Running Head: 21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS [628017]

Running Head: 21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS

WHY ARE 21ST CENTURY STUDENTS DROPPING OUT OF HIGH SCHOOL?

AN EXAMINATION OF CAUSES, EFFECTS , AND PREVENTION

A CAPSTONE RESEARCH PROJECT
Submitted to the Faculty
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership
Wingate University School of Graduate Education

By
Melinda Edwards Bowers

Wingate University
Ballantyne Campus
Charlotte, NC
December, 2017





ProQuest Number:




All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
Thequality of this reproduction is dependent upon thequality of the copy submitted.

In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
anote willindicate the deletion.




ProQuest

Published by ProQuest LLC ( ). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author.


All rights reserved.
Thiswork is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.


ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, MI 48106 -13461061851310618513
2017

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS ii

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS iii

ABSTRACT
WHY ARE 21ST CENTURY STUDENTS DROPPING OUT OF HIGH SCHOOL?
AN EXAMINATION OF CAUSES, EFFECTS , AND PREVENTION

Melinda Edwards Bowers
Wingate University School of Graduate and Continuing Education
Chair: Dr. Cynthia Compton

Keywords: high school dropout, dropout prevention programs, at -risk student: [anonimizat], high school equivalency certificate, socioeconomic status, longitudinal dropout
rate, dropout factories, cohort graduation rate .

This study examines the causes, effects , and preven tion strategies that influence a
student’s decision to drop out of high school. Three research questions are explored:
1. What causes 21st century high school students to drop out of high school?
2. Why are current dropout prevention measures not meeting the needs of today’s
students?
3. What patterns emerge in participant responses to the question, “Why did you leave
high school prior to graduation?”
The researcher collected data from 92 students atten ding orientation for the adult high
school program at a small, rural community college who left school prior to graduation. Ten
students were selected and agreed to a one on one interview with the researcher in order to
provide a rich context to support th eir decision to drop out of high school. Data collected
included academic background, school experiences, family characteristics, parental investment,
disciplinary actions , and attendance patterns throughout the student’s school career. The study
identified precipitat ing causes for students to withdraw from school including perceptions of
education by the student: [anonimizat], teen pregnancy, socio -economic characteristics of the

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS iv

family and community, disciplinary actions taken against the student: [anonimizat]’s need to
find full time employment. A 5 x5 Chi Square analysis was done to find the degree of
relationship between the basic characteristics of poverty to the causes for drop ping out. The
results of the analysis were not significant , indic ating that living in poverty does not cause
students to drop out of high school. The data from the surveys, interviews , and chi square
analysis showed that dropping out of high school is not a spontaneous decision , but a result of
years of academic strugg le, personal and family issues , and the need to provide for basic needs.
It is a long process , mired in struggle. The study also revealed a lack of school -related incentives
and effective dropout prevention programs to address the issue.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS v

DEDICATION
This capstone project is dedicated to the many students who graciously volunteered to be
a part of the research study and the dedicated educators who support them. You have given me
wisdom that goes beyond the textbook.
This is also dedicated to my family who supported me during this process. For all of the
sacrifices you made to help me reach this point I am eternally grateful.
To Dr. Anne Hockett, thank you for helping me realize that instead of a problem, what
we have is “an opportunity to provide a solu tion.”

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A tremendous thank you to Ballantyne Cohort VIII ; you all made the past three years a
wonderful experience. I will miss you greatly. To the faculty of Wingate University’s Graduate
Education program, a heartfelt thank you for your patience, wisdom , and sense of humor
throughout this process. Thank you seems inadequate when reflecting on the incredible
contributions made to this study by the faculty, staff, and students of the College and Career
Readiness program at Stanly Community College. You all have made an indelible impression
upon me that I hope r eminds me each day of why I chose to become an educator. Thank you all.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Chapter One: Introduction ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …………. 1
Statement of the Problem ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………….. 1
Research Questions ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …………………… 2
Purpose and Significance of Study ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. 3
Conceptual Framework ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ……………… 5
Limitations of the Stud y………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …………….. 7
Summary ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …….. 7
Definition of Key Terms ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ……………. 7
Organization of the Study ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………….. 9
Chapter Two: Review of Relevant Literature ………………………….. ………………………….. ………….. 10
Societal Costs of High School Dropouts ………………………….. ………………………….. ……………….. 10
Major Causes of Dropping Out ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …. 13
School Characteristics in Relation to High School Dropouts ………………………….. …………………. 20
Dropout Prevention ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …………………. 24
Student Motivation and the Desire to Graduate ………………………….. ………………………….. ……….. 27
Summary ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …… 28
Chapter Three: Methodology ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ……. 30
Research Questions ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …………………. 30
Research Design ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ……………………… 31
Mixed Methods Design ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …. 31
Quantitative Research Design ………………………….. ………………………….. …………………….. 31

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS viii

Qualitative Research Design ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………. 32
Triangulation of Data ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ……. 32
Setting ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………. 32
Overall and Sample Populations ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. .. 32
Access to Site ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …………………………. 33
Survey Administration ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …………….. 33
Value of Specific Methodology ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. … 34
Risk to Participants ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …………………. 34
Instrumentation ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………. 34
Quantitative Instrument: Survey ………………………….. ………………………….. …………………. 34
Survey Reliability ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………… 35
Survey Validity ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ……………. 35
Data Collection Procedures ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………. 36
Qualitative Data Collection: Participant Interviews ………………………….. …………………… 36
Quantitative Data Collection: Participant Surveys ………………………….. …………………….. 36
Data Analysis Procedures ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………… 37
Qualitative Data Analysis ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. 37
Quantitative Data Analysis ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………… 35
Validity of Interpretation ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …………. 38
Limitations of the Study ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …………… 38
Ethical Considerations ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …………….. 39
Summary ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …… 39

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS ix

Chapter Four: Results ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ……………… 41
Data Description ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …………………….. 41
Sampling Method ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ……………………. 42
Data Analysis ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …………………………. 43
Rationale for Methodology ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………. 44
Survey Results ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ……………………….. 45
Research Question One ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …. 45
Research Question Two ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. … 47
Research Que stion Three ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. . 50
Summary ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …… 54
Chapter Five: Recommendations ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. . 56
Findings ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …….. 56
Research Question One ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …. 56
Research Question Two ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. … 60
Research Question Three ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. . 62
Limitations ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. … 63
Researcher Comments ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …………….. 64
Relationship of Findings to Previous Literature ………………………….. ………………………….. ………. 65
Implications for Future Practice in a Local Context ………………………….. ………………………….. …. 70
Recommendations for Future Research ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………….. 71
Summary ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …… 72
References ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …. 75
Appendices ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. … 83

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS x

LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 4.1 Reasons for Dropping Out ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………… 45
Table 4.2 Dropout Prevention Strategies ………………………….. ………………………….. …………… 48
Table 4.3 Chi Square Analysis of Childhood Poverty and High School Dropout …………….. 50

Running Head: 21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

Statement of the Problem

What do Cameron Diaz, Johnny Depp , and Quentin Tarantino have in common? Each of
these extremely successful individuals dropped out of high school. Their reasons for doing so
varied . For Cameron Diaz, a modeling career was the catalyst . Johnny Depp dro pped out to
pursue a career in film. Quentin Tarantino felt that school was a roadblock to his dream of
making movies. These three individuals went on to become extremely wealthy and respected for
their talent , but that is not the case for most students who leave high school prior to graduating.
Today’s high school dropouts are more likely to live below the poverty line and have a shorter
life expectancy than their peers who complete high school (Burrus & Roberts, 2012). Although
states boast of their r ising graduation rates, there appears to be a gap between 21st century high
school students’ needs and the programs in place to prevent them from leaving school. Are the
graduation rates touted by school districts nationwide accurate ? School districts have invested
financial and human capital promoting programs to keep kids in school , yet students continue to
seek alternate pathways to a high school credential. The effectiveness of dropout prevention
programs is questionable when a cost to benefit anal ysis is conducted (Finn, Kahlenberg, &
Kress, 2015). With so many dropout prevention programs in place, why do students in the 21st
century continue to drop out of high school? What do these students need that schools are not
providing ? Using a combinat ion of qualitative and quantitative methods, the researcher analyzed
the needs of contemporary high school dropouts that traditional dropout prevention programs do
not meet .

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 2

The dropout issue negatively influences both the individual and society as a
whol e. Studies have shown that dropouts “not only earn less and, therefore, pay fewer taxes, but
they also consume more public services, have less stable families, commit more crime and live
shorter lives” (Center for Child and Family Policy, 2008, p. 18). The negative impact of
dropping out of high school is lifelong. Research has shown that dropouts have a higher risk of
becoming part of the criminal justice penal system than their counterparts who graduated from
high school (Orfield, 2004). In terms of f iscal well -being, when dropouts enter the workforce in
a shrinking economy , they are less likely to find employment that is both long term and provides
a living wage. Trends indicate that dropouts will hold minimum wage jobs that are often subject
to layo ffs and cutbacks as the economy shifts (Orfield, 2004). As the cycle of employment to
unemployment continues , dropouts find themselves living in poverty, and encountering
hardships that are difficult to overcome.
Research Questions

In an effort to find patterns of causation for students leaving high school prior to
graduation, the researcher explore d the following research questions:
1. What causes 21st century high school students to drop out of high school?
2. Why are current dropout prevention measures not meeting the needs of today’s
students?
3. What patterns emerge in participant responses to the question, “Why did you leave
high school prior to graduation?”
Current research on why students drop out of high school reveals several emer ging
themes that shed new light on the problem. Studies reveal that students face problems in 21st
century society that previous generations did not face. Hammond (2007 and Jerald (2007),

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 3

conducted in depth research into the variables that cause students to drop out of high school.
They found that family organization and socio -economic status are the common denominators
in many of the issues faced by 21st century students. High stakes testing and academic
difficulties are also among the leading reasons students drop out of high school. Orfield (2004),
discusses research into the failures of traditional public education to meet the needs of minority
and ELL students and the correlation of those failures to future incarceration . Research into the
effects of bullying on students’ decisions to drop out of high school is limited due to the lack of
literature on the correlation between the two (Jerald, 20 07). In addition to traditional reasons
for dropping out of high school such as teen pregnancy, having to work to support the family ,
and an overall dislike of school, current research unveils a myriad of problems faced by 2 1st
century high school students that were not expe rienced by previous generations (Renzulli &
Bradley, 2011).
The research er developed questions designed to investigate the decision -making process
that leads a student to leave school prior to graduation. The first question elicited responses
regarding why students are dropping out. The second research question involved an
examination of dropout prevention programs and their effect on student dropout rates . The final
research question examine d emerging themes in student responses to the previous two
questions. Identifying these patterns will benefit educators in developing programs that meet
the needs of 21st century , at-risk students.
Purpose and Significance of the Study

If there are common areas in which schools are not meeting the needs of seconda ry
students, more effective strategies can be implemented to prevent student s from separating from
high school. In a superficial examination, current research indicates that many dropout

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 4

prevention strategies are outdated (Orfield, 2004). Dropout prevention programs are not
designed to include students with autism or other disabilities who find the noise and crowds of
the high school environment overwhelming (Finn et al. , 2015) , nor do they meet the needs of
homeless/transient students. Hom elessness is a multi -faceted issue , as students who move in and
out of school districts have a greater chance of leaving traditional education. For many homeless
students , finding employment that can stabilize the family holds greater importance in their lives
than graduating from high school (Jerald, 2007 ). The homeless student’s need for a stable living
environment correlates with the findings of recent research on the cycle of poverty (Coley &
Baker, 2013). According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Basic Nee ds, humans must have food, water,
warmth, and rest in order to function in society, and schools are not equipped to provide these
basic elements of survival 24 hours a day, 365 days a year (Burrus & Roberts, 2012). These
factors often overlap , leaving the student feeling that dropping out of high school is the only
viable solution .
Dropping out of high school is not a spontaneous decision but a process that can begin as
early as preschool (Hammond & Jerald, 2007) . As children grow from infancy to age fi ve,
fundamental learning skills are established. If parents do not, or cannot, provide a home
environment that encourages learning , the child will enter school without the skills other children
possess , thus putting them at a disadvantage before their academic journey has even begun
(National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2007). This study was designed to reveal
patterns of causation for non -matriculation of high school students , based not only on their
secondary academic performance and socio -economic status, but also on an in -depth
examination of the layers of events that cause students to drop out. Further examination of the
problem will benefit researchers by providing insight into why students continue to drop out of

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 5

high school in the 21st century . Educators will benefit by using the findings to develop new
strategies to address the reasons students drop out . School districts can use the study to provide
students with a clear unders tanding of the lifelong consequences of dropping out of high school
(Burrus & Roberts, 2012). Policy makers can consider the factors that contribute to students
dropping out of high school when developing education legislation and school reform policies.
Causes for drop ping out that have not been prevalent in the past are posing tremendous
matriculation problems for 21st century high school students ( Jerald, 20 07). This study shed new
light on the issues faced by high school students , and gave stakeholde rs the opportunity to
provide solutions to help students obtain a high school diploma. At-risk student who are still in
school may have new ways of overcoming obstacles to graduation.
Conceptual Framework

The researche r used a mixed methods approach to gather and analyz e data. The research
sample for this study include d individuals ranging from 16-32 years of age who are enrolled in
the adult high school program at a small community college. During the orientation session the
researcher spoke to the gr oup about the research project and the need for participants. The
researcher explained to potential participants the purpose of the study and the parameters of
confidentiality. Only those students willing to participate were included in the research
activ ities. No member of the research participant group was a member of a vulnerable
population as defined by Creswell (2015) that could be harmed in any way during the study .
Selection criteria included birth date and educational background. The researcher gathered data
via student responses to survey and interview questions. Students under the age of eighteen were
required to provide written parental permission to participate in the study via the parent signature
on the participant permission letter.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 6

The study was conducted at an off campus site. The community college is located in a
small town in an economically disadvantaged county of North Carolina and offers one of the few
adult high school programs in the region. According to the US Census Bureau (2016), nearly
20% of all adults living within a fifty -mile radius of the community college have no high school
credential s. Therefore, the adult high school program is crucial to the economic progress of the
region. Classes are free and open to anyone wi shing to complete a secondary education
credential. Minors must have a six -month waiting period waiver signed by the principal of the
student’s most recent high school , as well as a notarized parent release form allowing the
community college to provide e ducational services .
Students have two pathways to a secondary education credential. The high school
diploma option allows students to take all courses needed to earn the credits required by the
North Carolina Department of Public Instruction for a secondary diploma program. Further, the
county board of education mandates other credit requirement s before a student receives the
official diploma issued by the community college in conjunction with the local LEA. The
second pathway is high school eq uivalency. Students can select from three high school
equivalency tests to receive a high school equivalency diploma. Students select seated or online
courses during orientation. Seated classes meet each weekday from 8:00 a.m. – 12:00 p.m. and
1:00 p.m. – 4:00 p.m. Evening classes meet Tuesday and Thursday from 5:3 0 – 8:30 p.m.
Students may also choose to take courses online, which allows them to complete classwork at a
time convenient for the m.
Enroll ees must have attended high school in the United States and have a birth date
between January 1, 1984 , and December 21, 2000 . Prospective students must meet all program
requirements for admission into the adult high school program .

