Reprezentarea Lingvistica a Femeii In Engleza Si Romana Contemporana

Reprezentarea Lingvistică a Femeii ȋn Engleza și Româna Contemporană

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

Chapter I. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF THE NOTION OF CONCEPT

I.1. The Notion of Concept

I.2. Theories of Concepts

I.3. Types of Concepts

Chapter II. LINGVOCULTURAL ISSUES OF THE CONCEPT OF WOMAN

II.1. Woman and Feminism in English Linguistic Culture

II.2. The Role of Women in Historical Development of English Society

CHAPTER III. THE EXPRESSION OF THE CONCEPT OF WOMAN IN  MODERN ENGLISH

III.1. Description of Woman in Proverbs and Quotes

III.2. Feminine Markers in the Woman’s Magazine “Cosmopolitan”

III.3. The Image of Jane Eyre in Charlotte Brontë’s Experiences

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANNEXES

INTRODUCTION

Men and women have diverse roles in modern society. Beyond, men and women generally had their appropriate contributions to enforce. But an approaching belief sustained by Nietzsche is: ,, Ah, women. They make the highs higher and the lows more frequent’’ [50, online].

The role of women in modern society has certainly changed related to the previous centuries. The developing changes in social, political and economic spheres make the role of women bigger. In addition, the actions of many women have determined the uncertain role. Many women have joined in groups to point up their rights, so feminism arose. Feminism is the theory that society is adverse to women, expropriate them of political, social and economic appearances within the society. Indeed, from a justified perspective a man and a woman are equal and their rights are just the same. Nevertheless, now it can be certainly seen how many women acquire a very high position in modern society. In spite of a definite stance on the issue and to confirm the idea that women’s role is growing, it is better to acknowledge the question from the following points of view: women and family, women and politics, women and religion.

Thus, the actuality is based on the idea that the role of women in the modern society expanded comparatively with other Antiquity and Middle Ages. Nowadays, there is a society filled with modern technology and new ideas of thinking, slowly the old perception of ‘’men are better’’ seemed to decline and dissolve, what we do not comprehend it is still there, in our hearts. Perhaps the number of explicit prejudice against women declines but there are more choices given to men than to women; this direct demonstrate that the modern society prefers men more.

The sexual revolution that has taken place has dramatically changed the workplace. Formerly women were seldom observed in domains such as the government offices of major firms they have nowadays become accepted. Therefore the goal of the work is to establish the expression of the concept of woman in Modern English.

In order to achieve our aim we have to solve the following objectives of our thesis:

discuss the notion of concept in modern conceptology;

to specify the main conceptual theories;

to determine the lexicographical description of the notion of woman;

to identify the role of women in Modern English society;

to search the gender differentiations between men and women in society;

to investigate the reflection of woman in proverbs and quotes;

to focus on the reflection of feminine aspects in modern journals for women.
The object of our research is represented by the language means of woman’s representation which have been selected from books, dictionaries and Internet sources by the methods of continuous sampling. The total amount of analyzed quotes, ads phrases and short story is about 250 units.

Among the methods of research used in our thesis one has to mention:

componential analysis- an attempt to describe the linguistic means of expressing the female markers in terms of a universal inventory of semantic components and their possible combinations;

contextual analysis concentrates its attention on determining the minimal semantic value of the language units expressing female markers;

quantitative method to perform statistical analysis of the obtained data.

The theoretical value of the work is based on the idea that it represents another contribution to the issue of concept in modern English theory and gender research. When performing the subject, it gave us the possibility to establish the main aspects of concept as a linguistic and cultural unit and to settle different aspects of dealing with its representation on linguistic level.

The practical value of our thesis is based on the idea that translation of the concept – field and its linguistic representation is of vital importance. The translator has to know how to render different concepts from one language into another in order to set out their meanings in order to find the best equivalent in target language. The paper can be used at the lessons of theoretical and practical translation, conceptology, civilization and literary translation. 

Structure of the work. The work consists of introduction, three chapters, conclusion, bibliography and annexes.

In Chapter I “Theoretical Aspects of Concept” the theoretical notion of concept from philosophical and linguistic point of view as well as theories and concepts are discussed . 

Chapter II “Lingvocultural Issues of Woman” centers upon the linguistic peculiarities of woman namely the notion of woman and its importance across the culture and life aspects, as well as the role of women historical development of society.

Chapter III “The Expression of the Concept of the Concept of Woman in Modern English”, being a practical one, investigates the ways of usage of different proverbs, and quotes about women and the way of expressing feminine makers in “Cosmopolitan”.

In Conclusion we specify the results of our research stating the most important ideas of theoretical and practical order.

Bibliography includes the list of literature which served as a theoretical basis for our research the number of sources used is 61 units, being in different languages as well as on-line resources.

Annexes present diverse types of additional visual information, diagrams, examples.

Chapter I. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF THE NOTION OF CONCEPT

I.1. The Notion of Concept

The argument of kind of concepts is significant in philosophy, but most obvious in philosophy of speech and that of imagination. Concepts are reflected to be surrounded by those belongings that count as semantic values or meanings (along with propositions). There is also reason to think that concepts are universals (along with properties, relations, etc.), and what general theory of universals applies to concepts is thus a significant issue with respect to the nature of concepts [15, p. 89]. 

According to the Oxford English Dictionary the notion of concept is [36, p.2174]:

an abstract idea: structuralism is a difficult concept the concept of justice ;

a plan or intention: the midpoint was kept firmly to its original concept;

an idea or invention to help sell or publicize a commodity:

a new concept in corporate hospitality;

[as modifier] (of a car or other vehicle) produced as an experimental model to test the viability of innovative design features: a concept car next month’s Geneva motor show;

Philosophy an idea or mental image which corresponds to some distinct entity or class of entities, or to its essential features, or determines the application of a term (especially a predicate), and thus plays a part in the use of areas on or language.

However Longman Dictionary of English Language defines the notion of concept as [32, p. 356]:

an idea for a new product or a way to sell a product (marketing);

Example: The finished pro duct was very different from the original concept.

an idea, theory, etc. about a particular subject:

Example: This course will acquaint you with the basic concepts of management.

Concept can be studied as a semantic and global value. As semantic values, concepts are the notions of substantial verbal expressions such as predicates, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. Equitable as the sentence “The sun is a star” specific the hypothesis that the sun is a star, the predicate “is a star” reveal the concept of being a star. In addition, ethical as the English sentence “Snow is white” considered the hypothesis that snow is white, and so does the German sentence “Schnee ist Weiss,” the predicates “is white” in English and “ist Weiss” in German both articulates the equivalent concept, the concept of being white (or [white]). The intension or meaning of a sentence is a hypothesis [33, p.289].

 Concepts are also generally thought to be global one. The argumentations for this are ternary:

A given conception is expressible using specific rhetorical definitions. This can take place in diverse ways. My acknowledgement “Snow is white” and your uttering “Snow is white” are distinct assertions, and their predicates are specific expressions of the comparable concept [white]. My expression “Snow is white” and your uttering “Schnee ist Weiss” are specific terms with their different predicates giving the same concept ([white], repeatedly). Alike, within the same language, my uttering “Grisham is the author of The Firm” and your uttering “Grisham is The Firm’s author” are specific terms with specific predicates, still their comparable predicates definite the same conception (the conception [the author of The Firm], in this case) [3, p. 87].

2. Alternatively, different assistants can acquire, avoid, or accept the same conception, nevertheless such occupancy might come in rates. Most English speakers acquire the conception [white], and while many acquire [neutrino], not many possess that concept to comparable rate that one knows a considerable deal about what neutrinos themselves represent.

3. Finally, concepts typically have multiple exemplifications or instantiations. Many distinct things are white, and thus there are many exemplifications or instances of the concept [white]. There are many stars and many neutrinos, and thus there are many instances of [star] and [neutrino]. Moreover, distinct concepts can have the very same instances. Distinct concepts can also have necessarily all of the same instances: For instance, the concepts [triangular figure] and [trilateral figure] must have the same instances, yet the predicates “is a triangular figure” and “is a trilateral figure” seem to have different meanings [3, p. 93].

As universals, concepts may be treated under any of the traditional accounts of universals in general. Realism about concepts (considered as universals) is the view that concepts are distinct from their instances, and nominalism is the view that concepts are nothing over and above, or distinct from, their instances. Antem realism (or platonism) about concepts is the view that concepts are ontologically prior to their instances—that is, concepts exist whether they have instances or not. In realism about concepts is the view that concepts are in some sense “in” their instances, and thus are not ontologically prior to their instances. Conceptualism with respect to concepts holds that concepts are mental entities, being either immanent in the mind itself as a sort of idea, as constituents of complete thoughts, or somehow dependent on the mind for their existence (perhaps by being possessed by an agent or by being possible by an agent). Conceptualist views also include imagism, the view that concepts are a sort of mental image [4, p. 76].

 Finally, nominalist views of concepts might identify concepts with classes or sets of particular things (with the concept [star] being identified with the set of all stars, or perhaps the set of all possible stars). Linguistic nominalism identifies concepts with the linguistic expressions used to express them (with [star] being identified with the predicate “is a star,” perhaps). Linguistic nominalism identifies concepts with types of verbal expressions (with [star] identified with tent or by being possible by an agent). Conceptualist views also include imagism, the view that concepts are a sort of mental image [4, p. 76].

 Finally, nominalist views of concepts might identify concepts with classes or sets of particular things (with the concept [star] being identified with the set of all stars, or perhaps the set of all possible stars). Linguistic nominalism identifies concepts with the linguistic expressions used to express them (with [star] being identified with the predicate “is a star,” perhaps). Linguistic nominalism identifies concepts with types of verbal expressions (with [star] identified with the type of verbal expression exemplified by the predicate “is a star”) [4, p. 48].

On many views, concepts are things that are “in” the mind, or “part of” the mind, or at least are dependent for their existence on the mind in some sense. Other views deny such claims, holding instead that concepts are mind-independent entities. Conceptualist views are examples of the former, and platonic views are examples of the latter. The issue of whether concepts are mind-dependent or mind-independent carries great weight with respect to the clash between the classical view and other views of concepts (such as prototype views and theory-theories). If concepts are immanent in the mind as mental particulars, for instance, then various objections to the classical view have more force; if concepts exist independently of one’s ideas, beliefs, capacities for categorizing objects, etc., then some objections to the classical view have much less force [25, p. 74].

Conceptual analysis of concepts, and philosophical questions of the form What is F? (such as “What is knowledge?,” “What is justice?,” “What is a person?,” etc.) are questions calling for conceptual analyses of various concepts (such as [knowledge], [justice], [person], etc.). Answering the further question “What is a conceptual analysis?” is yet another way to distinguish among different views of concepts. For instance, the classical view holds that all complex concepts have classical analyses, where a complex concept is a concept having an analysis in terms of other concepts [25, p. 88].

Alternatively, prototype views analyze concepts in terms of typical features or in terms of a prototypical or exemplary case. For instance, such a view might analyze the concept of being a bird in terms of such typical features as being capable of flight, being small, etc., which most birds share, even if not all of them do.

A second sort of prototype theory (sometimes called’’ the exemplar view might analyze the concept of being a bird in terms of a most exemplary case (a robin, say, for the concept of being a bird). So-called theories analyze a concept in terms of some internally represented theory about the members of the extension of that concept. For example, one might have an overall theory of birds, and the concept one expresses with one’s use of ‘bird’ is then analyzed in terms of the role that concept plays in that internally represented theory [27, p. 137].

