result, before writing a paper for a course, one should learn about the conventions practised by that academic discipline.
11. ANALYSING ISSUES
Your objectives are to develop skills such as writing in an objective tone, being able to analyse logically and systematically every point, use various external sources to support your position or considering the audience for your argument.
11.1 Analysing Both Sides
One feature of academic writing is commonly an objective or neutral style, which means the writer tries to come across as calm and almost not involved, although he or she displays very strong feelings with regard to the issues approached. In order to help you create an objective tone in your writing and practise logical analysis, your first assignment could be examining two sides of an issue.
11.2 Analysing Written Arguments
In addition to putting forward an objective discussion of a topic, academic writing often demands responsiveness to someone else's writing. Before being able to respond to another's position, you must ensure you have a deep insight of it and of the arguments the writer supports
that position with. When coming with an argument, writers make use of some or all of some techniques such as supplying examples, using analogies, i. e. comparing a situation to another, mentioning and responding to opposing viewpoints, resorting to authority, that is, citing experts in this domain who condone with the position, as well as highlighting consequences or implications of both for and against positions.
11.3 Arguing from Written Material
One of the typical academic writing tasks engenders using published material in your own work, which can be attained through synthesising information from a variety of sources in order to design your own original argument.
12. CONSTRUCTING YOUR OWN ARGUMENT
We formulate and voice opinions periodically relying on what we see, hear, or read. In writing an argument in an academic environment, you must pay particular attention to being clear and logical. An academic argument is not like an argument or debate over a sensitive issue like abortion or capital punishment. In those cases, our positions are often based on our own ethical codes, which we believe are enough to prove or account for our positions. A change in opinion would appear only after deep rethinking of the moral code. On the other hand, an academic argument is characterised mostly by its lack of emotional appeal. In comparison, an academic argument resorts to logic, a series of evidence in support of an intellectual stance. Academic arguments have a tendency to revolve round intellectual. issues and to appeal to facts and logic for support rather than to feelings or to ethics. Although it may find it peculiar, a teacher reading your work has less interest in what attitude you show than in how you produce arguments for it, which evidence you come up with to validate it, and what logic you pursue in defending it. Controversial matters, like abortion, death penalty, or issues of religion or politics, are hard, sensitive topics for academic argument because people often deeply hold convictions on them. Consequently, it is highly unlikely to convince anyone of your view in a short essay, or perhaps even in a long book. Moreover, if you do not have expertise on these fields, you cannot bring any new ideas able to change someone's mind or relevant to the discussion.
12.1 The Writer’s Credibility
Because writer credibility holds so much importance, as you write or prepare to write,
you should be able to find answers to the questions such as what makes you an authority on the topic to be able to persuade an audience to believe you. You also must take into account what in your experience or education proves you an expert on the matter. If your expertise stems from reading, you must look on the source of your data, namely, who can be regarded as an authority on a particular issue. A legitimate expert has education, training, or experience in the subject and his point of view tends to be objective, not influenced by a vested interest. Lastly, a legitimate authority must be trustworthy, not notorious for altering the truth. Therefore, your credibility as a writer on any subject is empowered by showing that you are familiar with it and have deeply examined viewpoints disagreeable with your own.
12.1.1 Tone
Commonly, academic debates spark off more logical appeal than moral or sentimental. As a rule, learners become deeply attached to their topics and, as a result, usually err in using too many feelings or moral principles, thus their writing comes across more like political discourse-making rather than objective academic discussions. Specially caution must be addressed to employing rhetorical questions while argumenting, this being the kind of question to which the addresser deems only one sensible answer, being mostly used by politicians when delivering their heated speeches. Such interrogative sentences turn out highly effective because of their appeal to emotions and morality, which is the reason why when addressing them, one must know for sure whether their audience is already in tune with the response. Generally, they are more suitable in heated speeches than in academic arguments where there is need for concentration on maintaining an objective tone throughout the paper.
13. DANGERS IN DEVELOPING YOUR ARGUMENT
13.1 Exaggeration and Unsubstantiated Generalisations
Being able to draw generalisions from facts or details is important in academic writing and highly necessary in argumentation. When making use of a general statement to back up an attitude or point of view, this must be a valid one, not sweeping or unsubstantiated, meaning the student must take great care not to hyperbolise the meaning of a fact or an example or jump to an unwarranted conclusion because they may weaken your argument. You can eliminate the problem by substantiating or by limiting or qualifying the general assertion. An example of Sweeping generalisation would be:” Foreign students study all the time; Romanians go into town.”; an instance of Substantiation is the following:” Of the undergraduates at the library on Friday night,
70 percent are foreigners although they represent only 2 percent of the student population.”; while an example of Qualification/limitation is this: “Many foreign students study very hard. They appear to study harder than Romanians do.”
13.2 Oversimplification
This refers to taking great pains on part of the writer not to oversimplify one’s own stance or the opposing attitude.
13.3 False Dilemma
A false dilemma represents a type of oversimplification in which the writer appears to claim that there are only few ways to consider a situation. With this reasoning, the writer seems to be trying to bring the reader round to think this is the only genuine one. However, a smart discussion would try exploring other possibilities. While foretelling the results of an action is a good method for supporting your position, the consequences should not be exaggerated out of all proportion.
13.4 False Analogy
In a false analogy, two situations are contrasted and the writer attempts to demonstrate their likeness or that the events in the former are definitely going to occur in the latter. Employing an analogy, in which two situations bear a strong resemblance, does not prove anything, but can turn particularly useful to the reader in gaining an insight of the writer’s explanation or role.
13.5 Logical Fallacy/ Flaw: Arguing in a Circle
What you are attempting to prove ought not to be given the purpose of your evidence.
13.6 Logical Fallacy/Flaw: Irrelevancies
There must be clear relationships to the position for which the writer brings about pieces
of evidence.
13.7 Logical Fallacy / Flaw: Non-sequitur
A non- sequitur is drawing a conclusion not connected in a logical way to the proofs in the supporting sentences.
13.8 Logical Fallacy/ Flaw
Furthermore, a writer should pay attention to avoid stating that one action determined another or stemmed from another merely because of their chronological previous or subsequent occurrences.
13.9 Inappropriate Authorities
When referring to an authority, one must determine with certainty first that it is a rightful one and whether your readers are bound to approve of the authority mentioned. A truthful academic argument about secular realm would not appeal to the Bible, for instance, or the Qur'an as references. Also, celebrities are not recommended experts providing that they are regarded as knowledgeable or with experience in the field under discussion.
13.10 Bandwagon
Occasionally, writers incite audience to assume or perform something because it is done by others, this solely does not sufficiently support an argument, even though this technique widely avails in the field of advertising.
13.11 Changed Words
Owing to the fact that some lexical units can lead to unreasonable reverberations in
readers, in an academic argument, emotional reactions are not to be spurred in the detriment to logical principles. In consequence, heavily relying on positive or negative vocabulary must be avoided to formulate supporting or argumentative statements.
13.12 Out-of-Date Facts
In situations in which external sources of information are cited to advocate the selected standpoint, current facts must be referred to.
14. ORGANISING YOUR ARGUMENT: INDUCTIVELY/ DEDUCTIVELY
Arguments can be arranged in various styles. According to the deductive manner, way the statement of your opinion is then explained to construct the defence of the assertion in a gradual way. You might also implement an inductive arrangement, in which you revise the grounds one at a time conveying a conclusion and presenting the conclusion subsequent to displaying the reasons that made you reach it. Whereas in the deductive method you begin with stating the generalisation followed by your supporting evidence, in the inductive approach you first present your evidence leading up to drawing a general idea. Besides, in an inductive argument the typical arrangement places the most persuasive evidence toward the end, in the proximity of the generalisation.
15. PREPARING FOR AN ESSAY EXAM
The circumstance of producing an essay for an exam differs slightly from writing a regular essay, or article. From some respects, an essay exam is easier than a regular one since you no decision is called on your audience or target. The assessor naturally is acquainted with the answer to the question and requires from you to fully understand it to be able to discuss the subject comprehensibly. Therefore, a striking introduction or conclusion are less important in essay exams and actually may non-existent. Also, there is rarely enough time for revising what you write and because of lack of a first draft and revision, a first draft cannot serve as a discovery draft. Sound knowledge of the material prior to writing is imperative, rapid planning and preparing what you want to include in your answer hold further significance. This section is instructional about developing strategies for taking essay exams.
15.1 Examining the Exam Questions
When sitting for an exam, one should decide whether you are required an essay or simply a short answer, the latter of which usually assessing knowledge of facts while the former tests your competence to present relationship between facts or their significance, with requirements to select and organise pieces of information. The rubric of the exam signals for answering in a limited number of sentences or in an essay. A complicated question probably expects an essay, whereas a complicated answer is likely conducive of a long answer. The task formulated to discuss, explain, define, you probably will be writing an essay, but if you are asked to list or briefly identify, you probably need to respond only in a sentence or two. Time limit is also very important, for a short answer test is not suitable for an essay exam. In an exam situation, complete understanding of the rubric depends on the way the assessor has worded the question, fact which will tell you what is expected from you and suggestions about the arrangement of the material. Identification of key words like discuss, explain, and any of the following is crucial: Give examples to prove that . . ., Illustrate . . ., Compare . . . to . . ., Contrast . . . with . . . , What are the main differences between . . . and …, Discuss the advantages of . . . over . . . , What are/ were the causes of . . ., What are/were the results/effects of . . . , Why… , What factors contributed to . . . , What is the effect of . . . , What has been the result of . . . , Discuss the reasons for . . ., What types or kinds of . . . , Classify . . ., Discuss the most important features of . . . , Define . . ., What does . . . mean, What is meant by . . ., How does . . . define . . . , How does . . . work, Explain the process by which, Trace the development of . . . .. More often than not, students do not perform successfully in essay exams as a result of misinterpreting the rubric.
15.2 Invention
Once having read an exam question attentively and realising its requirements, the following step is retrieving from your memory as much information as possible related to the topic as fast as possible. This can be attained by applying invention techniques and because you are not investigating your thoughts but attempt to recall everything, listing is probably the quickest efficient method. The list can be made in the margin of the paper so that, although you cannot check everything in the time limit, the grader will see what you intended to include.You may even obtain some credit for the ideas in your list not inserted in the essay answer as a result of jotting down anything linked to the question, without being concerned whether or not everything will come in handy, so that the list can be extensive.
15.3 Writing an Answer
Considering how to organise your information will have the reader finding your line of thinking easier to follow and grasp if it is carried out in an organised way. Writing about the facts
at random, though being all displayed, may be baffling. You can organise the list by grouping similar items. Writing a thesis statement at the beginning will lead you to concentrate on the exact answer as very often the wording of this thesis resembles the question itself. To help not drifting away from the topic, the prompt calls for specific examples or instances of general ideas. In most exam situations, it is of less value to be able to memorise material than to apply and/or evaluate it. Furthermore, as exams are written under the pressure of time, students get nervous, in which case it would be better off to solve first the question you feel most secure about. Starting from one’s strength may alleviate the tension before approaching the next task. It is important to write plentiful information, but you must make sure to pace yourself through monitorising the time spent on any question. Lastly, a few minutes at the end should be saved to look over your essay, checking first for content and then for grammatical and mechanical accuracy. Furthermore, although trying to write fast, your writing should not become illegible as your professor may not be able to make out what you have written and may even get irritated at struggling to discern your words.
16. PRACTISING ESSAY EXAMS
Some questions may demand a mixture of techniques to meet the question successfully, therefore, to enact an exam situation, your answers should be provided in class within a time limit.
16.1 Organising an Exam Division and Classification
Categorising pieces into classes helps us cope with the abundance of distinct items encompassing us through organising and deriving sense. Consequently, we make attempts at dividing the vast unit into partitions and/or classifying them into specimens, which can faciliatate our perception of each division or rating in a more structured way by turn.
16.2 Organising an Essay Exam: Cause and Effect
Because causes and effects are typically intrinsic, writing about them improves our examination. Both immediate and long-term causes and effects need be borne in mind, as does the fact that the occurrence of one event before another does not necessarily amount to being its cause. Finally, in an essay exam one must do more than simply enumerate causes and effects, so that a logical relationship between them is substantial.
16.3 Organising an Essay Exam: Definition
Every discipline taught in school includes learning definitions of new vocabulary and new meanings for common units, which can be obtained when you explain why or how a certain cause leads to a particular effect. Most written definitions may explain an unfamiliar term like pterodactyl, miscegenation, quark, or electron, or it may give a special meaning to a familiar term like family or injustice. It is often useful to connect the new concept or the special meaning to notions or items already known. In an essay exam, this will allow the assessor to check that you students have understood and internalised the items, not only learning them by heart. Typically, a definition first sets the item or concept to be defined into a wider division or class and then mentions the special traits distinguishing it from other elements of the same class. Also, a definition may initiate by negation. Special definitions of usual words fall into two categories: (1) a technical definition of a commonly used term with a specific meaning in a particular domain, or (2) a personal definition that attempts to supply a special charge to a commonly used term. In such definitions, the writer may bring forth an example or narrate an incident to facilitate thinking about the familiar concept in a fresh way. Whichever type of definition is employed, first reference to something already known is advisable, either generally setting the term in a category, or establishing a common ground of agreement, followed by showing how this term is different, for which purpose one may describe it, compare it to something likely to be known, illustrate what it is narrating an event or giving examples, analyse it by splitting it into its components or explain its functions/ usage.
16.4 Organising an Essay Exam: Comparison/ Contrast
In an exam situation, a prompt requiring a comparison entails determining whether you have internalised the characteristics of the items well enough to piece them together. One may or may not be asked to evaluate which is better, but a discussion of the most significant traits of the items is compulsory. Traditionally, you can treat the former item in the first part of your paper, make a transition, and then treat the latter item. Or you can alternate between the former and the latter topic, alternating discussions of features in turn. When plentiful details are to be included, this arrangement pursues your discussion better. Applying such patterns will help you to remember ideas which might otherwise have been overlooked. This framework will make you remember. Insignificant points as well which need not be brought up.
17. UNDERSTANDING THE QUESTION
The commencing stage in essay writing is to analyse the task announcing the topic and indicating what is expected to elaborate on the topic. Essay rubrics normally displays three components: 1) the instruction words, telling you what to perform 2) the key words indicating the topic 3) the words limiting the topic, denoting the specific aspect required to focus on.
17.1 The Instructions
When asked to describe something, then you will mostly present facts and not views, whereas in case of discussing something, then you should put forward your opinion, and you are commonly under the situation of evaluating, or arguing for or against. Furthermore, in higher education establishments, undergraduates should be able to treat problems and concepts, rather than merely to report on facts.
17.2 Key Terms
Usually the easiest part of the essay to address is the key words which deal with a familiar subject, such as the Internet, television, or technology in general, since the examiners do not seek your knowledge, but your capacity to write well. Therefore, the choice of subjects will be about notions and issues expected from any educated person. Common topics may comprise: Education, The environment, Information Technology, The media, Advertising / consumer issues, Social problems, Health, Lifestyles (including urban life, traffic problems, life quality), Culture and society (music, art, literature, television etc.), Foreign languages and travel, Sport, Scientific research (including genetic engineering, space travel), Ethical issues (right and wrong behaviour such as the treatment of animals, law enforcement etc.). In consequence, with a view to a thorough preparation with ideas on such key notions, it is vital to keep updated with the major current issues in the world, for which the editorials of newspapers and magazines are valuable sources, as are current affairs radio and television programmes.
17.3 Analysing the Question
Understanding the question involves deeper thought than understanding the instructions or the wording, actually represents spotting the focus of the question, and recognizing what approach you should apply to the topic, which holds most significance in writing the essay, and
needs to be dedicated most reflection. Therefore, some minutes must be spent on determining the strategies required.
Candidates are judged by their capabilities to provide the solution to a problem, present and justify an opinion, compare and contrast evidence, opinions and implications, assess and challenge ideas, evidence or an argument. Thus, a decision must be reached on which of these strategies is best suitable to any particular task, as well as establishing the time and extent to use definitions and examples.
17.4 Finding the Focus
Looking at the actual question words very carefully is crucial, as learners often reach untimely conclusions about what they should write by just perceiving the topic, rather than the focus of the topic.
17.5 Understanding the Context
The topics are of general interest and any academic disciplines candidates are enrolled in may require essay exams with issues raised that are gripping, agreeable with and easily understood by candidates. The question is always dependent on an issue on which you are asked to analyse and display an opinion. A problem or an issue implies conflicting opinions on the topic from reasonable people, which entails meditating on why the question is considered in such a way, the different standpoints that might exist concerning the topic, the context in which this deemed controversial or what people are concerned about it. It is also of value to interpret the underlying meaning of a question because sometimes the underlying notions are similar in context despite dissimilar wording of tasks.
18. SELECTING AND PRESENTING IDEAS
18.1 Finding Ideas
In an essay of some hundreds of words, to be produced in less than an hour, you cannot undertake to express deeply insightful ideas, thus never overtaking the introduction stage. The opposite situation occurs when not having any specific ideas at all. Generally, what you need is to
display an elementary proposition assertion, e.g. one answering the question to some extent, followed by about three main points or examples to support your argument. Analysing only one item repeatedly in several different ways does not guarantee achieving a good score. Three subpoints are sufficient in number, since that ensures a 5 -paragraph essay, about the correct length: Paragraph 1 Introduction 2 Supporting point 3 Supporting point 4 Supporting point 5 Conclusion The easiest way to find and organise ideas is to brainstorm.
18.2 Brainstorming
Finding and organising ideas in the easiest way is by brainstorming. Your ideas for a topic can be systematised if they are pinned down, which students find most convenient to deal with ideas for a topic by simply jotting down any notions occurring to you that are connected to the given topic, in note form, and at random, i.e. in any order in which they dawn on you.
18.3 Finding More Ideas
If you encounter difficulties coming up with ideas at the required stage of generalisation, a valuable technique is to draw up extremely specific, concrete examples, after which point seeking to detect a higher level of abstraction to which such particular instances belong.
18.4 Using Examples
All essays demand specifics in defence of your argument. Sometimes a topic is rather abstract and the writer needs to realise that there is a call for concrete examples to support your standpoint. The rubric itself indicates that you should employ your original ideas, expertise and experience to support your assertions pertinent evidence. A vast majority of students, my students included, commit the flaw of writing only in general statements upon a subject, which is very difficult since this needs abstract or philosophical language to be accomplished well. One writer had better think up particular situations of concepts and use some of them in order to illustrate and defend one’s outlook.
18.5 The "What if Not" Situation
There are circumstances when you are faced with a task to which you have never spared any thought whatsoever, and where conceiving specific examples is quite uneasy. However, by there is always a social context for these questions as they are deemed controversial by a lot of people, this is the reason why examiners usually pick them out.