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 7

Limitations of the Study

This st udy was limited to students of the adult high school program at a local community
college in the rural piedmont of North Carolina. It was assum ed that study participants were
honest in their answers to survey and interview questions. Perceptions and beli efs of study
participants about dropping out of high school differ ed from non -study participants because of
their enrollment in an adult high school program. These students have realized the importance of
high school completion on future earning potential which differentiates them from dropouts who
have not made a commitment to earning a secondary credential. It was also assumed that
students openly shared the influences and life events that contributed to their decision to drop out
of high school in order for the study results to be accurate . Lastly, the study represented views
from a single geographic area in the rural American south.
Summary

This chapter provided the rationale and context for finding causation trends in 21st
century high school students’ decision s to leave school prior to graduating. The chapter also
addressed potential lifelong obstacles resulting from dropping out of schoo l, and the negative
impact on the nation, and state and local communities when studen ts do not complete high
school . The researcher also questioned the reliability of the graduation rate data released by high
schools nationwide , as well as the effectiveness of current dropout prevention programs .
Definition of Key Terms

All definitions are taken from Dropout Prevention: Strategies for improving high school
graduation rates . A Briefing Report prepared for the North Carolina Family Impact Seminar ,
Duke University (2008).
 High School Dropout: An individual who is not in school and who is n ot a graduate
of high school.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 8

 At-Risk Student: A student affected by one or more factors that have been found to
predict a high rate of school failure at some time in the future.
 Dropout Prevention Programs : Interventions designed to increase high school
completion rates.
 High School Completion Rate: T he percentage of all 21 and 22-year-old persons who
have completed high school by receiving a high school diploma or equivalency
certificate.
 English Language Learner (ELL): Students whose first langu age is not English and
who need language assistance to participate fully in the regular curriculum. Also
referred to as Limited English Proficient (LEP).
 Socioeconomic Status: A measure of an individual’s or family’s economic and social
ranking relative to other families.
 Longitudinal Dropout Rate: T he percentage of students in a nationally representative
cohort at a particular grade level at a certain point in the school year who have left
school and not graduated with a diploma or certificate of gradua tion as of a certain
later time.
 No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001: A federal law that reauthorized a
number of federal programs aiming to improve the performance of U.S. primary and
secondary schools by increasing the standards of accountability for states, school
districts and schools, as well as providing parents more flexibility in choosing which
schools their children will attend.
 High school equivalency certificate: A formal document certifying that an individual
has met the state requiremen ts for high school graduation equivalency.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 9

 Dropout factories: Term popularized in the media referring to high schools where the
number of graduating seniors is less than 60% of the number of students who start as
freshmen.
Cohort graduation rate (as curre ntly defined in North Carolina): The percentage of ninth -graders
who graduate from high school four years later.
Organization of the Study

This study include d a survey completed by students during the new student orientation
session for the community c ollege adult high school program. The survey was available in print
and online , depending upon the preference of the participant. The researcher entered all written
responses into the online survey form in order to maintain data validity and reliability.
This chapter outlined the study population and the participant selection process . The use
of a mixed methods approach to gather and analyze data underscored the importance of both
quantitative analysis and qualitative description of the study results. The study included a
detailed description of the significance and purpose of the study with emphasis on the
overlapping effects of high school dropouts on both society and the individual. Limitations of
the study included an explanation of the geographic and demographic boundaries of the study
population that could possibly influence the results of the research. This chapter outlin ed the
study with a description of the problem and the methodology used to analyze the results.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 10

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE

Literature Review

In this chapter, the researcher examine d research previously conducted regarding the
causes and consequences of students dropping out of high school. This issue affects not only the
individual, but also society in terms of social welfare benefits, incarceration and loss of tax
revenues (Breslow , 2012). Students in the 21st century face obstacles to education and life
fulfillment that previous generations did not face. The reasons students gave for dropping out
was the focus of the next part of the literature review. Evaluation of the research on the
effectiveness of dropout prevention measures le d to the discussion of student motivation to
succeed. The literature review revealed the relationships among factors that contribute to the
decision to drop out .
Costs of High School Dropouts on Soc iety

The issue of high school dropouts has gained increased attention in the 21st century.
During the 20th century , if a student dropped out of high school , there were manufacturing jobs
available that paid a living wage and enabled the individual to prov ide a financially sound life for
the student and family members. The military was also an option for high school dropouts.
Students could enlist and have an entire career in the armed forces that provided a living wage,
housing, and healthcare (Schachter , 2013). In the 21st century, students who drop out of high
school prior to graduation no longer have these options. The manufacturing jobs that were once
readily available are scarce , and the military requires candidates to be high school graduates
(Schachter, 2013). The future for a high school dropout in the 21st century is bleak , and fraught
with obstacles not encountered by high school graduates.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 11

Breslow (2012 ) states that the average high school dropout can expect to experience
some or all of the following consequences :
 an average annual income of $20 ,000, a full $10 ,000 less than someone with a high
school diploma ;
 a 12% jobless rate, and a 30% rate of living at or below the poverty line ;
 Being 63 times more likely to be incarcerated between the ages of 16 and 24.
“These indicators are what the research calls costs to the individual. These are the ways
the individual pays for not having obtained the high school diploma” (Lehr, Clapper, & Thurlow,
2005, p. 3). Breslow (2012) also posits t hat a typical high school dropout will cost the American
taxpayer $292,000 over a lifetime due to the cost of social welfare benefits, incarceration, and
Medicaid, among other costs associated with living at or below the poverty line.
Petrick (2014) writes, “Dropping out of school minimizes economic independence and
breeds hopelessness for the individual and especially for society. Society needs a productive
workforce of skilled and educated workers to help stimulate the economy” (p. 131). Part of the
impa ct of high school dropout s on society is the reduction in tax revenue generated by those in
non-skilled labor employment . As the reduction in tax revenue continues to grow, the
community will be unable to support tax -based services such as police, schools , and fire fighters
to the level that makes each effective (Gottlob, 2007). Further, those who leave high school
prior to graduation have a much higher probability of relying on social welfare programs to meet
basic living needs. Gottlob (2007) analyzed the cost of Medicaid benefits in North Carolina. He
states, “ Individuals in North Carolina who do not have at least a high school diploma (1 4% of the
working -age population) are about twice as likely to be on Medicaid” and “the probability that a
high sch ool dropout or a dependent child in North Carolina receives Medicaid benefits is nearly

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 12

34 percent” (Gottlob, 2007, p.17). Gottlob reported that the total cost to North Carolina
taxpayers for high school dropout Medicaid benefits averaged $390 million (2007).
An examination of the repercussions of dropping out of high school reveals the link
between delinquency and eventual incarceration and non -matriculation. There are many reasons
for this link but none are as significant as the influence of poverty o n criminal behavior.
“Approximately 68 % of state prison inmates, 50 % of federal inmates, and 60 % of jail inmates
did not obtain their regular high school degree” (Sweeten, Bushway, & Paternoster, 2009, p. 49).
The socioeconomic status of high school drop outs makes them more vulnerable to criminal
activities as they most often live in low income , high crime areas. However, studies show that
living in a neighborhood with a high crime rate is not a foolproof predictor of criminal behavior.
According to Ale xander, Entwisle, and Horsey (1997) dropouts tend to possess a number of
contributing factors that lead them to leave school early and ultimately enter into criminal
behavior. Their research revealed that dropouts are more likely to have peers considered to be
delinquent, a history of antisocial personality traits, and behavioral problems (Alexander et al.,
1997). These conditions can contribute to the likelihood of criminal behavior ultimately leading
to incarceration.
Orfield (2004) states that children born to high school dropouts tend to repeat the cycle in
their own lives. The realities of living in poverty contribute to an overall sense of hopelessness
that permeates the family and in some instances, entire communities (Orfield, 2004). “The se
students are the future of many of our cities and rural communities. If we write them off, they
will find ways to live – ways that will often be destructive to the core values of our
communities” (Orfield, 2004, p. 2). Not only does Orfield (2004) poi nt to the connection

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 13

between poverty and criminal activity, but he also notes that growing up in an environment
where education is not valued will have detrimental effects on generations to come .
In the United States, a common complaint by employers is the re are no workers who have
the skills necessary to perform the jobs they have available. According to Petrick (2014), t he gap
between job opportunities and qualified candidates has grown tremendously over the past several
decades :
The 21st century workforce requires skilled and educated workers to remain competitive
for the global economy demands. Secondary education provides students with college
preparatory or vocational education training. Therefore, the link between our global
economy demands and our need for prepared workers is secondary education (p. 132).

If students do not complete high school, the nation is at risk of having a population of
undereducated, unskilled workers reliant on social welfare for survival. The economic a nd social
costs to society of a single high school dropout are too great for education leaders to ignore.
Students who do not complete high school not only harm their own future s, but they also put the
wellbeing of the nation at risk.
Major Causes of Dropping Out

The State Board of Education of North Carolina (2016 -2017) has a clearly stated school
attendance law :
In accordance with G.S. 115C -378, every parent, guardian, or custodian in North
Carolina having charge or control of a student between th e ages of 7 and 16 years shall
cause the student to attend school continuously for a period equal to the time which the
public school to which the student is assigned is in session (p. 11).

However, many students in North Carolina public schools contin ue to struggle with
chronic absenteeism and disengagement from academics , and over time , make the decision to
leave high school prior to graduating. In an examination of recent studies on why students drop
out of high school, one fact is clear; dropping out of high school is not a spontaneous, isolated

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 14

decision. It is a gradual process begin ning with the child’s preschool years and culminating in
the student leaving high school prior to graduating (Garner & Shonkoff, 2012).
Tracing the drop out process from infancy through adolescence yields valuable insight
into why students make the deci sion not to complete high school. “The most influential context
outside of the school that affects academic achievement is the family , particularly the role of
parental investment in their child’s education” (Henry, Cavanagh, & Oetting, 2010, p. 1165). It
is a widely accepted belief that a child born to undereducated parents, raised in a stressful home
environment , and struggling to have basic needs met has a much higher probability of dropping
out of high school (Rumberger, 2013). However, studies are be ing done that examine the genetic
and environmental influences on child development . Garner and Shonkoff (2012) found that
“beginning prenatally, continuing through infancy, and extending into childhood and beyond,
development is driven by an ongoing, inex tricable interaction between biology (as defined by
genetic predispositions) and ecology (as defined by the social and physical environment)” (p.
234).
Henry et al., (2010) studied the role of parental investment in school as a predictor of
high school c ompletion and found a negative correlation between socioeconomic level and
educational expectations. Parental investment in a child’s education is comprised of three
characteristics : (a) behavioral involvement, (b) cognitive/intellectual stimulation , and (c)
personal endorsement (Henry et al., 2010). Behavioral involvement consists of parents being
actively involved in helping with homework, attending parent conferences , and participating in
parent associations in support of the school. When parents are active in the child’s academic life
in areas such as these, the child is shown the importance of school and the value of education.
Cognitive/Intellectual stimulation is defined as “the extent to which parents expose their children

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 15

to learning development opportunities” (Henry et al., 2010, p. 1175). Studies have repeatedly
shown the academic benefits of early exposure to learning opportunities as an indicator of school
success as the child ages , thus decreasing the likelihood of the child becom ing a high school
dropout. Last, the parents’ own personal attitude toward education plays a tremendous role in
the perception a child has of school. If parent s perceive school as important, they will have high
academic expectations for the child and the perceptio n of the importance of school will be passed
to the child. Parental investment plays an important role in the relationship between socio –
economic indicators and educational outcomes. Henry et al., (2010) states “efforts to enhance
parental investment may result in improved educational outcomes for youth” (p. 1175 ), further
minimizing the temptation for students to drop out of high school.
According to a study by Garner and Shonkoff (2012), biology and environment do not
act independently of each other , but combine to play an integral role in childhood development.
Effects of child abuse and growing up in poverty are felt over a lifetime and can manifest in
many negative behaviors. Adults who were maltreated as children “are at a higher risk of school
failure, gang membership, unemployment, poverty, homelessness, violent crime, incarceration,
and becoming single parents” (Garner & Shonkoff, 2012, p. 257). The impetus to drop out does
not begin in high school ; it begins in infancy and progresses as the child grows and develops into
adolescence.
The correlation between student achievement and school population composition is
gaining the attention of educational researchers. Nearly forty years ago, Coleman et al. (1966)
found that “a student’s achievement is more highly related to the characteristics of other students
in the school than any other school characteristic” (p. 33). The implication is that students

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 16

attending schools in high poverty communities have a greater probability of dropping out than
students attending school s in more affluent communit ies.
Disadvantaged communities influence child and adolescent development through a lack
of resources (playgrounds and parks, after -school programs) or negative peer infl uences.
Students living in poor communities are more likely to have dropouts as friends, which increases
the likelihood that they will drop out of school (Rumberger, 2013). While poverty alone does not
determine if a student will leave high school , it is a risk factor that influences the decision .
Childhood poverty presents adversities to normal growth and development that are not
evident in more affluent populations . A child born into an impoverished household is more
likely to live with food insecurit y, inadequate healthcare, and increased exposure to toxins such
as second hand tobacco smoke and lead poisoning (Coley & Baker, 2013). Combine these with
the lack of quality childcare available to low income families and the pattern for academic failure
begins to take shape. “Because of the differential experiences that children encounter during their
first five years of life, it is probable that not all children enter kindergarten with similar
developmental strengths that are helpful for subsequent academ ic success” (Hickman ,
Bartholomew, Mathwig, & Heinrich, 2008, p. 4). These children have parents who lack
parenting skills and have little regard for formal education. Families in this socioeconomic
group read less to their children and rarely engage in early learning activities with their children
(Coley & Baker, 2013). Wealthier parents however, tend to be highly engaged in learning
activities with their children and seek out only the highest quality childcare if a parent cannot be
at home with the chi ld during the day. The disparity in early childhood interventions begins the
arduous journey for impoverished children to overcome early learning deficits (Coley & Baker,
2013).