Neoclassical views of concepts preserve one element of the classical view, namely the claim that all complex concepts have metaphysically necessary conditions (in the sense that, for example, being unmarried is necessary for being a bachelor), but reject the claim that all complex concepts have metaphysically sufficient conditions. Finally, atomistic views reject all notions of analysis just mentioned, denying that concepts have analyses at all.

I.2. Theories of Concepts

Many contemporary philosophers, whether subscribe to open concepts or to concepts as dispositions, not entities, offer one or other wholesale doctrine about traditional theories of concepts. At least five general theories of concepts have been proposed by philosophers: The classical theories which takes concepts to be analyzed in terms of necessary and jointly sufficient conditions; neoclassical theories, which hold that concepts have necessary conditions, but denies that all concepts have individually necessary conditions that are jointly sufficient;  prototype theories, which take concepts to be accounted for in terms of lists of typical features (instead of metaphysically necessary conditions) or in terms of paradigm cases or exemplars; theory-theories, which take concepts to be entities individuated by the roles they play in internally represented “mental” other); and atomistic theories, which take most concepts to be primitive unanalyzable entities. These theories and their authors are listed below [1, p.64].

The first in our list of philosophers approaching the notion of concept is Plato who wrote: “For every real being, there are three things that are necessary if knowledge of it is to be acquired: first, the name; second, the definition; third, the image; knowledge comes fourth, and in the fifth place we must put the object itself, the knowable and truly real being. In order to understand what does this mean, take a particular example and think of all other objects as analogous to it” [ cit.13, p.47].

Plato’s hypotheses about concept are almost the same as Socrates’. The last raises his questions “What is piety, friendship, courage, beauty, temperance, or justice. Later, in the Protagoras and the Meno, Socrates asks 'What is virtue? ; in Symposium 'What is love?' and in the Philebus, ’What is pleasure? Rather than enter into this controversy, it is important to ask what is the role of concepts in the posing and answering of this “What is x” questions. Answering this question surely involves being able to define x, unless x is a simple, such as Plato's Good. Contextually, our duty is to determine the concept of “What is family?” point to which we will return later on [17, p.56].

Aristotel, too, has a theory of concepts according to which the concepts are definitional entities – logoi that are closed in their necessary and sufficient properties which serve as the governing criteria of the correct use of the concepts and terms that convey them. In regard to actuality and potentiality, Aristotle says: '“What we mean can be plainly seen in the particular cases by induction; we need not seek a definition for every term, but must comprehend the analogy”. He then gives analogies to illustrate his distinction, among them.

What about St. Augustine? For him, there are not only concepts -but they are, at least for the most part,” innate ideas, implanted in our minds by God”. These concepts, which range from the concept of God to that of divine illumination, and include even the concept of time which though neither innate, in that it relates the immutability of God to the mutability of the world, nor defined but not thereby indefinable, are each of them governed by necessary and sufficient conditions [18, p.159].

In Thomas Aquinas concepts are mental entities. Both his explicit and implicit theories support that this is what concepts are for T. Aquinas. Aquinas' concepts, as mental entities, contain more than could possibly be given in or ascertained by our senses. The concept of God, for example, unlike our knowledge of Him, cannot be known indirectly: “indeed, the very intelligibility of indirect as against direct knowledge of God results on the concept of God and our apprehension of it” [ cit.24, p. 98]. 

Rene Descartes, Benedict Spinoza and Gottfried W. Leibniz, however much they differ in their ontological doctrines about concepts – for R. Descartes, they are “irreducible supersensible entities on a par with God, mind and matter”; for B. Spinoza they are conceptions; and for W. Leibniz, they are innate ideas-concur completely in the logical doctrine that concepts, unless they are simple, are and must be composed of or governed by definitive sets of properties or conditions, whose sets or whose simple nature in turn determine the criteria of the correct use of the words that convey these concepts [27, p. 304].

David Hume also requires and presupposes concepts in order to promote his central doctrines that perceptions or impressions and ideas are exhaustive of the mind, that causality is a necessary connection among events, and that the self is a unity of perceptions. Without concepts, as distinct from impressions and ideas, his central doctrines are incoherent; these concepts, on D. Hume's own principles, are entities, but of a non-perceptual kind, and exist independently of the contemplation of them [ 5, p. 69]. 

Concepts are avowedly central in Immanuel Kant’s philosophy. Rather two views compete throughout: that concepts are rules and that concepts are entities, different from yet present in phenomenal objects; the fact that concepts are entities seems downright inconsistent with his major doctrine of transcendental idealism. However difficult it is to determine his exact theory of the nature of concepts.

In Friedrich L. Frege, the theory of concepts – of their ontology, their roles, their conditions, and the logical nature of the sets of conditions – is complete. Concepts for him are platonic Noeta, conveyed by their predicative expressions, governed by definitive conditions, determining the definitive criteria of their conveying expressions. “A concept that is not sharply defined is wrongly termed a concept’ is no mere exhortation to clarity and precision for him: it is the very condition of coherence of the order of true thought and perspicuous talk about the world” [ cit.1, p.80]. 

This fixation on the traditional quest for real definition, essences or, in any case, necessary and sufficient conditions are as remarkable as any of the doctrines of contemporary philosophy. That the concepts of knowledge, natural kind, or meaning of a word are and must be closed is as alive today as ever it was in the past. The overall, second-order condition of coherence of intelligible thought and perspicuous talk about the world remains as necessary to these philosophers, revolutionary and innovative as they may be, as it was to Plato and all who followed [7, p.115].

Suffice it to say that the final judgment on the truth or falsity of these recent theories of, knowledge, natural kinds, and meaning awaits their own Day of Judgment on the truth or falsity of the theory of closed concepts on which their respective theories are founded. Research into the nature of concepts is ongoing, in philosophy and psychology as well as in linguistics and cognitivistics [25, p. 62].

Thus, there is no general consensus in either field as to the preferred theory of concepts. The theories above primarily address the tasks of answering questions about the analysis of concepts. However, the issue of concepts still remains a thoroughly unresolved matter until all these theories will be reasonable proved or until it will prove the absolute contrary.

I.3. Types of Concepts

Just as thoughts are composed of more basic, word-sized concepts, so these word-sized concepts—known as lexical concepts share generally thought to be composed of even more basic concepts. In one way or another, all theories regarding the structure of concepts are developments of, or reactions to, the classical theory of concepts According to the classical theory, a rhetorical conception C has definitional complex in that it is composed of simpler conceptions that pointed fundamental and sufficient settings for falling under C. lexical concepts generally will exhibit this same sort of definitional structure. This includes such philosophically interesting conceptions as truth, goodness, freedom, and justice [11, p. 267].

Concept acquisition can be understood as a process in which new complex concepts are created by assembling their definitional constituents. Categorization can be understood as a psychological process in which a complex concept is matched to a target item by checking to see if each and every one of its definitional constituents applies to the target. And reference determination, we've already seen, is a matter of whether the definitional constituents do apply to the target [14, p.68].

What other type of structure could they have? A non-classical alternative that emerged in the 1970s is the prototype theory. The prototype theory has its philosophical roots in Wittgenstein's famous remark that the things covered by a term often share a family resemblance, and it has its psychological roots in Eleanor Rosch's experimental treatment of much the same idea. The prototype theory is especially at home in dealing with the typicality effects that were left unexplained by the classical theory [ cit.7, p. 129].

One standard strategy is to maintain that, on the prototype theory, categorization is to be understood as a similarity comparison process, where similarity is computed as a function of the number of constituents that two concepts hold in common. Criticism that has been raised against taking concepts to have prototype structure concerns compositionality. When a patently complex concept has a prototype structure, it often has emergent properties, ones that don't derive from the prototypes of its constituents (e.g., pet fish encodes properties such as brightly colored, which have no basis in the prototype structure for either pet or fish).

Further, many patently complex concepts don't even have a prototype structure (e.g., chairs that were purchased on a Wednesday). In addition, concepts have conceptual cores, which specify the information relevant to more considered judgments and which underwrite compositional processes. One common suggestion is that conceptual cores have classical structure [7, p.148].

Another and currently more popular suggestion is that cores are best understood in terms of the theory of concepts. This is the view that concepts stand in relation to one another in the same way as the terms of a scientific theory and that categorization is a process that strongly resembles scientific theories. The theory is especially well-suited to explaining the sorts of reflective categorization judgments that proved to be difficult for the prototype theory. Another advantage of the theory is that is supposed to help to explain important aspects of conceptual development. 

One problem that has been raised against the theory is that it has difficulty in allowing for different people to possess the same concepts (or even for the same person to have the same concept over time). The reason is that the theory is holistic. A concept's content is determined by its role in a theory, not by its being composed of just a handful of constituents. Since beliefs that enter people's mental theories are likely to be different from one another (and are likely to change), there may be no principled basis for comparison [12, p. 82]. 

Chapter II. LINGVOCULTURAL ISSUES OF THE CONCEPT OF WOMAN

II.1. Woman and Feminism in English Linguistic Culture

In Old English the words wer and wyf (also wæpman and wifman) were what was used to refer to "a man" and "a woman" respectively, and "Man" was gender neutral. In Middle English man displaced wer as term for "male human", whilst wifman (which eventually evolved into woman) was retained for "female human". ("Wif" also evolved into the word "wife".) "Man" does continue to carry its original sense of "Human" however, resulting in an asymmetry sometimes criticized as sexist [14, p. 65].

A very common Indo-European root for woman, *gwen-, is the source of English queen (Old English cwēn primarily meant woman, highborn or not; this is still the case in Danish, with the modern spelling kvinde), as well as gynaecology (from Greek gynē), banshee fairy woman (from Irish bean woman, sí fairy) and zenana (from Persian zan). The Latin fēmina, whence female, is likely from the root in fellāre (to suck), referring to breastfeeding.

Nowadays according to Macmillan Dictionary woman is definedas [33, p. 218]:

the female human being (distinguished from man);

an adult female person;

a female attendant to a lady of rank;

a wife;

the nature, characteristics, or feeling often attributed to women, womanliness.

According to Random House Webster’s College Dictionary the definition of woman is [47, online]:

woman- an adult female person, as distinguished from a girl or a man;

wife;

a female lover or sweet heart;

a female servant or attendant;

women collectively; womankind;

the nature, characteristics, or feeling often attributed to women; womanliness;

female: a woman plumber.

However, Collins Essential English Dictionary [31, p. 352] defines definition of woman as:

an adult female person (as opposed to a man);

a female person who plays a significant role(wife or mistress or girlfriend)in the life of a particular man;

charwoman, char, cleaning woman, cleaning lady, a human female employed to do housework;

womanhood, woman, fair sex(woman as a class).

Cambridge Dictionary explains the notion of woman as a grown female [52,online].
Webster Dictionary consider woman as :

a grown-up female person, as distinguished from a man or a child; sometimes, any female person;

the female part of the human race; womankind;

a female attendant or servant [34, p. 674].

Woman must fulfill her universal mission of dedication to God and loving service of mankind in some concrete set of circumstances. There are three spheres in which she can carry out her primary task: religious life, marriage, and single life in the world. In the designs of God's Providence, some women in every generation, the "first fruits," are meant to consecrate themselves to God in religion; most women are called to dedicate themselves to Him in marriage; and very few are intended for the life of the unmarried woman in the world [24, p. 28].

Woman's nature is admirably adapted to her functions as wife and mother. The responsibilities of the family develop her powers and mature her spiritually, mentally, and physically.

