Registrul Stiintific Englez Si Roman In Plan Contrastiv

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Registrul Stiintific Englez Si Roman In Plan Contrastiv

Byadmin ianuarie 1, 2024

PROIECT DE LICENȚĂ

Registrul știintific englez și român în plan contrastiv

ca o problemă de traducere (studiu de caz)

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

The practice in translation had been performed from November 10, 2014 till December 15, 2014 at Winify Company as a translator of the English, Spanish and Romanian languages. The Winify Company is a Swiss Company that develops and tests mobile applications, in order to improve their functions and create new useful applications which facilitate the work that has to be done. WINIFY is an international company with the head office in Switzerland, which specializes in development of web and mobile applications. The products and services are mainly interactive entertainment, communications and payment solutions. The company has an office in Chisinau, located on Puskin Street, and is run by Andrei Postaru.

The science impact in modern life is enormous, we use technology in different ways and sometimes the way we implement various technologies ends up harming our lives or the society we leave in. Translators convert information from one language into another one, although this does not mean that the translation has to be word-by-word. The target text has to be about the same size, weight and typeface, and of course the message of the text has to be rendered in the most suitable way. In today`s world, translation and interpretation studies have become a must, that is why a good translator must pay attention to a lot of details, be sensitive to the user`s instructions and to check the translation before bringing to the client. If there are misunderstandings the translator has to ask an expert in that field, and to make everything clear. Practical trainings in companies which offer an insight into future occupation fields are essential.

I did not encounter major difficulties during the translations. The practical period was a good chance to observe the interaction between the translator and the client. It was a good experience, because now I feel myself free to keep a conversation in English, and I have learnt a lot of essential information about Information Technology, and of course improved my typing speed.

The conclusion is that besides the benefits which I gained after this translation practice, I have learned how to use a specialized vocabulary and to assume the responsibility at work.

The aim of the project is to make a contrastive analysis of English and Romanian scientific register in the framework of translation.

In order to achieve our goal, the following objectives had to be taken:

to study general features of scientific register;

to determine the notion and types of translation;

to investigate the techniques used in translation of scientific register;

to determine the peculiar features of English, Romanian and Spanish specialized vocabulary.

While translating the text/documents from the scientific field, I search for a plenty of sources like: dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, explanatory dictionaries, terminological dictionaries, e-dictionaries, Concise Oxford Lingua English-Romanian Dictionary in both the Romanian and English languages.

Chapter I of the project is entitled “General Features of Scientific Register”, it centers upon the definition and types of translation, translation strategies and linguistic approach to the scientific register and its translation.

Chapter II is entitled “Issues in Translating Multilingual Scientific Register”, and describes types of scientific terminology classifications and problems of translating the scientific register.

The chapter II is followed by the conclusion, bibliography and annexes.

GENERAL FEATURES OF SCIENTIFIC REGISTER

I.1. Definition and Types of Translation

Defining translation had always been a problematic issue, in the sense that one finds more than one definition. Each definition reflects a different perspective and a theoretical basis on which scholars seek the same goal, namely equivalence. In common practice, one can usually identify two different senses of translation. One aims at transferring ideas and messages via rewording or paraphrasing, as in everyday life when a layman tries to explain or express ideas in a different way by using different words only within the same language. The other sees translation as an act of transferring messages from a source language into a target language, be it oral or written, for the sake of establishing equivalence to get the appropriate meaning [8, p. 63]. Some scholars’ definitions of translation have focused on the approach of preserving the original or source text effect, as for Charles Taber, translation consists of reformulating the message of the source text into the closest equivalent in the target language [12, p. 28].The linguists gave priority to the meaning preservation, as much as possible, then focusing on the style.

For John Catford, the process of translation is the substitution of a piece of writing in one language by its corresponding piece of writing in another language [3, p. 22]. Hasan Ghazala defined the translation as any process that results in transferring the meaning from one language into another one [5, p. 21]. In author`s theories about translation, the main goal is to deliver the meaning of the source language by using the equivalents available in the target language. One more definition defines the translation from two different perspectives, first as a process in which the translation is an act of taking a text from one language and transforming it into another one. In this sense, the linguist Basil Hatim has focused on the part of the translator, and the second as a product which denotes that the translation is focused on the results achieved by the translator, the concrete product of translation [6, p. 22].

In this section, the translation is represented from the viewpoint of types of categorization. In this regard Roman Jackobson distinguishes between three main types of written translation: intra-lingual translation, inter-lingual translation and inter-semiotic translation:

Intra-lingual translation is the translation of textual materials within the same language and may include rewording or paraphrasing.