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 17

For many children living below the poverty line, homelessness is a primary i ssue that
creates severe educational consequences , the most compelling of which is the number of times
homeless students must transfer to different schools. According to the National Coalition for the
Homeless ( 2007) , 42 % of homeless children transferred schools at least once , and 51 %
transferred twice in a single academic year . These numbers reflect only students who actually
transferred and enrolled in school. Homeless children have additional barricades to education
such as a lack of immunization re cords, transportation issues, and complex guardianship laws.
On a national level, o f the 87 % of homeless youth enrolled in school, only 77% attend school
regularly (U.S. Department of Education, 2004). Recent studies have shown that each time a
child tr ansfers to a new school, three to six months of education are lost (National Coalition for
the Homeless, 2007). Families who move frequently have children with “greater difficulties in
adjusting academically, socially, and emotionally to new school environ ments” (Hickman et al.,
2008, p. 5). Thus, homeless children face an ever -increasing deficit in learning because of
multiple school transitions and the insecurity associated with home instability.
An additional predictor of drop ping out is the dual role many teenagers play within the
family. Many adolescents feel compelled to leave high school in order to work full time to help
the family financially. This was true when the U.S. was a manufacturing based economy (Jerald,
2007). Students felt they could leave high school prior to graduation and still earn a living wage
at the local mills and factories. Today, this trend is very different. Teens living in a financially
compromised family see gaining full time employment as a necessity , without thinking of the
implications this decision will have on future earning potential (Boday, 2013). Many teens find
themselves in the position of taking on adult roles within the family. Whether caring for younger
siblings while parents work or taking jobs themselves , teens in lower socioeconomic populations

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 18

face burdens that contribute to the decision to drop out of high school. In many instances , teens
feel that the earnings they receive from working full time far outweigh the benefits of a high
school diploma . In a recent study , researchers found that a typical high school dropout is not
qualified for 90% of the jobs available in the U.S. (Kassoy, 2017). The financial outlook for a
high school dropout is grim , with most living at or below the poverty line over the course of a
lifetime.
The traditional causes for dropping out of high school still exist today. Pregnancy
remains a leading cause for adolescent girls to drop out of school. Although most public schools
have dropout prevention strategies designed spe cifically for teen mothers, many find the
demands of motherhood and school to be overwhelming. Adolescent males are forced to leave
school prior to graduation due to expulsion or arrest (Doll & Waters, 2013). Dropouts tend to
experience more disciplinary actions earlier in school than their peers who graduate. Research
has shown that delinquent and aggressive behaviors begin at home because of poor parental
disciplining during the first five years of life. By the time they enter kindergarten, children o f
ineffective parents begin to exhibit behavioral problems and are rejected by their classmates.
This rejection by their peers causes the student to develop a detachment from school and to find
school unrewarding (Hickman et al., 2008). In a related stud y, Bowditch (1993) found that
“once a student was sent to the office for a discipline problem, rather than gathering information
about the circumstances in which that student violated a school rule, administrators questioned
students about their grades, at tendance and previous suspensions” (p. 493). This line of
questioning created a profile of the student that ultimately led to a label of troublemaker and
contributed to a school climate where students felt pushed out of school (Bowditch, 1993).

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 19

A new tre nd in research is the surge of students citing bullying as the ir reason for
dropping out of high school. Ford (2012) examined a study from the University of Virginia that
presented new information on the impact bullying has on high school completion for s ome
students.
The study followed 7,082 students over their four years of high school as well as 2,764
teachers in Virginia from 2007 –2011. Schools with high rates of bullying had dropout
rates 29 percent above average, whereas schools with low levels of bullying had dropout
rates 28 percent below average (Ford, 2012).

Historically, studies did not record bullying as a major cause of withdrawing from high
school . Students in the past decade have increasingly cited bullying as a problem so severe they
felt the only way to solve it was to drop out of high school and remove themselves from the
situation. While there are increasing numbers of bullying awareness and prevention programs in
schools , for many students these interventions do not go far enough in their attempt to stop the
bullying from occurring (Ford, 2012).
Students with autism are often bullied by other students because of their disability.
Reports on bullying in schools find that of all the students bullied, “63% are on the autism
spectrum” (Bullying and Autism, n.d.). Autistic students may have sensitivities to noise, crowds,
and changes in schedule, among many other facets of daily high school life. These students are
more likely to seek out academic settings that are less noisy and chaotic than a typical high
school in order to gain a high school credential (Bullying and Autism, n.d.). Past studies on high
school dropouts have included little to no information concerning autistic student s. However, as
the number of children wit h autism entering school increases, research of the future will include
data on the influence of autism on the decision to leave high school (Bullying and Autism, n.d.).

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 20

School Characteristics in Relation to High School Dropout Rates

Do school char acteristics contribute to students’ decision s to drop out of high school? An
investigation of the literature supports this hypothesis. The relationship between the school
climate and the dropout rate is so close that Balfanz and Legters (2004) referred to schools with
high dropout rates as “dropout factories” (p. 21). A dropout factory high school is identified as
one in which “sixty percent of the students who start as freshmen make it to their senior year.
That description fits more than one in ten hig h schools across America” (p. 3). Equity in funding
for schools in impoverished neighborhoods still lags behind those in more affluent areas.
Without the proper funding to ensure high quality teachers, engaging academic programs , and a
rich offering of e xtracurricular activities, high schools in poor communities will continue to have
higher dropout rates (Taylor, 2005).
Orfield (2004) refers to high schools that lose 50% or more of a freshman class by the
time the students enter the twelfth grade as hav ing “weak promoting power” (p. 59). Weak
promoting power is associated with schools located in high poverty, high minority
neighborhoods where graduating from high school is not the norm. Orfield (2004) found that “A
school in which more than half of the students come from minority backgrounds is five times as
likely to have weak promoting power as a school in which the majority of students are white” (p.
62). The implication of these findings is that for many of the nation’s students, attending school
in their own neighborhood s can actually hinder them from graduating.
Schools viewed as drop out factories, or schools with weak promoting power, are found
nationwide. However, there are concentrations of these schools in distinct geographic locations.
Both Balfanz (2004) and Orfield (2004) report that the rural American south has the highest
number of schools with low graduation rates. The same is true for large cities nationwide , where
high dropout schools are in large concentration in the inner cit ies. These areas share similar

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 21

characteristics of high poverty, high percentages of residents with no high school credential , and
limited economic opportunities (Orfield, 2004). Students find little value in obtaining a high
school d iploma when the outloo k for the future appears bleak at best. For many , the decision to
drop out is based on what other students in their peer group s are doing; for others , dropping out
is the only way to provide financial assistance to their families. Attending a school with weak
promoting power only perpetuates the cycle of poverty and despair for many of the nation’s
minority students.
To explain high dropout rates , researchers suggest common characteristics of these
schools. Larger schools tend to have higher dropout rat es than smaller schools. A study by Lee
and Burkam (2003) found that smaller schools have a lower student to teacher ratio , allowing
teachers to spend more quality time getting to know students and addressing individual learning
needs. An additional char acteristic of schools with a high dropout rate is the high school grade
span. Alspaugh (1998) found a higher dropout rate in districts with a high school grade span of
ten to twelve. He states, “It appears that the older students are when they make the t ransition
from an elementary or intermediate -level to high school the more likely it is that they will drop
out of high school” (Alspaugh, 1998, p. 2).
There is a strong correlation between early school failure and dropping out. Students
retained in el ementary or middle school have a greater risk of dropping out of high school. To
increase student academic mastery, schools have traditionally used grade retention . However, a
ten-year longitudinal study found that
students retained in elementary school significantly earned lower grades, experienced
more disciplinary problems, performed below grade level, scored lower on standardized
tests throughout their educational tenures, and dropped out of school more often than did
students who were not retained” ( Hickman et al., 2008, p. 4).

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 22

Academic problems that result in grade retention continue to plague students well into
their teen years. McKee and Caldarella (2016), in their examination of middle school predictors
of high school performance found three i ndicators of students most likely to drop out : (a) failure
in core subjects, ( b) low attendance, and ( c) retention at a grade level, which is associated with
low GPA . The study also found that failing certain core subjects such as math and English
serves as a strong indicator of the potential to drop out (McKee & Caldarella, 2016).
In a study on school characteristics related to dropout rates , researchers noted that the
way school administrators address undesirable student behaviors relates strongly to dropout rates
(Christle, Jolivette, & Nelson, 2007). Schools that rely on out of school suspension may
inadvertently be perpetuating increased dropout rates. Those schools having alternative forms of
punishment that do not remove the student from the learning environment have much lower
dropout rates (Christle et al., 2007). Schools labeled as chaotic , with students roaming the halls
during class and a high rate of violence on campus , have a much greater dropout rate than
schools where students and teachers function in an orderly environment (Balfanz & Legters,
2004). Students who feel unsafe at school are less likely to attend , and often view dropping out
as a mea ns of protecting personal safety.
Christle et al. (2007) identified a correlation between high dropout rates and the level of
experience of teachers and administrators. Schools with the highest dropout rates also have
teachers and administrators with t he fewest years of experience and educational attainment.
“Administrators in the HDOS [high dropout school] had an average of 4 years’ experience ,
compared to 9 years’ experience for the LDOS [low drop out school] administrators” (Christle et
al., 2007, p . 333). Inexperience in dealing with highly volatile student populations and
ineffective teachers can lead to a school environment riddled with violence and high dropout

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 23

rates. These schools also have higher teacher turnover rates. Those students wishin g to graduate
and gain a quality education have to constantly adjust to new staff members and inconsistencies
in administration. Christle et al. (2007) found that
Teacher based forms of social capital reduce the probability of dropping out by half.
Teac hers are the most frequently encountered role models outside of the family, and the
findings from the present study suggest that teacher behaviors and characteristics have a
great deal of influence on student outcomes (p. 333).

Therefore, it is crucial for high dropout schools to attract and retain highly qualified
teachers in order to encourage students to stay in school.
According to Alspaugh (1998), in addition to hiring highly qualified teachers and
administrators, schools with high dropout rates should place emphasis , both financially and
strategically , on extracurricular activities. Alspaugh (1998) found that “the relationship between
the percentage of budget spent on extracurricular activities and drop -out rates is positive” (p. 3).
The study reveal ed that students who have a greater chance of being part of an athletic team are
less likely to drop out. Alspaugh (1998) correlates this statistic to the size of the school
population. The data show that a school with a large student population r educes the likelihood of
an individual student participating on an athletic team with a fixed number of participants.
Alspaugh (1998) goes on to state that “as the size of high schools increases, there tends to be a
decrease in student participation in st udent activities” (p. 3).
Accountability measures are often key players in a student’s decision to leave school.
Beginning with the No Child Left Behind (2001) legislation and continuing into the present with
the Every Student Succeeds Act (2015), schools are under increasing pressure to produce ever –
rising proficiency ratings on standardized tests. Those students who struggle academically find
the high -pressure environment of the classroom to be too demanding. Failur e to pass high school
exit exams plays an increasing role growing part in the decision to drop out for many

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 24

academically challenged students (Hemelt & Marcotte, 2013) . Examining dropout rates for
student subgroups in relation to performance on high school exit exams reveals a positive
correlation. The effect of performing poorly on high school exit exams is “especially
pronounced among African -American students with increases in the dropout rate of more than 50
percent for males and 65 percent for females” (Hemelt & Marcotte, 2013, p. 339). The data are
accurate for Hispanic students as well according to Hemelt and Marcotte (2013). The findings of
the study show a d irect relationship between the pressure to pass high school exit exams and high
school dropout rates. While high stakes testing is a gauge by which to measure school
performance , the underlying effect is the negative impact it has on already struggling st udents.
School characteristics such as environment, socioeconomic status , and the communities that feed
the institution play an important role in a student’s decision to drop out or graduate from high
school.
Dropout Prevention

Since the publication of A Nation at Risk in 1983, school districts across the nation have
implemented a wide variety of programs aimed at reducing the dropout rate. Do they work?
According to the literature, the answer is unclear. In some situations, dropout prevention
strateg ies are highly successful. However, there is no one correct strategy. What works for one
student population may not be a good fit for others. The key to developing dropout prevention
strategies lies in knowing the students and their needs , and allocatin g the necessary resources to
fully implement intervention strateg ies. For dropout strategies to be effective two foundations
are required. First, schools need to know what their students need ; second, schools must be
willing to put human and financial ca pital into building programs that work.
Boutelle (2009) outlined two main reasons students stayed in school :

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 25

Relevance was important to them: Students wanted to know that what they
learned in high school would help in their adult lives. They count on co ursework,
teachers, and counselors to make clear how their school years would factor into their
lives after graduation.
Relationships – with teachers, coaches, counselors – were important; feeling a
lack of support could lead to a sense of isolation. O ften, they said, all it would take to
make the difference between staying in school and dropping out was the knowledge that
someone – even just on e adult – really cared about them and their futures” (p. 50).

Both relevance and relationships are free. T here is no budget allocation necessary to
create relevant lessons. The same is true for establish ing positive relationships with students.
Boutelle (2009) suggests that having high expectations for all students is a positive strategy for
reducing the dropout rate . At Sanger High in California, all students are expected to have high
levels of participation in extracurricular activities. The activities range from athletics, clubs, and
community organizations to student mentoring programs. By keeping s tudents connected to the
high school, administrators hope to dramatically reduce the dropout rate (Boutelle, 2009).
The Clark County School District in Nevada makes home visits to high school students
with chronic absenteeism. School principals and district administrators make unannounced
home visits to talk with students and parents about the student’s needs, and how the school can
work with them to meet those needs. While the program was still in the beginning stage at the
time this article was written , the vast majority of students who received home visits were
returning to school (Schachter, 2013).
The Columbus County School Di strict in Mississippi recently launched The 2020 Project,
provid ing at-risk students with one-on-one mentoring from various community organization s,
and internships with area industries (Schachter, 2013) . The aim of the project , according to
Superintendent Liddell , is to communicate to students, “Not only will you graduate high school,
but you will have the skills necessary t o earn a living wage upon graduation” (Schachter, 2013,
p. 58). One similarity shared by these district strategies is their zero cost to the school budgets.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 26

These strategies are successful because they are action -oriented and they include the surrounding
community in helping to address the dropout epidemic.
A report released by The Center for Child and Family Policy at Duke University (2008)
offered a variety of approaches to preventing high school dropout s that included getting to know
why students in y our community drop out of high school, using data to find where students begin
to separate from school, and building multiple pathways to a high school credential. Multiple
pathways to graduation are gaining momentum as a viable strategy to keep students in school.
Rather than offering only traditional coursework as a means to a diploma, this study proposed a
combination of academic and vocational training . The authors of the study state :
High schools need to build direct linkages for students to these options through high –
quality career and technical education (CTE) programs. Students are more likely to stay
in school or try to come back after dropping out if the diploma they receive is meaningful
and provides a clear path to either a job or postse condary schooling (Center for Child
and Family Policy, 2008, p. 28).

Additional studies on creating multiple pathways to graduation propose that districts
issue different types of diplomas. Kahlenberg (2015 ) posits that multiple diploma tracks mirror
the traditional practice of colleges and universities issuing diplomas for specific program areas
and for different levels of distinction. Opponents to this plan argue that varying degrees of
diplomas would render some being less respected than others. There is no single answer that
meets the needs of all students. Tyler and Lofstrom (2009) found that successful dropout
prevention programs share some or all of five key characteristics : (a) mentoring at -risk students ,
(b) case management of ind ividual students to counteract warning signs of possible dropout
behaviors , (c) family outreach, (d) alternative academic pathways , and (e) attention to a student’s
home life and out of school problems. The challenge with dropout prevention programs is

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 27

finding the most effective combination of these characteristics to meet the needs of individual
school populations.
Many dropout prevention studies do not involve high school students. As increasing
information is available concerning the early signs of dropout potential, school districts are
opting to begin interventions at the elementary level. Using early literacy and math interventions
with students who enter school performing at lower academic levels than their peers can offset
the detrimental effects of academic failure later in the student’s school career. Boday (2013)
suggests:
Both school readiness and 3rd grade reading proficiency have been cited as indicators of
future academic success. After 3rd grade , children are no longer learning to read, but are
now reading to learn. Helping struggling students in the 3rd grade to read at or above
reading proficiency will help them be more prepared for success in the future” (p. 1).