Spiritually, a woman becomes mature through surrender, through finding the particular role in which she can accomplish her total dedication to God. The young woman who has found her vocation in life in marriage and is wholly given to her task of bringing her family to God is a mature person whatever her age. She will have that air of serenity and peace which are the sign of the basic fulfillment of her being. The woman who has never surrendered wholeheartedly to any purpose outside herself remains immature all her life, like a bud which never unfolds itself. In marriage, woman can develop a spirit of selflessness which makes her dedication deeper and richer with the years. Her service to her family both expresses her love of God and increases her power of loving. The woman who has no outlet for her love, no one for whom she can spend herself, is apt to become hard, bitter, selfish, because she has no one but herself to consider. The woman who is constantly concerned with the needs of her family can unfold the qualities of love, tenderness, and unselfish devotion which make her truly great and truly happy [24, p. 35].

Mentally, a woman's mind matures under the stimulus of the varied practical activities she performs for those she loves. In the concrete, living experience of the family, she can develop sound judgment and a keen insight into human nature. Lombroso's observation can readily be verified.

"The mother of a large family who has had no time to study, having been occupied with her children and her household, has more life, more breadth of ideas, than the old maid of the same age who has done nothing else than to potter about at universities and libraries" [cit.10, p. 59].

The responsibilities of her family life exercise all woman's mental powers. Her intuition and powers of observation are called into play constantly to discover the unexpressed desires of her family, particularly the needs of the helpless child. She has need of her intuition, too, as well as her tact, to help her solve the hundred problems of human relations and practical affairs that arise in the course of her day. Providing for the family helps to develop woman's natural ingenuity and inventiveness. It is to the ingenuity of women intent on meeting the needs of their families that we owe the discovery of many of the most important arts: horticulture, for example; the creative arts of weaving, pottery, basketry; the domestic arts of food preparation and preservation; the uses of medicinal herbs in healing.

Physically, too, marriage and child bearing represent a development and completion for the normal woman, giving her new beauty and vitality. The mother of a large family experiences a physical fulfillment with the birth of each child which gives her fresh vigor and health. Dr. Alexis Carrell observes that women attain their full development as a rule only after the birth of several children. He writes in Man The Unknown:

"Women who have no children are not so well balanced and become more nervous than the others. The importance to woman of the generative function has not been sufficiently recognized. Such function is indispensable to her optimum development. It is therefore absurd to turn women against maternity" [55, online].

In a well equitable society, where the family performs all its proper functions, the home is a society in microcosm, presenting all the problems of human relations, all the variety of human activities. The home is at once an economic and industrial center, preparing goods for family use; a school in which the young are introduced to the universe; a sanctuary for rest and relaxation; a temple dedicated to the praise of God. It is woman's function to organize and direct this complex undertaking, a role which demands intelligence talents and spiritual qualities of a high order. Chesterton describes the vastness of woman's task in the family in the following passage from what’s wrong with the world [27, p.157].

One of the greatest of woman's responsibilities is transmitting the fundamental heritage of civilization, her function as lecturer the traditions of culture and religion, to the new formation. The child receives his first initiation to civilization from his mother. The first formation of his mind and character belong almost entirely to her. She gives the child his first concepts of reality, his basic acquaintance with his mother tongue. She socializes the young human being, training him to honesty, courage, generosity, developing self-control, responsibility, and all those other virtues without which society cannot exist. She molds the men and women of the future. No other influence is as strong as the mother's in forming and preparing human beings for life.

Woman not only transmits the foundation of culture to the child; she is the great keeper of tradition in society, the custodian of manners and morals, conserving the gracious customs and fundamental standards of the race. She inspires and enforces the code of social behavior as, for example, the great chatelaines of the middle ages upheld the noble code of chivalry, and the hostesses of the seventeenth century salons cultivated the refinement of taste and manner. She keeps alive those religious customs and traditions in the home and community which link the daily life of man to God by so many intimate bonds. She is the guardian of the moral standard, especially in all that concerns the family. In this respect, as in so many others, the modern woman has abrogated her traditional role with tragic consequences for society [47, online].

It is impossible to exaggerate the importance for society of woman's achievement in the family. The family is the foundation of all the larger social structures, the basic cell on which all other agencies depend for the very existence and first formation of their members. A nation can flourish only to the extent that it is composed of healthy, flourishing families. But the family can endure only if the woman spends herself wholeheartedly to create a real home. It is superficial to think as women that we must be in the forefront of public affairs, politics, or business to influence the course of the world. "Not in the branches of a tree but in its roots do force and power reside," writes Gertrude von Le Fort. Woman is at the very roots of social life. If she keeps the sources of life pure and healthy, the entire social order will be renewed and reinvigorated by her effort [55, online].

The notion of woman is tightly connected to the idea of feminism. British suffragist and journalist Rebecca West famously said, ’’Feminism is the radical notion that women are people.’’ In other words, feminism is a commitment to achieving the equality of the sexes. This radical notion is not exclusive to women: men, while benefiting from being the dominant sex, also have a stake in overcoming the restrictive roles that deprive them of full humanity [40, online].

Through the media has maligned feminism as a drive for selfish fulfillment by female professionals, those who stand to gain the most are actually those who have the least. The demand for full equality for all women is profoundly radicalizing when it addresses the additional layers of discrimination women experience because of class, race, sexuality, disability, age and also the heightened impact on women and children of war, poverty and environmental degradation. As Clara Fraser, the pioneering theorist and builder of socialist feminism, wrote, ’’The logic of feminism is to expand into generalized radicalism.’’ [47, online].

As with every social movement, feminism encompasses a variety of variety of political tendencies. There are three main types of feminism: socialist, reformist, and radical/ separatist. Social feminism (which can also be termed Marxist feminism or materialist feminism) traces the oppression of women to inequalities that developed in connection with the class system of private property. Socialist feminist view of gender inequalities is as intrinsic to the capitalist system, which makes vast profits off women’s unpaid labor in the home and underpaid labor in the workforce.

II.2. The Role of Women in Historical Development of English Society

In many prehistoric cultures, women assumed a particular cultural role. In hunter-gatherer societies, women were generally the gatherers of plant foods, small animal foods, fish, and learned to use dairy products, while men hunted meat from large animals.

Throughout Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History of the English People” the role of women is quite limited, both in terms of presence in the actual history as well as in their daily lives. Overall, women’s roles were extremely limited when they stepped outside of their traditional role as mother and caretaker and there are even instances when it is questioned whether or not they should be allowed to enter church at certain times [55, online].

It is remarkable that women of the medieval period seem to bear the burden of biblical history, especially when it comes to issues of a private or sexual nature. Men, on the other hand, are free to rule society and the Church (which are almost synonymous during the time period represented) and it is up to them to regulate the impulses, actions, and daily lives of women. Although it is never directly stated in “The Ecclesiastical History of the English People” by Bede, there is an implicit sense of fear that if left unchecked, women would run rampant and indulge in sin without a thought. In sum, women’s roles in this society were limited by the desires and fears of men and thus they were confined to lead narrow lives either in austere prayer or as mothers, wives, and caretakers [56, online].

Women are represented in Bede’s history “The Ecclesiastical History of the English People” as needing guidance, especially from males and particularly those with religious authority. While women are not the central characters in many of the short chapters, it is revealing to see how they are treated as secondary characters [24, p. 15].

Consider, for instance, the occurrence in “The Ecclesiastical History of the English People” which the King of the Franks is being discussed before his meeting with Augustine. He is described by his belief system and by the fact that he had, “a Christian wife of the royal family of the Franks, called Bertha; whom he had received from her parents, upon condition that she should be permitted to practice her religion with the Bishop Luidhard, who was sent with her to preserve her faith” (I.xxv). It is interesting to note that not only did he “receive her from her parents” which indicates that she was traded or given over as a commodity, but that by the act of receiving her she becomes his property. Not only does she have his hand controlling her life, but that of the Bishop Luidhard as well [5, p. 32].

The implication with this small detail is to “preserve her faith that a woman needs a man from the Church” because on her own, she would degenerate into sin, without the steady patriarchal guidance of the Church. It is difficult not to take notice of the fact that women are never seen as independent creatures but are always being influenced, usually for the good, by a man’s hand. For instance, the reader is introduced to Ethelberga whose brother has recently taken over part of East Saxony. He sets his sister, Ethelberga, up as the head of a monastery for women where she “might be a mother and nurse of devout women. Being put into the government of that monastery, she behaved herself in all respects as became the sister of such a brother, living herself regularly, and piously, and orderly, providing for those under her, as was also manifested by heavenly miracles”. Not only is obvious that she will take on the traditional female role of a “mother” but she gained her position through a male and instead of living because of her own virtue (even though it is supposed to be assumed) she is behaving only as “the sister of such a brother” than a person who is worthy of remarking upon because her personal dutiful nature. This pattern continues throughout the text—the reader is introduced to a strong female but there are always men supporting her deeds and she is not free to take the glory in history [24, p. 97].

In general, women are seen as being incapable of doing anything without men and thus it is apparent that this society did not place much emphasis on women and their individuality or free will.

In sum, The Ecclesiastical History of the English People is a text about the history of men in the church and in medieval society. Although there are women who make brief appearances it is impossible to recognize as separate entities from the world of men. To these men, women must be guided and controlled and it is for this reason that an overarching theme of anti-feminism in the work by Bede that is in line with wide as from the time it was written [24, p. 68].

In the 16th century some upper class women were highly educated. (Elizabeth I was well educated and she liked reading). They learned music and dancing and needlework. They also learned to read and write and they learned languages like Greek and Latin, Spanish, Italian and French. However towards the end of the 16th century girls spent less time on academic subjects and more time on skills like music and embroidery [28, p. 46].

In the 17th century the professions (teacher, lawyer, doctor) were closed to women. However some women had jobs. Some of them worked spinning cloth. Women were also tailoresses, milliners, dyers, shoemakers and embroiderers. There were also washerwomen. Some women worked in food preparation such as brewers, bakers or confectioners. Women also sold foodstuffs in the streets. A very common job for women was domestic servant. Other women were midwives and apothecaries.

However most women were housewives and they were kept very busy. Most men could not run a farm or a business without their wife's help.
In those days most households in the countryside were largely self-sufficient. A housewife (assisted by her servants if she had any) had to bake her family's bread and brew their beer (it was not safe to drink water). She was also responsible for curing bacon, salting meat and making pickles, jellies and preserves (all of which were essential in an age before fridges and freezers). Very often in the countryside the housewife also made the families candles and their soap. A housewife also spun wool and linen [28, p. 67].

A farmer's wife also milked cows, fed animals and grew herbs and vegetables. She often kept bees. She also took goods to market to sell. On top of that she had to cook, wash the family clothes and clean the house. The housewife was also supposed to have some knowledge of medicine and be able to treat her family's illnesses. If she could not they would go to a wise woman. Only the wealthy could afford a doctor.

Poor and middle class wives were kept very busy but rich women were not idle either. Ina big house they had to organize and supervise the servants. Also if her husband was away the woman usually ran the estate. Very often a merchant's wife did his accounts and if was travelling she looked after the business. Often when a merchant wrote his will he left his business to his wife – because she would be able to run it [28, p. 69].

Moreover during the 17th century boarding schools for girls were founded in many towns. In them girls were taught subjects like writing, music and needlework. It was considered more important for girls to learn 'accomplishments' than to study academic subjects. Most women were wives and mothers. Life could be hard for spinsters. Often they lived with relatives but they had to work long hours to support themselves.

The role of women in the 18th century was to look after the house, kids and care for her husband. They also did the housework. Basically women didn’t have many rights and had to do all the house work and keep their mouths shut [2, p48].