Inter-lingual translation is to translate textual materials from one language into another. It is also referred to as the proper translation.

Inter-semiotic translation is the translation or the interpretation of the verbal signs by non- verbal signs as translating ideas or emotions into a painting or in symphony of music [7, p. 232].

Furthermore, every scientist has its own viewpoint, regarding the way terminology and translation is classified. For example, Hasan Ghazala, noticed that literary versus free translation is an acceptable classification. According to his theories, all typologies could be squeezed into these two types. Altogether, the available typologies could combine the following kinds of translation:

semantic versus communicative translation;

formal versus dynamic translation;

non-pragmatic versus pragmatic translation;

non-creative versus creative translation.

Even though, the scientist discussed only the literary and free translation, he started by literal translation which, according to him, is of two types:

word-for-word translation;

direct translation [5, p. 5].

The word-for-word translation aims at translating each word separately, taking into no consideration the grammatical or other linguistic differences.

Hence, this type of translation involves extreme fidelity to the wording of the source text and forces the translator to set the exact equivalents.

On the other hand, the second type, direct translation, considers the grammar and the linguistics differences. Many theoreticians claimed that this type could be a very dangerous method because it may destroy the meaning.

In this sense, Korney Chukovsky said that its adoption frequently leads to a complete distortion of the meaning of the original [4, p. 6]. Andre Lefevere argued that this method has severe limitations [9, p. 393].

On the other hand, free translation is to translate under no restrictions, is also referred to as sense-for-sense translation. In free translation, the translator focuses on producing a natural readable target text. It is more target text oriented than literal translation; free translation does not take much consideration to preserve the source text wording.

The phonetician John Catford suggested that the free translations should be unbounded [3, p. 25].

I.2. Translation Strategies

Strategies are sets of procedures which are used for translating. Each one has a scale of facility that may be more helpful than the other one. The Emeritus Professor Gabriella Bosco, classified translation techniques or strategies into two types [2, p. 184]:

Direct Translation Techniques

Direct translation techniques are used when there are conceptual elements that can be transposed into the target language. The techniques are classified as follows:

Borrowing

A borrowing is the attempt to take words from one language and put them in another language alphabet.

These words are naturalized to suit the grammar and the pronunciation of the target language. Eventually these words become part of the lexicon system of the target language as in Romanian and Spanish languages. For example:

(EN) Computer (RO) Computer (SP) Computador

(EN) Tablet (RO) Tabletă (SP) Tableta

Calque

Calque or loan translation is the literal translation. It is to translate a phrase borrowed from another literary language, preserving the source language structure and the manner of expressing which may be unfamiliar to the target language [2, p. 185]. For example:

(SP) Alta tecnología (RO) Tehnologie avansată calques (EN) high technology;

(SP) Disco compacto (RO) Disc compact calques (EN) Compact disc;

(SP) Ratón (RO) șoricel calques (EN) mouse (computer);

(SP) Alta resolución (RO) rezoluție înaltă calques (EN) high resolution.

Literal translation

Literal translation is to translate from the source language into the target language and to preserve the same effect and wording of the source text, only the language is changed. In this kind of translation, changes which may affect the source text structures are not allowed. Usually this method works with languages from the same origin.

Oblique Translation Techniques

The oblique translation techniques are used when the translator cannot translate elements from the source language without adjusting or changing the meaning, the grammatical and stylistic elements of the target language. Oblique translation includes: transposition, modulation, reformulation or equivalence, adaptation and compensation:

Transposition is to involve changes in the parts of speech order when translating, especially at the grammatical level.

Modulation is a type of translation where the translator adds changes to the grammatical and semantic structure of the SL as to suit the TL without affecting the meaning, because it has to convey the same idea of the ST, and yet it should not carry awkwardness to the reader of the TT [2, p. 186].

Equivalence- this technique requires the translator to be creative, especially in the case of translating proverbs, idioms or slogans of advertising. This process allows the translator to reduce or expand the number of words, but not to drop crucial information.

Adaptation- in this type the translator attempts to make textual materials that are peculiar to a given language and culturally appropriate to another one.

Compensation is a strategy used to replace the items which cannot be translated from the ST by others in the TT, that is, to express the meaning using different items, which are not available in the ST but have the same sense [2, p. 187].

By referring to these strategies translators can justify adjustments of form depending on the semantic, stmantic, stylistic and communicative requirements of the TT.