These early interventions could ease the frustration and humiliation f elt by many students
who fall behind their peers and remain at a disadvantage as they continue through school. By
eliminating this pressure, students could be successful in school and remain engaged through
graduation.
Traditional dropout prevention pro grams such as credit recovery, after school tutoring ,
and peer mentoring have little effect on the decision to drop out of high school. While at -risk
students may take advantage of these programs, often the situation is beyond repair. Those
students livi ng in poverty feel compelled to earn money for the family and the usual dropout
prevention strategies are not meeting the students’ needs (Rumberger & Lim, 2008).
Student Motivation and the Desire to Graduate

Thousands of hours of human capital have been spent in an attempt to understand why
students continue to drop out of high school. As seen in the literature , the causes of drop ping out
are as varied as the students who make that decision. Information lacking in the current

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 28

literature is the case for the student who succeeds against all odds. Poverty is a widely accepted
cause for drop ping out; however, every spring , students who have grown up in the same toxic
environments as their neighbors find the self -determination to push through and graduate on
time. What role does self -motivation play in overcoming obstacles to academic success? What
internal drive do some students have that others lack? Duckworth (2016) focused on that
invisible drive that propels certain individuals to succeed in the face of seemingly
insurmountable odds. Duckworth states, “You can grow your own grit ‘from the outside in.’
Parents, coaches, teachers, bosses, mentors, friends – developing your personal grit depends
critically on other people” (p. 269).
Similar to the Boutelle (2008) study, Duckworth’s (2016) findings emphasize the role of
adult support for students during the high school years. A supp ortive adult in the life of a high
risk teen can be the discerning factor between dropping out and staying in school. McIntyre
(2013) found that student success stems largely from the influence of those closest to them.
McIntyre (2013) found that all of the students he interviewed during the study were able to
describe positive relationships with teachers, administrators, counselors, or coaches. Students
agreed that having a positive role model and advisor at school empowers them to overcome
challenges i n order to reach their academic goals (McIntyre, 2013).
Summary

Students in the 21st century face new obstacles to academic success that have not been
historically part of the conversation about dropouts. The high school dropout problem in modern
time is one that has great effect on society as a whole. An examination of existing research of
the many consequences of the dropout problem brings to light new evidence of the changing
needs of the 21st century high school student. The literature review examine d the contemporary

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 29

needs of students and the inability of schools to meet those needs. While many students find
dropping out of school the only viable solution to their problems, there are those whose self –
motivation and desire to succeed pushes them to g raduate on time from high school. The
literature review examined the long -term factors contributing to the decision to drop out prior to
graduating , and the steps necessary to combat this growing problem.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 30

CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this study was to analyze the contributing factors that lead 21st century
high school students to drop out prior to graduation. In an era when state and federal agencies
place emphasis on the high school graduation rate, an increasing number of students are fi nding
that traditional high schools cannot meet their needs. States invest considerable capital in high
school dropout prevention programs, yet students continue to leave high school prior to
graduation. The researcher examined the complex process that l eads young people to drop out of
school and the effect of high school dropouts on society.
Students feel their decision to drop out of high school is personal and affects only them as
individuals. However, the literature shows that a high school dropout can be costly to society in
terms of economic and social consequences. The negative consequences associated with
dropping out follow the student and impact society for the lifetime of the individual. The
researcher examined quantitative data to determine if there was a relationship between the effects
of childhood poverty and the decision to drop out of high school. The results of the data analysis
reflected the increasing population of students living in poverty and the obstacles to success that
prevent them from graduating. What needs do today’s students have that are not being met by
traditional dropout prevention programs?
Research Questions
In an effort to find patterns of causation for students leaving high school prior to
graduation, the researcher explored the following research questions:
1. What causes 21st century high school students to drop out of high school?
2. Why are current dropout prevention measures not meeting the needs of today’s
students?

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 31

3. What patterns emerge in participant responses to the question, “Why did you leave
high school prior to graduation?”
Research Design

Mixed methods design .

The researcher used a mixed -methods approach to gathering and analyzing data.
According to Creswell (2015), “A mixed methods research design is a pro cedure for collecting,
analyzing and ‘mixing’ both quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study or a series of
studies to understand a research problem” (p. 537). Using both quantitative and qualitative
design methods renders a better understand ing of the research problem than using either method
individually.
Quantitative research design .

For the purpose of this study, a survey of students entering the adult high school program
at a local community college served as the data collection instru ment for the quantitative
research component. To measure the quantitative data, the researcher conducted a 5 x 5 Chi
Square analysis to find the significance in the relationship between characteristics of dropouts
and the effects of growing up in poverty.
Qualitative research design .

The qualitative research instrument consisted of individual interviews with study
participants to gain a thorough understanding of the students’ educational journeys and eventual
decisions to drop out of high school. The researcher used hand analysis of the interview
responses to find emergent themes and establish commonalities. A coding process was used to
label themes established by the hand analysis.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 32

Triangulation of data.

To draw conclusions from the mixed methods research study, the researcher triangulated
the findings of the interviews and the data produced by the Chi Square analysis. The
triangulation process allowed the researcher to corroborate evidence from different types of data
collection to gain a broad u nderstanding of the reasons students drop out of high school
(Creswell, 2015).
Setting

The local community college where the researcher is currently employed as the adult
high school instruction coordinator served as the physical setting for the study. This institution is
the sole provider of adult high school diploma courses in a four coun ty region.
Overall and Sample Populations

The overall population for the study consisted of adolescents and adults with no high
school credential. The population consisted of members ranging from below poverty level to
upper middle class , was highly diverse including members from various ethnic and cultural
groups , and was at varying degrees of educational functioning level. Most members of the
population live in the same geographic area and share a similar cultural background.
The sample populatio n included students who left high school prior to graduating with
their peer cohorts. Inclusion requirements were as follows: participants must have attended high
school in the United States, and must have a birth date between January 1, 1984 and Decembe r
21, 2000. No member of the research participant group qualified as a member of a vulnerable
population. Final selection of participants for the study included those meeting the age
requirements, those willing to participate, and those who had attended, but not graduated from,
high school.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 33

Participants were identified by a numerical code to protect anonymity. At no time was
information shared with persons other than the participant and the researcher. The key to the
numerical coding was locked in a f iling cabinet in the researcher’s home office. Maintaining the
confidentiality of participant data included the following:
1. Participants were identified by number to protect their anonymity.
2. Information in print, such as the survey, was stored in a l ocked filing cabinet in the
researcher’s home office.
3. Responses to interview questions were confidential.
4. All data and interview responses will be kept for a minimum of five years in a locked
filing cabinet in the researcher’s home office. At the en d of the five -year period, the
documents will be shredded and properly disposed of.
Access to Site

To begin the study, the researcher was granted approval for the proposal by the Research
Review Board at Wingate University, the researcher’s capstone comm ittee, the program director,
and the president of the community college. Gatekeepers for the study site were the director of
the College and Career Readiness program and the president of the community college.
Survey Administration

The researcher began gathering data through the administration of a survey. A goal of
one hundred completed surveys determined the frequency of administration. Surveys became a
part of the orientation program with the understanding that participation was voluntary and
confid ential. Minors wishing to participate in the survey were required to provide a signed
parental permission form. During the course of the data collection process, two students chose
not to participate.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 34

Value of Specific Methodology

Methodology for this study included a survey completed by students during the initial
orientation session for the adult high school program at the local community college. Data from
the survey comprised the quantitative portion of the mixed methods study. For the qualit ative
data, ten study participants voluntarily participated in one -on-one interviews. The interview
process provided insight into the impact of family educational background, socioeconomic
status, and absenteeism, along with other variables that led to the student’s decision to leave high
school prior to graduation. Qualitative results were reported using rich description, including
quotes from interview participants (Creswell, 2015).
The researcher conducted quantitative data analysis using a 5 x 5 Chi Square test of
independence to establish the relationship between the leading causes for dropping out as stated
by survey participants and the long -term effects of childhood poverty. The result of the Chi
Square analysis provided additional support for th e belief that dropping out of high school is not
a spontaneous decision, but one born of a long process of obstacles to academic success.
Risk to Participants

Participants encountered no risk or harm or discomfort during the study. The researcher
explai ned confidentiality parameters and the volunteer nature of the study both verbally and in
writing. All information was kept strictly confidential. The researcher was the sole individual
describing the study and obtaining consent from the potential partic ipants. Participants received
no compensation for being members of the study cohort.
Instrumentation

Quantitative instrument : Survey .

The instrument developed for the study titled, “Why are 21st Century Students Dropping
Out of High School” was a subject -completed survey instrument. In order to gain the most

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 35

accurate data, survey questions were designed to elicit responses indicating why participants
made the decision to leave high school prior to graduation. The survey consisted of four
questions: two that required participants to select items from a checklist, one that required a
yes/no response, and a final item that required a written response from the participant. The
survey format was use r friendly and easily administered. Participants chose between two survey
formats: paper and pencil, or the Question Pro website; responses completed in writing were
recorded online by the researcher. The directions were clear and completing the survey t ook five
minutes or less . The website included a survey response scoring function, and resulting data
were available in a variety of graphic formats. Quantitative data for this study were based upon
responses to survey items one, two, and three.
Survey reliability .

The reliability of the survey concerns the extent to which the instrument produces
consistent results throughout the duration of the study. Observer reliability was the method used
to determine instrument reliability in this study (Biddix, 2 017). This type of reliability, also
known as Inter -Rater reliability, measures the degree to which different raters or observers
respond consistently to items on a research instrument (Biddix, 2017).
Survey validity .

Validity is the development of so und evidence to demonstrate that the test interpretation
(of scores about the concept or construct that the test is assumed to measure) matches its
proposed use (Creswell, 2015). To test for internal validity, the researcher asked several
colleagues to res pond to the survey prior to using it with the study population sample.
Respondents participated in an interview after completing the survey to discuss areas of
improvement. After completing the pre -study surveys, the instrument was refined and prepared

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 36

for use. Previous surveys used in similar studies, as well as discussions with students in the adult
high school program, provided information used to create the survey questions.
Data Collection Procedures

Qualitative data collection : Participant interviews .

The researcher explained the purpose and voluntary nature of the study to the participants
both verbally and in letters of consent. Participants who were under the age of eighteen were
required to provide a signed parental consent letter. The researcher kept signed consent forms in
a locked cabinet. Five years after the completion of the study, the forms will be destroyed.
Participant interviews were conducted in a small classroom. The researcher asked
previously determined interview questi ons in numerical order. Each participant received a copy
of the interview questions at the beginning of the interview. To ensure accuracy, the researcher
conducted a verbal summation of the responses with each participant. Interview data were
recorded b oth electronically and by hand for quality assurance purposes. The researcher coded
responses in a spreadsheet to determine similarities and patterns. Participant responses and
researcher notes taken during the interviews will be kept in a locked cabinet for five years.
Quantitativ e data collection : Participant surveys .

Surveys consisted of three questions that required participants to select from a drop down
menu of choices, a yes/no response item, and a final open -ended response item. Participants
voluntarily took the survey during the new student orientation for the adult high school program
at a local community college. At the completion of the online survey component of the study,
the researcher used the site’s data management tools to create graph ic representations of the
results for three of the four items on the instrument. The final item on the survey required

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 37

participants to craft their own responses, and was incorporated as part of the qualitative research
portion of the study.
Data Analysis Procedures

Qualitative data analysis .

Qualitative data analysis included finding common patterns among results from the final
survey item and interview questions. Responses to the interview questions were organized
according to item number. Those responses containing similarities were color coded to give the
researcher a visual representation of the number of responses sharing the same basic content.
Each research question was addressed by investigating common themes and establishing patterns
in the process of dropping out of high school.
Quantitative data analysis .

The researcher analyzed the quantitative data set to find the mode or measure of central
tendency of the leading causes for dropping out. Once the mode was discerned, further analysis
was conducted using the leading causes for dropping out in relation to the major effects of
growing up in poverty. To measure the relationship between categories of data within the study,
a 5 x 5 Chi Square test for independence was conducted. A chi -square test for independence
compares two vari ables in a contingency table to see if they are related (Creswell, 2015). A
small chi square test result means there is a relationship between the categorical variables. A
large chi square test result means that the data do not have a significant relatio nship. If the null
hypothesis is accepted, there is no relationship between dropout causes and the effects of
growing up in poverty. If the null hypothesis is rejected, there is a relationship between dropout
causes and the effects of growing up in pover ty.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 38

Validity of Interpretation

The validity of the results lay with the participants and the degree to which they took the
study seriously by responding truthfully to the survey items. Based on the study results, the data
analysis was applicable to a broad population of students who fo und themselves unable to
complete high school. Responses were consistent among all groups of participants for the four –
month period in which the data collection occurred. The data were trustworthy due to the direct
responses given by participants on the survey and in interviews, with limited opportunity for
subjective interpretation on the part of the researcher. According to Creswell (2015) “interview
data may be deceptive and provide the perspective that the interviewee wants the researcher to
hear. A nother disadvantage is that the presence of the researcher may affect how the interviewee
responds” (p. 217). The researcher is considered to be an instrument of data collection in
qualitative studies, as the information and data are facilitated through a human instrument. In
order to minimize bias, the researcher describes herself as “emic – an insider who is a full
participant in an activity, program or phenomenon” (Simon, 2011, p.1). As the Coordinator for
Adult Secondary Education at the aforementione d community college, the researcher fully
disclosed any potential for bias. Every effort was made to remove bias from data analysis and
the reporting of results.
Limitations of the Study

Limitations of the study include:
1. There is the potential risk of a nonresponse error caused by participants not answering
a specific question.
2. Due to the nature of qualitative research, there is the possibility of bias or skewed
interpretation of the information by different readers.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 39

3. Because of the size and location of the sample population used in this study, the
researcher cannot say with confidence that the sample was truly representative of the
entire population of students not completing high school.
Ethical Considerations
When conducting research involving human participants, there are ethical integrity
concerns. For the results of the research to be clean and valid, careful consideration must be
given to protecting the confidentiality of the participants and to the effect the study may have on
the population at large. In addition, the researcher must be transparent with all stakeholders
concerning the true intent of the study. To ensure transparency there should be open lines of
communication among the institution granti ng permission for the study, the researcher, and the
participants. At no time should participants feel forced to complete any part of the study, and
they should be fully apprised of any risks associated with the study.
Respect for the time and effort taken by the participants is a priority for the researcher.
While the sample group did not sacrifice time from a job or a class, the time they allotted during
the orientation session to complete the survey was a reflection of their willingness to particip ate.
In addition, it was important for minors and their parents to understand the voluntary nature of
the study and the overall importance the study could have on future school policy.
Summary