Women usually didn't have jobs as they were supposedly not as clever as men. The average woman would spend their day looking after their children, cleaning their house and cooking for their family. The woman's husband would have a job and earn the money while the woman stayed at home and looked after the children. Family for women was very important. Woman wanted to be treated as equally as men. Women's only professions were said to be motherhood and wifehood. "A woman's place is in the home" is how women expressed their selves as all their chores were in their home while the men went out to work. Girls were said to follow their mothers’ footsteps so it wasn't as important for them to go to school. If a poor man chose to send his children to the 'poorhouse', the mother was legally defenseless to object. Some communities let women act as lawyers in courts, sue for property and to own property in their own names if their husbands agreed [2, p. 45].

Some woman did work in professions in the 18th century. They were, doctors, lawyers, preachers, teachers, writers and singers. But by the early 19thcentury woman were limited to factory labor and domestic work. The only professions the women were then allowed to do were writing and teaching. The British textile and clothing trades were regarded as 'women's work' as they employed far more women than men. Well in the 18th century the women had the role of doing chores such as washing laundry in the creek or going to the market to fetch food for herself, her husband, and her children. Also in most cases it was the job of a woman to cook the meals. The children didn't go to school usually unless their family was rich, instead they farmed crops, or went to get water from a well [59, online].

The Victorian era seems like another world to us. Yet the late Victorians were very familiar with many of the things we use usually. The one thing that was different was the place of women in society. There were of course perceptive women of independent original thought, but for the huge majority life was easier if they accepted that a woman's place was in the home. To lump all women of the Victorian era as one body would be wrong. The era spanned 64 years and changes in attitudes were gradually shifting as the century closed [2, p. 132].

Above in the heading we see a picture of the young Queen Victoria at 18.  If you look at her in the top page of the Victorian Era you will see how she changed with the years.  Whether or not you agree with the facts today, the attitude of men toward women in the Victorian age was highlighted by Tennyson who wrote of women staying by the hearth with their needles whilst men wielded their swords.
The accepted reasoning was that the career for women was marriage. 
 To get ready for courtship and marriage a girl was groomed like a racehorse.  In addition to being able to sing, play an instrument and speak a little French or Italian, the qualities a young Victorian gentlewoman needed, were to be innocent, virtuous, biddable, dutiful and be ignorant of intellectual opinion [60, online].

A wealthy wife was supposed to spend her time reading, sewing, receiving guests, going visiting, letter writing, seeing to the servants and dressing for the part as her husband's social representative.

For the very poor of Britain things were quite different.  Fifth hand clothes were usual. Servants ate the pickings left over in a rich household.  The average poor mill worker could only afford the very inferior stuff, for example rancid bacon, tired vegetables, green potatoes, tough old stringy meat, tainted bread, porridge, cheese, herrings or kippers.

By the end of the Queen Victoria's reign there were great differences between members of society, but the most instantly apparent difference was through the garments worn [2, p. 136].

The writings of John Mill in ,,The Subjection of women’’ and the Odd Women by George Gissing both demonstrate the status of women in late Victorian society. Women living in the Victorian era were relegated to the roles of wife, mother, and housekeeper. The domestic sphere being a woman’s place and marriage being a ,, norm,’’ were accepted mores of the era by many men and women. Women's status is a barometer of a civilization for the rising or falling without speaking a word or writing a line women can change the way of life of families, nation, and the world. How essential, for the common welfare, for the world, and particularly for Christianity that woman know her power, her role, her destiny [4, p. 59].

The important thing for a country is that the men should be manly, the women womanly. This comment of Chesterton's embodies a fundamental principle of social order. In civilization, as in any human body, unity and order are achieved through the cooperation of very different members, each fulfilling his own functions and contributing his special qualities to the common good [2, p. 160].

The deepest difference among human beings—far more fundamental than any difference of intelligence or ability, nation or race—is the difference of sex. "And God created man to His own image: to the image of God He created him; male and female He created them." This basic difference is not merely physical but also psychological, coloring the total personality. In the whole range of her being—her mind, her senses, her emotions, her will, her interests and reactions—woman differs profoundly from man [3, p. 18].

It is obviously that this difference find its proper expression in the social functions of the two sexes. Each has unique qualities to contribute to the enrichment of human life. It is essential for the full and harmonious development of society, and especially for a Christian society, that "the men should be manly, the women womanly." Man and woman are made to complement each other at every point. Man's capacity for theory, for forming an abstract and comprehensive view, is matched by woman's practical sense and her gift for detail. Man's ambition and self-assertion which spur him on to great achievement must be balanced by the creative power of woman's spirit of sacrifice and self-surrender. Man's ability for leadership and desire for power must be tempered by woman's spirit of love and selfless devotion [61, online].

The undue predominance of either masculine or feminine qualities creates profound disturbances which reverberate throughout the entire social structure, as we can see in our own culture. Western European civilization under the influence of Protestantism, rationalism, liberalism, and other secularizing trends, has become progressively more masculine in the last four centuries [12, p. 63].

Ours is a culture of the self-assertion of man: of man's reason and scientific method in the intellectual sphere; of man's will to power and conquest in business and world affairs; of man's independence of God in all aspects of life. In our time we need women with a vision of their great task as women who will help to restore the social equilibrium by creating a vital current of the great womanly virtues: the spirit of love, compassion for the suffering, generous self-sacrifice. As women our fundamental contribution to the new order lies in finding our proper role in society [10, p. 46].

Women's movements advocate equality of opportunity with men, and equal rights irrespective of sex. Through a combination of economic changes and the efforts of the feminist movement in recent decades women in most societies now have access to careers beyond the traditional one of "homemaker".

CHAPTER III. THE EXPRESSION OF THE CONCEPT OF WOMAN IN  MODERN ENGLISH

III.1. Description of Woman in Proverbs and Quotes

The place of women in society has been constantly changing during the historical development of each country, having a position of a slave in Antiquity and the Middle Ages to an equal partner of men nowadays. All these social modifications were reflected in the language which is known to be the “mirror of culture”. Proverbs as a type of oral culture represent a form of collective consciousness which has evolved in the language based on traditional experiences.

A proverb is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of humanity. They are often metaphorical. A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim. Proverbs are used for some practical, pragmatic purposes in various circumstances of everyday communication. The changes in society and consciousness can be seen especially in such aspects of communication and association between individuals, because those human relations are formed very easily [58, online].

This investigation attempts to classify and analyze proverbs about women in English culture; the proverbs were collected through the World Wide Web. However, in order to understand the way the women were reflected in multicultural proverbs we should observe them in such conditions as history, economics, culture, customs and mentality.

In England the situation of women was almost the same: they lived in a state little better than slavery. Total obedience men, no independent means of subsistence, marriage as the single means to survive /single women attracted social disapproval and pity/, impossibility to follow a profession as girls received less education than boys, the ability of husbands to take children away etc – that was the image of the average English woman up to the beginning of the XXth century, on one hand, and fitting in rather uncomfortably, even hypocritically, with this state of affairs was the concept of woman as a goddess placed on a pedestal and worshipped, on the other hand.

Nowadays there is little argument that roles for women have changed. From being granted the right to vote, the Women’s movement, equal pay for equal work legislation, and the slow but sure dismantling of the “glass ceiling” in organizations and corporations, women’s roles are much expanded and more diverse than they were 100 years ago. Historical and cultural changes as well as the world outlook have constantly been modified subsequently influencing the representation of women in the social framework [60, online].

The next aspect to be investigated deals with the proper goal of our investigation, namely, the approaches the concept of “woman” is reflected in modern linguistics. Here one has to discuss the contents of the concept of “woman” and its rendering by various language means. Taking into consideration the specificity of the investigated material, the structure of the concept of “woman” can be represented as a hierarchical interrelationship of elements of various levels of abstraction. Taking for granted that a human is a complex being, it is necessary to distinguish the following microconcepts within the concept of “woman” , namely, external, internal and social aspects, each of them being subdivided into several submicroconcepts / see the scheme/.

Further we perform the analysis of the image of women in different cultures following the above mentioned microconcepts.

1. External aspect/age and appearance/

In any culture appearance was one of the most discussable items as each culture had and has its own “written” criteria. Everything has its beauty but not everyone sees it.

A gracious woman will cause more strife than twelve armed men can quell. (O femeie grațioasă va face din țînțar armăsar or O femeie grațioasă va provoca mai multe certuri decât doisprezece bărbați se pot calma) [57, online]. 

Making parts of the English countries had much in common on the aspect of female beauty, with some minor difference. English folklore is more reserved in the aspect of female beauty. We may find just Beauty if in the eye of the beholder and Beauty is only skin deep.

The controversy between external and internal beauty is reflected in the English culture. 

In Romanian folklore one may find Mai bine un gram de minte decât un car de frumusețe. Nu te lăuda cu frumusețea ta căci odată cu ea trece și tinerețea – English Equivalent lives when beauty dies or Prettiness dies first.

The English equivalent for Romanian Din afară e frumos, și înăuntru găunos will be Fair without, foul within referring both to the external and internal traits of women /as well as men/.

Internal aspect 

As it was stated above historically women were not viewed to be able to possess a certain level of intelligence (A woman’s mind and a winter wind change often). The majority of proverbs speak about lack of mind in women, giving them a rather negative appreciation. Thus, in English paremyology one can find the following pieces of wisdom:

A clever man builds cities; a clever woman throws them down. (Un bărbat deștept construiește orașe; o femeie deșteaptă le aruncă în aer) [58, online].

A clever wife always sleeps with a stupid husband. (O soție deșteaptă se culcă întotdeauna cu un soț stupid).

Never send a woman to do man’s job. (Nu trimite niciodată o femeie să facă munca bărbatului).

Women have long hair and short brains. (Femeile au păr lung și minte putină).A man is as old as he feels, and a woman as old as she looks- this somewhat sexist saying suggest that men age better than women).

-(Un bărbat este atît de batrân precum se simte, și o femeie este atît de batrână precum arată)- this somewhat sexist saying suggest that men age better than women).The same idea is rendered by the quotes:

,,God gave women intuition and femininity. Used properly, the combination easily jumbles the brain of any man I've ever met’’( Farrah Fawcett). (Dumnezeu i-a dariut femeii intuiție și feminitate. Folosite, combinația ușor tulbură mintea oricărui bărbat pe care l-am întâlnit vreodată).( Farrah Fawcett).

,,When women go wrong, men go right after them’’ (Mae West). (Cînd femeile greșesc, bărbații merg direct după ele). (Mae West).

,, A woman's head is always influenced by heart; but a man's heart by his head’’ (Lady Marguerite Blessington). (Mintea femeii este influențată de inima; dar inma bărbatului de mintea sa). (Lady Marguerite Blessington).,,

The vote means nothing to women. We should be armed’’ (Edna O'Brien’). (Votul nu înseamnă nimic pentru femei. Noi trebuie să fim înarmate).

Social aspect

In human context a family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity or co-residence. In most societies it is the principle institution for the socialization of children. A family group usually consists of father, mother and their children. However, each culture has its own vision on family unit. The principles of family were also implicitly reflected in the proverbs. It should be noted that all cultures give high value to the notion of family. Here there are some pieces of popular wisdom: An Englishman’s home is his castle.

Although most proverbs about women represent male interests, women have, unwillingly or willingly, agreed to the dominant perspective, as the interests and loyalties in women’s lives have mostly been connected with the men in their lives. The obedience and acquiescence as well as total respect of women as wives is rendered in the following proverbs:

A good husband makes a good wife- (Cum e soțul așa e și soția). – If a woman is happy with her husband, she will be a good mate for him.