18.6 Looking of the Other Side
When you are delivering an argument, it is not compulsory to put forward only the ideas in support of your side. Actually, to increase your persuasiveness, as well as to give a balanced discussion, you need to take into account the views of the supporters of the other side, and to give a response to that, which will also generate further ideas to take notice of.
18.7 Selecting Ideas
A number of concepts you must be clarified because of their involvement in every type of writing. Thus, you must realise that you are addressing problems and solutions almost constantly, and above all, you are to evaluate ideas and solutions as you write, for which relevant ideas must be taken out, at a proper level of generalisation, in a logical arrangement for the topic that you are elaborating on.
18.8 Solutions to Problems
There are a numerous means of providing possible solutions to problems, but in every case, you will need to use evaluation, namely, to determine how good the possible solutions are considered.
18.9 Evaluation
Whatever the task, whether it is problems, considering effects or consequences, backing
an opinion, comparing and contrasting evidence or thoughts, one needs to evaluate. An evaluation of ideas simply means that you have to disseminate whether an idea or a notion is good or bad, or better or worse than others. There are some situations where the question involves a definition, put differently, the key points of the question also necessitating an evaluation. Sometimes, students tend to overdevelop their argument, although an evaluation should be practical and moderate, not profuse, or over-imaginative, or based on overgeneralisations. Selecting ideas implies making your points suitable at a proper layer of generalisation. Before we can choose the most opportune appropriate points, we need to construct a preliminary ordering of ideas.
18.10 Classification of Ideas
Subsequent to brainstorming, and reconsidering the topic, one is to organise the ideas that have been marked down, by dividing their notions into logical categories, so that you can produce well-constructed paragraphs. Traditionally, more than one system of categorizing may be used, but one highly striking pattern stands out. Once having reached this stage of classification, it is highly likely to write your essay in a systematic order, although not all ideas are needed, but you having a distinct paragraph structure to attend to, the writer can resolve what degree of detail to bring in.
18.10.1 Types of Classification
As aforementioned, since the essay topic calls for an expression of an opinion, you need to make an evaluation for which you frequently appeal to a classification into positive and negative peculiarities. Another mode of thinking is that you having to draw a comparison, where you are drawing a parallel between the positive features with the negative ones. When requested for speculation or proposing alternatives to a current condition, you will be contrasting the situation emerging in the world with what it is believed should exist. Other subjects merely require a consideration of consequences, namely, a cause-effect connection, in addition to supplying an evaluation of the effects, but you still have to categories the concepts in accordance to the kind of features implicated.
18.10.2 Selecting Relevant Ideas
After brainstorming and pursuant to classification, it is necessary to erase any points that do not conform, at which point it is advantageous to reread the task, to ensure that the ideas chosen
are not only related to the topic, but also gainful to the question.
18.10.3 Level of Generalisation
One grounding on which to select substantial ideas is to be able to select matters at the correct level of generalisation, amounting to getting rid of insignificant, worthless points or patterns, while avoiding addressing notions that are too extensive for such a short essay.
18.10.4 Overgeneralisations and Exaggeration
Generalisations are indispensable to make sensible conclusions about anything by extracting genericity from peculiar examples. Introductions, topic sentences and conclusions will call for generalisations. However, the flaw of over-generalisation, or sweeping generalisations is not beneficial to your argument, since they create the pretence of not being very reflective.
18.11 Organising Ideas
18.11.1 Ranking Ideas
Upon selection of your messages, you need to decide on the arrangement to present them, being important to demonstrate that you are in control of the matter, and that you understand the significance of every point. Firstly, you need awareness of ranking ideas abiding to one of the following strategies: a) from the most to the least important b) from the most to the least common c) from the most to the least general d) from the earlier to the later, i.e. chronological order. Naturally, other frames are admissible, but these are the most conspicuous ones, like common structural patterns of cause and effect/ consequence, comparisons, alternatives, and speculation, besides the problem-solution and evaluation schemata.
18.11.2 Consequences
The most conspicuous way of debating upon a problem, in any situation, not just essays, is to consider the causes of or reasons for the occurrence of the problem, and then to take into account what consequences or results, or effects there might be if some particular solutions are sought.
18.11.3 Comparisons
The IELTS, TOEFEL, TOEIC, CAMBRIDGE, GRE, GREMAT etc. handbook conventional systems ask you to be able to compare and contrast evidence, opinions and inferences. When you evaluate something, you are comparing the current condition with an ideal one. Furthermore, when comparing or contrasting, you are measuring them against a different series of criteria which need to be classified on their importance. At each stage, you can account additional criteria for evaluation. In a test essay, there are no requirements to go to so much depth, and there is no need to, but awareness of any kind of analytical thinking always calls forth some form of evaluation and comparison. Careful and clear identification of the criteria by which alternatives are devised, judged, rated or compared will eventually improve your thinking and appreciations.
18.11.4 Speculation
Some tasks may involve thinking about an alternative that is non-existent, i.e. to speculate about the likelihood of something, when possible outcomes must be devised out of this suggestion, and evaluated against the criteria deemed applicable. Newly, being realistic, and not heightening your propositions is recommendable.
19. Writing: Using the Right Grammar Vocabulary and Style
Now that you your content has been selected and structured, you can focus on the actual writing being able to apply appropriate grammar and vocabulary for each of the parts of the essay -that is, the introduction, body and conclusion – as well as secure the accuracy of the overall style.
19.1 Grammar
Regardless of how commendable your points or your outlining abilities are, unless you have sufficient command of correct English, you cannot communicate your smartness. Moreover, the basic criterion for assessment is your mastery of English, not the contents. Therefore, the most efficacious preparation you can make for your test essay is to ensure a good grasp of the essentials: the tenses of the verb, the use of the passive voice, correct use of parts of speech, and clause structure with subjects and finite verbs. Although many people are concerned about the appropriate use of the articles and of prepositions, these are less important than the elements mentioned above because they are harder to master and mistakes are less disturbing, not interfering with grasping of meaning.
19.2 Vocabulary
It is advisable to use simple, correct English rather than experiment with sophisticated lexis and get it wrong. Unfamiliar vocabulary can be tried out turning to a helpful teacher or examining a dictionary, which is out of the question during a test. Nevertheless, some words and phrases should be learnt carefully due to their high occurrences in a great number of essays, such as those belonging to each of the common categories: evaluation (e.g. benefit, unsatisfactory); consequence, cause, reason (e.g. outcome, produce, explanation); modifiers (e.g. significant, majority); connectors (under these circumstances, moreover) or grouping nouns (aspect, factor, feature). A practical way to learn them is to extract examples from readings and then transcribe them into a vocabulary book grouped under appropriate headings. Phrases, not just single words, must be learnt so as to ensure the correct use of the expressions, which can be done by knowing the exact meaning of the words that matches with the grammatical features. It is not sufficient enough to roughly understand the meaning of a word when writing, but it is essential to learn the accurate usage as well.
19.3 The Sections of the Essay
19.3.1 The Introduction
The purpose of the introduction is to announce the reader about a) the topic b) the element of the topic being dealt with c) the stand/attitude assumed by the writer to the topic. To put it in other words, the introduction actually is conducive of the conclusion.
The remainder of the essay then supplies support for your argument. The structure of the
introduction usually follows a typical scheme to introduce the topic and explain why it is rewarding debating upon. Thus, the first sentence usually makes a general assertion about a situation, then the next statement reduces the topic down to a particular aspect that the writer will tackle, by containing the word but or however to show that the writer intends to express something uncommon, but it may claim to support and strengthen the first statement as well.
19.3.2 Grammar and Vocabulary in the Introduction
The introduction is normally rendered in the present tense simple, the present continuous, or in the present perfect tense. Your introductory sentence needs to be connected to the second statement, or third etc. sentence, either by setting a contrast, or by adding emphasis, employing contrast/ concession connectors such as: but, however nevertheless, by / in contrast, on the other hand, in spite of this, while, whereas, or although.
19.3.3 The Body
Traditionally, the body comprises about three paragraphs which presenting evidence to support your argument. Having generated your ideas in the planning stage, when structuring your brainstormed ideas, you reach the stage where one main point is to be displayed in each paragraph. A paragraph resembles an essay in miniature, since it is also a cohesive unit of writing, and as with an essay, the reader must be informed presently about your proposition or statement, the support of which is usually carried out with a topic sentence. Similar concepts can be introduced at the beginning of each paragraph in numerous ways, but some main hints are to be remembered: a) the introductory paragraph brings in the gist idea of the essay, while the topic sentences introduce the main supporting ideas b) the topic sentence presents the main idea of the paragraph, commonly followed by sentences that supply supporting ideas for it.
19.3.4 Vocabulary in the Body
Connectors will ensure cohesion in content in the whole body of the essay, the most common of which being used for listing, addition, consequences and emphasis. The basic listing connectors are: firstly; secondly; the third feature etc.; finally; in conclusion. More interesting are those showing addition: both…and.; also; not only…., but also….; furthermore; moreover; in addition. The usual connectors to render effects, results or consequences are: therefore; consequently; for this reason; as a result; because of this. Connectors for emphasis are also useful
and comprise: in fact; what is more; in particular. When offering examples, you can use: for example; for instance; such as, like. Naturally many other connectors may be employed, but a writer should first familiarise with the most useful ones and use them with due accuracy to avoid presenting their logic as faulty.
19.3.5 The Conclusion
The conclusion need not be extensive, it can even be made up of one sentence, but must not merely repeat the main topic statement of the essay, or your proposition from the introduction, since that would get across as dull to the reader and does not materialise your English skills. Nonetheless, it should include a summary of the main argument or proposition of the essay; it is also advisable to include a comment on the consequrnces of your conclusion. For example, in case of a a recommendation, you can also likely effects of following it. As in the introduction, if you want to convey a similar notion to the topic statement, an attempt to paraphrase it is advisable, or you can avoid a paraphrase by summarising in a new way, and certain situations, a conclusion may present likely future outcomes.
19.3.6 Grammar and Vocabulary in the Conclusion
A range of terms expressing implications include: otherwise; in this case; under these circumstances, followed by the future tense. The language of speculation is also necessary. In order to make predictions, the verbal future tenses are made use of, modifiers such as: in this case, such as, it is likely that, in all probability are also of value, as are connectors typically used for conclusions, out of which the first one in the list is the most unimaginative, and you would be better to conceive a more interesting one if possible: in conclusion, finally, therefore, consequently, clearly, it is clear on etc.
19.3.7 The Style
Two types of problems related to style commonly arise; one results from one’s own writing habits, the second is the effect of cultural differences between your native language or your educational background and English for academic purposes.
19.3.7.1 Modifiers
An utterly important aspect of language in use is the degree of appropriacy when using modifiers, because through them a writer shows his/her own real understanding of the points made. Among the most common errors in way modifiers are used one can encounter: over-generalisation, overemphasis or exaggeration, understatement, and confusion Modifiers aim at making your writing correct and reflective, including adjectives, adverbs, modal verbs, phrases and other parts of speech showing degree, emphasis etc.
19.3.7.2 Over-generalisation
Over-generalisation appears with a high incidence. That is why alterations of over-generalised sentences try to narrow down the sphere of the statement, by reducing the quantity, frequency or domain implicated, for which the following are used: few, sometimes, frequently, generally, many, often, common, widespread etc.
19.3.7.3 Overemphasis
The main point here is not drive the intensity of a statement out of proportion since the writer's attitude displays a suitable extent of certainty. Different degrees of intensity are rendered by terms such as: rather, quite, significant, considerable, dramatic, while degrees of certainty can be performed by expressions such as: maybe, perhaps, possible, definitely, undoubtedly, generally speaking, it is clear that, as well as all the modal verbs: may, might, can, could, should, would, must, ought to. One can also use some phrases to distance oneself from the statement, such as: some people believe, it is generally agreed, according to most scientists, it is said that. Finally, in conclusions your statements can be modified with these expressions: therefore, it seems that, it can be concluded that, this indicates that. There are also some verbs, for instance, which can also show fluctuating degrees of power or certainty: people are / tend to be /it suggests / indicates / proves x causes y / x is a contributing factor to y etc.
19.3.7.4 Understatement and Confusion
While overstatement and exaggeration show a higher frequency, some students do the opposite and lessen their issues, or give out inconsistent, baffled signals, which is usually due to
an inappropriate mixture of the modifiers. Extreme accuracy in inserting modifiers is substantial to avoid sounding indistinct and uncanny.
19.3.7.5 Waffle
Lack of ideas more often than not tends to give birth to a badly written essay, as what commonly happens in such a situation is that the writer either is under the pressure to occupy the paper with hollow, senseless expressions, often referred to as waffle, or there plenty of reiteration of the same idea, or both practices occur simultaneously.
19.3.7.6 Formulaic and Thoughtless Writing
There is a common practice of students to learn a basic structure and a few elementary expressions which then they attempt to apply to every essay, regardless of the topic or the meaning, fact which naturally lead to bizarre products.
Another aspect is the cliches, which are even more frequently misapplied by non-native speakers of English, although some learners deem that good, idiomatic English is supported by using them. Cliches are overhandled phrases in the language, are generally indicative of lazy, unoriginal judgement. It is desirable to avoid such expressions including: each and every one, food for thought, at the end of the day, last but not least, without a doubt, as we know.
19.3.7.7 Immature Writing
Bad writing style can be brought about by poor vocabulary and limited knowledge of grammar, as well as by other aspects. In cases in which students have bright ideas not sufficient vocabulary in English to express them, they simply use vocabulary incorrectly, and turn incomprehensible, but in this situation, they are more likely to express themselves in a much simpler style than adequate for English for academic purposes. However, it is recommended to write straightforward, correct English than appeal to sophisticated English and do it wrongly.
19.3.7.8 Cultural Differences in Style
A major problem faced by many students is that their previously, they have experienced writing in a style dissimilar to that required in their test essays. This may be because a) the type of writing applied before is different, or b) the style of writing appraised by the native culture differentiates from the style expected in English.
19.3.7.9 Different Types of Writing
An essay does not resemble a letter, or a debate or political speech, or a text-book. Writers need to be aware of the differences and conventions in style required by each. The differences between writing style in different cultures are far more difficult to handle. For instance, repetition of words and expressions is an important issue to consider as in some languages repetition is used extensively and quite acceptably, in English repetition is of little value, and writers make great efforts to avoid it.
19.3.7.10 Proof-reading
There is usually not sufficient time left during a test to look over your essay and spot any mistakes, as you are probably under too much pressure to identify most of them. Still, there are two kinds of mistakes quite easy to check for, both linked to the final letter S which is frequently omitted. Time permitting, one can seek through your essay and check whether a) your plural nouns end in 's' b) all verbs in the third person singular, present tense simple also end in 's’.
19.3.7.11 Appearance
In theory, handwriting, layout and general appearance of your essay should not carry too much influence, but in fact, a neatly written and presented essay forms a more favourable impression. Some minor points are to be remembered, though: a) If you leave a good margin, you have space for corrections if any are needed. b) Each new paragraph begins on a new line and is indented. c) If you want to omit something, it should be done with one neat line, and not by using brackets to enclose those words. d) If your mother tongue does not use Roman script, and you encounter difficulty, it must be practised. In English-speaking countries, local libraries may have some books utilised to teach children to write, which could be very helpful.
20. THE IMPORTANCE OF WRITING IN LITERARY STUDIES
A lot of the interest and pleasure in studying literature comes from reading books. Thus, a literature course may be thought of as a process of reading and learning about some recommended works, and by performing this, students gain specialised understanding and skills to explore writing, resulting in becoming proficient in the discipline. While the ‘input’ of your course consists largely of what and the manner you read it, the assessed ‘output’ almost always requires writing, sometimes in the form of short written answers to prescribed questions as it does in exams, or the form of extended essays or dissertations. Viewing writing as the main means of assessment in literary studies, it is likely that your success primarily relies on the basis of essay-writing skills, rather than on the insights gained during reading. Careful and sensitive reading holds little value unless associated to skills in elaborating relevant written arguments. That is why writing skills and the study skills that support essay-writing help you embody observations you make about literary texts in appropriate written form. In order to strengthen such skills, you are proposed to go through the major processes involved in writing in literary studies: • interpreting a given question, or working out your own title or topic; • anticipating what examiners look for in your essay; creating your basic ideas; • making a first sketch or outline; • appealing to reference sources to develop your ideas with appropriate information; • developing your argument in a coherent way, from its introduction through to its conclusion; • supervising elements of composition, such as grammar, spelling, cohesion and punctuation; • submitting your completed assignment in an academic format. Combined, these clues result in dividing the confusing overall experience of writing an essay into a string of distinct stages, each of which being analysed and learnt to master.
20.1 Four Basic Principles
Before moving on to practical concerns, four basic claims about writing are primary. A. Writing equals to construction. B. Writing necessitates a relentless process of re-construction. C. Writing is a mode of thinking. D. Writing differs from talking. Grasping them can help overcome misinterpretations students make about their writing tasks.
Writing means construction. Writing is not seen as an action of spontaneous self-
expression, pouring out ideas inspirationally, but as a process of composition: a craft of building something, so that essays written for literature courses have to be written in the sense of modified, altered or drafted, many times; but then they are probably only read by your reader once. Many of the hindrances encountered in writing essays arise because of the requirement to master different aspects of organisation simultaneously, such as: • the argument: so that the essay will be coherent at a notional level; • the information structure: to avoid presenting, as if they were new, facts or views probably well-known to your reader; • the discourse structure: so that your essay has shape
and development; • the style: so that the essay has a voice which meets the expectations of your course; • the punctuation and grammar: so that the essay can be read easily and clearly; • the presentation: so that the essay can be read distinctly in terms of layout, handwriting and typeface.
B. Writing involves a constant process of re-construction. Some writers mull over an idea for a long time, then put it down completely formed, but most writing in any form, genre or species, undergoes successive revisions, being repeatedly modified in the light of how an expression of ideas appears on the page. Some authors advocate doing at least some writing before you read as it helps understand what you will need from the books you read, and as a result, the notes taken will be much more focused. Writing also directs you towards other books, particular facts and arguments in them that you will need to read. Abstract intentions, and theoretical knowledge of good writing need to withdraw in favour of the practical strategy of ‘try it on the page, see what it looks like, and then decide whether to keep it or how to change it’.
C. Writing is a way of thinking. Like diagrams, maps or calculations, writing is a resource to think with, classify and control ideas into systems that cannot easily be simultaneously borne in your mind. It is also a tool beyond literary studies, a so-called ‘transferable skill’. Studying literature is widely assumed to provide coaching in thinking. In the light of this view, regardless of your readers, your essays become devices for developing solutions to intellectual problems you set yourself. The very process of writing comes with working through questions more reflectively than in most spoken contexts. Seen in this way, writing an essay can provide satisfaction to some extent, and increased self-confidence, eventually as precious as the grades which it is assessed.