As an educator, the researcher was aware of the moral and practical obligation to study
the dropout process in an effort to improve the educational experience for all students.
Conducting surveys and holding individual interviews allowed for the collection of both
quantitative and qualitative data that provided insight into the complex decision to drop out of
high school. A Chi Square test was used to find the measure of the relationship between the
stated reasons for dropping out and the effects of growing up in poverty. Establishing the

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 40

existence or non -exist ence of this relationship can help predict the likelihood of dropping out.
Studying the drop out process revealed new data that could lead to innovative strategies and
interventions designed to help students remain in school to achieve a high school crede ntial.
Educators must implement programs that enable students to prepare for a future that is self –
supporting in order to better their own lives and benefit society as a whole.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 41

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS

Data Description

The purpose of this study was to analyze why students in the 21st century drop out of high
school when there are programs in place to prevent them from leaving prior to graduating.
Keeping teens in school until they achieve a high school credential is of the utmost importance to
society . As stated in chapter two, students not completing high school place the nation at risk of
having a population of undereducated, unskilled workers reliant on social welfare for survival.
As the nature and number of jobs available to those not completing high school continues to
evolve, the urgency of the situation increases.
In order to find the leading cause for dropout choices, data were collected using a mixed
methods approach to gain both statistical and qualitative information. This method of st udy
“provides a better understanding of the research problem and questions” than using solely
quantitative or qualitative research designs (Creswell, 2015, p. 537). A mixed methods approach
allowed students in the sample population to speak freely of thei r school experiences and outside
pressures that led to their decision to drop out prior to graduation, as well as to respond to
directed questions in the research survey. Data gathered from the research survey instrument and
the one -on-one interviews gave the researcher insight into the leading causes that study
participants mentioned for dropping out of high school.
The researcher used a sample population from the adult high school program at a small,
local, community college in an economically depressed county in the rural piedmont of North
Carolina. In this county, 60.9 % of the total population above age 16 is employed and only 82%
have a high school diploma (US Census Bureau, 2016). The population of the county is mostly
economically disadvantaged w ith a median household income of $40,000 and a per capita

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 42

income in 2015 of $20,000. Of the total population, 17.1 % are living in poverty (US Census
Bureau, 2016). As industries continue to leave the area, individuals find that having a high
school dipl oma is necessary for future employment. The local community college is the sole
provider of adult high school programs in the region and draws students from several
surrounding counties.
Sampling Method

The method used to select study participants was purposeful sampling. According to
Creswell (2015), the participants in a purposeful sampling are those individuals that can best
help the researcher understand the central phenomenon, in this case, leaving high school prior to
graduation. For this study, the sample population was limited to dropouts who are now seeking
to earn their adult high school credential. Selection of participants involved using set criteria
pertaining to age and educational background. A survey of four questions and ten individu al
interviews with select participants provided the data for this study.
The survey responses and information gathered through interviews provided the
quantitative and qualitative data for research questions one and two. The third research question
required a more in -depth analysis of the survey data in conjunction with the effects of growing
up in poverty as stated in the literature review. To gain perspective on the significance of the
relationship between characteristics of dropouts and the effects o f childhood poverty, a Chi
Square analysis was conducted. Results of the open -ended items of the interviews and survey
question number four were reported using qualitative analysis in the form of descriptive
narrative.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 43

Data Analysis

Responses to the surveys presented new information regarding causes for students to drop
out of high school in the 21st century. As the survey items required participants to select
responses from a predetermined list of choices, the numerical data at the close of the study
showed remarkable similarity to the effects of living in childhood poverty as stated in previous
research and in this literature review. As children mature and develop in low socioeconomic
neighborhoods, the effects of their environment play an increasing role in their perceptions of
school and how they respond to it. The research questions measured ca tegorical variables.
Research question one allowed participants to select one variable, or main cause, from a
drop down menu of eleven possibilities. Most studies on the causes for dropouts agree that the
decision to leave high school prior to graduatio n is a process, not based on a single reason
(Hammond, 2007). The decision to drop out is a culmination of many pressures beginning early
in a child’s life that lead the student to drop out of high school. Therefore, dropping out of high
school is a culm ination of environmental stressors, academic weakness, and outside pressures
that make the decision to drop out appear to be the only solution to a student’s myriad problems.
The causes listed in the survey were reflective of the event or issue that made t he decision to quit
school appear to be the most reasonable choice for the student at the time. Analysis of responses
to personal interviews revealed common themes shared by students who dropped out of high
school as a result of these events or issues. Th e patterns seen in the responses gave the
researcher a clear understanding of why students leave school prior to graduation.
Research question two asked what dropout prevention measures were offered to students
at the school level and, whether students fou nd the measures effective. Dropout prevention
programs often use multiple strategies or combinations of strategies to meet the needs of students
at risk of dropping out; therefore, the values for the variables are limitless. Responses to

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 44

question two rev ealed the weaknesses of current dropout prevention programs and offered new
insight into the needs of at -risk high school students.
For the third research question, the researcher used data gathered from survey item one
to find the measure of central ten dency, or most repeated response, to the question of why
students drop out of high school in the 21st century. The researcher then analyzed the five
leading dropout causes using a Chi Square test to find the significance of their relationship to the
five leading effects of childhood poverty. The results of the Chi Square showed that the
relationship between dropping out and poverty was not significant, but it did reveal that
adolescents living in poverty have a greater risk of dropping out than their more affluent
classmates. The case can be made that while growing up in poverty increases the likelihood that
a student will drop out of high school, that factor alone does not cause a student to become a high
school dropout.
Rationale for Methodology

In or der to gain valid and reliable data for the study, the researcher used a survey
composed of questions using a set number of options and one open ended question. While there
is no definitive means to ensure one hundred percent truthfulness from the partici pants, measures
were in place to prevent inauthenticity. Survey questions were standardized to minimize
researcher subjectivity or bias in the quantitative data analysis.
Participant interviews provided a rich examination of the events and situations i n a
student’s life that led to the decision to drop out of high school. The researcher took notes
during interviews to document responses to questions using an interview protocol defined by
Creswell (2015) as a means for structuring the interview and stre amlining note taking. The
protocol for this study included an introductory script read at the beginning of the interview and

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 45

a list of the questions with designated spaces for note taking to keep the interview focused on the
study questions.
Survey Resul ts

Research question one.

To address research question one, study participants completed a survey consisting of
four questions. Table 4. 1 shows the responses from participants to question one on the survey:
From the drop down menu, please select the re ason that best describes why you left high school
prior to graduating.
Table 4. 1

Reasons for Dropping Out
______________________________________________________________________
Reasons Percent Number
I had to work to support the family 16.30% 15
I was homeless 4.35% 4
Parent/guardian moved around a lot 8.70% 8
Pregnancy 17.39% 16
I was bullied at school 6.52% 6
High school was too loud for me 6.52% 6
I found the work too difficult 9.78% 9
I had an extended illness 9.78% 9
I had to care for a sick family member 1.19% 1
I was suspended/expelled/arrested 9.78% 9
The classes were not going to help in real life 9.78% 9
Note. SD = 3.29; V = 10.82

The two most common responses to survey question one, having to work to support the
family, and pregnancy, are common among dropouts regardless of the generation or millennium
(McIntyre, 2013). However, causes new to the study of high school dropouts appe ar in this
survey. Homelessness as a motive for dropping out had three affirmative responses.
Homelessness as a result of living in poverty is becoming a growing concern for educators and

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 46

policy makers, as it is a relatively new phenomenon in the life of secondary school students
Coley & Baker, 2013). The school environment is a new detriment to student success according
to this survey. Students who selected the loudness of the school as the reason they dropped out
commented that the noise made it nearl y impossible for them to concentrate. These students
seek a quieter, individualized approach to earning the secondary credential over the noise and
distraction of a traditional high school. Other non -historic causes for dropping out were
indicated in the survey responses, such as bullying, and having an extended illness. With the
introduction of virtual public high schools and other non -traditional options, students no longer
have to withstand bullying at school. Participants who remarked they were the victims of
bullying repeatedly said they did not feel safe at school. Fear of being bullied became an
obstacle to learning in the classroom and a clear link to the student’s decision to leave high
school prior to graduation.
Students with chronic health conditions or lengthy recuperation periods can select a non –
traditional school option to complete their high school credential without having to repeat
courses in a regular high school program. Most schools offer homebound instruction, but
participants sai d it was ineffective in its attempt to keep students current with coursework and
class progression. The participants who responded that extended illness caused them to drop out
of high school found alternative options such as adult high school programs or virtual public
high school programs to the traditional diploma track an efficient means of gaining a secondary
credential.
A majority of study participants responded they did not feel the courses in high school
would help them in the working world. St udents saw no relationship between the concepts
taught in the classroom and the skills necessary to establish a career. Whether this feeling was a

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 47

result of poor instruction or lack of student engagement is not clear from the results of the
survey.
The results for research question one show most participants dropped out of high school
in order to provide financially for the family by entering into full time employment. Results of
the survey also reflect that teen pregnancy remains a dominant reason man y females choose to
drop out of high school. While these traditional causes for dropping out received strong
responses from participants, the survey did reveal new reasons that 21st century students drop out
of high school: homelessness, bullying, feeling unsafe at school, sensitivity to the noise and
crowds at school, and chronic illness.
Research question two.

Research question two corresponds to questions two, three, and four of the survey.
Question two of the survey asked participants if their high school administrators or guidance
counselors talked with them about available dropout prevention options. Of th e 84 survey
participants, 52 responded in the affirmative, while four said no.
The third item of the survey was, “If you answered yes to item two, please place a
checkmark by all of the dropout prevention strategies your high school made available to yo u.”
Participants could select from the following options: credit recovery, homebound instruction,
altered class schedule, online options for courses, providing you with a mentor, and tutoring.
Table 4. 2 presents the data gathered from this survey item.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 48

Table 4. 2

Dropout Prevention Strategies

Strategy Percentage Number
Credit Recovery 28.92% 34
Homebound Instruction 16.87% 14
Altered Class Schedule 8.43% 7
Online Options for Classes 16.87% 14
Providing you with a Mentor 9.64% 8
Tutoring 19.28% 16
Note. SD = 1.90; V = 3.62

Credit recovery received the greatest number of responses from the list of dropout
prevention strategies on the survey. Credit recovery is a tool used by traditional high schools in
an attempt to help students remain on schedule for graduation with their peer cohorts. Students
who have not received credit for a class taught in a conventional format have the option to
receive credit for the course by taking an online, abbreviated version of the course (Center for
Child and Family Policy, 2008). The intent of credit recovery is to assist the student in earning
credits to ensure they stay on track for graduation.
Tutoring received the next highest number of responses from survey participants. For
students who are str uggling in core courses, tutoring can bridge the knowledge gap to help them
receive necessary credits. The same is true for homebound instruction for students who are
physically unable to attend class. Homebound instruction involves a certified teacher g athering
assignments for students and meeting with them several times a week for instruction. Students
who qualify for this service can recuperate at home while remaining current in course
progression.
Providing students with online options for courses is also popular, with 17.2% of survey
participants stating they were given this option to earn missing credits. Students who work full

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 49

time can take online courses to complete graduation credits rather than dropping out to provide
financially for their f amilies. In some schools, mentors are available to at -risk students to
provide support and advisement when needed. Approximately 10% of survey respondents stated
that school administrators provided them with a mentor prior to their final decision to leav e high
school. Lee and Burkam (2003) found that schools offering mentors to at -risk students reported
a decrease in the number of students dropping out prior to graduation. While this option is not
available in every high school, the benefit of this drop out prevention strategy is noteworthy.
The final survey question asked, “What could your high school have done differently to
keep you from dropping out?” A majority of participants reported the school could not have
prevented them from dropping out rega rdless of the strategies implemented to prevent it. At this
point, the students felt the only option that met their needs was to leave high school permanently.
Others responded that if someone at school had cared about them and was available to
talk wi th them about their problems, they might have decided to stay in school long enough to
graduate. This finding relates directly to the success reported by schools that provide mentors to
at-risk students. Often, if there is no one at home who cares about the student, having an adult at
school to fill the void can make a tremendous difference in a student’s success (Boutelle, 2009).
Some respondents felt the school administration did little to stop instances of bullying, which led
to the student’s decision to drop out of high school. Other respondents stated that teachers were
uncaring, ineffective or ill -prepared to provide a classroom environment designed for student
success. The most effective dropout prevention strategy, according to these students, i s the
teacher in the classroom. Hammond (2007) and Boutelle (2009) support the belief that the
teacher is the key to student success at any grade level.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 50

Research question three .

To answer the third research question, a Chi Square statistical test measured the
relationship between the most frequently selected causes for dropping out and the effects
children suffer from growing up in poverty. An observation of the survey results as they
correlate to the characteristics of students growing up in pove rty suggests that a relationship
exists between the variables. Table 4. 3 displays the results of the chi square analysis, followed
by an explanation of the significance of those results.
Table 4. 3
Chi Square Analysis of Childhood Poverty and High School D ropout
Effects of Poverty/
Reason for Dropout Yes Expected
Outcome Actual
Outcome No Expected
Outcome Actual
Outcome Total
Teen Pregnancy 16 11.40 1.86 76 80.60 0.26 92
Had to Work 15 11.40 1.14 77 80.60 0.16 92
Unstable Home 8 11.40 1.01 84 80.60 0.14 92
Classes not Useful 9 11.40 0.51 83 80.60 0.07 92
Delinquent
Behaviors 9 11.40 0.51 83 80.60 0.07 92
Total 57 403 490

A 5 x 5 contingency table analysis was conducted to determine if there was an
association between effects of childhood poverty and the leading causes for dropping out
according to the study survey. No significant relationship was found. The Chi Square st atistic is
5.73. The p -value is .22. The result is not significant at p <.05.
Analysis of individual interview responses provides a rich context illustrating the process
that led to the decision to drop out of high school. While each respondent reported unique events
leading to the decision to drop out, they also mentioned experien ces that culminated in the same
end result. The first question, “Did you find your schoolwork to be easy or difficult during your

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 51

time in school?” revealed a majority of similar responses. For most, schoolwork was difficult,
especially once they were in high school. One participant stated,
School was always hard, but when I got to high school I got so frustrated I just quit
going. It seemed like the teachers thought we should already know this stuff and got mad
if they had to explain it again.

Nearl y all of the interview participants shared this frustration at the complexity of the
work and the fast pace set by the teacher.
Survey questions two, three, and four related to parent involvement in the participants’
education. The responses indicated a common experience of parents who were either too busy or
too disengaged to play a prominent role in the students’ education. Question two asked if their
parents engaged with their schools by attending PTA meetings, etc. The majority of responses
were ne gative. Most stated that parents worked late or were “not the type to go to things like
that” at school. When asked about what type of parent went to PTA and other activities at
school, responses ranged from “rich” to “my mom started drinking the minute she got off from
work so she was too drunk to take us back to school at night.” Question three asked if parents
emphasized the importance of getting an education. Several participants stated that their parents
sent mixed messages about the importance of school. One student reported:
My parents expected me to have good grades and would get mad at me when my report
card had Cs or Ds but they would let me stay up late and do pretty much whatever I
wanted to during the week. I never had a schedule and my pa rents never helped me with
homework. I was just expected to be a parent to myself.