A good man is hard to find- (Este o problemă să găsești o persoană de încredere).This saying talks about difficulties for women in finding a suitable male partner.

Behind every successful man is a woman, many men owe their women. ( În spatele fiecărui bărbat de success există o femeie, mulți bărbați datorează aceasta femeilor sale.)

It’s a woman’s world- (Aceasta este lumea femeii) -Everything in life is arranged to the advantage of women. 

Maidens must be mild and meek, swift to hear and slow to speak. (Fecioarele trebuie să fie ușoare și blînde, grăbite de a auzi și încetinite de a vorbi.

Life is tough for women- (Viața este dură în raport cu femeia).It means that women meet difficulties during their life.

The way to a man’s heart is through his stomach- (Metoda de a ajunge spre inima bărbatului este prin stomacul său).Many women have won a man’s love by cooking delicious meals for him. They fed his stomach and found love in his heart.

Women will have the last word – (Femeile vor anunța sentința). A man cannot win an argument with a woman. Women talk more than men. They can always add something more to what they are saying.

It should be noted that both English and Romanian proverbs have a negative attitude to marrying a widow:

No fat mouse in a widow’s house/ – referring to the financial situation of widows/.(Nici un șoarece gras în casa unei văduve)– referring to the financial situation of widows).

It would be improper to speak about women and not to mention their place in the family, as family is considered to be best place to be in:

My house is my castle.- (Casa mea este castelul meu).

It is nice to be one hundred days in your family; it is hard to speed half a day out of the family.-((Este bines să petreci 100 de zile în familia ta; este greu să petreci o jumătate de zi departe de ea) – referring to the financial situation of widow.

Your family is your harbor – Familia este alinarea ta). Speaking about the social position of women in society reflected by the proverbs it is evident that the unique place where the woman had to be was her home. English proverbs mentions this fact directly, this aspect is not mentioned either:

A woman’s place is at home. (Locul femeii este acasă).

,,If it's a woman, its caustic; if it's a man, it's authoritative’’(Dacă este o femeie este caustică; dacă este un bărbat este autoritar- Barbara Walters) [57, online].

Thus, our study of English proverbs and sayings about women has shown that on one hand all cultures have a lot of common aspects on women’s perception, on the other hand, each culture has its own peculiarities as a reflection peculiarities of popular wisdom.

Getting back to the proverbs makes people aware not only of the impact they still have, but also of the ways in which they can change their lives as men and women today.

Modern society is a society filled with modern technology and new ideas of thinking, slowly the old concept of ‘’men are better’’ seemed to diminish and vanish, what we do not realize it is still there, in our hearts. Maybe the number of direct discriminations against women declines but there is more advantages given to men than to women; this directly shows that the modern society prefers men more. 

As Franklin P. Adams affirmed that: ,, The true republic: men, their rights and nothing more; women, their rights and nothing less’’. As well as Romanian variant ,, Adevarata republică: bărbați, drepturile lor și nimic mai mult, femei și nimic mai puțin’’.

To explain, women were previously largely kept out of the workplace because of a lack of education and skills. This does not apply today because, unlike yesteryear, young girls are not allowed to go to school and fulfill their educational potential. Private companies and firms have begun to realize that the female population ia a valuable labor resource that is under-tapped. Imported foreign talent is only one part of the solution and more women with correct qualifications are being demanded.

Acording to Camelia Burghele who consider male/female polarization in relation to magic therapeutic praxis as: ,,The female sphere of the society is understand as being mysterious, dangerous and at the same time attractive to the man, who in turn invent magic practices to defend themselves against unverifiable female powers’’ (Rolul femeii în societate este considerat drept misterios, periculos și în același timp atractiv pentru bărbați, care în schimb inventează metode secrete de a se apăra împotriva puterilor necontrolabile ale sexului feminin’’) [cit.60, online]. 

The interpretation of the above proverb corresponds to the following sentence: “If a woman acts in a prudent manner, then she will be a real jewel.” (Dacă o femeie acționează într-o mod prudent, atunci va deveni o adevărată bijuterie). This sort of proverb constitutes a behavioral assertion, i.e., if a woman comports herself in a certain way, the result of her positive demeanor will be social acceptance. By implication, if she does not act this way, there will be negative outcome. 

III.2. Feminine Markers in the Woman’s Magazine “Cosmopolitan”

,,Cosmopolitan“ is the lifestylist for millions of fun fearless females who want to be the best they can in every area of their lives, with information on relationships [51, online].The columns in “Cosmopolitan” follow the very same pattern every month. The columns are divided into six parts, namely: Cosmo news, Celebs, Love, Sex & Success, News & Real Life, Fashion & Beauty, Living. Each of the parts includes regularly as well irregularly appearing articles. In “Cosmo news” section, the regular articles are: “Editor’s letter”, “Cosmo news”, “We’ve Got Mail”, “Confessions”, “Everyone’s Wearing”, “What’s Sexy Now”, “Most Wanted” and “Lust Haves” (the “Lust Haves” was missing in one of the issues). In addition to the regularly appearing articles, there also appear other additional articles that vary from issue to issue. An example is: “6 Secrets of a Man’s Wallet” or “Can Men and Women Ever Be Friends?”. The additional articles are usually dealing with relationship or sex issues. 

To sum up, the articles and columns appearing in Cosmopolitan appear on a regular basis. Topics used in Cosmopolitan include fashion, sex and love issues, beauty, and celebrities. Each column has several sub-columns (articles) out of which some of them appear on a regular basis, as well. 

They are sure to find every month the same topics; this might have two effects. Either the readers become bored since they know what to expect, or they might form/built up an intimate and familiar relationship to their “synthetic” friend in the form of a magazine. 

Now, the question whether the construction of femininity differs from the construction of masculinity arises. In the case of the range of topics and columns it seems from the above analysis that there is a significant difference. As regards to women, they seem to prefer stability and confidence when reading the magazine. Amagazine can be understood as their friend with whom they look for a trust and understanding. Women seem to require the feeling that they know their “friend” well. 

Further we will examine synthetic personalization in “Cosmopolitan”. The notion of “synthetic personalization” is defined as “an increasingly common feature of types of discourse used to address mass audiences” [44, online].

 The main reason for using synthetic personalization is “to give the impression of treatment each of the people´handled´ en masse as an individual” [45, online].

Rational and expressive values of lexis.

The use of informal expressions in women’s magazines for the purpose of the construction of a youthful female identity for the writer is already known. These informal expressions help to induce a friendly atmosphere and the feeling of informality. Magazine text producers often use informal lexis to introduce common ground between readers and writers. Writers endeavour to imitate daily informal speech that most of young people use. It is called “discourse of the life-world” [45, online]. 

The lexis frequently utilizes slang words that remind readers of everyday people’s speech. Below, there are a few examples of informal expressions used in the magazine:

bloke, dinky – small (tip drăguț- mic);

boffin– a scientist, especially one engaged in research ( savant, un angajat special în cercetare);

ain’t, buddy ( nu este, amice);

sickie- a day of sick leave from work (o zi de concediu medical de la serviciu);

cagey- reluctant to go into details (rezervat, reticent de a intra în detalii);

skint- without money, esp. only temporarily (gol chistol, fara surse financiare, în special numai temporar); 

tenner – a ten-pound or ten-dollar note (o bancnotă de zece lire sau zece dolari); 

hotty – a sexy person (o persoană sexy);

combo- the product or result of combining; a combination (produsul sau rezultatul combinării; o combinație);

toff- a member of the upper classes, especially one who is elegantly dressed (un membru al claselor superioare, în special o persoană care este elegant îmbracată);

sucker- one that is indiscriminately attracted to something specified (fraier, o persoană care este atrasă fără discriminare de ceva specificat);

goofball- foolish, incompetent, or stupid person (prost, incompetent, sau persoană stupidă);

to suss– to infer or discover (a deduce sau a descoperi);

totty– a good looking person (o persoană îngrijită care arată bine);

ex-hubby– ex-husband (ex-soț);

bling– flashy, ostentatious (sclipitor, ostentativ);

ballsy- very tough and courageous, often recklessly or presumptuously (foarte dur și curajos, deseori neglijent sau îndrăzneț);

peeve – something that irritates ( scoate din sărite, ceva care irită); 

pressie – present (present, actualitate).

Presuppositions
Presuppositions are a common phenomenon occurring in women’s magazines. Yule defines a presupposition as “something the speaker assumes to be the case prior for making an utterance” [29, p.25].

In this study a presupposition will represent text producers’ assumption of readers’ needs, problems and so forth. That means that text producers are anticipated to have sufficient knowledge of what readers want to read about. Presuppositions are often used in health and beauty columns where writers anticipate readers’ problems and subsequently they come up with topics that they suppose will interest the readers. 

Potential presuppositions are not to be used in this study as they “only become actual in context with speakers” [29, p.25].

Holly just knew something was terribly wrong. → something was terribly wrong ( Holly pur și simplu știa că s-a întîmplat ceva teribil.’’

 An existential presupposition is generally found in definite noun phrases. Information that follows verbs such as know or regret is considered to be a fact and thus becomes a factive presupposition: 

My hair is really long and flat…”→ I have hair (Părul îmi este cu adevărat lung și întins…’’ Eu am părul voluminos) 

In lexical presuppositions, “…the use of one form with its asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another (non-asserted) meaning is understood.” [29, p.28]:

… nine-year-old Josie still managed to help the police…→ Josie tried to help the police (Josie în vîrstă de nouă ani deja reușește să ajute poliția…)

Structural presuppositions are those which use specific sentence structures (such as a question) so that it is anticipated that the information expressed in the sentence is true:

So what’s your idea of naughty sex?→ You have an/a kind of idea of naughty sex. (Deci care este părerea ta despre sexul obraznic? /Ai vreun/vreo idee despre sexul obraznic)

A non-factive presupposition is one that is assumed not to be true” [29, p.29].

In this case, verbs such as dream, imagine and pretend are used.

… he pretends to be passive…, → he is not passive (el se preface a fi pasiv, el nu este pasiv).

The last type of presuppositions – counter-factual – represents structures from which it is clear that the stated information “is not only not true, but it is the opposite of what is true” [29, p.29].

…if I had had someone with me → I had not had anyone with me (dacă aș fi avut pe cineva alături, eu nu am pe nimeni alături de mine.

Pronouns we, you, and I

Pronouns we, you, and I are often used in magazines discourse. Then we pronoun evokes the feeling of solidarity and unity, which is very important in the reader-editor relationship.

Personal pronouns are frequently used in the so called “problem pages” and articles dealing with unpleasant topics (such as divorce, love betrayal, illness, etc.) where readers feel they are not the only ones who have found themselves in a bad situation. The awareness of not being alone with one’s problems makes the trouble smaller. 

The above-mentioned usage of pronouns holds for the inclusive we, where there are included speaker/writer and addressee/listener. The exclusive we stands for the speaker/writer plus others but it excludes the addressee/listener; it usually represents the text producers, and a team of writers and editors. 

Below, there is an abstract implying the we pronoun (in bold):

It’s hardly surprising that more of us are thinking this way. In recent years, we’ve had more fad diets shoved down our throats that reality TV stars, leaving us confused…. Cosmopolitan, November’s edition (Este surprinzător că mulți dintre noi gîndesc astfel. În ultimii ani, avem tot mai multe mofturi dietice ale realității starurilot TV, care ne lasă confuzi…). [64, online].