D. Writing is different from talking. Your reader cannot ask for clarification in the same way your hearer can, and you cannot check with your reader for understanding. Therefore, a writer needs to provide everything vital to understanding in the written text. This is one reason why writing is peculiarly more formal and constrained by more explicit rules than speaking skills. However, by offering too much background information, your reader will lose attention, so precise decisions must be made about the amount of information needed. Clear direction and development should be offered in what you write so that your essay will lead to a distinctively signalled target, rather than simply listing or presenting rather inexplicit material unrelated to the discussion. Should you have any inquiries, you can check on yourself by imagining yourself as a reader of your work who keeps asking and doubting.
20.2 Practice and Experimentation
Because writing differs from speech, writing can be seen as a sort of ‘foreign language’, in that most people use written English less fluently than the spoken English. Improving your writing is like improving your knowledge of a foreign language, best done by practising. Practice in essay-writing asks first for boundaries to a writing task. For example, setting a time
limit of 40 minutes, and writing a complete essay in this time, whose success involves learning how to plan and time your work. Alternatively, one can practice picking a paragraph from an essay and rewriting it, analysing the effects of successive revisions, or can carry out different parts of a task, independent from the overall process of an essay. For instance: • realise what a question is needing from you, without answering it; • make a list of paragraph headings for essays which you do not need to expand. Thus, by learning from practice, and keeping notes of what learned, you can avoid recurrent mistakes by applying to a new assignment the general strategies already used successfully on at least one previous occasion.
20.2.1 Preparing for Work
Practice is good, but practising effectively means setting yourself up to work effectively. Some improvement in your work may come only from thinking about suitable practical arrangements, such as looking for ways of making time for yourself to work, and a place where you can work productively. Accept that unproductive periods are inevitable, expect things to go wrong and plan for them, vary the tasks during the day, so that those boring or unpleasant are balanced out by easier and more enjoyable ones. However, you must be tough on yourself with regard to the difference between productive work and other activities that can be ways of pretending to work. Also, you must accept it always takes longer to complete something (e.g. by getting your bibliography right, or proof-reading or printing) than you predicted, and grant time for such tasks. Understanding the deadlines set, and what happens in case of failure is vital, as well. Although each element of the writing process needs to addressing and working on, you are almost always assessed on your product, not on how you came up with it.
20.3 Handing In
All things approach to an end, so this unit is about the process of finishing your essay or dissertation and handing it in as straightforward as possible.
20.3.1 Meeting Your Deadline
Suggesting some ways of protecting yourself is useful. Keeping back-ups will help you if your computer breaks down. If your printer breaks down and you need a different printer with another computer, you can save your file for printing elsewhere as just a text file or as a .pdf file. If you need to send in your work by post, either getting a receipt of mailing, or sending the work
as an e-mail attachment to your examiner, simply as a guarantee that you have ended, and prior to a printed version, may be acceptable. You can prepare yourself for unexpected problems in the ending stages by finding out where your school or university has free access to computers and printers, and what media these machines accept. Uploading to an internet site from your own computer and then downloading to another machine is another possibility. What the rules are for late submission, including data about an extension and when this must be applied for comes next. Finally, if you do lose work, rewriting is generally done, and your memories will filter the good parts in your lost written piece from the rest, resulting in a rewritten version which turns out to be a simpler and brighter piece.
20.3.2 Judging When Your Essay Is Finished
Many literary texts present problems that simply augment and become more complex the more intensively you work with them, that is why it can be difficult to bring your writing to an end. Writing an essay involves trying to extract something coherent out of this complexity, so one way of considering completion is to begin your essay by for making a question as specifically as possible. Another trait of completeness is when your essay makes sense in sequence and reads as an apparently complete quest through the material. The process of obliging yourself to read your work all the way through can give you a fair sense of whether you are nearly there. Something to protect against is the idea that your essay is an extension of yourself, and hence that you are finally subjected to judgement. Finishing is partly a process of shedding something: once handed in, the essay is only a separate object. The issue of completion is one reason why your assessors set a word limit and a time limit/deadline which compel you to rank tasks according to priority.
20.3.3 Bibliography
When producing an essay, you refer to other books, and likely to other kinds of text, in other media. The list of them is sometimes called your documentation, and is usually inserted at the end as your bibliography which normally contains the texts cited in the course of your essay, so that every entry in the bibliography suits a citation. The main principles of a bibliography are these: 1. For each item, enough information must be added to enable a reader to find that item. 2. Follow prescribed rules for the information included, and its order, and be consistent in these rules. 3. Ensure that each in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the bibliography, and that it is always possible to pair them. 4. Ensure that the bibliography is ordered: alphabetically by author’s last name, and for each author ordered by the date of each text. 5. Bibliographies can be divided into sections, each with its own alphabetical ordering where appropriate: e.g. by media, by primary vs secondary sources. As a general guide, the following types of information are needed: 1. Initials
so that the bibliography can be ordered by last name, but when there are more authors, the first author has last-first name order, and the other authors have first-last name order. If the document you are citing is an edited book, the name or names are followed by ‘ed’ or ‘eds’. If there is no author’s name, usually you start with the title of the book. 2. Date of publication. When you do not know, write ‘no date’ (or n.d.). If you are looking in a book for its date of publication, it can be either at the beginning or the end. Give the date of the edition you are actually using 3. Title of the document. Usually book titles are indicated either by underlining or italicising. As a further differentiation, single quotes are commonly used round chapter or article titles. 4. Place of publication, followed by name of publisher. 5. If your document is inserted in another document., italicise the title of a book or journal, leave other titles unitalicised and do not surround them with quotes.
20.3.4 Bibliographic software
It is likely to purchase software to help you organise your bibliography, whose main advantage is that you can assemble a large bibliography as working, which you can then elaborate on for specific purposes such as an article. Though being useful, it may not be preferable.
20.3.5 Footnotes and Endnotes
Some citation systems use footnotes, that is, the ‘notes’ or ‘notes and bibliography’ conventions. In general, it is suggested that you avoid using footnotes or endnotes for anything other than citation, as important aspects for your argument should be inserted into the prose of your essay, not at the bottom or at the end. If that specific point does not integrate well into your argument, then you should consider deleting it.
20.3.6 Abstract or Summary
An abstract is a short, usually 100–200 words, summary of your essay, but is required only for longer coursework, projects, or dissertations. The abstract presents your reader the essay’s main points. Firstly, your abstract can also work as an advertisement, to attract the reader and create a favourable first impression of your essay; as a result, a good one will influence how your work is likely to be marked. The abstract might be including such parts: • the question or questions you are asking • the key answers to those questions, • the texts you are using, • the theories or techniques
you are employing. Writing an abstract will make you think about your writing from a fresh view, obliging you to assess yourself what is interesting about it.
20.3.7 Table of Contents
If your essay or dissertation has named sections and sub-units, it can be a good idea to add a table of contents at the beginning, whose purpose is to inform the reader exactly what she will encounter in your essay, and which page to find it on. A second purpose requires you to outline its development once more. If titles of sections are vague or cliched, these sections lack focus and purpose. You can create and format a table of contents (TOC) automatically if you are word-processing your essay, and can update it automatically. However, reading through the main body of your text once more you can adjust local sign-posting, which is the glue between the essay’s different parts.
20.3.8 Acknowledgements
The acknowledgements at the beginning of a published piece or dissertation – generally not in essays and never in exams – allow you to express gratitude to people and organisations. If you have been allowed to reproduce material, you usually have to thank those authors or publishers. You may wish to stress, following convention, that you assume full responsibility for the way ideas are rendered, so that any mistakes or adverse judgement will not be turned towards the named people. There are also forms of institutional help that might be acknowledged, including technical or financial.
20.3.9 Final Stage Before Submitting
Before handing in your completed manuscript, one can undergo a checklist. 1. Check spelling, particularly the spelling of names. Use a word-processor’s spell-checker at the almost-closing stage, supplementing it where necessary. 2. Check grammatical errors, such as lack of agreement between subject and verb. Computer software sometimes includes a grammar checker as well. 3. If you have made up your table of contents manually, add the final page numbers. 4. If you use a documentation system that separates the citation from a full bibliographic entry at the end, make sure that all citations match bibliographic entries. 5. Check the bibliography for completeness and consistency. 6. Check through the text for incomplete parts. When you are
writing, it can be helpful to use a consistent symbol to show something to be followed up later. 7. Once having made all the photocopies needed, check that they all have all the pages, are numbered continuously, and are in the right order. 8. Make sure you have fulfilled the regulations for submission, many aspects of the overall layout of the document being added automatically at the end with software programmes. As a general guideline, it is recommended using as much space as possible in the final submission: double-spaced lines, with broad margins; starting new pages where possible; and avoiding uncommon fonts and colour.
21. PREPARING FOR A VIVA
The complete term for what is usually just called a ‘viva’ is viva voce, which means ‘by or with the living voice’ and is the term for an oral examination on written work. Students, who are assessed on the basis of a dissertation or thesis, usually get examined at least partially by viva.
21.1 Functions of a Viva
The viva can test the originality of your work, by discovering whether you know what it consists of. The viva can also make examiners decide on which side of a borderline you fall into. • The viva can evaluate your oral skills, including your improvisation and arguing on the spot. • The viva is an event to explore the possibility of publishing the thesis or part of it, especially in discussion with an external examiner. • you should be able to explain in brief why your work is interesting • You should also ponder over the implications of your work, including further questions, parallel cases or practical applications. • Finally, many dissertations and theses are referred back for further work because they contain too many printing errors, and prepare beforehand in order to speed up resubmission and final acceptance.
22. PUBLISHING YOUR WORK
First, the manuscript you have written may need to be shortened as a journal article is not to be longer than 60 double-spaced pages, and a book not longer than 70–80,000 words. Second, one problem is that your particular work is not sufficiently contextualised for any given journal in which you wish to have it published, and must address to specific theoretical or critical work. By sending your work to a journal or publisher you professionally commit yourself not to have plagiarized other people’s work. In case of an article, it is often best to send a summary first
along with an enquiry to the journal’s editor as must fit with their policy on kinds of contents. There is always the possibility to ‘self-publish’ by loading your work on your own website, but some journals consider this to be prior publication and, in consequence, will not accept your work as a submission.
23. FROM PARAGARPH TO ESSAY
23.1 Organisation
23.1.1 A Paragraph
It is a group of connected sentences about a sole topic. The topic of a paragraph is one, and only one, idea. A paragraph has three main parts. 1. Topic sentence. The first sentence in a paragraph is a sentence that settles the topic and tells what the paragraph will discuss about it. 2. Supporting sentences. The middle sentences in a paragraph are called the supporting sentences as they offer examples or other details about the topic. 3. Concluding sentence. The last sentence in a paragraph is called the concluding sentence because it often repeats the topic sentence in different words or summarises the main points. Sometimes, a paragraph should also bear a title. telling the topic of the paragraph in a few words, usually not in a complete sentence or in just one word.
23.1.2 Paragraph Form
In academic writing, there is a special form for paragraphs. Here are the rules for correct paragraph form for handwritten paragraphs: 1. Paper. Use 8~-inch-by-11-inch lined, 3-hole paper. The three holes should be on your left side as you write. Write on one side of the paper only. 2. Ink. Use black or dark blue ink only. 3. Heading. Write your full name in the upper-left comer. On the next line, write the course name and number. On the third line, write the date the assignment is due in the order month-day-year, with a comma after the day. 4. Assignment Title. Center the title of your paragraph on the first line. 5. Body. Skip one line, and start your writing on the third line. Indent the first sentence 2 inch from the left margin. 6. Margins. Leave a l-inch margin on the left and right sides of the paper. Also leave a l-inch margin at the bottom of the page for your teacher to use to write comments to you. 7. Spacing. Leave a blank line between each line of writing for your teacher to mark corrections.
Here are the rules for correct paragraph form for a paragraph typed on a computer. 1. Paper. Use 8Yc -inch-by-11-inch white paper. 2. Font. Use a standard font style, such as Times New Roman. Do not use underlining, italics, or bold type to emphasise words in academic writing. 3. Heading. Type your full name in the upper- left corner. On the next line, type the course number. On the third line of the heading, type the date the assignment is due in the order month-day-year, with a comma after the day. 4. Assignment Title. Skip one line, and then center your title. Use the centering icon on your word processing program. 5. Body. Skip one line, and start typing on the third line. Indent the first line of each paragraph by using the TAB key automatically by five spaces. 6. Margins. Leave a l-inch margin on the left and right margins. 7. Spacing. Double-space the body.
23.1.3 Editing
It is checking your writing and consequently correcting and improving it. This can be practiced by yourself or with a partner. In Step 1 you find the mistakes in the form of a paragraph, and in Step 2, you copy the paragraph using correct form on an 8-by-11-inch piece of notebook paper which should be one paragraph.
23.2 Grammar and Capitalisation
A sentence is a group of words containing a subject and a verb and expressing a complete thought. A sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period/ full stop, but it may also end with a question mark or exclamation point, but in academic writing, most sentences end with a period. In English, the subject of a sentence is always expressed, except in orders. The subject tells who or what did something by a noun or pronoun. The verb usually tells an action, and sometimes it just connects the subject to the rest of the sentence. Action verbs name an action while linking verbs relate the subject with the rest of the sentence. Linking verbs do not have objects. The most common linking verbs are: be, become, look, feel, seem, smell, sound, and taste. The object receives the action of an action verb and is expressed by a noun or pronoun.
23.2.1 Capitalisation
In English, there are many rules for using capital letters. Here are six important ones: I. The first word in a sentence. 2. The pronoun ‘I’. 3. Names of people and their titles, but not a title without a name. Exception: A title without a name is sometimes capitalised if it refers to a specific
person. 4. Nationalities, languages, religions, and ethnic groups. 5. Names of school courses with numbers. 6. Specific places you could find on the map.
23.2.2 Sentence Structure
There are four kinds of sentences in English: (I) simple, (2) compound, (3) complex, and (4) compound-complex. A simple sentence is a sentence that has one subject-verb pair. The subject in a simple sentence may be compound, and the verb in a simple sentence may be compound, as well. Often you need to connect words or groups of words in a sentence by using connecting words which are called conjunctions. There are many conjunctions in English, two of which are and and or. They have different meanings. ‘And’ joins two or more similar things in positive sentences; ‘or’ connects two or more similar things in negative sentences as well as two or more choices or alternatives. Sentence combining is a way to improve one’s sentence-writing skills. All the long sentences together make up a paragraph. There may be several correct ways to combine the sentences, but there are only a few rules to follow. I. Words should not be repeated if possible 2. You may omit words, but not leave out any relevant information. 3. You may change words. 4. You may add words. Your aim is to write smooth, grammatically accurate sentences containing all pieces of the information but not to repeat any of it.
The most important sentence in a paragraph is the topic sentence. It is called the topic sentence because it tells the reader what the topic of the paragraph is or what he/she is going to read about. The topic sentence is usually the first sentence in a paragraph. A topic sentence has two parts: a topic and a controlling idea. The topic part names the topic while the controlling idea part tells what the paragraph will say about the topic. Usually, the topic comes first and the controlling idea comes second in the topic sentence. However, the controlling idea may come first in some cases. Supporting Sentences. The middle sentences of a paragraph are the supporting sentences, which explain or prove the idea in the topic sentence.
23.2.3 Listing-Order Transition Signals
A transition signal is a word or phrase that shows how one idea is related to another idea. In a listing-order paragraph, use transition signals such as First, Second, and Third to tell your reader that these are main points. 1. Place most listing-order transition signals at the beginning of the sentence, and put a comma after them. 2. They also may come in the middle of a sentence, between the subject and the verb, without a comma or at the end of a sentence with a comma.
23.2.4 Paragraph Unity
A paragraph must follow the rule of unity, which is utterly important. All the sentences in a paragraph are about one main idea, and all the supporting sentences in a paragraph must be relevant, meaning "directly related to the main idea." When you write a paragraph, one must ensure that all of your supporting sentences are relevant. The opposite case is irrelevance. Paragraphs that stand alone, that is, paragraphs that are do not belong to a longer composition, often have a concluding sentence at the end which closes the paragraph so that the reader is not left expecting more. I. Sometimes, a concluding sentence reminds the reader of the main point by restating the topic sentence in different words. 2. Sometimes, a concluding sentence summarises the main points. A new idea must not be introduced in your concluding sentence. You just review or repeat the ideas you have already discussed and do not add anything new, using a transition signal to tell your reader that this is the end of your paragraph. There is always a comma inserted after conclusion signals. Conclusion Signals: To conclude, In conclusion, To sum up, To summarise, In summary, In brief, In short, Indeed etc.
A compound sentence is two simple sentences connected by a comma and a coordinating conjunction. 1. A comma and a coordinating conjunction connect the two halves of a compound sentence. 2. There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. 3. A compound sentence must not be confused with a simple sentence that has a compound verb. Two sentence errors that writers sometimes make are run-ons and comma splices, and occur most often when the two sentences are related in meaning. A run-on is two simple sentences incorrectly joined with no coordinating conjunction and no comma. A comma splice is two simple sentences incorrectly joined with a comma alone. There are two ways to fix these errors. 1. Separate the sentences with a period. 2. Add or keep the comma and add a coordinating conjunction.
24. WRITING PROCESS
Step 1 Prewrite to brainstorm ideas. • Make a list to get main ideas and details about your topic. • Edit your list. Choose two to four main points. • Make an outline. Make a form for yourself. Your outline should include all three parts of a paragraph: topic sentence, supporting sentences (main points), and concluding sentence. Step 2 Write the first draft. • Write ‘rough draft’ at the top of your paper. • Use a listing-order signal to introduce each new main point. Also, use a conclusion signal with the concluding sentence. • Write two or three additional sentences to explain each main point. • Include at least three compound sentences somewhere in your paragraph. Step 3 Edit the first draft. • Edit your paragraph with a partner. Step 4 Write the final copy. • Write a
neat final copy of your paragraph to hand in to the teacher. Your teacher may also ask you to hand in your prewriting, your outline, and your other drafts.
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. There are two kinds of clauses in English: independent clauses and dependent clauses. 1. An independent clause has one SV pair and expresses a complete thought. Independent clause is just another name for a simple sentence. 2. A dependent clause is an independent clause with a subordinating word, such as because, after, and when, added to the beginning of it. A dependent clause does not express a complete thought, so it is not a sentence by itself, it is only half of a sentence and must be joined to an independent clause. Together, the two clauses express a complete thought. Adverb Subordinators There are many subordinating words that can make a dependent clause. They are called adverb subordinators because they introduce dependent clauses that act like adverbs, that is, they answer the questions when?, why?, where?, and so on. Certain adverb subordinators introduce time clauses. Here are some common time subordinators: after, as soon as, before, since, until, when, whenever, while. In addition to time-order transition signals, such as first, next, after that, and so on, you can use time clauses to show time order. A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. • When the dependent clause begins with an adverb subordinator, the clauses can usually be in any order. If the independent clause is first, a comma is not to be used. • If the dependent clause is first, put a comma after it. Another kind of sentence error is called a fragment, meaning a part of something. A sentence fragment is only part of a sentence or half of a sentence, it is not a complete sentence. They are fragments because they are dependent clauses and cannot be a sentence by itself.