It is clear that parents knew that education would help their child succeed in life, but they
lacked either the skill or the motivation to be active participants in the e ducational process.
When asked if their parents graduated from high school, nearly half responded “no.” This is
common among people living in poverty. The cycle of dropping out continues with each
generation as the need for financial stability overcomes the desire for a high school diploma.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 52

Researchers studying the issue of high school dropouts find that chronic absenteeism is a
common factor among this student population. Jerald (2007) found that students in grades six
through eight whose attendance w as less than 80 percent had only a 10% chance of graduating
with their cohort class. All interview participants said they had school attendance problems for
years prior to dropping out. When asked to elaborate, participants explained their reluctance to
go to school because of the difficulty of the work, fear of testing, anxiety over social situations at
school, and an array of other reasons. Three of the respondents stated they were forced to stay
home to take care of younger siblings if the parents’ wo rk schedule was altered and a sitter was
needed. One young man in the study said his father worked construction and kept his son out of
school to work on projects that required extra help. These responses clearly indicate that chronic
absenteeism among a dolescents is not always a result of the desire to miss school, but of
decisions made by the adults in a child’s life.
Question seven, “What could the school do differently to keep students like yourself from
dropping out?” refers to research question tw o regarding the effectiveness of current dropout
prevention programs in meeting the needs of 21st century high school students. Respondents
stated the school offered options such as credit recovery and altered schedules in an attempt to
keep students in s chool. However, these efforts did not meet the needs of the student at the time.
A majority of the individuals responding to this item said that by the time they had made the
decision to drop out, the school could have done nothing to alter that decision . One individual
felt that interventions should begin much sooner in the form of remediation and tutoring to
bridge the gaps in learning for struggling students. If students could enter high school with the
academic knowledge necessary to be successful, the decision to drop out might never be made.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 53

A successful, engaged student is not one who decides to leave high school prior to graduation
(Dynarski & Gleason, 1998).
Since the introduction of No Child Left Behind legislation in 2001 (U.S. Department of
Education), standardized tests have been identified as a contributor to a student’s decision to
drop out of high school (Meyer, 2010). Educators, students, and parents alike attribute stress and
anxiety as the cause for student failure on state mandated t ests (Hemelt & Marcotte, 2013).
When asked if the requirement of passing state mandated tests contributed to their decision to
drop out of high school, the majority of respondents said “no.” While there were few positive
comments about standardized testin g, there were no strong feelings against them. Students in the
21st century have grown up in a school environment where testing is a common occurrence, thus
dampening the impact of a single test score on the determination of whether or not they will drop
out.
Interview question nine asked if participants felt pushed out of high school by strict
disciplinary consequences. To refine this question, the researcher wanted to know if students
were expelled, long -term suspended, or arrested, and prohibited from returning to school. One of
the respondents said that he had been expelled for a multitude of charges and was remanded to a
state juvenile detention center. Several others said they had served both out of school and in –
school suspension terms for a vari ety of disciplinary infractions, but they were never told they
could not return to school. However, these participants did affirm their belief that poor decision
making on their part led to the disciplinary consequences that contributed to their final dec ision
to leave high school prior to graduating.
The final interview question asked if participants felt pulled out of high school in order to
seek employment, to care for a sick family member, or to provide childcare for younger siblings.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 54

All participan ts responded in the affirmative. Most sought full time work after dropping out of
high school as a means of helping the family remain financially stable. The experience of being
pulled out of school in order to care for others is a common factor among th e participants in their
decision to drop out of high school.
An analysis of the information gathered from the interviews reveals commonalities.
First, the majority of respondents felt that schoolwork had always been challenging for them.
Anecdotes of aca demic struggles, feelings of humiliation and frustration were common among
study participants. Second, participants reported that their parents were not engaged in the
education process. They did not attend after school events or engage in any level of a ctivity with
the school, thus sending a message to their children that school involvement was not a priority.
Third, while parents expected good grades from their children, they did little to encourage
success. Half of the interview participants’ parents did not graduate from high school; therefore,
the children learned that finishing high school was not necessary for gainful employment.
Fourth, absenteeism was a common factor among at -risk youth. As seen in the responses to this
interview question, chr onic absenteeism is a strong predictor of dropping out. Finally, interview
participants shared the feeling of being pulled out of high school by external forces. Whether
these forces existed as financial worries, instability at home, or a need to care fo r others, they
contributed to a student’s decision to drop out of high school, thus permanently altering the
student’s life journey.
Summary

Survey results and responses to interview questions provided rich data for evaluation.
The researcher analyzed survey results using a mixed methods approach, combining qualitative
and quantitative statistics. In determining the leading cause for dropping out, the survey

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 55

outcomes indicated that teen pregnancy remains at the top of the list, followed closely by the
need to find full time employment to supplement family income. The survey presented new
information regarding dropout causation, introducing ho melessness, sensitivity to the school
environment, and having chronic, extended illnesses to the events leading up to the decision to
drop out of high school. In order to find the degree of similarity between the effects of growing
up in poverty and the l eading causes for dropping out, the researcher conducted a chi square
analysis. While there is a degree of relationship between causes for dropping out and the effects
of living in poverty, it is not strong enough to be significant.
Individual interviews with study participants provided an in -depth examination of the
factors that contribute to the decision to drop out. Analysis of the responses supplied ample
evidence that the decision to drop out of high school is not one of spontaneity but one born of
lifelong events that shape a child’s educational progress from infancy forward. The shared
experiences of the study participants revealed that patterns of at -risk behaviors such as chronic
absenteeism, inappropriate classroom behaviors, and academic frust ration begin early in a
student’s life. Current dropout prevention programs fail to meet the needs of at -risk students
early enough in their educational careers to make a true difference and prevent them from
dropping out. Until schools create strategies designed to meet these needs, students will continue
to feel pushed out of school by forces beyond their control.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 56

CHAPTER FIVE
RECOMMENDATIONS

The findings of the study confirmed several conventional barriers to graduation and also
revealed new obstacles faced by high school students that prevent them from completing high
school with their cohorts. New issues faced by 21st century high school students include
homelessness, bullying, and extended illness. Traditional barriers such as teen pregn ancy,
working full time to support the family, and long -term suspension from school remain prevalent.
Analysis of the data from the survey and student interviews finds that existing dropout
prevention programs fail to meet the needs of at -risk students.
Findings

Research question one .

The results of the survey showed that teen pregnancy and working to support the family
are the two leading causes of dropping out of high school for 21st century students. Although
these are traditional causes for droppi ng out, they bring a measure of newness to the issue in that
unlike previous generations, jobs in factories and other domestic industries are unavailable to
today’s youth. Interview question ten asks respondents if they felt pulled out of school to
suppor t their families. The majority of participants stated they did not feel forced or pulled out
of school to work, but felt as though the extra money was more beneficial to their quality of life
than continuing their high school education. Whereas a student in the 1950s could quit high
school and find a job in a local textile mill that paid a living wage. T he high school dropout of
the 2000s finds unskilled employment opportunities sc arce and the pay at minimum wage
(Breslow, 2012) . Similarly, the military will no longer enlist anyone without a high school
credential. Today’s dropouts find themselves working jobs that are physically demanding and
without a comprehensive benefits package such as paid time off, health insurance, or a r etirement

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 57

plan. Therefore, dropouts in the 21st century may be condemning themselves to a lifetime of
financial instability and health insecurity.
The effects of poverty are prevalent in the leading causes for dropping out in the 21st
century. Affirma tive responses to the survey categories regarding home life reflect the unstable
and insecure environments in which many students live. Survey results showed that 3.57 % of
respondents considered themselves homeless. Nearly 10 % stated their parents or g uardians
moved often, causing the student to fall hopelessly behind in core subjects necessary for
graduation. Research has shown that children who grow up in poverty often begin school with a
learning deficit due to the lack of opportunities for educatio nal stimulation (Coley & Baker,
2013). A recent study found that 64% of children from the highest income groups were read to
every day by a family member, while only 40 % of children in families living below the poverty
line were read to by a family membe r (Coley & Baker, 2013). This is indicative of the lack of
resources and time families living at or below the poverty line can invest in the early educational
development of their children. When children begin school with learning deficits they tend to
struggle academically throughout their years in school (Coley & Baker, 2013).
Parents living in poverty often lack the time or initiative to be an active part of their
child’s education once the child enters primary school. The pressures on their time and r esources
remain as they were during the child’s preschool years and prevent parents from participating in
after school events. Study participants were asked if their parents had been engaged in their
education by attending parent conferences, PTA meetings , etc. Five out of ten reported their
parents had not been involved in school activities while four out of ten said their parents did not
emphasize the importance of getting an education. The unspoken message is one of school being
mandatory but of littl e importance outside the classroom walls. These students not only begin

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 58

school with an educational deficit, but they also continue to fall behind their classmates who
have actively engaged parents helping them with homework and supporting them in their
educational journey. With no familial support at home, the student living in poverty continues to
view school as an uphill struggle they must endure alone. This struggle leads to frustration and
ultimately contributes to the decision to drop out of high sch ool (Coley & Baker, 2013).
Being pushed out because of administrative disciplinary action is also a leading cause for
students to drop out of high school. While many high school dropouts will blame the school or
district administration for their removal from the system, ultimately the punishment is a direct
result of poor decisions made by the student. The inability to control behaviors and emotions
falls into the category of causes for dropping out due to growing up in poverty. According to the
American Psychological Association (2017), children living in poverty may develop behavioral
problems such as impulsiveness, difficulty getting along with others, aggression, and conduct
disorder. As children develop into adolescents, these behaviors can become more violent and
criminal in nature, leading to the possibility of expulsion from school. Studies have shown that
students who struggle early in school continue to have difficulties as they progress to higher
grades and many tend to feel the only suitable option is to drop out of hi gh school (Hemelt &
Marcotte, 2013). Many of these students have other barriers to success such as living in poverty,
not having a stable home, and residing in communities where education is not valued. These
conditions culminate in seemingly overwhelmin g obstacles, forcing the student to make a
decision between providing food and shelter for themselves or graduating from high school
(Alspaugh, 1998). Existing in such a state of chaos often results in the student participating in
delinquent or criminal b ehaviors that put an end to their high school careers through expulsion or
incarceration. While this situation may not appear on the surface to be a conscious act of

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 59

dropping out of high school, it is the result of poor choices and bad decision making on the part
of the student. Therefore, through their own actions, they have made decisions that negatively
affect their ability to graduate from high school. For many, it is the first step in a long journey of
decline that affects them for the remainder of their lives (Alspaugh, 1998).
Sensitivity to the school environment is a new obstacle for students with autism or other
associative disorders. Students who are sensitive to the noise and crowded hallways of the
school commented that it was nearly imposs ible for them to concentrate during class. These
students seek a more peaceful, independent approach to earning their diplomas rather than the
sensory overload characteristic of traditional high schools. Other causes for dropping out cited
in the survey, such as bullying and having an extended illness, are new to the list. With
alternative, non -traditional school options, students no longer have to endure bullying at school.
Students with chronic health conditions or lengthy recuperation periods can now leave the
traditional high school and participate in alternative educational options to earn their high school
credential.
For nearly all study participants, chronic absenteeism became an obstacle to school
success beginning in the elementary grades and continuing through high school. Most stated
they avoided school because of anxiety and stress associated with being unable to keep up with
their peers in the classroom. Interview participants also said the absences caused them to get
further behind, thus adding to their reluctance to return to school. The mounting make -up work
and missed instruction became overwhelming to the point that school attendance became
increasingly less frequent. Following this pattern year after year burdens the student with g aps in
skills that their classmates attained by attending school on a regular basis. For some,
absenteeism began as a result of extended illness or as a strategy to avoid being bullied at school.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 60

However, the result is the same regardless of the reason f or the chronic absenteeism; the longer a
student stays out of school, the easier it is for absenteeism to become the norm. The ripple effect
of this is the academic gap widens, the urge to leave school permanently increases, and the
student’s desire to ea rn a diploma wanes (McKee & Caldarella, 2016).
Finally, there are important differences in the reasons that students drop out of high
school. One explanation or cause for dropping out cannot be applied to every student. The data
gathered from this stu dy clearly indicate that dropping out is a process that begins early in a
child’s life, and culminates in the decision to separate from high school prior to graduating. The
results from this study reflect the complex nature of the high school dropout issu e, thus
supporting the theory that there is no single answer to the question, “What causes 21st century
high school students to drop out of high school?”
Research question two .

School districts nationwide have spent countless dollars on the development a nd
implementation of dropout prevention programs to encourage students to remain in school. The
programs vary widely in their approaches. (Dynarski & Gleason, 1998). Many of these strategies
are designed to meet the unique needs of individual schools and communities, while others are
more universal. Fifty -two percent of participants in this study reported their high school did offer
them dropout prevention strategies prior to their final decision to leave school. Question four of
the survey asked participa nts to select all dropout prevention strategies made available to them
by high school counselors or administrators. Twenty -nine percent of participants were offered
credit recovery, 19.2 % reported being offered individualized tutoring, and 16.9 % received
options for homebound instruction and online coursework. However, study participants felt
these strategies were not effective in providing solutions for the many issues preventing them
from being successful in school.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 61

When asked during the interviews what the school could have done differently to keep
students from dropping out, the majority of respondents indicated a need for more counseling.
Four out of ten respondents said simply, “more counseling” while another stated “take mental
health more seri ously.” Clearly, the need for students to meet with a caring adult who can refer
them to the appropriate community resources is not being met. In addition, interviewees felt
schools needed to pay closer attention to those students who are struggling in th e classroom and
get extra help for them early in the semester rather than waiting until the final weeks before state
testing begins. Many spoke of being ignored or even humiliated by teachers when they needed
additional help in the classroom. None of the respondents felt the school administration or
faculty offered additional instruction early enough to benefit student learning and increase the
opportunity for students to succeed.
Survey and interview participants reported they felt unsafe at school. Mo st interview
participants experienced bullying and other forms of intimidation. Two of the participants said
they would have remained in school had they felt the administration could provide a safe school
environment and implement school discipline strate gies equally among all student groups. Many
remarked that disciplinary actions taken by the school administration were much harsher for
students belonging to minority and lower socioeconomic groups than the punishments dealt to
“popular” kids who came fro m affluent families. The feeling that students who were poor and
had disinterested parents were punished more harshly than more affluent students with parents
who were actively involved in their child’s education is noted in a study by Taylor (2005). This
study found the perceived unfairness and inequality of school discipline sent an unintentional
message to students that if they were poor or non -white, no one in a position of authority at
school cared about them (Taylor, 2005). These students felt vulner able, angry, and distrustful of

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 62

the adults at school. Study participants were from a variety of cultural and ethnic backgrounds
and shared the feeling that wealthy white students were afforded a more lenient attitude
regarding punishments by school admini stration. A feeling shared by most interview
participants was the desire to have someone at school they could confide in, who could give
them practical and trustworthy advice, and with whom they could build a stable relationship.
Participants shared that not having a sense of security on campus caused them to disengage, and
the decision to drop out seemed an easy way to end the feelings of vulnerability and discomfort
they experienced.
The findings of this study regarding research question two reveal that the various dropout
prevention strategies used by most schools are largely ineffective in meeting the needs of 21st
century high school students. Early in a child’s school career, predictors of dropping out such as
educational performance, school behavior s, student attitude, and socioeconomic background
should be recognized by school leaders, and interventions should be initiated to overcome these
obstacles (Rumberger & Lim, 2008). Credit recovery, tutoring, and online coursework, among
other options, are not solutions to the dropout problem but are quick fixes that may provide a
temporary resolution to a single issue. Due to the many negative effects of childhood poverty,
the 21st century student begins school with deficiencies that seem only to increase over time. The
overlapping needs and academic deficiencies of the potential dropout are too complex for a
single measure to be the solution to the problem (Rumberger & Lim, 2008).
Research question three .