The I pronoun is similar to the we pronoun in how it communicates with a reader. As well as we, it induces the feeling of intimacy and friendship.

The I pronoun is often used in narratives, where narrators commit themselves to the readers. By using the I pronoun, the narration gains the element of a personal conversation. It also makes the readers listen to the narrator carefully. An example may be found (in bold) in in the article called “Oh cr@p – when technology trips you up” [51, online]:

Pop-up problem

“I was gossiping with a friend on instant messenger, and [I] was about to type the details of my recent split with an ex, when the guy in question sent me a message. After scanning it, I went back to gossiping with my friend but, inevitably, wrote a long-winded explanation of the break-up into my ex’s chat-box window by mistake. (Bârfeam cu un prieten pe messenger recent, și eram cât pe ce să intru în detalii al convorbirii mele recnte cu un fost prieten, când băiatul în cauză mi-a trimis un mesaj. După ce l-am scanat, m-am întors să pălăvrăgesc cu prietenul meu, dar, inevitabil, a scris o explicație tărăgănat din greșeală în fereastra din cutia poștală fostului meu prieten).

Even worse, I’d told him the reason we split was because we’d grown apart, but in the message I revealed it was actually due to the meeting someone else. The poor guy responded with just, “Oh”. I felt terrible and we haven’t spoken properly since.” (Chiar mai rău, i-aș fi spus lui motivul pentru care ne-am despărțit a fost pentru că am crescut diferit, dar, în mesajul pe care l-am descoperit a fost de fapt, referitor că a întîlnit o altă persoană. Saracul tînăr a răspuns doar cu, "Oh". M-am simțit groaznic și nu am mai vorbit de atunci.’’

As it is obvious from the above-mentioned abstract, usage of the I pronoun has a larger impact on readers than usage of the 3rd person singular. The I pronoun makes the text more topical and livelier. It might make readers put themselves in the place of a narrator and thus, it makes the text more attractive.

The pronoun you is another way of addressing readers. This approach is entirely different from the previous ones. It has an instructional character and is usually used in articles which give advice to readers.

By using the pronoun you, the text producers seem to communicate directly with the readers by generating a feeling of uniqueness. Thus, readers acquire the feeling that the text was written solely for them. This approach is typical of women’s and men’s magazines as it gives readers the feeling of importance. 

Pronoun you is usually found in “problem pages” – columns where the direct communication with readers is essential. Below, there is an example of applying pronoun you (in bold) in a “problem page” column called “Ask Irma” where “the world’s best agony aunt” Irma gives advice to female readers:

All you’re really comparing with his ex is how you look. And how a woman looks is not what she does. Jealousy can become an excuse for inactivity and surrender because it makes you think, “What’s the use?” [you] Stop it now. Don’t [you] allow it to make you complacent about your own talents….(Sunt obsedată de fostul ei…Tot ce tu compari cu fostul ei este cum arăți tu. Și o femeie nu arată precum este. Gelozia poate deveni un pretext de renunțare și înșelare deoarece te face să meditezi, ’’ La ce bun?’’(tu)Renunță acum. Nu (tu) permite aceasta să te facă să-ți complaci propriile talente) [54, online].

Pronoun you often appears “hidden” in imperative sentences. Besides “problem pages”, pronoun you is often used in “how-to” columns where text producers provide readers with advice concerning many possible topics. In these cases, pronoun you often takes the imperative form. An example may be found in “Be More in Love Tonight” article:

Smell great:

When you get home tonight, [you] dab on the perfume you wore on your first date. (Când pleci acasă în această seară, parfumează-te cu parfumul de la prima întîlnire). [64, online].

Pronoun you is mainly used to evoke friendship and closeness. It imitates the conversation between two or more friends in which they give advice to each other as far as various topics are concerned. In conclusion, pronouns we, I and you are a common element of women’s as well as men’s magazines which construct synthetic sisterhood/brotherhood and synthetic friendship.

Interpolation

To interpolate” means “to insert or introduce between other elements or parts. From that it follows that interpolation is a text that is inserted into the sentence and is usually found in brackets or stands behind a dash. Interpolation evokes informal style and makes the text seem as a conversation between friends. Cosmopolitan employs interpolation in its articles. Below, there are a few examples (in bold) which are to be found in the magazines:

Be More in Love Tonight: Love: Melts in your mouth, not in your hand (he, unlike those ice creams!) – Dragoste: Se topește în gura ta nu în mâna ta (el, spre deosebire de acele înghețate. [64, online]

…. As you know, we at Cosmo are very fond of men – but we’d never want to be one. We spend a lot of our working hours (and off-duty time as well) trying to understand what really makes them tick. Enjoying the fact that they’re so different from us and also figuring out it would be a pretty dull world without them. (…Precum știți, noi cei de la Cosmo suntem pasionați de bărbați- dar noi niciodată nu ne-am dori să fim ca ei. Am petrece o mulțime de ore de ale noastre lucrând (și contra-plată, precum și), încercarea de a înțelege cu adevărat ceea ce le face să se evidențieze. Se bucură de faptul că sunt atât de diferite de noi și apoi își dau seama că fără ele ar fi o lume destul de plictisitoare Editor’s Letter [51, online].

So, in this issue, we’ve finally discovered some key differences, plus the essential quantities that women and men share (and, of course, they must be qualities if we ladies have them). 

III.3. The Image of Jane Eyre in Charlotte Brontë’s Experiences

“Jane Eyre” is called an autobiography because it contains many elements from Charlotte Brontë’s both professional and private life. For example, when Jane Eyre was at Lowood School, it is considered a reflection of Charlotte Brontë’s experiences at Cowan Bridge. This particular memory enabled her to produce an accurate account of Jane Eyre’s life [8, p. 158-159].

It was the same case with Brontë’s governess life where she also used her

experiences.
As Charlotte Brontë stood for equal treatment for women and action in their lives, the novel is primarily about the women’s lot. Jane Eyre expressed her disapproval against the subjugation of women to men:

Women are supposed to be very calm generally: but women feel just as men feel; they need exercise for their faculties, and a field for their efforts as much as their brothers do; they suffer from too rigid a restraint, too absolute a stagnation, precisely as men would suffer; and it is narrow-minded in their more privileged fellow-creatures to say that they ought to confine themselves to making puddings and knitting stockings, to playing on the piano and embroidering bags. It is thoughtless to condemn them, or laugh at them, if they seek to do more or learn more than custom has pronounced necessary for their sex. (Femeile ar trebui să fie în general foarte calme: dar femeile se simt la fel ca și bărbații; au nevoie de exerciții fizice pentru facultățile lor, și un domeniu pentru eforturile lor, la fel de mult ca frații lor, fac, ei suferă prea dur o restricție, de asemenea, o stagnare absolută, exact precum bărbații ar suferi, și este limitat ca viziune în creaturile sale mai privilegiate să spună că acestea ar trebui să se limiteze la a face budinci și a tricota ciorapi, pentru a juca la pian și a broda genți. Este nedrept să-i condamne, sau să rîzi la ele, în cazul în care încearcă să facă mai mult sau pentru a afla mai mult de obicei decȃt a pronunțat necesare pentru sexul lor) [8, p.96].

Charlotte Brontë also introduced a feature of self-assertion in Jane Eyre. The heroine claims equality with Mr. Rochester but also generally equality for all women whatever the social rank. However, this aspect is complicated by the fact that the heroine has to call him “master” because Mr. Rochester is a bossy and authoritative man.

There is the ascendency not only of agebut of rank, of great wealth and possessions. On the other hand, Jane is “his superior in morals, honesty, self-respect and even in worldly wisdom”.

At the beginning of the novel, Mr. Rochester is indifferent to Jane Eyre and represents complete authority towards her by explaining:

“Go into the library – I mean, if you please – (Excuse my tone of command; I am used to say ‘Do this,‘ and it is done: I cannot alter my customary habits for one new inmate) – Go then, into the library; take a candle with you; leave the door open; sit down to the piano, and play a tune”. (Mergi în bibliotecă- mă refer, dacă tu mă rogi-Scuze pentru tonul meu de comandă;m-am obișnuit s-o spun’Îndeplinește,’și s-a făcut: eu nu îmi pot schimba modul de viață pentru un nou deținut) – Du-te, apoi, în bibliotecă, ia o lumânare cu tine, lasă ușa deschisă, așează-te la pian, și să joace o melodie") [8, p. 125].

What was surprising in that period was the frankness about women’s passions while expressing their feelings in the novels. It was also true of Jane Eyre. The main protagonist’s outburst is quite well known:

Do you think [says Jane addressing Rochester], because I am poor, obscure, plain, and little, I am soulless and heartless? You think wrong! – I have as much soul as you, – and full as much heart! And if God had gifted me with some beauty and much wealth, I should have made it as hard for you to leave me, as it is now for me to leave you. I am not talking to you through the medium of custom, conventionalities, nor even of mortal flesh: it is my spirit that addresses your spirit; just as if both had passed through the grave, and we stood at God’s feet, equal – as we are! (Credeți că [spune Jane adresându-se la Rochester], dacă sunt sărac, obscur, simplu, și mic, sunt fără suflet și inimă? Crezi greșit! – Am suflet la fel ca și tine, – și cam tot atâta inimă! Și dacă Dumnezeu m-a înzestrat cu mai puțină frumusețe și mai multă bogăție, aș fi făcut la fel de greu pentru tine să mă lași, așa cum este acum pentru mine să te las. Eu nu vorbesc cu tine după media obiceiului, convenționalități, nici chiar în cazul unui muritor de rând: este Duhul Meu, care se adresează spiritului tău, la fel ca în cazul în care ambii am trecut prin mormânt, și am stat la picioarele lui Dumnezeu, egal – așa cum suntem!) [8, p. 255-256].

On the other hand, Jane Eyre expresses great admiration, devotion and even almost workship towards men:

“My future husband was becoming to me my whole world; and, more than the world: almost my hope of heaven. He stood between me and every thought of religion, as an eclipse intervenes between man and the broad sun. I could not, in those days, see God for his creature: of whom I had made an idol”. (Viitorul meu soț a devenit pentru mine întreaga mea lume; și, mai mult decît lumea; aproape speranța mea în rai. El stătea între mine și orice gînd de religie, precu o eclipsă care intrevine între om și soarele extins. Nu puteam în acele zile, să-l văd pe D-zeu pentru creatura sa: din care eu am făcut un idol’’) [8, p. 241].

Although most of Charlotte Brontë’s heroines come from a lower social class as the author herself, Jane Eyre is an exception; she has come from a relatively high estate. She is definitely a lady and is recognized as a social superior by the servants. Bessie, her servant, sums it up:

,, You are genteel enough; you look like a lady, and it is as much as ever I expected of you: you were no beauty as a child’’. (Tu ești destul de amabilă; arăți ca o domnișoară, și aceasta este ce eu vreodată m-am așteptat de la tine: când erai copil nu erai atât de frumoasă’’) [8, p. 92].

The novel traces the question of work as well. Most of Charlotte Brontë’s characters live unthinkingly on the work of others. But the most significant is finding appropriate jobs for middle-class women as governesses, women characters have to work. Concerning Jane Eyre, work gives her greater freedom, wider experience, although it is sometimes considered unpleasant. Her work poses many hardships and limitations which are explicitly presented by Charlotte Brontë even though the author sometimes forgets it and claims:

“Jane is having a peaceful, reasonably happy time teaching Adèle” (Jane are o metodă liniștită, un mod rezonabil atractiv de predare pentru Adèle”.