There are many rules for using commas: after listing-order and time-order signals, except then; before coordinating, and other-like conjunctions in a compound sentence, except Sometimes. Writers omit this comma in very short sentences; in a complex sentence when a dependent adverb clause comes before an independent clause; to separate items in a series which is three or more things in form of words, or phrases, i. e. groups of words.
25. ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
25.1 Marking criteria
What the examiners are looking for in CAE, TOEFEL, IELTS, SAT etc. uses a marking system in which every piece of writing is marked by at least two examiners. A piece of writing does not have to be perfect in order to obtain full marks as the examiners are not only interested in the amount of mistakes, but they give credit for successful task achievement and for accuracy and range as well.
Understanding the criteria. The following criteria are often used in the assessment of writing in official examinations, mostly international, range, accuracy, cohesion, target reader, content, register, and organisation. Some criteria match each of the explanation below. For instance, the appropriate style – should this task be written in a cold, precise style, or should your writing he entertaining? • Does your writing have the right degree of formality or informality? • Are you too personal, or not personal enough? • Is your writing interesting, informative or convincing, as appropriate? Have you included anything else that is appropriate, e.g. a friendly greeting in a personal letter? With concern to accuracy–Have you made a lot of mistakes in gram mar, spelling or punctuation? Have you used vocabulary in a precise way? • Do your mistakes make your writing difficult to understand? • You can make a number of mistakes and still pass the writing paper, provided that your errors do not interfere with communication. In matter of cohesion- Have you clearly indicated the connections • between your ideas? • between your sentences? • between your paragraphs? • Do you use linking words and phrases as appropriate? Related to organisation– Are the following all appropriate? • the beginning of your piece of writing • the ending • the layout (e.g. letter, note, leaflet) • the order and use of paragraphs • the use of titles, subtitles, headings. Connected to your target reader–Would your writing be successful and effective in a real-life situation? • Would the company receiving this letter of complaint refund your money? • Would you be forgiven by the person receiving this letter of apology? • Would the magazine editor publish this article, and would anyone read it? In relationship to range used– Do you have enough mastery of both vocabulary and grammar to accomplish the task? Or is your vocabulary too elementary, and your choice of grammar and sentence structure too simple and limited?
CAE Paper 2 marking scheme utilises criteria and assessment points such as the following: Totally positive effect on target reader. Minimal errors: resourceful, controlled and natural use of language, showing good range of vocabulary and structure. Completion of task: well organized, good use of cohesive devices, appropriate register, no relevant omissions. Sufficiently natural. Errors only when more complex language attempted. Some evidence of range of vocabulary and structure. Good attempt at task, only minor omissions. Attention paid to organisation and cohesion; register not always natural but positive effect on target reader achieved. Accuracy of language satisfactory; adequate range of vocabulary and structures. Reasonable task achievement. Or, an ambitious attempt at task, with good range of vocabulary and structures, causing a number of non-impeding errors. There may be minor omissions, but content clearly organized. Would have a positive effect on target reader. Errors sometimes obscure communication and/or language too elementary. Some attempt at task but notable omissions and/or lack of organisation and cohesion. Would have negative effect on target reader. Serious lack of control and/or frequent basic errors. Narrow range of language. Totally inadequate attempt at task. Very negative effect on target reader. Not sufficient comprehensible language for assessment. Omissions: If the task instructions ask you to produce two different pieces of writing, or answer two questions in one piece of writing, you cannot get a 'pass mark' unless you do both.
Spelling. 1 If you wish to use American spelling instead of British spelling, you must spell
everything the American way. 2 You can lose a mark for wrong spelling if it makes your writing difficult to read and perceive. Handwriting. You can lose one or even two marks if your writing is illegible. Length. For a 250-word task, your words are not going to be count your words, but in practice it is quite difficult to write a completely acceptable response in fewer words; if you write far too much, your writing is very likely to exert a negative impact on the target reader and to include irrelevant material, for both of which you would be penalised. Layout You are expected to layout your writing, like letters, reports, instructions, leaflets, etc. in the appropriate manner.
In some cases, assessment criteria are made up by an individual course tutor, in which case you will find them in your course outline or in a class hand-out. Similarly, the criteria may be part of more general institutional policies or regulations, in which cases information is typically available in your general programme handbook, and/or on the website of your college or university. If you are sitting a public examination, such as A Level or Scottish Higher, you can find such information on the website of the assessment board whose syllabus you are following, e.g. Edexcel or AQA (Assessment and Qualifications Alliance). Knowing such assessment criteria before you proceed writing can guide you towards decisions both on the content of your writing, and on appropriate ways of asserting and justifying whatever you will write eventually.
25.2 Outline of Assessment Criteria
Reclining on a variety of course and exam documents, the following main assessment criteria might be expected in assessment systems for literary studies. A. Fluent expression of personal response. Frequently, the criterion of personal response is formulated in terms such as, ‘produce fluent and conclusive responses demonstrating attentive and detailed reading of texts’, or ‘deliver independent opinions and judgements’. You are scored for showing that you have engaged personally with the work(s) under discussion, and have something to recount back from your own reading experience. B. Contextualising your personal response. This criterion values withdrawing from your own reading, enclosing it in a larger, literary and historical prospect typically consisting of three different but linked elements. Context: refers to both the historical conditions in which the text was written – the relevance of the author’s biography and his/her various works’ – and any significant relationships or comparisons you draw with other texts that may add to the text extra significance, that of literary traditions, periods and movements in connection to texts studied. C. Other readers’ likely interpretations. In securing a context for your reading, you become increasingly aware that other readers may come with attributing manifold meanings and significance to the same text without necessarily misreading it. Essays revealing their writers’ awareness of different possible layers of interpretation can demonstrate their authors’ sensitivity to the scope of their own and others’ interpretations, and are reflective of ability to appraise and converse about variant opinions of literary works. D. Assumptions that shape the writer’s own interpretation include cultural or religious convictions underlying your
reading but will diversify from reader to reader. Showing awareness of such assumptions affecting interpretation entails acknowledgement that literary works display layers of significance, the meaning of which relating to readers’ personal knowledge, experience and ideas. Moreover, recognition of the way form, structure and language forge a text’s meaning is rewarded. Terms such as form, structure and language vary from local effects such as rhyme schemes, patterns of metaphor, or shifts of point of view through to broader optations made by an author, like narrative style and genre. Here, scoring is perceiving meaning as an outcome of the power of words and their arrangement to signify and to inspire, not as something independent of the text. E. Use of appropriate literary-critical concepts and terminology. Using literary-critical terms appropriately substantiates familiarity with established approaches of talking and writing about texts and is qualified by phrases such as ‘with understanding and discrimination’, in order to point out that marks are not given just for using technical vocabulary and style, but only where such concepts and terminology make a contribution to an argument. F. Key skills of organisation and presentation are typically reported to include clear and coherent organisation of pertinent information, using specialised vocabulary when necessary, as well as use of textual evidence such as quotation, paraphrase or insightful detail narration. Even higher scores are achieved for confident and fluent written expression in an appropriate style, generally reminding you that students will be evaluated in conformity with their aptness to make the text legible, and spelling, grammar and punctuation are accurate, so that meaning is clear. G. Making sensible use of assessment criteria. One route is to check how assessment criteria are applicable to your particular writing, since a criterion or heading is used in allocating a ratio of the available grades (e.g. 10% for essay style, 20% for grasp of the text, etc.). In other schemes, the examiner turns to sources of evidence to count on in support of an overall judgement that will show how the various elements are assembled. The main point outlined by each assessment criterion describes what is required from the student to demonstrate, highlighting that your qualities as a writer will be inferred from evidence in the essay itself and your skills as a reader of literature are evaluated on the strength of features of your writing about literature. Consequently, to use assessment criteria constructively, you need to see them not as personal attributes but as features of writing. For instance, they can lead to creating some prompt-questions in planning your essay, such as: • what I feel about this text is likely to be similar to how other people view it? • Is there a historical reason for a particular aspect of the text? • What evidence can I get to demonstrate this point? In revising and editing you such prompts can help you check how far your essay has actually covered the prescribed ground. Using assessment criteria to mold such self-questioning does not limit the writer by prescriptive rules; rather, it lets you check your own developing ideas against an underlying, broader project design.
H. Learning Outcomes. Official assessment criteria usually refer back to stated ‘learning outcomes’ for a complete study programme which mention the types of knowledge and skill you are expected to have upon successful completion of the programme or class. In this way, they equal to an assessment baseline or threshold standard. As with assessment criteria, statements of learning outcomes can be included in course outlines or on the course website, often formulated in such a way that they, in turn, reflect much broader learning outcomes for awards in other
subjects delivered by the same institution or on the website of the relevant regulatory body (e.g. in Britain, the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority [QCA] or the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education [QAA]), for which they act as a discipline-specific ‘benchmark’. Using learning outcomes as you study. The extent of overlap between learning outcomes and assessment criteria is not surprising as on what you are evaluated should closely reflect the objectives of the course or class you are studying and what can reasonably be expected to have achieved by the end. As well as developing your own readings and setting them in a context, college or university students are required to show awareness of more abstract, theoretical systems of thinking about literary texts and their reception, but greater stress is laid on complying with scholarly conventions in presenting their work. Such significant differences mark a switch of emphasis from literary studies in school to literary studies in higher education.
I. FAQS about how you are marked. Whereas assessment criteria and learning outcomes can aid planning and monitoring progress with your essay, anxieties about marking can lead to distractions from productive work. 1. Will assessment criteria prevent a writer being original? Sailing your essay through restrictive criteria may make you wonder about the extent left for creativity. Apart from research sphere, it is unlikely for students to be able to put forward new facts or interpretations, or even know comprehensively what has been written to ensure running the risk of duplicating, especially with short essays and exam answers. Faced with the challenge of being original, you may come to feel that it would be better simply to copy or adapt someone else’s work, but this is inappropriate because you are often assessed on relative rather than absolute quality. Then, it is pointless merely rewriting other people’s ideas and underestimates the scale of disagreement and shift in all areas of the field. Directly reproducing established authors’ in your essay, even with a view to paying homage to their originality, is not an acceptable mode of writing essays or dissertations in British or American colleges and universities, since it is considered to be plagiarism not acknowledge sources. You are expected to be original in the sense of using your own knowledge and judgement to argue a case relying on your own engagement with a text. Your writing gains originality by comparing and weighing existing arguments in relation to the text discussed and your own reading, as well as by your selection of different examples from works read or lectures attended.
2. Will a writer be blamed for expressing personal opinion? Achieving a balance between being original and reproducing established material is difficult, as is how far it is acceptable to express your own opinion. Many students mistakenly believe that they ought not to exhibit their own opinion at all because of a general instruction inappropriately – that they should never use the first- person pronoun. Nevertheless, your own opinion is an essential component of your essay, for literary studies is a process of exploring your own reactions to texts, describing and explaining them. Your response to a text as well as views about it should be examined in a sort of dialogue with the historical context of the text, the history of the its reception and critical comment about it. Other possible reactions to the text should be considered, together with broader theories about literary response and interpretation. 3. Will students be marked down for including general background material? Markers typically see a good answer one focused on the question or topic, supported with textual evidence or other relevant illustration, and argued and written
coherently. This can be reached if the material presented has been extracted from a larger store of information of which you are in control by manipulating and deploying it in order to present a particular argument. Engagement with the question is supported by evidence sought by assessors regarding the interpretation of the text, or whether its terms have been reworked and their relationship investigated. Lower grades, including fail grades, are liable to be assigned to essays not managing to demonstrate commitment to the terms of the question or topic. Commonly, this arises because of lack of indication that it has been selected to support a particular point, rather than merely reproduced, or when a simple description of the plot in the book is all presented or a what someone else has written about it.
J. Imagining your reader as someone particular. Even when you can access explicit assessment criteria, there might still be a value in imagining your reader as someone specific. Every act of speaking or writing involves an addressee who is either real or imagined, and determines linguistic choices the speaker or writer spontaneously makes. Writing an essay without even an imaginary addressee in mind may well lead to unplanned shifts of style and inconsistencies. However, creating in your mind a conceptual addressee for your essay presents new difficulties to decide what kinds of information you should presuppose and what kinds of information you should present as new, but bearing a notional addressee in mind sometimes helps resolve the difficulty of finding a suitable mode of address for your essay. Therefore, your teacher or tutor may be a suitable person to imagine you are addressing because speaking to a tutor can guide you towards a general style suitable to your field of study as it may be easier to attribute to such a person the unusual state of mind of wanting to be told fully and carefully what they already know. A substantial component of the craft of producing assessed essays in literary studies involves managing this peculiarity of who they are addressed to.
Conclusion to Assessment
Boosting writing teachers’ classroom assessment literacy usually leads to their developing a strong grasp of effective assessment principles and practices in their day-to-day role as writing teacher-assessors, i.e., to design “instructionally relevant assessment” (Shepard, p. 13), to use feedback appropriately and effectively, and, above all, to develop assessment skills to align assessment to teaching so as to improve student learning. In brief, writing teachers’ classroom assessment literacy development implicates training and initiatives that enhance understanding of:
• The central function of classroom assessment and feedback in enhancing student learning of writing
• The principles of classroom assessment tailored to help students improve learning
• How assessment and learning can be implemented in the writing classroom
• The pivotal role of feedback in classroom writing assessment
• How teacher feedback can be effectively employed to maximize student learning
• How peer feedback can be used to result in effective learning
• Writing portfolios as a pedagogical and assessment method for improving student learning
• The value of technology in classroom writing assessment and feedback
*Adapted from Shepard, L. A. (2000). The role of assessment. Los Angeles. University of California, National Center Research of Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing.
• The centrality of teachers’ classroom assessment literacy to effective teaching and learning of
writing. Actually, effective assessment drillings are crucial to the teaching of second/ foreign language writing. Assessment literacy for teachers is not a fad; it is a must (Popham) – the lack of which is referred to as “professional suicide” (Popham, p. 82). *
26. AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
In the English-speaking academic world, it is essential to use a wide range of sources for your writing, and to acknowledge these sources with clarity. Basically, plagiarism means taking ideas or words from a source without giving credit /acknowledgement to the author. It is deemed as a kind of theft, and is considered to be an academic crime. In academic work, ideas and words are seen as private property belonging to the person who first thought or wrote them. Therefore, it is important for all students, including international ones, to understand the meaning of plagiarism and learn how to hamper it in their work.
The main difficulty faced by students is that they are assumed: (a) to show that they have read the principal experts on a subject, by giving citations (b) to explain these ideas in their own words and reach their own original conclusions. There are several reasons why students must avoid plagiarism: • Copying the work of others is detrimental to developing your own understanding • To show that you apprehend the statute of the academic community • Plagiarism is easily detected by teachers and computer software • It may result in failing a course or even being expelled from college.
26.1 Acknowledging Sources
If you borrow from or refer to the work of another person, you must demonstrate performing this by providing the correct acknowledgement. There are two ways to do this: Summary and citation, Quotation and citation. These in-text citations are linked to a list of references at the end of the main text, which includes the following details: Author, Date Title, Place of publication, Publisher, which provides the reader with the necessary information to find the source, should the reader need further detail.
26.2 Avoiding Plagiarism by Summarising and Paraphrasing
Quotations should not be over-used, so you must learn to paraphrase and summarise in order to include other writers’ ideas in your work, which will demonstrate your understanding–11.
*Adapted from Popham, W. J. (2009). Assessment literacy for teachers: Faddish or fundamental? Theory into Practice, 48(1), 4–11.
a text to your teachers. Paraphrasing involves re-writing a text so that the language is substantially different while the content remains the same, while summarising means reducing the length of a text retaining the main points. Normally, both skills are used at the same time.
Avoiding plagiarism by developing good study habits. Few students deliberately attempt to cheat by plagiarising, but some develop poor study habits that result in the risk of plagiarism.
Working in cooperation with a partner adds to the list of positive habits.
Plan your work carefully to avoid the risk of writing the essay at the last minute.
Take particular care to make notes in your own words, not reproducing the source.
Keep a record of all the sources you use (e.g. author, date, title, page numbers, publisher).
Ensure that your all in-text citations are introduced in the list of references.
26.3 Research
Whether or not your school or university has a policy on plagiarism can easily be learnt on the website, which may raise some issues to be discussed with colleagues or your teachers. If you can’t find anything for your institution, you are advised to try one of these sites:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01/,
http://uefap.com/writing/plagiar/plagfram.htm.
27. OUTCOMES/ OBJECTIVES/ COMPETENCES
27.1 Rhetorical Knowledge
With regard to this, writing students are expected to: learn and use key rhetorical notions through analysing and producing a variety of texts; gain experience reading and composing in several genres to understand how genre conventions form and are shaped by readers’ and writers’ practices and aims; enhance facility in responding to a variety of situations, requiring purposeful shifts in voice, tone, degree of formality, layout, medium, and/or structure; understand and use a range of technologies to address a variety of audiences; match the capacities of different environments (e.g., print and electronic) to fluctuating rhetorical situations.
27.2 Critical Thinking, Reading, and Composing
From a methodical viewpoint, composing and reading make students be able to : inquire, learn, think, and thus communicate in variegated rhetorical contexts; read a wide range of texts, particularly attending to connections between assertion and evidence, to patterns of organisation, to interplay between verbal and nonverbal elements, and how these characteristics function for different audiences and situations; locate and assess primary and secondary research materials, including journal articles, essays, books, databases, and informal Internet sources; apply strategies — such as interpretation, synthesis, response, critique, and design/ redesign — to compose texts integrating the writer’s ideas with those from appropriate sources.
27.3 Processes
The conceptual processes writing students will acquire are as follows: develop a writing project by means of multiple drafts; develop flexible strategies for reading, drafting, reviewing, collaboration, revising, rewriting, rereading, and editing; use composing processes and devices to discover and reconsider ideas; experience the collaborative and social aspects of writing processes; learn to give and act on productive feedback to works in progress; adjust composing processes for a range of technologies and modalities; reflect on the development of composing practices and the way those practices affect their work.
27.4 Knowledge of Conventions
In matter of contents, students will be able to: develop knowledge of linguistic structures, including grammar, punctuation, and spelling, through practice in composing and revising; understand variations in genre conventions for structure, paragraphing, tone, and mechanics; gain experience negotiating variations in genre conventions; learn common formats and/or design features for different kinds of texts; explore the concepts of intellectual property, such as fair use and copyright, that motivate documentation conventions, practice applying citation conventions systematically in their own work.
28.WRITING MODELS/ TEMPLATES
28.1 Formal Letters and E-mails
Although less common than prior to the advent of electronic communication, letters still hold high importance for formal matters, or when an email address is unknown, being also considered to be more reliable than emails. However, due to its convenience, email is increasingly used for semi-formal as well as informal communication, becoming widely regarded as a way of having a permanent record of an arrangement or discussion.