In close examination of the survey data and o ne-on-one interviews, similarities are
apparent between the causes for dropping out of high school and the effects of childhood
poverty. The researcher expected the themes of teen pregnancy and having to quit school in
order to work full time to be common causes among study participants. This proved to be the

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 63

case. However, an unexpected theme that emerged from the survey data was the correlation
between what causes a student to drop out of high school and the characteristics exhibited by
students who gr ew up living in poverty. While the 5×5 Chi Square results indicated that the
relationship between causes for dropping out and effects of poverty is not statistically significant,
there are shared characteristics.
Teen pregnancy remains the number one re ason that female students drop out of high
school. Current data provided by Rumberger (2013), Hammond (2007), and the American
Psychological Association (2017) show that engaging in early sexual activity is a common
characteristic of adolescents growing u p in poverty.
Another traditional cause for dropout is instability at home . Students living in poverty
often have parents who are not engaged with the school and do not take an active role in their
child’s academic life. Lack of parental engagement is often related to the child’s poor academic
performance.
Students who disengage from learning at school will manifest academic or behavioral
issues, thus reinforcing the idea of dropping out of high school. Exhibiting and participating in
delinquent beh avior is a shared characteristic of children living in poverty as well as a major
cause of dropping out of high school. According to Breslow (2012). Incarceration rates are 63
times higher for high school dropouts than for high school graduates. While th e statistical
relationship between the effects of poverty and causes for dropping out of high school is not
significant in this study, the theme of similar patterns between them is evident.
Limitations

The first limitation of this study was that the sam ple population is located in a rural,
economically depressed area of a southern state, thus eliminating comparisons to a similar

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 64

population within the same, or other, states. The sample populations were students attending an
adult high school orientation session at a local community college. The survey results and
interview responses were limited to the perceptions and experiences of this particular population
and were not compared to other adult high school students at different community colleges.
Geog raphic, socioeconomic, and familial conditions limit the availability of educational
opportunities for the sample population. The outcomes are not universal, as global or national
populations were not participants in the study.
Another limitation of the study was the lack of educational quality analysis. The quality
of the educational opportunities and experiences of the sample population were not included as
part of this study. Had they been, the results could have indicated the importance of educatio nal
quality in student success over time.
The final limitation came from the sample group. While there were 92 survey
participants, ten of whom participated in one -on-one interviews, their views were the only ones
analyzed. These participants differ f rom their peers who did not graduate from high school in
that these individuals have made the decision to return to school to earn their secondary
credential. The participants have decided that education is the key to providing a better life for
themselve s; thus, they do not represent the views of those dropouts who decide not to earn a high
school diploma.
Researcher Comments

Although the quantitative data did not show a significant statistical relationship between
the effects of living in childhood poverty and the causes for dropping out of high school, the
qualitative data showed that socioeconomic conditions and academic suc cess share common
characteristics. In retrospect, the researcher would delve more deeply into the long -term effects

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 65

of educational disadvantages associated with poverty and their link to the high school dropout
rate. The study showed the decision to drop out was a process complicated by the hardships
experienced by many 21st century students.
The impact of the study lies in the shared characteristics of the participants. While
groups from other geographic areas were not included, the implication for e ducators is universal.
Students who are struggling to provide for their basic needs will compromise their desire to earn
a high school diploma to meet those needs.
Relationship of Findings to Previous Literature

The literature review cited researchers who analyzed the high school dropout epidemic,
including the interventions schools are using to resolve the problem and the weaknesses of many
of these strategies.
The major causes for dropping out were evident in the survey and interview results.
However, new complications to the problem such as childhood poverty and homelessness
surfaced in the study results. According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, “Our most basic need
is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behavior” (McLeod,
2016, p. 1). If students do not have a stable home and enough food to eat, or they feel unsafe in
their environment, they will do all within their power to meet those needs. Students who live in
poverty often find themselves trying to juggle the demands of survival with the requirements of
the classroom. A key predictor of dropping out, according to Jerald (2007), is a student’s
demographic background. He states
Students who are poor, who are memb ers of certain minority groups, who are male, who
have limited English proficiency, who have learning or emotional disabilities, who move
more often, and who are overage for their grade are more likely to drop out (p. 1).

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 66

Orfield (2004) referred to studen ts living in poverty as growing up in at -risk settings,
meaning the unstable environment a student calls home increases the likelihood of dropping out
of high school. Henry et al. (2010) suggests:
A continued and even larger emphasis should be placed on en hancement of parental
investment in school. This should come in the form of increased efforts to study existing
parental investment programs, development and assessment of new parental investment
programs, and implementation of policies that support famil y involvement in school (p.
1175).

The results of this study support their research. For most participants, the decision to
drop out was often a direct result of the need to provide financially for themselves and their
family.
The literature review ref erred to the great cost to society. Gottlob (2007) states that for
North Carolina, “the annual public costs associated with just one year’s class of dropouts is $169
million, or about $4,437 per dropout” ( p. 1). This amount includes social welfare costs such as
Medicaid, low income housing subsidies, food and nutrition services (food stamps) and the loss
of tax revenue due to the low income associated with unskilled employment. Also included in
this amount is the average cost of incarceration per inmate p er year. High school dropouts are
more likely to become teen parents and are a greater risk for becoming involved in drug use and
drug selling (Sweeten et al., 2009). These behaviors begin early for children living in at -risk
settings and can be tracked v ia disciplinary actions taken against them throughout their school
careers. A study by Lee, Cornell, Gregory and Fan (2011) found that if a student had a history of
suspension, both in and out of school, it increased the likelihood of dropping out by 78%. Anti-
social and criminal behaviors escalate among this population of students, culminating in leaving
school prior to graduating due to expulsion or arrest (Bowditch, 1993).

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 67

Petrick (2014) stated, “When students graduate from secondary education, they are
prepared for the global workforce and the economic stability of the United States is essential for
global competition” (p. 127). The participants in this study attended the orientation session for
the adult high school program at the local community c ollege. They had reached a point in their
lives where the lack of a secondary credential was an obstacle to their financial security. The
literature review supports the view of the study participants that without a high school diploma,
life in general ca n be a difficult struggle with little security or stability.
The literature review examined many dropout prevention strategies currently in use at
most high schools. These strategies range from credit recovery and tutoring to altered class
schedules. How ever, the literature and study results revealed that these strategies are not meeting
students’ needs, causing them to drop out regardless of available prevention options. Many
researchers feel that early intervention is a better option than waiting until students reach high
school. State and local “policies that combat early disengagement may prevent at -risk students
from falling into a downward spiral, in which missing school causes them to fall behind in their
studies, which in turn makes them feel eve n less motivated to attend classes and puts them
further behind” (Messacar & Oreopoulos, 2013, p. 4).
When asked what the school could have done differently to prevent them from dropping
out, a majority of study participants mentioned early intervention . Tyler and Lofstrom (2009)
found that the key component of any dropout prevention program is the inclusion of a mentor
system for at -risk students. According to their findings, students exhibiting dropout predictive
behaviors at any age should be assigne d a mentor to provide emotional, acad emic, and
professional support (Tyler & Lofstrom, 2009). Hickman et al. (2008) believe third grade is a
critical period for students and serves as a strong predictor of drop out. If academic interventions

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 68

are not take n by third grade to correct learning deficits, students can enter a downward spiral that
leads to dropping out of high school (Hickman et al., 2008). Most participants felt interventions
such as tutoring and mentoring were not offered until they brought t heir needs to the school
administration’s attention. Boutelle (2010) relates the success of a dropout prevention program in
the Sanger Unified School District that is implemented at the beginning of eighth grade, when
students with reading levels not meeti ng minimum standards give up an elective class and
participate in a corrective reading program for one class period each day. District administrators
report in 2002 only 3.3 % of students were proficient readers; by the end of 2008, the number
had risen to 49 % with no change in student demographics (Boutelle, 2010). As the study data
and literature review indicate, early intervention is a critical step in reducing the number of high
school dropouts.
A key component of any intervention program is fundin g. As schools struggle to gain
adequate resources in order to provide basic educational requirements, the money needed for
intervention programs is often sacrificed. This includes adequate pay for high quality teachers
and maintenance of learning environ ments (Taylor, 2005). Without increased funding for
intervention programs and the highly qualified staff to implement them, the dropout rate in many
low socioeconomic communities will remain high.
The literature review revealed that while the student dem ographics at any school play a
role in student success rates, the community also plays a tremendous role in the educational
journey of their children. The findings from this study reflect that students who grew up in
neighborhoods where few residents gradu ated from high school viewed gaining a secondary
credential as unnecessary to financial stability. Alspaugh (1998) places heavy emphasis on the
socioeconomic status of the communities from which students are drawn to attend school. His

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 69

findings indicate that if the unemployment rate, poverty level, and crime rate are high in a
community, the school student population will mimic these statistics. Students who come from
neighborhoods where few residents graduated from high school have an increased likeliho od of
becoming dropouts themselves (Alspaugh, 1998). If the community as a whole does not value
education, students will find dropping out to be an acceptable recourse if they feel school is no
longer meaningful.
According to Balfanz (2004) “If you’re born in a neighborhood or town where the only
high school is one where graduation is not the norm, how is this living in the land of equal
opportunity?” ( p. 11 ). Balfanz coined the term “drop -out factory” in reference to high schools
where no more than 60 % of the students who start high school as freshmen graduate in four
years with their same cohort (Balfanz, 2004). According to the studies included in the literature
review, a school is a reflection of the community at large; problems facing the communit y are
also present at school. In order to combat the issues that cause students to drop out of high
school, communities need to improve living conditions for their residents. One cannot improve
without the help of the other.
The most influential context outside the school that affects academic achievement is the
family, particularly the role of parental investment in a child’s education (Henry et al., 2010).
Regardless of school attendance laws, many parents enable students to fall victim to chronic
absenteeism, thus increasing the likelihood that the student will drop out of high school. Studies
show that, as early as kindergarten, high rates of absenteeism have a direct link to a student’s
future academic engagement and success (Hickman et al., 2008). Parents who do not reinforce
the importance of graduating, or who did not graduate from high school themselves, send an
unintentional message to students that graduating is not essential to a fulfilling life. Parental

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 70

personal endorsement reflects the exte nt to which parents perceive school as important and
valuable, hold a favorable attitude toward school, and have high academic aspirations for their
child.
Implications for Future Practice in Local Context

The f ollowing are recommendations for future pra ctice in local education districts:
1. Begin identifying at -risk students at the kindergarten level and provide interventions
based on the needs and culture of the community. Interventions should include
academic strategies as well as extracurricular activit ies that strengthen the relationship
between the school and the community.
2. Continuously gather data on individual student behaviors and academic performance,
and propose interventions when dropout indicators first appear.
3. Provide at -risk students with adul t mentors who can advocate on their behalf, and
serve as a trustworthy confidant.
4. Sponsor activities designed to involve as many students as possible to strengthen the
bonds of attachment between the student and the school.
5. Ensure smooth matriculation from elementary to middle to high school. Provide
immediate intervention for rising sixth and ninth grade students exhibiting at -risk
behaviors to ameliorate negative associations with the new school.
6. Develop strategies to strengthen student attachment to the adult high school program
at the community college. Offer students opportunities to build relationships with one
another in non -classroom settings.
7. Organize the adult high school program into content -specific classes. Students would
benefit from being in c lasses designed to meet their academic needs.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 71

8. Make retention of adult high school students a priority. Implement strategies to assist
students in their academic progress, thereby increasing the success rate for students,
and the graduation rate of the prog ram.
Recommendations for Future Research

The f ollowing are recommendations for future research on the issues associated with high
school dropouts that emerged as a result of this study:
Analyze the independent factors contributing to the dropout rate. Fu ture research should
be conducted on each of the independent factors that lead to a high dropout rate. This study
examined the factors as a comprehensive unit rather than analyzing the causes for each factor
and how schools can provide solutions to lessen the impact of these factors. Future research
should group the factors into categories relating to the source of the issue such as school -related,
family -related, or community -related. By better understanding the source of these factors,
educators can cr eate strategies to increase student success.
Analyze strategies to combat early childhood academic discrepancies. As part of the
program to reduce high school dropouts, future researchers need to develop a plan to provide the
best possible educational fou ndation for students who begin school with skill and knowledge
deficits. Researchers should examine the benefits of mandatory pre -kindergarten classes and
programs designed to offer low -income families educational opportunities and resources. If all
students can begin kindergarten with a similar knowledge base, the likelihood of student success
greatly increases. Without the feelings of frustration and humiliation that are associated with
academic deficits, more students may realize high school graduatio n is an achievable goal.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 72

Study the role of parental support in high school completion rates. Further research into
understanding the role of parental support in helping children reach high school graduation with
a similar population as the study sample could aid in decreasing the dropout epidemic.
Examine the impact of instructional quality on educational success. Future research
should seek to identify the role of quality instruction in student success. While current research
reflects the importance of early childhood educational opportunities, little information is
available about the role quality of instruction plays in relation to quantity of instruction. If
children are involved in preschool programs, but the instructional quality is questionable, t he
overall effectiveness of the program is uncertain. The mere involvement of a child in early
education programs does not equate to the child being as prepared to begin kindergarten as other
students his age. The quality of the instruction given to stud ents during early childhood should
be studied to further understand the long -term impact of school preparedness on high school
graduation rates.
Summary

The majority of the research on the reasons for dropping out of high school is focused on
high povert y communities and universal trends in student retention programs. This study
focused on a small, rural, economically depressed community in the American south. The local
community college where this study was conducted offers the only adult high school p rogram in
the region. The program offers two tracks of study. First, students can opt to take the courses
they either failed or missed when they dropped out of high school to earn a high school diploma
issued jointly by the local school district and the community college. The second option is for
students to attend remediation courses in math, science, history, reading, and language arts in
preparation for taking a high school equivalency test. The purpose of this study was to