She contemplates about the deal of a woman:

“Whether is it better, I ask, to be a slave in a fool’s paradise at Marseilles – fevered with delusive bliss one hour – suffocating with the bitterest tears of remorse and shame the next – or to be a village-schoolmistress, free and honest, in a breezy mountain nook in the healthy heart of England?” ("Fie că este mai bine, întreb eu, să fie un sclav în nebunul paradis de la Marsilia – febril, cu înșelătoare fericire de o oră – sufocant, cu cele mai amare lacrimi de remușcări și rușine – sau de a fi învățătoare la sat, liberă și onestă, într-un colț răcoros de munte, în inima sănătoasă a Angliei ") [8, p. 364].

Her independence can be also seen in the description of her pictures in chapter 13. She shows them to Mr. Rochester who finds them rather dreadful, but they are true expressions of her heart.

When asked the question if she had been happy when she had been painting them, she answers”

I was absorbed, sir: yes, and I was happy. To paint them, in short, was to enjoy one of the keenest pleasures I have ever known. ("Am fost ocupată, domnule: da, și am fost fericită. Pentru a le picta, pe scurt, a fost de a mă bucura de una dintre plăcerile pe care le-am cunoscut vreodată " [8, p. 127].

The pictures express her own individuality, in particular.

It is also interesting to point out the men’s attitude towards the work of women. When Jane and Mr. Rochester become engaged, he utters:

“You will give up your governing slavery at once” (Vei renunța la sclavia guvernantă odată’’ [8, p. 273].

What was suitable for a young woman is not good at all for his future wife. Regarding marriage, Charlotte Brontë’s heroines do not get married in order to gain financial independence. On the other hand, they are often provided for from the very beginning of the story.

Jane Eyre is left a fortune and is satisfied to be able to tell Mr. Rochester that she is independent and:

“quite rich, sir. If you won’t let me live with you, I can build a house of my own close up to your door, and you may come and sit in my parlour when you want company of an evening”. (Dacă nu mă vei lăsa să locuiesc cu tine, îmi pot construi casa mea proprie aproape de ușa ta, și poți veni să te așezi în salonul meu când vei simți nevoia de o companie într-o seară’’) [8, p. 92].

When she decides on the man she wants to marry, she is absolutely whole-hearted, with no reservations whatever about suitability. She never hesitates, nor changes her option as Mr. Rochester is her first and only choice.

Charlotte Brontë shows great openness in her novels regarding emotional states of characters. It is underlined by the first-person point of view, performed by Jane Eyre herself. This aspect enables readers to identify better with the character. Jane Eyre tries to find a way to cope with the loss of her independence after marriage and expresses her despair:

,,It came: in full, heavy swing the torrent poured over me. The whole consciousness of my life lorn, my love lost, my hope quenched, my faith death-struck, swayed full and mighty above me in sullen mass. That bitter hour cannot be described: in truth, ‘the waters came into my soul; I sank in deep mire: I felt no standing; I came into deep waters; the floods overflowed me’’. [S-a împlinit: în plină desfășurare, greu torrent turnat peste mine. Conștiința întregii horopsit viața mea, dragostea mea a pierdut, speranța mea s-a stins, credința mea de moarte-a lovit, influențat puternic și plin de mai sus mă în masă ursuz. Această oră amară nu poate fi descrisă: în adevăr, "apele au intrat în sufletul meu, m-am scufundat în mocirlă profund: m-am simțit nici o permanent, am intrat în apele de adâncime, inundațiile m-au acoperit" [8, p. 299].

Mr. Rochester is often described as an imperfect hero. This gothic character is certainly influenced by Lord Byron’s poetry so he is sometimes called “the Byronic hero” . It can be seen in some of his qualities – he is wicked, arrogant, and cruel to his servants. When he speaks with Jane, he is very often moody and annoyed. On the other hand, the Byronic character is not always negative; he is also capable of showing real emotions and warm affection towards Jane. Moreover, he proves complete disregard for social rank when he decides to marry a governess: 

“You – poor and obscure, and small and plain as you are – I entreat to accept me as a husband”. [ Tu – săracă și obscură, și mică, și simplă precum ești – eu te rog să mă accepți ca soț’’. [8, p. 257].

Another feature of the Byronic hero’s nature is the dark secret, represented by Mr. Rochester’s mad wife. As for his physical appearance, he is not a traditional good looking character, as Jane describes it

“…with his broad and jetty eyebrows; his square forehead, made squarer by the horizontal sweep of his black hair. I recognized his decisive nose, more remarkable for character than beauty” (Cu sprîncenele largi și cheu; frunte pătrat, a făcut ovala de baleiere orizontală de păr negru. Am recunoscut nasul decisiv, mai mult decât remarcabil pentru un caracter frumos [8, p. 121].

Yet he is admired for his charisma, sometimes even regarded as a seducer because of his position in society and his former love affairs (Gregory).
Jane Eyre is the most autobiographical character of Charlotte Brontë’s heroines. It is mostly seen in the domination by men. Charlotte Brontë expressed her disapproval of the man as a tamer or a dominant person and devoted her life to marriage. This dedication is also shown in Jane Eyre [8, p.106-107].

I have now been married ten years. I know what it is to live entirely for and with what I love best on earth. I hold myself supremely blest – blest beyond what language can express; because I am my husband’s life as fully as he is mine. No woman was ever nearer to her mate than I am: ever more absolutely bone of his bone, and flesh of his flesh. […] All my confidence is bestowed on him, all his confidence is devoted to me; we are precisely suited in character – perfect concord is the result’’. (Am fost căsătorită timp de zece ani. Eu știu ce înseamnă a trăi cu desăvârșire pentru și cu ceea ce iubesc mai mult pe pământ. Eu mă rețin de la blesteme – binecuvântată dincolo de ceea ce poate exprima limba, pentru că eu sunt viața soțului meu precum și el este pentru mine. Nici o femeie nu a fost niciodată mai aproape de partenerul meu decât mine: chiar mai mult carnea de pe osul meu tot mai aproape os de oasele lui, și de carnea lui. […] Toată încredere este acordată lui, toată încrederea lui este dedicată pentru mine, ne potrivim perfect la caractere –iar rezultatul este armonia perfectă’’ [ 8, p. 397].

It is the final result of the entire struggle towards equality of men and women. When Mr. Rochester firstly proposes marriage to Jane, she is disadvantaged by her inferior position. Therefore, she refuses. Later she becomes rich by inheriting a large fortune and proves her independence that she can live alone. Mr. Rochester does not see it until their equality has been established. Charlotte Brontë was interested in the bi-sexuality present in every human, understood as the division of men and women. She disagreed with the inferior position of women and claimed that women could retaliate. She showed men satirically as grown-up children. A woman can not only cut men down to size but she can also cut them up – blind them as in the case of Mr. Rochester. The question of escape is apparent in the novel. Jane Eyre experiences many hardships in her childhood. Therefore, she longs to get away from it and become a woman. As well as she feels trapped in the Reed’s family, she wants to escape from the Lowood School:

I went to my window, opened it, and looked out. There were the two wings of the building; there was the garden; there were the skirts of Lowood; there was the hilly horizon. […] it wasthose I longed to surmount; […] I traced the white road winding round the base of one mountain, and vanishing in a gorge between two: how I longed to follow it further! (M-am dus la fereastra mea, am deschis-o, și am privit afară. Erau cele două aripi ale clădirii, era și o grădină, erau pragurile Lowood; era vizibil și un orizont deluros. […] Au fost cei pe care mi-am dorit să-i depășesc; […], am urmărit lungul drumului alb care bătea pe vîrful înalt de pe un munte, și dispărând într-un defileu între doi: cum mi-am dorit să-l urmeze în continuare!) [ 8, p. 85-86].

When she goes teaching to Thornfield, she feels happy but still tries to find wider spaces. Fresh air and open countryside represent “symbols of personal freedom and independence” to her in contrast with the oppressive atmosphere in Thornfield.

The whole complicated way towards independence is moderated by religion. Jane Eyre is certainly a believer, which can be observed in some passages of the book where she turns to God (when she is at Lowood and experiences hardships, at Thornfield when Mr. Rochester proposes marriage to her and at Marsh End when St. John Rivers tries to persuade her to marry him). Moreover, she is led by her commonsense, morality and sheer prudence as well. It can be seen in the passage where she finally decides to stay at Gateshead because she realizes that education will eventually result in her independence.

The feminine tone of Jane Eyre can be observed through Brontë’s use of the first-person technique. There are also many passages of describing emotions and outbursts, which is ascribed especially to women. The realism of the times is underlined by the plausibility of the places identified in the novel. So one might visit every village and every house that were mentioned there. It is the same case with the people described in the novel, most of them are real persons who Charlotte Brontë either knew, or they come from various literary sources.

The novel is extraordinary due to its style, as “a vigorous and forcible style; a style full of picturesque phraseology, characterized by that intense sincerity which is ever one of the greatest things in literature” [8, p.171].

Charlotte Brontë managed to make a masterpiece of the book because she was a master in observing people and the humanity as a whole. Even though this novel came into being before the feminist movement, Charlotte Brontë was one of the first women novelists who pointed out to the difficult situation of many women and influenced a lot of feminist writers. She dreamt about independent life for women and profound love.

To conclude, I would like to point out the long and difficult way of Jane Eyre towards independence. She was affected by loneliness and separation from every close friend she had in childhood (e.g. Helen Burns, Miss Temple), later Mr. Rochester and St. John Rivers. She is successful in the end because she has the man she longed for by her side on the conditions she wanted. Jane is an emancipated and resolute woman. Her independence lies particularly in achieving financial freedom and equality in partnership.

CONCLUSION

However, this solution was not very practical in reality since women were biologically and emotionally different. Women were bounded to bear children by their biology, and their physiology and psychology were affected by this reality. 
While modern employment conditions seemed to have ensured gender equality by providing same working conditions for males and females; these conditions, in practice, turned out to work well only for men's adaptation. Working conditions were insufficient for multitasking women and overburdened women since women were still expected to shoulder in-home traditional roles much or less. Women feel physically and emotionally more attached to their children, but when they wanted to extend their commitments to the public realm for social satisfaction, they were- and they still are- faced with either harsh or long hours of modern employment. If they choose not to work, they feel confined at home doing in-home activities all their time. There are not yet notable alternatives for women to be effective in public and private life both. Three major factors have contributed to the destruction of the womanly ideal: the Reformation, and the consequent secularization of western culture; the Industrial Revolution; the Feminist Movement. The Reformation was an ultra-masculine movement with small regard for woman's qualities and woman's functions. As society lost its Catholic sense, it lost also the concept of total dedication, the understanding of the sacramentality of life, the regard for the sanctity of marriage—all principles intimately connected with woman's mission and dignity. At the same time, "the masculine desire to dominate

the woman found expression in the law." Along with the intellectual devaluation of woman's activities came the profound economic and social changes created by the Industrial Revolution. Seventy-five years ago the woman in the home was still the center of a variety of economic enterprises of unquestioned value and importance. But one by one almost all the activities through which a woman served her family, developed herself, and earned the esteem of society, have been lifted out of her hands and transferred to the factory. The sphere in which most women had found their means of dedication was severely curtailed. At the same time, economic necessity forced many women into the labor market to help support their families and thus led them further away from a womanly pattern.
The third influence which has contributed to the loss of a true concept of woman's function is the feminist fallacy. Feminism was born of woman's natural reaction against the depressed condition in which she found herself in a secularized, masculine, industrial culture. The feminists vociferously demanded equality, but unfortunately they conceived equality on a masculine pattern. Their whole struggle for woman's rights has simply helped to destroy the difference between the sexes and has worked to make the woman a slavish imitation of the man. Feminism is an abject surrender to the masculine ideal as the only ideal. The feminist has completely lost faith in herself as a woman. Her effort to prove herself "just as good as a man" betrays her insecurity and is a tacit admission of inferiority.