28.2 A CV (US Resumé)
It is a summary of your education and work experience used when applying for a job.
This sub-unit illustrates the most common format and explains the main points to consider when preparing or updating your own. CV is a personal statement over which you have complete control. When you apply for a job or an educational institution, your CV will probably be one of a great number seen by the firm’s HR department, so in order to impress and stand out, it should be as clear, accurate and well-presented as possible. Even in cases the writers are highly qualified, CVs that display irrelevant material, are badly arranged, and include spelling mistakes may well result in the applicant being rejected. The following clues are to be noted: • There is no need to give your gender, date of birth or marital status. • Two sides equals to the maximum that most employers wish to read. • Details should be pertinent to the specific job or course for which you are applying. • Clichéd claims such as ‘team worker’ or ‘self -starter’ must be avoided. • Information such as education details is normally presented in reverse chronological order, i.e. the most recent comes first. • Details of your early education or hobbies are probably irrelevant to the post or position.
28.3 Essays/ Reports
Even though essays are the most common assignments in many academic domains, students of science and business are often asked to write reports. Both essays and reports can comprise sections examining one example in detail, e.g. case studies, or evaluating other published research related to the issue, e.g. literature reviews. Whereas essays are typically dealing with abstract or theoretical subjects, a report is a description of a situation or the occurrence of an event. In academic terms, it might describe: (a) an experiment you have implemented, (b) a survey you have conducted, or (c) a comparison of alternative proposals to address a situation. In some areas, e.g. laboratory work, your teachers will make it clear what format you should follow. However, most reports should include the following features:
Introduction
background to the subject
reasons for carrying out the work
review of other research in the area
Methods
how you did your research
description of the tools/ materials used
Results
what you discovered
comments on likely accuracy of results
Discussion
of your main findings
comments on the effectiveness of your research
Conclusion
summary of your work
suggestions for further research
In comparison with essays, reports are likely to
be based on primary as well as secondary research
use numbering (1.1, 1.2) and sub-headings for different sections
be more specific and detailed
In most other respects, reports are similar to essays, since both:
have a clear and logical format
use objective and accurate academic style
include citations and references
make use of visual information in the form of graphs and tables
include appendices where necessary
28.4 A Case Study
A case study is a detailed example which may represent the main subject of an essay, or part of a longer report. In either case, it is intended to demonstrate exactly what happened in a particular situation. For example, if you are discussing methods of fighting malaria in rural areas, a case study might follow the real-life efforts of a medical team in a specific district of Indonesia over a period of months.
28.5 Surveys
Surveys, in which people are asked questions about their behaviour or opinions, are a common characteristic of academic work. This sub-unit deals with the design of effective questionnaires for surveys, and puts forward a suitable structure for reporting the results. When designing your questionnaire, one should: (a) limit the number of questions so the respondent manages to answer them in a minute or two as long and complicated questionnaires will not receive accurate replies; (b) keep questions clear and simple, and not too personal, either; (c) use both closed questions which are easier to process, and open questions, which will collect a wider range of responses; (d) try addressing the questions to a classmate before beginning the full survey, and be ready to modify any that were not clear.
28.6 Long Essays
Long essays of 2,500–5,000 words may be required as part of a module assessment and require more research and organisation than short essays, and this sub-unit provides some hints how such an assignment may be tackled.
Stages of work. 1. Study title and make first outline. Look for and evaluate suitable sources. 2. Read and make notes. Keep record of all sources used. 3. Perform reading, note-making, paraphrasing and summarising. Modify outline. 4. Write draft of main body. 5. Write draft of introduction and conclusion 6. Re-write introduction, main body and conclusion, checking for logical development of ideas and relevance to title. 7. Organise list of references, contents, list of figures and appendices if required. Check all in-text citations. 8. Proofread the whole essay before handing it in. Make sure that the overall presentation is clear and accurate.
Longer papers may include the following features, in this order:
Title page. Apart from the title, this usually shows the student’s name and module title and number.
Contents page. This should show the reader the basic organisation of the essay, with page numbers.
List of tables or figures. If the essay includes visual features such as graphs, these need to be listed by title and page number.
Introduction.
Main body. If a numbering system is used, the chief sections of the main body are normally numbered 1, 2, 3 and then subdivided 1.1, 1.2 etc.
Conclusion.
List of references. This is a complete list of all the sources cited in the text. Writers occasionally also include a bibliography, which is a list of sources read but not cited.
Appendices (Singular – appendix) These sections are for data related to the topic, which
the reader may want to refer to. Each appendix should have a title and be mentioned in the main body.
29. CONCLUSION
I have spent my professional life thinking about, studying, researching, and working with young people and their teachers as they learn how to use written language to improve their lives, to generate new ideas and new knowledge, to explore literature, to construct social relationships with others who may be nearby or far away in time and space, and to have a voice in our society as it evolves and changes. For the past four years, I have been studying the teaching and learning of writing in English language classroom environment. I this regard this interest in the teaching and learning of writing as part of our larger concern for how education in the English language can be employed to foster meaningful lives and social relationships, the acquisition of knowledge and insight, an ethic of caring and justice, the imagination and critical analysis, strong and diverse communities, and a democratic society in which every person is valued and can thrive, by embracing the integrity and complexity of the Teaching and Learning Writing. I, as a teacher of English, lay emphasis here on the teaching and learning writing as an integrated, indivisible whole, as for both students and teachers, it is not sufficient to merely study writing and argumentative texts; moreover, writing represents a set of social practices deeply enrooted in our everyday lives and the social institutions in which we all participate, being socially constructed through and existing only through teaching and learning. This teaching and learning may be formal as occurs in classrooms or it may be informal as in families, communities, workplaces, and so forth. Nevertheless, what counts as clear, efficient writing, either in one’s mother tongue, as a second, or as a foreign language, is defined by and constituted by teaching and learning. Unpacking the teaching and learning of writing skills is a complex process requiring consideration of language and composition processes, learning theories, philosophies of rationality, what counts as knowledge and knowing, social relationships, power relations, theories of instruction, situated logic, cultural differences, discourse processes, and more. And although teachers may not necessarily use the jargon of academia, these complexities are part of the context within which teachers in high school language classrooms think about, reflect upon, and engage students in constructing argumentative writing. This context is always evolving such that no moment of teaching and learning is ever frozen in time, but must always be framed and reframed again and again.
30. METHODOLOGICAL- PEDAGOGICAL SAMPLES
Appendix A
Main Idea of the Whole Paper (thesis)
Main Idea of the first paragraph (topic 1) explaining the thesis
explanations of the topic
more explanations of the topic
more explanations of the same topic
Main idea of the next paragraph (topic 2) explaining the thesis
explanations of topic 2
more explanations of the same topic, etc.
Main idea of the next paragraph (topic 3) explaining the thesis
explanations of topic 3
more explanations of the same topic, etc.
Main idea of the next paragraphs . . . etc.
explanations of each topic . . . etc.
Concluding ideas
Appendix B
Diagram of Organisation by Subtopic
Main Idea
Subtopic 1:
Example, and/or
Illustration, and /or
Fact, and /or
Personal experience, etc.
Subtopic 2:
Example, and/or . . . etc.
Subtopic 3:
Example, and/or
Statistic, and/or
Reference to authority, and/or . . . etc.
Conclusion from all the supporting material given
Appendix C
Task Bank
Task 1. You saw a car leaving the scene of a crime at high speed. You got a good view of the car, but you saw neither the number plate nor the people inside. The police have asked you to write a description of the car. Write 100-150 words.
Task 2. An English-language magazine is running a series entitled The Eye of the Beholder. Each week an article is published in which a reader describes an object or a work of art that they find particularly beautiful. In the articles that have been published so far, the writers have usually included a physical description of the object before giving a personal commentary on why they find the object beautiful. Write about 250 words.
Task 3. You are on holiday and next week some friends are coming to join you, but you are not staying where you had expected to be, as you have found somewhere much better. Write a short letter to your friends, (about 250 words) telling them that you have moved and persuading them that you have made a good choice. Then explain where they will find you, giving them instructions how to get there by public transport.
Task 4. For a young people's English-language magazine in your country, write an article of about 250 words giving advice on the following subject: Healthy eating: some sensible advice for teenagers.
Task 5. People in your country are frequently upset by the behaviour of some tourists. Tourists sometimes do things that are acceptable in their country, but shock, surprise or offend in your country; conversely, they sometimes fail to do things that in your society they are expected to do. Your local tourist office asks you to produce a sheet of advice addressed to English-speaking tourists giving them advice on how to behave in your country. Write the sheet of advice, suggesting what the tourists should and should not do if they wish to be well received in your country. Write about 250 words.
Task 6. Write a magazine article that takes a critical look at your town as seen through the eyes of a dissatisfied tourist. Your article should be enjoyable to read, but make a number of valid criticisms • Suggested approaches: • Write the article in the form of a letter written by a dissatisfied tourist. • Write the article in your own voice, after hearing from a dissatisfied tourist.
Task 7. You recently spent six months in an English-speaking country working as an au-pair. Now a friend of yours wants to go and work for the same family. The family have written to you asking if you think your friend would be suitable for the job. (The work involves child-minding for three children aged 3, 6 and 8; some housework, including vacuuming and washing-up; and the choice of either gardening, cooking or walking the dog.) Write a letter to the family,
recommending your friend. Your letter should be sufficiently positive to ensure that your friend gets the job, but you should at least pretend to give a balanced judgement. Write about 150 words, of which about 100 words should be the 'reference'.
Task 8. The British Centre is researching English language teaching in schools around the world. They already have information supplied by the teachers and management of schools, but recognize that this information is only half the story. In order to obtain a more balanced picture of the schools, the British Centre invites all advanced students to write a 250-word report on their school. As an incentive, the Centre is offering study grants worth £2,000 each to the writers of the best three reports. Your report should cover all the relevant aspects of your school/English Department, from classrooms and facilities to teachers, management and methodology. You should also mention what you perceive to be the strengths and weaknesses of your school.
Task 9. You are working at an International Summer Camp for children aged 12-1 6. Every member of staff has been put in charge of one sport or activity and asked to write a short leaflet in English introducing the children to the sport/activity, describing the equipment, rules, techniques and safety procedures, and giving any appropriate advice to beginners. You are lucky enough to be able to choose a sport/activity that you know a lot about. Write the leaflet (about 250 words).
Appendix D
Glossary of Terms Used to Discuss Academic Writing
Abbreviation. The short form of a word or phrase. Abstract. A short summary of the aims and scope of a journal article. Acknowledgements. A list of people the author wishes to thank for their assistance, found in books and articles. Appendix. (plural – appendices) A section at the end of a book or article which contains supplementary information. Assignment. A task given to students, normally for assessment. Authority. A well-known expert on a subject. Back issue. A previous issue of a journal or magazine. Bias. A subjective preference for one point of view. Bibliography. A list of sources an author has read but not specifically cited. Brainstorm. A process of collecting ideas on a topic at random. Case study. A section of an essay that examines one example in detail. Citation. An in-text reference providing a link to the source. Cohesion. Linking ideas in a text together by use of reference words. Conclusion. The final section of an essay or report. Contraction. A shortened form of pronoun and verb e.g. she’s, I’d. Coursework. Assessed assignments given to students to complete during a course. Criteria (singular – criterion). The principles on which something is judged or based. Deadline. The final date for completing a piece of work. Draft. The first attempt at a piece of writing. Edited book. A book with contributions from a number of writers, controlled by an editor. Extract. A piece of text taken from a longer work. Formality. In written work, the use of a non-idiomatic style and vocabulary. Format. The standard pattern of layout for a text. Heading. The title of a section of text. Higher degree. A Master’s degree or Doctorate. Hypothesis. A theory that a researcher is attempting to explore/test. Introduction. The first part of an essay or article. Journal. An academic publication
in a specialised area, usually published quarterly. Literature review. A section of an article describing other research on the topic in question. Main body. The principal part of an essay, after the introduction and before the conclusion. Margin. The strip of white space on a page around the text. Module. Most academic courses are divided into modules, which examine a specified topic. Outline. A preparatory plan for a piece of writing. Paraphrase A re-writing of a text with substantially different wording and organisation but similar ideas. Peer-review. The process of collecting comment from academic authorities on an article before publication in a journal. This system gives increased validity to the publication. Phrase. A few words that are commonly combined. Plagiarism. Using another writer’s work without acknowledgement in an acceptable Manner. Primary research. Original research, e.g. a laboratory experiment or a sociological enquiry. Quotation. Use of the exact words of another writer to illustrate your writing. Redundancy. The unnecessary repetition of ideas or information. References. A list of all the sources you have cited in your work. Register. The level of formality in language. Restatement. Repeating a point in order to explain it more clearly. Scan. A method of reading in which the eyes move quickly over the page to find a specific item. Skim. A related reading technique to quickly find out the main ideas of a text. Source. The original text you have used to obtain an idea or piece of information. Summary. A shorter version of something. Synonym. A word or phrase with a similar meaning to another. Synopsis. A summary of an article or book. Term. Word or phrase used to express a special concept. Word class. A grammatical category, e.g. noun, adjective.
Appendix E
Lesson Plan for a Writing Class
Goal: Learners will write a short accident report.
Objectives:
1. To develop questions for describing an incident
2. To make notes on a short newspaper report
3. To discuss, compare, and combine information from notes in pairs
4. To draft a report of an accident from their notes
Previous work: Taking notes from short texts. Model of report structure
Materials: 2 newspaper articles on same event (10 copies), OHT of model, OHT of Categories for questions
Activities: Housekeeping, Record attendance, Give assignment date.
T-> SS Remind students of report. 5 min.
Elicit purpose and structure. Put up OHT of structure.
T -> SS Introduce activity. Elicit questions students would 5 min. as if reporting an accident for a newspaper
T -> SS Write up categories of information on board 5 min.
What sort of incident? When did it happen?
Where did it happen? Who was involved?
What happened to each person?
What was the result? How did they feel?
T -> SS Distribute articles – one to each student
S, S, S Students make notes on article using 15 min. above categories
T -> SS Put students in pairs – one with article A and one with Article B
S ↔ S Students compare notes and add extra details 10 min. from Partner
S, S, S Students individually write up report 30 min. from notes
S –S-S- S In groups students share each other's work 10 min.
T -> SS Discuss how the questions might be useful in other 10 min.
Types of reports.
Extra activity: Groups select a headline for the text.
Appendix F
Grade Characteristics
A The main idea is stated clearly and the essay is well organised and coherent. Excellent choice of vocabulary and very few grammatical errors. Good spelling and punctuation.
B The main idea is fairly clear and the essay is moderately well organized and relatively coherent. The vocabulary is good and only minor grammar errors. A few spelling and punctuation errors.
C The main idea is indicated but not clearly. The essay is not very well organized and is somewhat lacking in coherence. Vocabulary is average. There are some major and minor grammatical errors together with a number of spelling and punctuation mistakes.
D The main idea is hard to identify or unrelated to the development. The essay is poorly organized and relatively incoherent. The use of vocabulary is weak and grammatical errors appear frequently. There are also frequent spelling and punctuation errors.
E The main idea is missing and the essay is poorly organized and generally incoherent. The use of vocabulary is very weak and grammatical errors appear very frequently. There are many spelling and punctuation errors.
Appendix G
Transition Signals.
To show time order: First, … Next, … First of all, … After that, … Second, … Then …Third, … Finally, …
To show listing order: First, … Also, … First of all, … also … Second, …, also…. Third, … Finally, …
To show space order: On the right, … Above the … On the left, … On one side of the … In the center, … On the other side of the . . . In the middle, … Opposite the … Next to the … Near the … Beside the …
To give a reason: The first reason is (that) … The second reason is (that) … The most important reason is (that) . . .
To give an example: For example, … … such as For instance, … , such as . .. , for example … , for instance
To give an opinion: In my opinion, … I believe (that) … In my view, … I feel (that) … According to…., I think (that) …
To add a conclusion: In brief, … To conclude, … Indeed, … To summarise, … In conclusion, … To sum up, … In short, … For these reasons, ….
Appendix H
Writing Portfolios – Instructions for Students Learning Portfolio
Please collect all the essays you write in this academic year and compile them into a portfolio. For each essay, include everything from pre-writing ideas (e.g., mind maps and outlines) to interim drafts (including teacher feedback and peer feedback) and final drafts, as well as personal learning goals and reflective journals.
Showcase Portfolio
Compile a showcase portfolio that provides representative samples of writing that demonstrate your best abilities. Your showcase portfolio should include the following:
A cover letter that outlines your personal goals for writing in this academic year.
The best three essays on different genres (include all the documents like pre-writing ideas, goal-setting sheets, interim drafts, teacher/peer feedback, final drafts, and reflective journals.
A self-reflection about your progress in writing in this academic year.
A Portfolio Structure for ESL/ EFL School Students
A one-page cover letter that includes:
The goals of the writing class in this academic year
The personal learning goals you have set for your own writing
A brief introduction to the works selected for the portfolio (e.g., why you chose them and what they say about you)
Three best essays selected from the six essays written in this academic year, including (for each essay):
Pre-writing documents such as mind maps, outlines, and graphic organisers
Your personal learning goals
Interim drafts, as well as teacher and peer feedback
Final draft
Reflective journals
An overall self-reflection of the portfolio (one to two pages) that addresses the following:
The goals of the writing class, your personal learning goals, the extent to which you have achieved your personal learning goals, and what you did to achieve them
Your major strengths in writing
The major areas that need improvement
Where from here (your new goals for further improvement)
Writing Portfolio Evaluation Guidelines
5 = Excellent
4 = Good
3 = Average
2 = Below average
1 = Much room for improvement
Writing process
The portfolio demonstrates the student’s consistent effort to revise and improve his/her writing by making good use of teacher, peer, and self-evaluations.
Quality of selected entries
The selected entries demonstrate the student’s growing competence in writing as evidenced by relevant/meaningful content, clear organisation, fluency, and effective language use.
Personal reflection and growth
The portfolio clearly demonstrates the student’s awareness of his/her own writing development, strengths and weaknesses in writing, the extent to which the goals were achieved, and what further improvement is needed.
Presentation of portfolio
The portfolio is well organised, is nicely presented, and contains all the Entries.
Appendix I
Responding to student writing
A rubric for the first draft of an essay assignment
Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Group . . . . . . . . . . . .