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 73

determine what factors cau sed students to make the decision to drop out of high school. At a
time when dropout prevention programs are in place at nearly all high schools, why are students
continuing to leave prior to graduating?
The sample population for the study was taken fr om students ages 16 -32 entering the
adult high school program at the local community college. The study examined the causes for
dropping out as well as the experiences the participants had with dropout prevention programs
and why they still made the decis ion to leave high school. Through the use of surveys and one –
on-one interviews, data were collected to find the patterns and trends among study participants to
determine possible solutions to the needs of contemporary high school students. Study
particip ants spoke to issues that impacted their decision to drop out and why that decision was a
culmination of years of academic and personal struggle for each of them.
An unexpected theme that emerged during the analysis of the data was the distinct
similariti es between the leading causes for dropping out and the effects of childhood poverty.
While the Chi Square statistical test did not show a significant relationship between the
characteristics, the similarities between them were obvious. While poverty may not actually
cause students to drop out, the effects of it are seen in the causes.
A mixed methods approach to gather and analyze data reinforced the importance of
quantitative analysis and qualitative description of the study results. The mixed methods
approach not only revealed the data, but also told the story behind the data through rich narrative.
A review of existing research on the many consequences of the dropout problem revealed new
information regarding the changing needs of the 21st century high school student. Dropping out
of high school not only affects the financial future of the individual, but it also costs society
millions of dollars in social welfare benefits, incarceration, and loss of tax revenues. Until

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 74

educators develop strat egies to lessen the impact of poverty, improve the equality of educational
opportunity for all students, and provide viable dropout prevention strategies, the high school
dropout problem will continue to plague American school systems. This study provided useful
information regarding the needs of 21st century students and proposed suggestions for future
practice to combat the high school dropout problem.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 75

REFERENCES
Alexander, K. L., Entwisle, D. R., & Horsey, C. S. (1997, April). From First Grade Forwar d:
Early Foundations of High School Dropout. Sociology of Education , 70(2), 87 -107.
Retrieved from
https://facweb.northseattle.edu/lchaffee/PSY100/Journal%20Articles/Alexander%20et%2
0al%201997.pdf
Alspaugh, J. W. (1998). The relationship of school and comm unity characteristics to high school
drop -out rates (Clearing House, 71 (3)). Retrieved from Clearing House: ebscohost.com
American Psychological Association. (2017). Effects of poverty, hunger and homelessness on
children and youth . Retrieved from http:// www.apa.org/pi/families/poverty.as
Balfanz, R., & Legters, N. (2004). Locating the dropout crisis. Retrieved from
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED484525.pdf
Biddix, J. P. (2017). Instrument, Validity, Reliability. Retrieved February, 2017, from
https:/ /researchrundowns.com/quantitative -methods/instrument -validity -reliability/
Boday, C. (2013, March 3). 3 Reasons students drop out of high school [Blog post]. Retrieved
from http://www.uwaystan.org/
Boutelle, M. (2009, Fall). Pooling resources reduces the number of dropouts. California Schools ,
50-55. Retrieved from www.csba.org/CASchoolNews.aspx
Bowditch, C. (1993). Getting rid of troublemakers: High schools ’ disciplinary procedures and
the production of dropouts. Social Problems , 40(), 493 -509. Retrieved from
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3096864?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents
Brain architecture [Online journal article]. (2007). Center on the Developing Child . Retrieved
from http://developingchild.harvard.edu/science/key -concepts/brain -architecture/

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 76

Breslow, J. M. (2012, September 21). By the numbers: dropping out of high school. Dropout
Nation . Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/by -the-numbers –
dropping -out- -high-school/
Bullying and students on the Autism spectrum. (n.d.). Retrieved f rom
https://www.iidc.indiana.edu/styles/iidc/defiles/IRCA/Bullying%20and%20ASD2014.pdf
Burrus, J., & Roberts, R. (2012, February). Dropping out of high school: prevalence, risk
factors, and remediation strategies. R & D Connections , (18), 1 -9. Retrieved f rom
www.ets.org/research
Center for Child and Family Policy. (2008). Dropout prevention: Strategies for improving high
school graduation rates . Retrieved from www.childandfamilypolicy.duke.edu
Christle, C. A., Jolivette, K., & Nelson, C. M. (2007). School Characteristics Related to High
School Drop Out Rates . Retrieved from PRO -ED Inc. Remedial and Special Education
website: http://www.proedinc.com
Coleman, J., Campbell, E., Hobson, C., McPartland, J., Mood, A., Weinfield, F., & York, R.
(1966). Equality of educational opportunity. Retrieved from:
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED012275.pdf
Coley, R., & Baker, B. (2013). Poverty and education: Finding the way forward . Retrieved from
ETS: www.ets.org/research
Creswell, J. W. (2015). Educational Research (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Dashiff, C., DiMicco, W., Meyers, B., & Sheppard, K. (2009, February). Poverty and adolescent
mental health. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing , 22(1), 23 -32.
Retrieved fr om

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 77

http://search.proquest.com.portnoy.wingate.edu/education/docview/232971758/BAD7D1
08912C47FEPQ/1?accountid=15065
Doll, E. Z., & Waters, L. (2013). Understanding why students drop out of high school according
to their own reports (SAGE Open, 3). Retrieved from Clemson University, National
Dropout Prevention Center/Network:
http://dropoutprevention.org/resources/statistics/quick -facts/why -students -drop-out/
Doll, J. J., Eslami, Z., & Walters, L. (2013). Understanding why students drop out of high school
according to their own reports [Tables]. Retrieved from http://journals.sagepub.com/
Duckworth, A. (2016). Grit: The power of passion and perseverance . London: Vermillion.
Dynarski, M., & Gleason, P. (1998). How can we help? What we have learned from evalua tions
of federal dropout prevention programs . Retrieved from ttps://www.mathematica –
mpr.com/download -media?MediaItemId={A03B0D57: ttps://www.mathematica –
mpr.com/download -media?MediaItemId={A03B0D57
Fetler, M. (2001, Winter). Student mathematics achievement test scores, dropout rates, and
teacher characteristics. Teacher Education Quarterly , 28(1), 151 -168. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com.portnoy.wingate.edu/education/docview/222853855/27728F9
97F894997PQ/1?accountid=15065
Finn, C. E., Kahlenberg, R . D., & Kress, S. (2015, October). Rethinking the high school diploma.
Education Next , 15, 29 -37. Retrieved from www.educationnext.org
Ford, Z. (2012). Study: bullying increases high school dropout rates. Retrieved March 30, 2017,
from https://thinkprogres s.org/study -bullying -increases -high-school -dropout -rates –
41ba52597536

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 78

Garner, A. S., & Shonkoff, J. P. (2012). The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and
toxic stress (DOI: 10.1542/peds.2011 -2663). Retrieved from American Academy of
Pediatrics: pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2011/12/21/peds.2011 -2663
Gottlob, B. J. (2007). The high cost of low graduation rates in North Carolina . Retrieved from
School Choice Issues in the State: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED508497.pdf
Hammond , C. (2007). Dropout Risk Factors and Exemplary Programs . Retrieved from National
Dropout Prevention Center at Clemson University and Communities in Schools, Inc.:
http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED497057.pdf
Hemelt, S. W., & Marcotte, D. E. (2013). High school exit exams and dropout in an era of
increased accountability. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management , 32, 323 -350.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pam.21688
Henry, K., Knight, K., & Thornberry, T. (2011). School disengagem ent as a predictor of
dropout, delinquency, and problem substance use during adolescence and early
adulthood . Retrieved from www.ProQuest.com:
http://search.proquest.com.portnoy.wingate.edu/education/docview/915478339/8103D6A
E71DA4592PQ/1?accountid=15065
Henry, K. L., Cavanagh, T. M., & Oetting, E. R. (2010). Perceived parental investment in school
as a mediator of the relationship between socio -economic indicators and educational
outcomes in rural America (J Youth Adolescence 40). Retrieved from ProQuest.c om:
http://search.proquest.com.portnoy.wingate.edu/education/docview/889034213/59376E1
C6FED47F7PQ/1?accountid=15065
Hickman, G. P., Bartholomew, M., Mathwig, J., & Heinrich, R. (2008). Differential
developmental pathways of high school dropouts and graduat es. Retrieved from The

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 79

Journal of Educational Research:
http://search.proquest.com.portnoy.wingate.edu/education/docview/204200377/75F3C83
90316425DPQ/1?accountid=15065
Jerald, C. (2007). Keeping kids in school: What research tells us about preventing dropo uts.
Retrieved from www.centerforpubliceducation.org
Jordan, J. L., Kostandini, G., & Mykerezi, E. (2012). Rural and urban high school dropout rates:
are they different? Journal of Research in Rural Education , 27(12), 1 -21. Retrieved from
http://jrre.vmho st.psu.edu/wp -content/uploads/2014/02/27 -12.pdf
Kassoy, B. (Ed.). (2017). 11 facts about dropping out. Retrieved from
https://www.dosomething.org/facts/11 -facts -about -dropping -out
Lee, T., Cornell, D., Gregory, A., & Fan, X. (2011). High suspension schools and dropout rates
for black and white students . Retrieved from ProQuest.com:
http://search.proquest.com.portnoy.wingate.edu/education/results/29739EAADDE04ED
CPQ/1?accountid=15065
Lee, V. E., & Burkam, D. T. (2003). Dropping out of high school: The role o f school
organization and structure (American Education Research Journal 40 (2)). Retrieved
from civilrightsproject.ucla.edu: https://www.civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/research/k -12-
education/school -dropouts/dropping -out-of-high-school -the-role-of-school -organization –
and-structure/lee -role-school -organization -2001.pdf
Lehr, C. A., Clapper, A. T., & Thurlow, M. L. (2005). Graduation for all . California: Sage
Publications.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 80

McIntyre, K. (2013). At-risk students and the dropout rate: What influences student deci sions to
remain in school or drop -out in a suburban high school (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved
from www.proquest.com
McKee, M. T., & Caldarella, P. (2016). Middle school predictors of high school performance : A
case study of dropout risk indicators . Retrieved from Education website:
http://www.projectinnovation.com/education.html
McLeod , S. (2016). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved from

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Messacar, D., & Oreopoulos, P. (2013, Winter). Staying in school: A proposal for raising high
school graduation rates. Issues in Science and Technology , XXIX (2). Retrieved from
http://issues.org/29 -2/derek/
Meyer, N. E. (2010). Preventing High School Dropouts: What do students believe caused them
to leave the comprehensive high school ? (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from
http://scholarworks.calstate.edu/bitstream/handle/10211.10/539/Meyer_Nellie.pdf?seque
nce=1
National Coalition for the Homeless. (2007). Education of homeless children and youth (NCH
Fact Sheet #10). Retrieved from http://nationalhomeless.org
Orfield, G. (Ed.). (2004). Dropouts in America . Harvard University: Harvard Education Press.
Petrick Jr., D. L. ( 2014 ). School drop outs: poverty and consequences for society. Insights into a
Changing World , 2014(4), 127 -136. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com
Public Schools of North Carolina State Board of Education Department of Public Instruction
School Business Services School Reporting. (20 16-2017). Rules and regulations of the
state board of education governing compulsory school attendance and student accounting.

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 81

In School attendance and student accounting manual (pp. 11 -33). [Adobe Digital
Editions version]. Retrieved from
http://www.ncpub licschools.org/docs/fbs/accounting/manuals/sasa.pdf
Rumberger, R. (2013, May). Poverty and high school dropouts. The SES Indicator , 2. Retrieved
from http://www.apa.org/pi/ses/resources/indicator/2013/05/poverty -dropouts.aspx
Rumberger, R., & Lim, S. A. (2 008, October). Why students drop out of school: a review of 25
years of research. California Dropout Research Project . Retrieved from
www.lmri.ncsh.edu/dropouts
Schachter, R. (2013, February 15). Reclaiming the future for students at risk. District
Admini stration . Retrieved from http://www.districadministration.com
Simon, M. (2011). The role of the researcher. Retrieved from http://dissertationrecipes.com/wp –
content/uploads/2011/04/Role -of-the-Researcher.pdf
Sweeten, G., Bushway, S. D., & Paternoster, R. ( 2009, September 15). Does dropping out of
school mean dropping into delinquency? Criminology , 47(1), 47 -68. Retrieved from
http://www.albany.edu/bushway_research/publications/Sweeten_et_al_2009.pdf
Taylor, J. A. (2005, Summer). Poverty and student achievem ent. Multicultural Education , 12(4),
53-55. Retrieved from http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/17271068/poverty –
student -achievement
Tyler, J. H., & Lofstrom, M. (2009, Spring). Finishing high school: Alternative pathways and
dropout recovery. The F uture of Children , 19(1), 77 -103. Retrieved from
www.futureofchildren.org

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 82

US Census Bureau. (2016). Stanly County Quick Facts. Retrieved from:
https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/stanlycountynorthcarolina,US/EDU635215
#viewtop
U.S. Department of E ducation. (2004). Education for homeless children and youth program .
Retrieved from www.ed.gov.
U.S. Department of Education. (n.d.). No child left behind. Elementary and secondary education
act. Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/nclb/landing.jhtml

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 83

APPENDICES

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 84

APPENDIX A

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 85

APPENDIX B

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 86

APPENDIX C

Individual Interview Questions
1. Did you find your schoolwork to be easy or difficult during your time in school?
2. Were your parents engaged in your education? (Did they go to parent conferences, PTA
meetings, etc.?)

3. Did your parents emphasize the importance of getting an education?
4. Did your parents graduate from high school?
5. Did you attend school consistently or were frequen t absences a problem for you?
6. If absences were a problem, what were the causes of your absences?
7. What could the school do differently to keep students like yourself from dropping out?
8. Did having to pass a standardized test at the end of each course impact your decision to
drop out of high school?

9. Did you feel pushed out of high school by strict disciplinary consequences?
10. Did you feel pulled out of high school by outside influences such as supporting your
family financially, taking care of sick parents, etc.?

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 87

APPENDIX D

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 88

APPENDIX E

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 89

APPENDIX F

VITA

MELINDA EDWARDS BOWERS

PERSONAL
Birthplace: Asheville, North Carolina, United States of America, 1967

EDUCATION
B.A. Appalachian State University, 1990

M.A. Wingate University, 1994

Ed.S. Wingate University, 2016

CERTIFICATES AND LICENSES

History, Secondary Education 1990

Middle Grades Social Studies 1994

Middle Grades Language Arts 2003

National Board Certified Teacher 2003

English, Secondary Education 2006

NC Superintendency 2016

EMPLOYMENT

Coordinator, Adult Secondary Education Instruction, Stanly Community College 2016-present

Teacher, Stanly County Schools, 2001

Teacher, Stanly County Schools, 1992

PUBLICATIONS

NASSP Principal Leadership, November, 2017

MEMBERSHIPS

National Education Association

21ST CENTURY HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS 90