Woman's struggle for freedom has led her deeper and deeper into a morass of conditions which frustrate her nature and her mission. Women rebelled against the confinement of the home; they find themselves now confined to the mechanical routine of the typewriter and the assembly line, rendered all the more monotonous for a woman because of its exceedingly impersonal character. Woman is made for marriage and motherhood; the modern woman in the name of freedom urges easy divorce and artificial sterility. Woman is well adapted to the universal activity of the home; her demand for freedom leads her to a narrowly specialized education and still more narrowly specialized career. Woman is made for love, for the giving of herself in personal, devoted service. In the modern world she has found her way to a position of lonely and selfish independence.

The problem of woman's role is fundamental and not simple. A society which has lost its sense for divine things and for man's own nature should have lost also the true concept of woman. The unnatural position of woman in our society is but one aspect of the disintegration of modern culture. Nothing short of an intensive and all-embracing renewal of the modern world in the Christian spirit will restore woman to her proper functions. As women, our first task is to regain our self-respect in the light of a clear concept of our nature and our role. We must grasp the full splendor of the divine idea of woman as it is revealed to us in the sacred writings, climaxing in the figure of Our Lady. If we have the courage to be ourselves and to follow our spiritual mission, then the world will once again recognize and reverence the immeasurable dignity of womanhood.

We must strive in all ways to restore the family to its rightful dignity and full vigor as the basic cell of the social organism. The family must regain the entire range of its functions, the full scope of its gigantic task—religious, educational, cultural, economic. As women it is our particular responsibility to develop a new pattern of integral Christian life in the family, in which common prayer, work, study and recreation will build the bonds of unity and draw the family heavenwards. 

If woman is to give the full benefit of her special qualities to society, it is of the utmost importance that we create, especially for the unmarried woman, many types of womanly work. We must be alert to discover appropriate spheres of activity in which woman may realize her dedication to God in loving service of humankind. Most important of all we must fulfill our primary mission to radiate the spirit of dedication in the world. Never has there been a period in the history of the race when the need for woman's spiritual mission was so great. At the root of all the disorders of our sad, sick world lies man's attempt to assert his independence of God. To light the way to this surrender is the spiritual mission of the women of the twentieth century, the task of woman in the modern world.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ackerman Dennis Earl. Essential Properties and Philosophical Analysis. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992. 313 p.

Allen Penguin. The Concept of Women. New Jersey: Penguin, 2001. 210p.

Apperson George Latimer. English Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases. London: J. M. Dent & Sons Limited, 1999. 721 p.

Bradley Mary Carol. Philosophical Reflections. New York: New York University Press, 1997. 422 p.

Burgard Peter. J. Nietzsche and the Feminine. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1994. 269 p.

Buzaglo Maor. The Logic of Concept. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 178 p.

Bealer Gary. Quality and Concept. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982. 324 p.

Brontë Charlotte. Jane Eyre. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1847. 400 p.

Carey Susan. The Origin of Concept. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. 598 p.

Cattish T. Concepts. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998. 652 p.

Finnegan Ruth. From Family Tree to Family History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. 196 p.

Fodor Jerry Alan. Concepts: Where Cognitive Science Went Wrong. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. 475 p.

John Robert Williams. A Complete Collection of English Proverbs. London: New-Round Court, 1987. 333 p.

Karasik V.I. Linguistic Circle: Personality, Concepts, Discourse. Volgograd: Gnozis, 2004. 390 p.

Laurence S. Baskin. Concepts and Cognitive Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. 491 p.

Leech Goeffrey Neil. Language and Tact. University of Trier: Liguistics Agency, 1996, 309 p.

Levins S.Alan. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. 434 p.

Lyons John. Language and Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. 288 p.

Murphy Gregory L. The Big Book of Concepts. Cambridge: MIT. Press, 2002. 568 p.

Margolis Eric. Concepts: Core Readings. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999.177 p. 

Nam Charles B. The Concept of the Family. Florida: Florida University Press, 2004. 264 p.

Peacock Christopher. A Study of Concepts. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press,

1992. 284 p.

Raewyn Connel. “Gender’’ in World Perspective. Boston: Thompson Ed., 2009. 177 p.

Medieval Sourcebook. Bede: Ecclesiastical History. London: LDN, 1982. 413 p.

Scholnick E. K. Conceptual Development. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999. 348 p.

Svetlana Grigorevna Ter-Minasova. S. Language, Linguistic and Life. Moscow: Humanitarian Knowledge, 1996. 122 p.

Thomas K.B. Family Demography: Methods and Their Applications. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991.374 p.

Widdowson. H.G. Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. 454 p.

Yule Heinle G. The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. 355 p.

Dictionaries

American Heritage Dictionary. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006. 8652 p.

Collins Essential English Dictionary. Glasgow: HarperCollins Publishers, 2007. 992 p.

Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture. Harlow: Pearson, 2005.1620 p.

Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. Oxford: Longman, 2008.1000 p.

New Webster’s Dictionary of English Language. New York: Lexicon International, 2004.1824 p.

Oxford Dictionary of English Proverbs. Oxford: Claredon Press, 1995. 648 p.

Oxford Dictionary for Advanced Learners. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.1952 p.

The Free Dictionary and Webster’s New World College Dictionary Online

Reformation, 1250-1500 / Prudence Allen p.

Internet Sources

39. Women Concept, available at http: //www.allthingswilliam.com( visited 05.10.2014)

William Congreve, available at http: // www.en.wikiquote.org ( visited 02.02.2015)

Quotes about women, available at http: // www.notable-quotes.com

( visited 22.01.2015)

Concept of Feminity , available at http: //en.wikipedia.org ( visited 16.02.2015)

Oxford Dictionaries, available at http: // www.oxforddictionaries.com ( visited 15.11.2014)

Random House Dictionaries, available at http:

//www. randomhousewebsterdictionaries.com (visited 02.01.2015)

Cambridge Dictionary, available at http:

// www.dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary ( visited 24.03.2015)

www. thinkexist.com ( visited 09.10.2014)

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( visited 01.04.2015)

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( visited 03.04.2015)

Halsall, available at http: // www.fordham.edu

( visited 12.04.2015)

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( visited 01.03.2015)

Available at http: //www.heartquotes.net ( visited 24.05.2015)

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( visited 02.01.2015)

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http: //www.aceshowbiz.com ( visited 28.12.2014)

ANNEXES

Annex A

THE COVER PAGE OF COSMOPOLITAN

Annex B

THE SITUATION OF SISTEMATICAL DISADVANTAGES FOR WOMEN

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ackerman Dennis Earl. Essential Properties and Philosophical Analysis. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992. 313 p.

Allen Penguin. The Concept of Women. New Jersey: Penguin, 2001. 210p.

Apperson George Latimer. English Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases. London: J. M. Dent & Sons Limited, 1999. 721 p.

Bradley Mary Carol. Philosophical Reflections. New York: New York University Press, 1997. 422 p.

Burgard Peter. J. Nietzsche and the Feminine. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1994. 269 p.

Buzaglo Maor. The Logic of Concept. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 178 p.

Bealer Gary. Quality and Concept. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982. 324 p.

Brontë Charlotte. Jane Eyre. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1847. 400 p.

Carey Susan. The Origin of Concept. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. 598 p.

Cattish T. Concepts. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998. 652 p.

Finnegan Ruth. From Family Tree to Family History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. 196 p.

Fodor Jerry Alan. Concepts: Where Cognitive Science Went Wrong. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. 475 p.

John Robert Williams. A Complete Collection of English Proverbs. London: New-Round Court, 1987. 333 p.

Karasik V.I. Linguistic Circle: Personality, Concepts, Discourse. Volgograd: Gnozis, 2004. 390 p.

Laurence S. Baskin. Concepts and Cognitive Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. 491 p.

Leech Goeffrey Neil. Language and Tact. University of Trier: Liguistics Agency, 1996, 309 p.

Levins S.Alan. Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. 434 p.

Lyons John. Language and Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. 288 p.

Murphy Gregory L. The Big Book of Concepts. Cambridge: MIT. Press, 2002. 568 p.

Margolis Eric. Concepts: Core Readings. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999.177 p. 

Nam Charles B. The Concept of the Family. Florida: Florida University Press, 2004. 264 p.

Peacock Christopher. A Study of Concepts. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press,

1992. 284 p.

Raewyn Connel. “Gender’’ in World Perspective. Boston: Thompson Ed., 2009. 177 p.

Medieval Sourcebook. Bede: Ecclesiastical History. London: LDN, 1982. 413 p.

Scholnick E. K. Conceptual Development. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999. 348 p.

Svetlana Grigorevna Ter-Minasova. S. Language, Linguistic and Life. Moscow: Humanitarian Knowledge, 1996. 122 p.

Thomas K.B. Family Demography: Methods and Their Applications. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991.374 p.

Widdowson. H.G. Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. 454 p.

Yule Heinle G. The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. 355 p.

Dictionaries

American Heritage Dictionary. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006. 8652 p.

Collins Essential English Dictionary. Glasgow: HarperCollins Publishers, 2007. 992 p.

Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture. Harlow: Pearson, 2005.1620 p.

Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. Oxford: Longman, 2008.1000 p.

New Webster’s Dictionary of English Language. New York: Lexicon International, 2004.1824 p.

Oxford Dictionary of English Proverbs. Oxford: Claredon Press, 1995. 648 p.

Oxford Dictionary for Advanced Learners. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.1952 p.

The Free Dictionary and Webster’s New World College Dictionary Online

Reformation, 1250-1500 / Prudence Allen p.

Internet Sources

39. Women Concept, available at http: //www.allthingswilliam.com( visited 05.10.2014)

William Congreve, available at http: // www.en.wikiquote.org ( visited 02.02.2015)

Quotes about women, available at http: // www.notable-quotes.com

( visited 22.01.2015)

Concept of Feminity , available at http: //en.wikipedia.org ( visited 16.02.2015)

Oxford Dictionaries, available at http: // www.oxforddictionaries.com ( visited 15.11.2014)

Random House Dictionaries, available at http:

//www. randomhousewebsterdictionaries.com (visited 02.01.2015)

Cambridge Dictionary, available at http:

// www.dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary ( visited 24.03.2015)

www. thinkexist.com ( visited 09.10.2014)

Cosmopolitan Journal, available at http: // www.cosmopolitan.com

( visited 01.04.2015)

Catholic Culture, available at http: //www.catholicculture.org

( visited 03.04.2015)

Halsall, available at http: // www.fordham.edu

( visited 12.04.2015)

Women Quotes, available at http: // www.englishclub.com

( visited 01.03.2015)

Available at http: //www.heartquotes.net ( visited 24.05.2015)

Available at http:// www.blurtit.com ( visited 09.10.2014)

Victorian Era, available at http: // www.fashion-era.com

( visited 02.01.2015)

Library online, available at http: //www.ewtn.com(visited 03.05.2015)

http: // www.lotsofessays.com ( visited 13. 11.2014)

http: // www.nobeliefs.com ( visited 24.01.2015)

http: //www.aceshowbiz.com ( visited 28.12.2014)

ANNEXES

Annex A

THE COVER PAGE OF COSMOPOLITAN

Annex B

THE SITUATION OF SISTEMATICAL DISADVANTAGES FOR WOMEN