Content Excellent VG Good S Weak Unacceptable
• The piece is engaging and
alive
• It contains valuable
information and insights
• Writer shows good
understanding of topic
• Details are clear and helpful
• Voice of narrator is honest
and convincing
Reader Awareness
• The piece has clear
organization
• Writer relates topic to reader’s
knowledge
• Effective lead, engaging the
reader
• Satisfying ending
• Clear transitions and
signposts
Style
• Language is clear and precise
• Sentences are varied and
effective
• Unnecessary words are
eliminated
• Style is consistent and
appropriate
Mechanics
• Grammar
• Spelling
• Punctuation
• Proofreading
Process
• Presentation (double-spacing,
legibility)
• Effective revision
• Peer response and
self-evaluation
• Paper is on time
Your Strengths: Possible Improvements: Grade:
Source: Holst, 1993: 48.
Appendix J
Tasks and Teacher Roles in the Teaching-Learning Cycle
Stage -Purpose -Teacher Role -Sample tasks
Contextualising. Assist students to understand purpose, audience, and context. Initiator/ guide. Resource.
Reading. Site visit, research, library study, questioning, jigsaw reading, brainstorming, vocabulary building, role-play
Modeling. Investigate prototypical patterns and language of genre examples. Instructor/ guide/ Controller
Familiarisation. Model manipulation, controlled and guided composition tasks
Negotiating. Teacher and students jointly create examples of the text. Prompter. Resource
Composition heuristics. Guided composition work on individual text stages. Constructing. Students create texts independently.
Performance used for assessment. Observer. Responder. Assessor. Extended writing, planning, drafting, conferencing, editing, peer review, polishing
Connecting. Students relate work to other texts in similar contexts. Observer. Guide Journal reflections, project work
Appendix K
Scoring Guide for Argumentative Writing *
Claims
0—No claim related to the topic/prompt.
1—The writer makes claims that are related to the topic/prompt, but the assertions lack specificity or offer unclear referents.
2—The writer states claims that are related to the topic/prompt, but the assertions are not complete or are difficult to understand. Enough information is available to figure out the writer’s intent, but much is left to the reader to determine.
3—The writer states generalizations that are related to the proposition and that are clear and complete.
Evidence
0—No evidence is offered or the evidence has no relevance to the claim.
1—The evidence that is offered is weak, inaccurate, or incomplete.
2—The evidence that is offered is relevant but not complete.
3—The supporting evidence is complete, accurate, and relevant to the claim.
Warrants
0—No warrant is offered.
* Adapted from McCann, T. M. (1989). Student argumentative writing knowledge and ability at three grade levels. Research in the Teaching of English, 23 (1), 62–76.
1—An attempt is made to elaborate about some element in the evidence. The attempt suggests that the writer recognizes a need to connect the evidence to the claim, but the writer fails to make the connections.
2—The writer explains the evidence in some way, but the explanation is not linked specifically to the claim.
3—The writer explains the evidence in such a way that it is clear how it supports the claim.
Counterargument
0—The writer offers no recognition of opposition.
1—The writer vaguely implies the existence of some opposition to the main argument/claim.
2—The writer identifies opposing arguments, but these reservations are not specific.
3—The writer systematically identifies the opposition and the opposing arguments.
Response to Counterargument
0—The writer offers no response to opposing arguments.
1—The writer vaguely addresses some implied opposition, or the writer weakly denies whatever
the opposition claims.
2—The writer offers responses that address the opposing arguments, which are identified somewhere in the essay. Much is left to the reader to link the counterargument to the specific opposition.
3—The writer states counterarguments that directly address the opposition and that are clear and
complete.
Appendix L
Category Description of Argumentative Writing Classes
Dimension 1: Participatory Structure
Whole Class. All of the students in the class. There may be one or two students not included.
Small Groups. Students are working in two or more groups (larger than two).
Pairs. Students are working in pairs.
Students are working by themselves—for example, seatwork or writing in class.
Individual Teacher Conference. Teacher is working one-on-one with a student.
Student Presentation. Student(s) is/are making a presentation to the whole class or a portion of the class.
Dimension 2: Instructional Method
Telling/Giving Information. The teacher is telling students how to do something or giving them information.
Modelling. Using a teaching tool (e.g., sample essay, PowerPoint slides, etc.), the teacher is demonstrating how to do something or how to do a process procedurally rather than just telling students to do it on their own.
Recitation. The teacher is engaging students in responding to questions that the teacher knows the answers to. The questions are closed rather than open-ended. Often used to decide if
students understand some concept, idea, procedure, or so forth. Recitation provides a forum for the students and/or the teacher to recite what is known, usually from the reading of a written text. The defining feature of recitations is that the teacher controls the talk and has interpretive authority.
Discussion. The teacher is engaging students in questions and/or talk that are open-ended and exploratory rather than focusing on single correct responses. These may be developed spontaneously during a lesson and are sometimes initiated by students. Discussion has a variety of forums for open-ended, collaborative exchange of ideas among teacher and students or among students for the purpose of furthering students’ thinking, learning, problem solving, understanding, or literary appreciation. Participants present multiple points of view, respond to the ideas of others, and reflect on their own ideas in an effort to build their knowledge, understanding, or interpretation of the matter at hand. Discussions may occur among members of a dyad, small group, or whole class and be teacher-led or student-led.
Coaching. The teacher is prompting students to do something rather than just telling them to do it on their own. Students can be in whole class or small groups or pairs as the teacher
is providing support for students’ thinking, writing, and reading that they can transfer to independent work.
Reading Aloud. Teacher reads text aloud while expecting students to listen.
Representing Visually. Teacher records or presents information, ideas, and experience in written form or via other semiotic systems using a range of media including whiteboard, PowerPoint slides, etc.
Dimension 3: Argumentative Knowledge
Assignment Instruction. Teacher and/or students consider the summative, teacher-sponsored, argumentative essay. Usually occurs near the end of the instructional unit.
Essay Structure. Teacher or students refer to form or organisation of a model essay. Sample/Model Teacher and/or students consider models of essay form, verbal example, or other
examples in a range of semiotic systems.
Claim. Teacher and/or students consider a proposition or thesis that answers the questions “What point will your paper try to make?” or “What belief or opinion is the author defending?”
Evidence/Data. Teacher and/or students consider evidence and backing, that is, the examples, facts, and data that aid in proving the claim’s validity. This includes talking about evidence or producing evidence through talk or writing.
Warrant. Teacher and/or students consider what a warrant is and/or how to use a warrant.
Counterargument. Teacher and/or students consider what a counterclaim is and/ or how to use a counterclaim.
Response to Counterargument (Rebuttal). Teacher and/or students consider how to respond to or rebut a counterclaim.
Elements Named. Teacher and/or students make direct reference to elements of argument.
Dimension 4: Meaning Making
Verbal Arguments. Students make arguments orally as a way to learn production strategies, that is, they engage in a kind of practising activity.
Analysing Arguments. Students study how arguments are constructed, how they work, and how they succeed or fail using oral or written or other texts.
Debating. Students engage in argument by discussing opposing points in a structured/ planned format that the teacher/students may name as “debate.”
Brainstorming Ideas. Students gather lists of ideas spontaneously for the purpose of solving a problem or generating ideas.
Peer Review. Students share their writing with peers for constructive feedback and then use this feedback to revise and improve their work..
Appendix M
Checklist for All Essays—Creation and Writing
No matter the length of an essay or the time you have to complete it, there are certain elements that apply to all essays. Ask yourself these questions for all essays, in addition to considerations for particular situations.
Introduction
Is the introduction 3–5 sentences?
Does the introduction grab the readers’ attention?
Does the introduction finish with a clear thesis statement with a subject and controlling idea?
Body
Are each of the three development-paragraphs 10–12 sentences long?
Does each paragraph begin with a clear topic sentence?
Does each topic sentence clearly relate to the thesis?
Does each paragraph develop three minor points to support the topic?
Is there a satisfactory concluding sentence for each paragraph?
Are there quotes within the body paragraphs to support my points?
Can I think of any counterarguments to my own points? If so, would it strengthen my argument to voice these counterarguments and then show how my opinion is still valid?
Conclusion
Is the final paragraph 3–5 sentences?
Does the final paragraph restate my thesis in a new way or present a final point to round out my argument?
Does the final paragraph satisfactorily end the essay and give it a note of finality?
General
Have I stayed on subject throughout the essay?
Have I used proper formatting?
Do I use connections between sentences and paragraphs to effectively tie ideas together?
Appendix N
Analysing Scholarly Writing in the Humanities
Answer the following questions about a scholarly article in the humanities.
A. Structural Elements
• Title. Does the title of the interpretation seek to entertain, to challenge, or to impress the reader somehow? Does the title reveal anything about the writer and his or her relationship to the intended audience?
• Thesis. Can you identify a clear statement of thesis? Where is it located? Does the thesis preview the stages of the claim that will be discussed throughout the paper? In other words, does the thesis explicitly or implicitly provide a “blueprint” for guiding the reader through the rest of the paper? If so, what is it?
• Paragraphs and Transitions. Look closely at four successive body paragraphs in the paper. Explain how each paragraph relates to the paper’s guiding thesis. How does the writer transition between each of the paragraphs such that his or her ideas in each one stay linked together?
B. Language Elements
• Descriptive and Rhetorical Language. Is the language of the text meant only to convey information, or does it engage in rhetorical activity? In other words, do similes, metaphors, or other rhetorical devices demonstrate attempts to be creative with language? If so, what are they?
Voice. Is the voice of the text primarily active or passive?
• Conviction and Hedging. Is the writer convinced that his or her interpretation is correct? If so, in what way(s) does specific language convey that conviction? Alternatively, if the writer doesn’t seem convinced of the certainty of his or her argument, is there evidence of hedging? That is, does the writer qualify statements with words and phrases such as tend, suggest, may, it is probable that, or it is reasonable to conclude that? What is the significance of hedging?
C. Reference Elements
• Engagement with Other Scholars. Choose two or three examples from the article showing the author’s use of another scholar’s words or ideas, if appropriate. Explain how the writer uses the words and ideas of another to support his or her own argument. Keep in mind that a writer may use another’s word or ideas as direct support by showing that another scholar has the same or similar ideas, or by demonstrating how another scholar’s ideas are incorrect, imprecise, or not fully developed. Also, does the writer use block quotations? Does he or she fully integrate others’ words and ideas in his or her own sentences? Further, notice the writer’s attitude toward other scholars: Does he or she treat other scholars’ ideas fully and respectfully? Is there praise for others’ ideas? Or are their ideas quickly dismissed? Is there any evidence of hostility in the writer’s treatment of other voices?
• Establishing Focus/Stance. How frequently does the text reference or cite secondary source materials in the opening paragraphs? What function do such citations or references serve in the article’s overall organization?
• Documentation. Look closely at examples of internal documentation as well as the writer’s Works Cited or References page. What form of documentation applies? Why might the chosen documentation system be appropriate for writing about texts in the humanities?
Appendix O
Reader's Response and Writer's Self-Check Worksheets *
Reader's Response
Introducing a Classmate
Reader: ________________________________________ Date: _________________________
Is the information about you correct? Yes/ no
If your answer is no, what is the correct information?
Do you understand everything? Yes/ no
If your answer is no, what part(s) or sentence(s) don't you understand?
5.What do you like the best about this paragraph? Write one positive comment here:
Writer's Self-Check Introducing a Classmate
Writer: _________________________________ Date: ___________________
Paragraph Form
My paragraph has a title. yes/no
______________________________________________________________________________
*Adapted from: Hogue, Ann. (2008). First Steps in Academic Writing, Second Edition. vk.com/create_your_english. http://123doc.org/trang-chu.htm. Pearsons Education, Inc.
The title is centered. Yes/no
The first line is indented. Yes/no
There are margins on both sides of the page. Yes/no
The paragraph is double-spaced. Yes/no
Organisation
My first sentence gives my classmate's name and tells something about his or her personality. Yes/no
My supporting sentences give information from the interview questions. Yes/no
My concluding sentence tells how I feel about my classmate. Yes/no
Reader's Response
Introducing My Family/a Family Member
Reader: ___________________________________________ Date: _______________________
Does the paragraph give enough information about your classmate's family or family member? Yes /No
If your answer is no, what else would you like to know?
Do you understand everything? Yes /No
If your answer is no, what part(s) or sentence(s) don't you understand? ______________________
What do you like the best about this paragraph? Write one positive comment here:
Writer's Self-Check
Introducing My Family/a Family Member
Writer: __________________________ Date: __________________________
Paragraph Form
My paragraph has a title. Yes/ no
The title is centered. Yes/ no
The first line is indented. Yes/ no
There are margins on both sides of the page. Yes/ no
The paragraph is double-spaced. Yes/ no
Punctuation, Capitalization, and Spelling
I put a period after every sentence. Yes/ no
I used capital letters correctly. Yes/ no
I checked my spelling. Yes/ no
Sentence Structure
Every sentence has at least one SV pair and expresses a complete thought. Yes/ no
Personal Grammar Trouble Spots
I checked my paragraph for errors. (verb tense, article, word order, etc.)
I checked my paragraph for __________ errors.
Reader's Response
Title: __________________________________
Reader: _____________________________ Date: __________________________
1. How many main points does the writer make? number: – –
2. Does the writer introduce each main point with a listing-order transition signal? Yes/ no
Which signals? Write them here: ____________________________________________________
3.Do you understand everything? Yes/ no
If your answer is no, what part(s) or sentence(s) don't you understand?
4.What do you like the best about this paragraph? Write one positive comment here:
Writer's Self-Check ·
Title:
Paragraph Form
My paragraph looks like the model.
Organisation
My paragraph begins with a topic sentence and ends with a concluding sentence.
My topic sentence has both a topic and a controlling idea.
I use listing order to organize my paragraph.
I use listing-order transition signals to introduce each main point.
Sentence Structure
Every sentence has at least one SV pair and expresses a complete thought.
Punctuation, Capitalization, and Spelling
I put a period after every sentence. I used capital letters correctly.
I checked my spelling.
Personal Grammar Trouble Spots
I checked my paragraph for errors. (verb tense, article, word order, etc.)
I checked my paragraph for –––––– errors.
Reader's Response
Title: _________________
Reader: __________________________ Date: ________________________________
1. How many main points does the writer make? Number: ___________________________
2. Does the writer introduce each main point with a listing-order transition signal? Yes/ no
Which signals? Write them here: ______________________________________________________________________________
3.Does each main point have a detail? Yes /no
4. Write one detail that you especially like:
______________________________________________________________________________
5.Do you understand everything? Yes/no
6. If your answer is no, what part(s) or sentence(s) don't you understand?
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
7.What do you like the best about this paragraph? Write one positive comment here:
Writer's Self-Check
Title: __________________________
Writer: ________________________________ Date: _____________________________
Paragraph Form
My paragraph looks like the model on page 37. Yes/no
Organisation
My paragraph begins with a topic sentence and ends with a concluding sentence. Yes/no
My topic sentence has both a topic and a controlling idea. Yes/no
I use listing order to organise my paragraph. Yes/no
I use listing-order transition signals to introduce each main point. Yes/no
Punctuation, Capitalisation, and Spelling
I put a period after every sentence. Yes/no
I used capital letters correctly. Yes/no
I checked my spelling. Yes/no
Sentence Structure
I wrote at least three compound sentences. Yes/no
I checked my paragraph for run-on and comma splice errors. Yes/no
Personal Grammar Trouble Spots
I checked my paragraph for errors. (verb tense, article, word order, etc.) Yes/no
I checked my paragraph for–––––– errors.
Reader's Response
How to Clean up After a Party
Reader ________________________ Date: ________________
1. Does the paragraph begin with a topic sentence? Yes/ no
Copy the topic sentence here: ______________________________________________________________________________
2. Do you understand everything? Yes/no
If your answer is no, what part(s) or sentence(s) don't you understand?
3. Does the paragraph have time-order signals or listing-order signals? D time order D listing order
Write three of the transition signals here:
______________________________________________________________________________
4.What do you like the best about this paragraph? Write one positive comment here:
Writer's Self-Check
How to Clean up After a Party
Writer: ___________________ Date: __________________
Paragraph Form
My paragraph looks like the model. Yes/ no
Organisation
My paragraph begins with a "how to" topic sentence. Yes/ no
The steps are in either time order or listing order. Yes/ no
I used transition signals with some of the steps. Yes/noI wrote a concluding sentence. Yes/no
Sentence Structure
Every sentence has at least one SV pair and expresses a complete thought. Yes/no
Punctuation, Capitalisation, and Spelling
I put a period after every sentence. Yes/no
I used capital letters correctly. Yes/ no
I checked my spelling. Yes/ no
Personal Grammar Trouble Spots
I checked my paragraph for errors. (verb tense, article, word order, etc.) Yes/no
I checked my paragraph for __________ errors.
Reader's Response
How To______________________
Reader: __________________________ Date: _______________________
1. What is the topic of this paragraph? How 'to––––––-
2. Does the paragraph begin with a topic sentence? Yes/ no
Copy the topic sentence here: _____________________________________________________
3. Do you understand everything? Yes/no
If your answer is no, what part(s) or sentence(s) don't you understand?
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Does the paragraph have transition signals (first, next, then, and so on) to help you understand each step? Yes/ no
5. What do you like the best about this paragraph? Write one positive comment here:
Writer's Self-Check
How to______________________
Paragraph Form
My paragraph looks like the model. Yes /no
Organisation
My paragraph begins with a "how to" topic sentence. Yes/ no
The steps are in time order. Yes/no
I used time-order signals with some of the steps. Yes / no
Sentence Structure
Every sentence has at least one SV pair and expresses a complete thought. Yes/ no
I wrote at least three complex sentences, and I punctuated them correctly. Yes/ no
I checked my paragraph for sentence errors: run-ons, comma splices, and fragments. Yes /no
Punctuation, Capitalisation, and Spelling
I put a period after every sentence. Yes/no
I used capital letters correctly. Yes/ no
I checked my spelling. Yes/ no
Personal Grammar Trouble Spots
I checked my paragraph for errors. (verb tense, article, word order, etc.) Yes/no
I checked my paragraph for __________ errors.
Reader's Response
Describing a Room
Reader: ___________________________ Date: _______________________________
1.What room does the writer describe? _________________________________________
2. Does the paragraph begin with a topic sentence? Yes/ no
Copy the topic sentence here:
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. Do you understand everything? Yes/no
If your answer is no, what part(s) or sentence(s) don't you understand?
______________________________________________________________________________
4.Does the writer use space order? Yes/ no
Write three space-order signals that you remember:
5.What adjectives does the writer use in his or her description? Write three adjectives that you remember: _____________________________________________________________________
6.What do you like the best about this paragraph? Write one positive comment here:
Writer's Self-Check
Describing a Room
Writer: _______________________ Date: ________________________________
Paragraph Form
My paragraph looks like the model. Yes/ no
Organisation
My paragraph begins with a topic sentence and ends with a concluding sentence. Yes/ no
I use space order to organise my description. Yes/ no
I used lots of details to make my reader "see" the room. Yes/no
Grammar
I used adjectives to describe different objects in the room. Yes/no
I was careful to put cumulative adjectives in the correct order and to put commas between coordinate adjectives. Yes/ no
Sentence Structure
Every sentence has at least one SV pair and expresses a complete thought. Yes/ no
I wrote different kinds of sentences-simple, compound, and complex. Yes/ no
I checked my paragraph for sentence errors: run-ons, comma splices, and fragments. Yes/ no
Punctuation, Capitalisation, and Spelling
I put a period after every sentence. Yes/no
I used capital letters correctly. Yes/ no
I checked my spelling. Yes/ no
Personal Grammar Trouble Spots
I checked my paragraph for · errors. (verb tense, article, word order, etc.) Yes/ no
I checked my paragraph for ___________________ errors.
Reader's Response
Title: _________________________________
Reader: ____________________________ Date: ______________________________________
1. What place does the writer describe? ______________________________________________
2. Does the paragraph begin with a topic sentence? Yes/ no
Copy the topic sentence here: _____________________________________________________
3. Do you understand everything? Yes/no
If your answer is no, what part(s) or sentence(s) don't you understand?
4.Does the writer use space order? Yes/ no
Write three space-order signals that you remember: ____________________________________
5.What adjectives does the writer use in his or her description? ______________________________________________________________________________
Write three adjectives that you remember:
____________________________________________________________________
6.What do you like the best about this paragraph? Write one positive comment here:
Writer's Se1f-Check
Title: ________________________
Writer: ___________________________ Date: ____________________________
Paragraph Form
My paragraph looks like the model. Yes/no
Organisation
My paragraph begins with a topic sentence and ends with a concluding sentence. Yes/ no
I use space order to organise my description. Yes/ no
I used lots of details to make my reader "see" the room. Yes/ no
Grammar
I used adjectives to describe different objects in the room. Yes/ no
I was careful to put cumulative adjectives in the correct order and to put commas between coordinate adjectives. Yes/ no
Sentence Structure
Every sentence has at least one SV pair and expresses a complete thought. Yes/no
I wrote different kinds of sentences- simple, compound, and complex. Yes/ no
I began some sentences with a prepositional phrase. Yes/no
I checked my paragraph for sentence errors: run-ons, comma splices, and fragments. Yes/no
Punctuation, Capitalization, and Spelling
I put a period after every sentence. Yes/ no
I used capital letters correctly. Yes/no
I checked my spelling. Yes/ no
Personal Grammar Trouble Spots
I checked my paragraph for errors. (verb tense, article, word order, etc.) Yes/no
I checked my paragraph for ______________errors.
Reader's Response
Recommending Your School
Reader: ___________________________ Date: ____________________
1. How many reasons does the writer give? Number: ___________________
2. Does the writer introduce each reason with a transition signal? Yes/ no
Which signals? Write them here: ______________________________________________________________________________3. Does each reason have an example? Yes/ no
Write one example that you especially like:
4. Do you understand everything? Yes/no
If your answer is no, what part(s) or sentence(s) don't you understand?
5. What do you like the best about this paragraph? Write one positive comment here:
Writer's Self-Check
Recommending Your School
Writer_______________________ Date_____________________________
Paragraph Form
My paragraph looks like the model. Yes/ no
Organisation
My paragraph begins with a topic sentence and ends with a concluding sentence. Yes/ no
I used listing order to organise the reasons. Yes/no
I used transition signals to introduce each reason. Yes/ no
I used at least one example or other specific detail for each reason. Yes /no
Sentence Structure
Every sentence has at least one SV pair and expresses a complete thought. Yes /no
I wrote different kinds of sentences-simple, compound, and complex. Yes /no
I checked my paragraph for sentence errors: run-ons, comma splices, and fragments. Yes/ no
Punctuation, Capitalisation and Spelling
I put a period after every sentence. Yes/no
I used capital letters correctly. Yes /no
I checked my spelling. Yes/ no
Personal Grammar Trouble Spots
I checked my paragraph for errors. (verb tense, article, word order, etc.) Yes /no
I checked my paragraph for __________ errors. Yes /no
Reader's Response
Title: _______________________
Reader: _____________________________ Date: _________________________________
1. How many reasons does the writer give? Number: __________________________
2. Does the writer introduce each reason with a transition signal? Yes/no
Which signals? Write them here:
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Does each reason have an example? Yes/no
Write one example that you especially like:
______________________________________________________________________________
4.Do you understand everything? Yes/no
If your answer is no, what part(s) or sentence(s) don't you understand?
______________________________________________________________________________
5. What do you like the best about this paragraph? Write one positive comment here:
Writer's Self-Check
Title: ____________________
Writer: __________________________ Date: _____________________
Paragraph Form
My paragraph looks like the model. Yes /no
Organisation
My paragraph begins with a topic sentence and ends with a concluding sentence. Yes /no
I used listing order to organise the reasons. Yes/ no
I used transition signals to introduce each reason. Yes /no
I used at least one example or other specific detail for each reason. Yes /no
Punctuation, Capitalisation, and Spelling
I checked my paragraph for correct punctuation, capitalization, and spelling. Yes/ no
Sentence Structure
Every sentence has at least one SV pair and expresses a complete thought. Yes /no
I wrote different kinds of sentences-simple, compound, and complex. Yes /no
I checked my paragraph for sentence errors: run-ons, comma splices, and fragments. Yes/ no
Personal Grammar Trouble Spots
I checked my paragraph for errors. (verb tense, article, word order etc) Yes /no
I checked my paragraph for–––––– errors. Yes /no
Reader's Response
Title: ______________________________________
Reader: __________________________ Date: ___________________________
1. How many reasons does the writer give? Number: ________________________
2. Does the writer introduce each reason with a transition signal? Yes/no
Which signals? Write them here:
______________________________________________________________________________
3.Does each reason have support? Yes/ no
Write one example that you especially like:
______________________________________________________________________________
4.Do you understand everything? Yes /no
If your answer is no, what part(s) or sentence(s) don't you understand?
5.What do you like the best about this paragraph? Write one positive comment here:
Writer's Self-Check
Title: ________________________________
Writer: __________________________ Date: __________________________________
Paragraph Form
My paragraph looks like the model. Yes /no
Organisation
My paragraph begins with a topic sentence and ends with a concluding sentence. Yes /no
I used listing order to organize the reasons. Yes/ no
I used transition signals to introduce each reason. Yes/ no
I used one or two supporting details for each reason. Yes /no
Punctuation, Capitalisation, and Spelling
I checked my paragraph for correct punctuation, capitalisation, and spelling. Yes/ no
Sentence Structure
Every sentence has at least one SV pair and expresses a complete thought. Yes /no
I wrote different kinds of sentences-simple, compound, and complex. Yes /no
I checked my paragraph for sentence errors: fragments, run-ons, and comma splices. Yes/ no
Personal Grammar Trouble Spots
I checked my paragraph for errors. (verb tense, article, word order, etc.) Yes /no
I checked my paragraph for _____________ errors. Yes /no
Reader's Response
Title_______________________
Reader: __________________________ Date: __________________________
1. How many reasons does the writer give? Number: ___________________________
2. Does the writer introduce each reason with a transition signal? Yes/ no
Which signals? Write them here:
______________________________________________________________________________3. Does each reason have supporting facts? Yes /no
Does the writer use at least one quotation? Yes /no
4.Do you understand everything? Yes /no
If your answer is no, what part(s) or sentence(s) don't you understand?
5.What do you like the best about this paragraph? Write one positive comment here:
`Writer's Self-Check
Title: ___________________________________
Writer: ________________________________ Date: _____________________________
Paragraph Form
My paragraph looks like the model. Yes /no
Organisation
My paragraph begins with a clear opinion topic sentence. Yes /no
I used transition signals to introduce each reason. Yes/ no
I used one or two supporting details for each reason. Yes/ no
I used at least one quotation. Yes /no
Punctuation, Capitalisation, and Spelling
I checked my paragraph for correct punctuation, capitalisation, and spelling. Yes/ no
Sentence Structure
I wrote different kinds of sentences-simple, compound, and complex. Yes /no
I wrote at least two sentences containing adjective clauses. Yes /no
I checked my paragraph for sentence errors: fragments, run-ons, and comma splices. Yes /no
Personal Grammar Trouble Spots
I checked my paragraph for errors. (verb tense, article, word order, etc.) Yes /no
I checked my paragraph for __________ errors. Yes/no
Appendix P
Some Useful Websites for Writing Teachers
Web Search Engines
Search Engine Colossus (directory of search engines) http://www.searchenginecolossus.com/
Altavista http://www.altavista.digital.com/
AskJeeves http://www.askjeeves.com (allows users to make full sentence queries)
Google http://www.google.com
Hotbot http://www.hotbot.com/
Infoseek http://www.infoseek.com/
Lycos http://www.lycos.com/
WebCrawler http://www.webcrawler.com/
Free space for student Web pages
http://www.geocities.com
http://www.tripod.com
http://www.angelfire.com
Free email: Free Web-based email for student exchanges
http://www.mail.yahoo.com
http://www.hotmail.com
http://www.newtaddress.com
Synchronous writing sites
ICQ http://www.icq.com/download
New users’ information at http://www.mirabilis.com/ icqtour/mIRC http://www.mirc.co.uk/get.html
Dave’s Internet Cafe´ Discussion Centre http://www.eslcafe.com/discussion/dv/
The Speakeasy Studio and Cafe´ http://morrison.wsu.edu/studio/About.asp
Remarq Discussion Site http://www.remarq.com/home.asp
ESL and Language Teachers’ http://www.teachers.net/mentors/ esl language
Chatboard CRIBE (Chat Room in Broken English) http://www.cup.com/bm7/cribe.htm
Keypal lists
1. Sites where students can find keypals
Dave’s E-Mail for ESL Students http://www.pacificnet.net/ ∼sperling/student.html
ePals Classroom exchange http://www.epals.com/ (Over 850,000 users in 90 countries)
The E-Mail Key Pal Connection http://www.comenius.com/keypal/index.html
Keypals Club http://www.mightymedia.com/keypals/
The Meeting Place http://www.encomix.es/ ∼its/newdoor.htm
Keypals http://www.reedbooks.com.au/heinemann/ global/ global1.html
2. Sites for teachers to arrange keypal exchanges
Dave’s ESL E-mail for Teachers http://www.pacificnet.net/ ∼sperling/guestbook.html
E-mail Pen-Pals for Students http://math.unr.edu/linguistics/teslpnpl.html
Intercultural E-mail Classroom http://www.stolaf.edu/network/iecc
International E-mail Project http://www.enst.fr/ ∼benenson/lgv/
Key Pals http://www2.waikato.ac.nz/education/WeNET/key/ khome.html
Keypals Club http://www.mightymedia.com/keypals/
Keypals International http://www.collegebound.com/keypals
International EFL/ESL http://www.latrobe.edu.au/www/education/sl/sl.html
Discussion lists
1. For teachers
Linguist List Information: http://www.baal.org.uk/baalf.htm
Writing discussion group: http://kalama.doe.Hawaii.edu/hern95/pt035/writing/ wholalist.html
TESL-L (TESL list) List: listserv@cunyum.cuny.edu
Mail: eslcc@cunyum.bitnet
Linguist Listserv@tamvm1.tamu.edu
NETEACH-L (net ESL listserv@raven.cc.ukans.edu teaching)
2. For students
La Trobe University announce-sl@latrobe.edu.au
Tile.Net (info on lists) http://tile.net/
Liszt directory (info) http://www.liszt.com/
Inter-Links (info) http://alabanza.com/kabacoff/Inter-Links/listserv.html
ESL/EFL Teaching and learning sites
Dave’s Internet Cafe´ http://www.eslcafe.com
Its-online http: its-online.com
Virtual Language Centre http://vlc.polyu.edu.hk/
EF Englishtown http://www.englishtown.com/
HKUST Language Centre http://lc.ust.hk/
Writing Machine http://ec.hku.hk/writingmachine/
Online Writing Labs
National Writing Centres Association http://departments.colgate.edu/diw/NWCAOWLS.html
Purdue OWL http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
The Online Writery (Missouri) http://web.missouri.edu/%7Ewritery/
The Writing Machine (HKU) http://ec.hku.hk/writingmachine/
HK PolyU Writing Centre http://elc.polyu.edu.hk/CILL/writing.htm
Garbl’s Active Writing Links http://members.home.net/garbl/writing/action.htm
Bemidji State Writing Center http://cal.Bemidji.msus.edu/WRC/WRChome.html
Colorado State Writing Center http://www.colostate.edu/Depts/English/wcenter/ ecenter.com
Michigan State Writing Center http://pilot.msu.edu/user/writing/
Style guides and information on writing
APA Style resources http://www.psychwww.com/resource/apacrib.htm
Columbus guide to citation style http://www.columbia.edu/cu/cup/cgos/idx basic.html
Resources for writers http://webster.commnet.edu/writing/writing.htm
Writing resources http://www.indiana.edu/ ∼wts/wts/resources.html
Way to Write http://www.ucalgary.ca/UofC/eduweb/writing /
Steps in the Writing Process http://karn.ohiolink.edu/ ∼sg-ysu/process.html
Research & Writing Step by Step http://www.ipl.org/teen/aplus/stepfirst.htm
Tools for Your Writing http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/writing/tools/process.html
Research Paper Writing http://www.researchpaper.com/
How to write an essay http://www2.actden.com/writ den/tips/essay/index.htm
Online Technical Writing http://www.io.com/ ∼hcexres/tcm1603/acchtml/acctoc.html
PIZZAZ (Creative writing) http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/ ∼leslieob/pizzaz.htm
Appendix Q
Writing Lessons
“Patriotism”
Four Definition Exercises
Abstract: Students debate the meaning of the word “patriotism” by working through the
following three exercises: (1) contrasting abstract and concrete words, (2) increasingly narrowing
a single definition, (3) defining through differentiation, and (4) identifying a definition’s flaws.
Preparation: Have five to ten minutes ready for students to define before beginning the first day of teaching definition, but allow students and student interests to contribute when possible.
Suggested Reading: www. csun. edu/~hfmgt001/ honesty. doc.
Procedure: For this exercise, I introduce the idea of “definition” by asking students to define patriotism. This discussion is meant to shock students a little bit. First, I have students define patriotism aloud, and then I point out to them that by the definitions they inevitably provide, typically, this leads to a flurry of redefining because students want the word patriotism to maintain the positive connotations they associate with the word. After finishing, or after stopping the discussion if this gets too heated, I then have students analyse their own definition process.
Defining the Abstract (Exercise 1)
Before lecturing on definition, I have students take out a piece of paper and pen/pencil. I give them two sets of words, one at a time. In each set, the first word is concrete and the second word is abstract (such as photo frame/artistic; garden glove/success). After the first set of definitions are written, I have students read their definitions out loud and we talk about why the definitions for the first word are all almost the same and the definitions of the second word have so much variety. We do a second set for emphasis and further discussion. Usually, I begin recording pieces of each definition for the last word on the board and begin lecture by having students argue out the pieces toward creating a common definition for a sample thesis statement. Either as part of this last step or directly following this last step, I introduce the concepts of connotation and denotation. Sometimes these words get defined for the students during our initial discussion of the first set of words, but even if it does, I find it helpful to follow up on the board/overhead. Two examples that usually cement an understanding of denotative versus connotative meaning in students are mother/mom/ma/mommy and house/home. With each set, the denotative meaning is the same, but the connotations may be radically different. The goal is that by the end of this lesson students recognise that in order to write an interesting and purposeful definition, the word should be abstract and the focus more on the connotative than the denotative meaning.
Writing a Definition Thesis Statement (Exercise2)
This exercise can be done in class, but it works just as well as a handout for homework. Having a strong thesis statement in a definition essay can help to keep the essay from being unintentionally focused on the denotative meaning. The following is a thesis template; it is not the form a final thesis would take, but what is written in the blanks provides the material needed to have an argumentative thesis statement. The worksheet follows.
Rationale: While these exercises break down elements of definition for teachers and students, they should also specifically:
• allow teachers to address concrete versus abstract words (and why abstract words are
best for definition essays);
• introduce and explain the concept of denotative versus connotative meaning;
• provide a way to reach an argumentative thesis statement in the definition mode;
• practice definition through differentiation, and identify flawed definition claims.
W O R K S H E ET S
Exercise 2
1. Most people believe that patriotism means _________________________________________,
but really, patriotism is ________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
• Now, to turn this into a potential thesis, eliminate everything up to and including “but really” and reword for clarity: _______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
2. Most people believe that comedy means ___________________________________________,
but really, comedy is _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
• Again, eliminate everything up to and including “but really” and reword for clarity and detail: ______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
This structure for creating a definition thesis statement should work whether you are attempting to expand a definition or argue against the existing definition.
Definition Through Differentiation (Exercise 3)
Often, we define through differentiation; that is, we look at two very similar words and
expand or change the definition of one of those words by contrasting it to the other. Look at these word pairs and define one of the words by explaining how it is different from the other word:
Pair 1: Truth/Honesty ___________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
Pair 2: Freedom/Independence ____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Pair 3: Creative/Artistic __________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
Identifying Flaws in Definition (Exercise 4)
There are pitfalls one must watch out for when writing an extended definition, such as
the Circular Reasoning fallacy i.e. defining something by restating the same thing in different words; this includes defining one abstract term with another equally abstract term. One more frequent issue is beginning with a noun and defining it as a verb, or vice versa. Beware of phrases such as “is when” or “is where,” which are often signs of a problem. Below are several definition sentences; pick the best one and attempt to determine what prevents the others from being strong definitions:
• Patriotism is when one loves his or her country.
• Patriotism means behaving in a patriotic manner
• Patriotism means making decisions in the best interests of one’s country
• In order to have patriotism, one must vote.
• Patriotism means blind loyalty to nationalism.
• Patriotism is where one supports his or her country’s decisions no matter whether he
or she agrees with them or not.
Paraphrase to Avoid Plagiarism
Diagnostic and Assessment
Abstract: Students paraphrase a section of a reading they have already completed and then assess paraphrases written by fictitious students of the same passage. The instructor leads a discussion of student responses about the quality of each paraphrase. Finally, the students write an assessment of their own attempts.
Resources/Methods: Atwan, Robert, ed. America Now, 10th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2013. Lunsford, Andrea A. Easy Writer, 4th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2010.
Procedure: The students had been assigned a critical reading of an article in the Atwan
text about modern marriage by Aja Gabel (71–76) and subsequently discussed it in the previous class session. Prior to the present session, the students were assigned reading in the Lunsford handbook which includes working with sources, paraphrasing, quoting, summarizing, and avoiding plagiarism (192–202).
At the start of the session, students are told, “Paraphrase with documentation paragraphs
24 and 25 on pages 74– 75 of the Gabel article. You may use your handbook to assist you, especially pages 193 and 194. This is a diagnostic piece of writing; it is not a test. I want to assess what you know about working with sources.” The students are given 10 to 15 minutes to complete this stage of the task. As each student finishes, I collect the paraphrase and give a copy of the handout containing samples of five incorrect and one correct paraphrase of the same passage, written by the instructor. (See attached worksheet.) When all students are engaged in this portion of the task, I instruct them that this is not a multiple-choice assessment; there could be more than one item correct or no items correct. They are to assess each one on its own merits.
When all students finish the second stage of the task, we discuss the effectiveness of each of the choices. I then ask the students to assess the paraphrase, which they had done at the start of the session. I tell them that I will assess them, and then return them at the next class session.
Results: Most students are very accurate in their own assessment, pointing out a lack of
understanding, or a failure to document, and even admitting to unintentional plagiarism. Most
students also gain another insight into the precision of college writing.
Rationale: Students arrive in college-level composition classes with a range of skills regarding ability to work with sources correctly. This series of tasks allows me to diagnose each student’s ability to paraphrase and document a passage of a college-level text. The tasks also engage the student’s attention in such a way that most students assess their own paraphrase accurately.
Reading the Magazine Ad
Ethos, Pathos and Logos Group Activity
Abstract: In group work, students analyze magazine advertisements for elements of ethos, pathos, and logos. This exercise can also be used to teach the elements of argumentation.
Duration: Approximately 15 minutes.
Preparation: Magazine ads, enough for each group of students.
Procedure: The purpose of this activity is to help students obtain a more thorough understanding of Aristotle’s three rhetorical appeals: ethos, pathos, and logos. Following a brief presentation (usually a handout and PowerPoint), I hand each group (consisting of three or four people) either an essay or magazine ad, asking them to find evidence of all three rhetorical appeals. They are given approximately 15 minutes to find at least two pieces of evidence for each of the appeals. Students must write down their responses, and, to ensure that every student is participating, groups must delegate responsibilities:
• one student will do the writing;
• another student will present their responses;
• and the remaining students will engage actively in the discussion.
To help ensure engagement, I monitor the discussions. I have found that group work is especially helpful in assisting students in identifying each of the appeals and understanding how they work together to produce a desired effect.
Purpose: In either Composition I or Composition II, I frequently give a major essay assignment, which asks students to analyze and evaluate the use of ethos, pathos, and logos in a piece of visual or written rhetoric. This exercise better familiarizes them with these rhetorical terms so that they have a better idea of what I expect of them when they write their analytical/evaluative essays.
Three Versions of Peer Review
Worksheets for the Classroom
Abstract: In the following three worksheets, students review based upon three different
writing modes: Description and Definition, Comparison and Contrast, Cause and Effect.
Duration: 50- or 75-minute class.
Materials: Copies of the following worksheets, enough for each student.
Procedure: Below find three different forms that have slight variations in the questions
asked to reflect three different modes of writing—descriptive/definition, comparison/contrast, and cause and effect.
Author’s Notes: Students are encouraged to make connections between the writing they review and their own writing. In fact, one of the review questions says “What mistake do you see made repeatedly? Do you have a tendency to make the same mistake? Maybe recognising that mistake in someone else’s paper will help you to realise the error you have made in your paper.”
The following worksheets also ask reviewers to check for sentence order and clarity; I ask students to remember an image we discuss in class to describe the process of linking sentences and ideas together: “Venetian blinds” or “dominos”—one sentence naturally “pushes” or yields to the next sentence. Encourage as much creative thinking as possible. Tell the students that they may not have many comments to make on first review, but once they get their papers back with comments written on them, they will be better prepared to peer evaluate the next paper. This plants the seed that this is a recurring exercise and the idea that revising is a very important step in the process.
Peer Evaluations—Revising—Paper 1
This first hand- out is instruction- heavy, designed to ease the student into the idea of
reviewing another student’s work. Most students will either not know what to say or will not begin with a brief explanation of revising and proofreading. There is an intentional mistake at the outset of the second paragraph for the student to try and catch. Even the final quote has a word omitted intentionally for the students to notice.
A favourite question of mine on this form is at the bottom of page 1, “What is your favorite sentence in the essay you have read?” We are not often asked what our favorite is unless the author is someone like Kipling or Wilde and you really cannot go wrong with practically any sentence you choose. However, the responses to this question have been some of the most insightful on the form. I also encourage them to find strengths in the sentence that they like and apply those strengths to a sentence in their own writing that they consider weak. This question has paid off to such an extent that it is on all three of the variations. This is more obvious and methodical on the second hand- out.
Peer Evaluations—Revising—Paper 2
There is much less instruction here and much more questioning; the number of questions
has increased from 13 to 22. The questions are now numbered and points deducted for incorrect
or missing answers. The “favorite question- why-sentences like it in your paper” sequence is now more plainly spelled out in questions 6 to 8. Certain questions are geared now toward the compare and contrast mode of writing, concerning Block or Factor Methods of organisation.
Peer Evaluations—Revising—Paper 3
This final form breaks the questions into categories: “global” / assignment, paragraphs,
sentences, and writing style. The student is asked many of the same questions, but he or she is being asked to evaluate the paper globally (Does it fit the assignment? Is it truly cause and effect?), on a paragraph level, and on a sentence level. The “favorite sentence” sequence now falls under the “sentence” category.
Concluding Remarks: If the instructor is so inclined, he or she might do as I did one semester and print the three worksheets on three different colors of paper from the printing department. That way, when I was flipping through the “sandwich” of papers submitted, the presence of the peer evaluation was obvious at a glance.
Remarks for Students: “It can be difficult to convince the cut- and-paste generation of the importance of revising, but hopefully, with the addition of this exercise and a marked increase in their paper scores due to a reduction in errors from serious organisational mistakes to the more minor typographical error, the composition can begin to make inroads with our students and their writing processes. There are more steps than just Writing; one should not start at step #3 and neglect Pre- writing and Organising, steps #1 and #2. And nor should you throw all that hard work away by submitting a paper that hasn not been Revised (step #4) or Proofread (step #5). This exercise emphasises the importance of having the time to get a second set of eyes on your paper at the Revision stage in order to better craft the paper. Do not submit a rough draft and call it a final draft; Revising is not for the faint of heart. This exercise helps to ensure that all of your good ideas have been effectively communicated.”
Potential Problems: The only common problem is non- attendance. I deal with this in Peer Review several different ways. As mentioned before, if a student shows up without a rough draft, I dismiss him or her and count the student absent. On the first exercise, I will give a 100 for a fully completed paper. This is only a “homework” grade; the paper itself is a “major” grade and worth significantly more in the cumulative score for the course. On the second peer evaluation, I distribute two sheets to each student; they are to complete both in class. One is submitted for a grade; the other is included in the “sandwich” of papers that is turned in with the final draft (final draft, pre- writing, outline, peer evaluation, rough draft, etc.). The copy that is turned in that day is graded and returned with a more precise grade than just 100 or 90 or 80. This is repeated for the third paper. This usually solves any problems of non- participation.
Appendix R
Writing Tests
These tests can be used to assess different aspects of writing performance. The first test assesses cohesion. The accuracy tests (2 and 3) check use of particular word classes such as conjunctions or prepositions. Test 4 is a comparison. They can be used in the classroom or for self-assessment.
WRITING TEST 1
(Cohesion)
The parts of sentences below make two paragraphs that compare speaking with writing. Some parts are already numbered. Fill in the remaining numbers. Use internal clues and punctuation to help you find the correct order.
SPEAKING AND WRITING
1) When we speak, it is normally to one or
…) to study our listeners’ faces for expressions that tell
…) for example. agreement, or amusement.
…) they often find the situation stressful.
3) As we speak, we are able
…) For most people, speaking feels like a natural activity,
…) a small number of people, who are often well known to us.
…) If their expressions show incomprehension
…) us their reaction to what we are saying;
…) though if they have to make a formal speech
…) we will probably restate what we are saying.
…) Writers cannot check if the readers understand, or are interested
…) to avoid the dangers of being misunderstood by readers,
…) who cannot look puzzled to
1) Writing, however, is much more like speaking to
…) Unless we are writing a letter to a friend
…) This is the reason why writing is more difficult than
…) make the writer explain what he means again.
…) in what they are writing.
…) we have no way of knowing who may read our words.
…) It also explains why writing must be as clear and simple as possible,
…) speaking, and often uses a more formal style.
…) an unknown audience.
WRITING TEST 2
(Accuracy)
Read the text for gist and then complete it by writing one word in each gap.
Most overseas students who come to study (a) . . . . . . . . . . . English-speaking countries find that their first (b) . . . . . . . . . . . is listening. Understanding (c) . . . . . . . . . . . many forms of spoken English is more (d) . . . . . . . . . . . than they expected. (e) . . . . . . . . . . . , after a month (f) . . . . . . . . . . . two, the majority find that their listening (g) . . . . . . . . . . . , and their next concern is speaking. This skill is more difficult to practise, so improvement (h) . . . . . . . . . . . to be slower. But (i) . . . . . . . . . . . three or four months most students find that(j) . . . . . . . . . . . can function quite (k) . . . . . . . . . . . in terms of shopping and travelling. A (l) . . . . . . . . . . . area of difficulty is writing, which is possibly the (m) . . . . . . . . . . . difficult skill to master, (n) . . . . . . . . . . . it is more impersonal than oral / aural skills and depends (o) . . . . . . . . . . . the student learning a complex series of conventions. This explains (p) ………. many students find it (q) . . . . . . . . . . . to attend (r) . . . . . . . . . . . intensive course in academic English (s) . . . . . . . . . . . they begin (t) . . . . . . . . . . . university studies.
WRITING TEST 3
(Accuracy)
Read the text for gist and then complete it by writing one word in each gap.
All students need a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . to live, so finding a suitable place is likely to be a priority when they arrive to start a new course. Apart b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the minority c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . live with their parents, there are only two d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of accommodation which are generally affordable. e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . all universities provide f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of residence, which can help new students g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . friends and develop a social life. They can be a h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . choice, usually being close to other university facilities, i) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . some may find that they are noisy, expensive and have j) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . small rooms. The alternative is to rent k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . house or flat from a private landlord
with a group of other students. l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kind of shared accommodation m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . offer greater independence and privacy, and can n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . be more economical.
.
Appendix S
Before and After Example
In this example, again, some sentences can be rewritten; others benefit from
reducing the number of words and combining sentences.
Paragraph First Draft
(1) It was really bad when David got an F in his English class. (2) David had always been a good student. (3) The F really upset him and his parents. (4) They decided to go to the school counselor and see if there was anything that could be done to fix the problem. (5) The counselor helped them figure out what the actual problem was and also helped them set up a plan to solve the problem.
Sentence 1, First Draft
It was really bad when David got an F in his English class. A more dynamic start would be better, so eliminate the expletive sentence “It was” and begin with “David got an F.” Also, “class” isn’t needed, since it is implied and adds an unnecessary word.
Sentence 1, Rewritten
David got an F in English.
Sentence 2, First Draft
David had always been a good student.
No need to repeat the name, so change “David” to “He.” For sentence variety, combine sentences 2 and 3. Also, add “so” to show the relationship between the first and second parts of the new sentence.
Sentence 3, First Draft
The F really upset him and his parents.
Again, for sentence variety, combine with sentence 2 (as shown in Sentence 2, Final Draft).
Sentences 2 and 3, Rewritten
He had always been a good student, so the F really upset him and his parents.
Sentence 4, First Draft
They decided to go to the school counselor and see if there was anything that could be done to fix the problem.
The sentence is too wordy. To be more concise, change “They decided to go to” to “They went,” which eliminates the weak “to go to” construction. Also, condense by changing “see if there was anything that could be done,” to “for assistance.”
Sentence 4, Rewritten
They went to the school counselor for assistance.
Sentence 5, First Draft
The counselor helped them figure out what the actual problem was and also helped them set up a plan to solve the problem. No need to repeat “counselor,” so change it to “She.” Change “figure out what the actual problem was” to more concise language and more meaningful wording: “analyze the problem and devise a plan to improve the situation.”
Sentence 5, Rewritten
helped them analyze the problem and devise a plan to improve the situation.
Paragraph Final Draft
(1) David got an F in English. (2) He had always been a good student, so the F really upset him and his parents. (3) They went to the school counselor for assistance. (4) She helped them analyse the problem and devise a plan to improve the situation.
Appendix T
Writing Strategies
Prewriting Stage
Understand the topic.
Identify key expectations.
Make the project yours. the assignment.
Talk with others.
Keep a journal.
Sort out the subject into categories.
Brainstorm. audience, purpose.
Read, talk to others, and brainstorm.
Create labeled flexible notes.
Develop a rough plan—a list of points in order.
Write a quick draft to find your focus and pattern. the information.
Focus on just one central point or issue.
Provide an accurate forecast of what is to come.
o revise.
Writing Effective Paragraphs Effective Paragraphs
Writing paragraphs.
Aim for the purpose of the whole paper.
Use paragraphing to show your paper’s organisation.
Focus paragraphs around main ideas.
Use your writing plan to decide on paragraphs.
Have a draft thesis statement.
Choose a strategy—a definition, a directly stated thesis, a quotation, a personal experience an arresting statement, a question.
Choose a strategy based on your audience and purpose.
Build paragraphs around main idea.
Develop main idea with details, explanations, or examples.
Use a strategy and order for developing each paragraph.
Provide clear transitions.
State or imply a topic sentence that provides that main idea.
Aim at pulling the paper together for the reader.
Restate thesis in a new way.
Write a summary of paper.
Leave the reader with an important question.
Cover a personal challenge, hope, or recommendation.
Determine a strategy based on the paper.
Check again to determine that the conclusion fits the paper in tone, content, and approach, and does not raise new issues.
Check to see if everything in each paragraph fits the topic of the paragraph. Cut or move
what does not fit.
Determine if additional details, examples, or explanations are necessary to make your point and add if necessary.
Make certain that the topic sentence of each paragraph is clear and fits the paragraph.
Strengthen coherence and cohesion by making certain sentences relate in an order and that repeated words or phrases help show relationships.
Use a telling quotation.
Effective Sentences
When drafting, do not focus excessively on the sentence if doing so interrupts the generation of ideas.
Focus on sentences during the revision cycle.
Work to make your sentences as sharp as possible. on the sentence.
Cut unneeded words.
Reword lengthy phrases. (“The dull speech” instead of “The speech that was dull.”)
Make certain sentences are of different lengths and show logical relationships through coordination, subordination, and relative clauses.
So that you don’t use the same pattern, vary word order by using inverted order, moving modifiers, and varying sentence types.
Use the right voice. Only use the passive deliberately; otherwise, change passive sentences to an active voice.
Use patterns in your sentences to build rhythm. It is possible to repeat sentence type and order if it builds a rhythm for an effect.
Use parallelism within sentences with lists of words or phrases and with multiple sentences.
Read your paper out loud to see if your paper moves consistently from one paragraph to another.
Proofread to make certain that your sentences avoid common grammatical and punctuation
errors. Avoid sentence fragments unless they are used deliberately and with great care.
Achieving Effective Style and Tone Through Word Choice
Achieving Effective S
Formal—for serious, professional communication.
More abstract and multisyllabic words, longer and more structured sentences, though varied.
Informal—for lighter topics or more familiar communication.
More conversational with ordinary words, looser sentences, some contractions and even colloquial expressions.
Technical—for specifically technical fields and audiences.
Uses specialised vocabulary for the field, longer and more complex sentences.
Check words you do not know well in the dictionary.
Use the thesaurus to find alternate word choices.
Determine if your word choices are the right level of concrete/abstract.
Most writers need to change more abstract words to concrete words and more general words to specific words. Cut unnecessary words and tighten wordy phrases.
Test for and eliminate ambiguity.
Rewrite euphemisms unless the phrases are needed.
Eliminate slang unless required for a deliberate effect.
Rework clichés and mixed metaphors.
Reword any sexist language.
Eliminate flawed diction.
Based on your topic, readers, The Essay Examination Problem
You will rarely have time to do another draft.
Introduction introduces topic, hooks the reader, and usually identifies a thesis, but needs to be very clear about how it answers the question.
Body follows an effective organization to answer the exam question. It should be clear how each section meets the exam question. Your exam is likely to be read quickly, so you need to take extra pains to keep your points clear and your examples relevant.
Conclusion very clearly restates the kernel of your answer to the question.
Check to determine that you have very clear transitions that link to the question.
Check to make certain that you answered all of the question and did not leave something out. If you did, find a way to insert it.
You rarely have time for a full revision, but you should still reread your answer from the point of view of the teacher grading the question.
Add any example or point of data that would strengthen your answer.
Evaluate to make certain that your answer stands out as meeting the question.
Cut sentences that do not fit or went off point; be sure to check for inaccuracies or mistakes and cut them.
Read and reread the question carefully.
Make a specific note of any features required in the answer or any strategies that are expected such as cause/effect, comparison, or argumentation.
Quickly brainstorm the information you will use in your answer.
Craft a quick and clear outline and check that it meets the explanation of the question.
Ask professor for examples of previous exam questions.
Review any established class material identifying expectations for essay questions.
Write your own sample essay questions.
Review the material you might use to answer possible essay exams.
Rehearse, possibly in outline form, the answer you would give to possible questions.
Appendix U
Editing Symbols
ab improper abbreviation
agr pa faulty agreement of pronoun and antecedent
agr sv faulty agreement of subject and verb
V´ or apos missing or misused apostrophe
awk awkward phrasing
bib faulty bibliographic form
cap capital letter needed
case wrong case
cl cliché
^, or com missing or misused comma
cs comma splice
comp faulty comparison
dm dangling modifier
. . . or ellip missing or misused ellipsis
frag sentence fragment
ital missing or misused italics
lc lowercase (small) letter needed
// or lev wrong level of usage
log faulty logic
mm misplaced modifier
num use numerals
nsu nonstandard usage new paragraph needed
Problem Symbols
no new paragraph not needed
. period needed
// or para nonparallelism
? or ques missing or misused question mark
"/" or quot missing or misused quotation marks
ref unclear reference of pronoun to antecedent
ro run-on sentence
; or sem missing or misused semicolon
sp spelling error
shift p shift in person
shift t shift in tense
sq squinting modifier
t or tense wrong tense
trans poor transition
vb wrong verb form
wdy wordiness
ww wrong word
delete (omit)
^ material omitted
? meaning unclear or word illegible
Strengthen your sentences further.
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DECLARATIE
Subsemnata Butaciu Carmen- Mirela, profesor de limba engleză la Liceul „ Atanasie Marienescu”, Lipova, judetul Arad, candidat pentru susținerea probelor de obținere a gradului didactic I în învățământ, declar pe propria răspundere că:
lucrarea a fost elaborată personal și îmi aparține în întregime;
nu au fost folosite alte surse decât cele indicate în bibliografie;
nu au fost preluate texte, date sau elemente de grafică din alte lucrări sau din alte surse fără a fi citate și fără a fi precizată sursa preluării;
lucrarea nu a mai fost folosită în alte contexte de examen sau de concurs.
Lipova, Butaciu Carmen- Mirela
25.08.2017
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