I.3. Linguistic Approach to the Scientific Register and its Translation

The expert in a scientific sector, Miguel Ramirez defines the science as “a way of exploring and explaining the natural world using a process designed to reduce the chance of being misled” [11, p. 2]. Following the same sense, science is defined as “the knowledge ascertained by observation and experiment, critically tested, systematized and brought under general principles” [17, online]. Generally speaking, science is a word that refers to the organized approach of attaining knowledge, using a scientific method that helps to organize thought, procedures and then come into clear, faithful and reliable results, free of subjectivity and personal involvements.

The language of science has its certain type of vocabulary which includes specialized/ scientific words defined as terms and forming terminology of a certain branch.

The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines terminology as: “Special words or expressions used in relation to a particular subject or activity” [17, online]. Terminology is viewed as a structured set of concepts and their labels in a particular subject field, it can be considered the infrastructure of specialized knowledge. Technical writing and scientific papers are thus impossible without properly using terminological resources.

Scientifically speaking, it is concerned with the study and use of the systems of symbols and linguistic signs employed for human communication in specialized areas of knowledge and activities.

Terminology refers to all specific terms and expressions used in a specific register as the terms: hard disc, hardware and software which are specific terms generally used in scientific-technical texts. Poem and Prose, however, refer mainly to literary texts [12, p. 38].

As science and technology develop, new English words used to express new concepts, techniques and inventions come into existence. These words have developed faster during the last decades the dictionaries can by no means trigger of. This development has brought into Romanian and Spanish serious linguistic problems of expressing this ever–expanding wave of newly–founded concepts and techniques for which no equivalents in Romanian and Spanish exist. But while coinage, borrowing, transliteration and other means of transfer made for a huge bulk of English scientific terminology, translating of full technical texts from English into another language still poses a major intellectual challenge. Scientific terms are not simple word`s combinations, these are special and complex ones. Scientific terms are the most significant feature in science, because these discriminate it from other registers (literary). These terms make scientific texts incomprehensible for lay people and are directed to experts in the science sector.

The scientific translation is mainly about translating terms in the field of science and technology of all kinds, medicine, physics, mathematics, computer sciences etc. from one language into another one [14, p. 23]. Scientific translations do not deal with literary text, they only involve the texts from the world of electronics, medicine, law, economics, computer science, geology, etc. The number of technical fields is infinitely large, and terminology is expanding and changing daily. The scientific translation is considered one of the most important issue, as the world develops, new technology appears, and along with them emerge new terms to which finding an equivalent may pose a problem. In this regard Eugene Nida argued that it is not easy at all to translate scientific terms that emerged in western developed countries languages into a language of third world countries which are still having financial and social problems [10, p. 242].

The scientific translation primary goal is to deliver scientific information, it aims at presenting well expressed information, which may be used easily, properly and effectively. The author referred to the scientific translation as a communicative service, which offers new information for new audience, since scientific translation is regarded as a communicative service, it certainly involves three main people, which are the author, the translator and the reader.

Moreover Eugene Nida added that it is much more than just rendering source text language and style. Its main concern is to ensure delivering information accurately and correctly, in that it insures that the reader may use this information easily. Scientific translators are not like ordinary translators. There are certain qualifications that they should have in order to accomplish a good translation of a scientific text as well as to deliver the identical information. This is because scientific translation is not just an idea or information transfer, but rather a technology transfer and new invention that may help other countries. Bethany Thieverge remarked that the work of scientific translators is to achieve one primary goal: to write information in a clear, concise, and accurate manner [13, p. 188].

Ali Al-Hassnawi claimed that there are nine requirements that a scientific translator should observe: work appropriate for the intended audience, respect for choices made by the author, respect for references, understanding of sciences, understanding of languages, constructive questions, a work suitable for publication, familiarity with current practices and timely exchange of work. Following the same sense, also are discriminated six characteristics that the scientific translator should have:

broad knowledge of the subject-matter of the text to be translated;

a well-developed imagination that enables the translator to visualize the equipment or process being described;

intelligence, to be able to fill in the missing links in the original text;

a sense of discrimination, to be able to choose the most suitable equivalent term from the literature of the field or from dictionaries;

the ability to use one's own language with clarity, conciseness and precision;

Practical experience in translating from related fields [1, p. 20].

The need for translators to conduct research in order to understand not just the text but also the subject, while at the same time ensuring by means of revisions and corrections, that the text conforms to target language norms and target audience expectations.

II. ISSUES IN TRANSLATING MULTILINGUAL SCIENTIFIC REGISTER

II.1. Types of Scientific Terminology Classifications

Classification is a procedure where something is categorized. Process in which ideas and objects are identified, distinguished and understood.

Terminology across fields is entirely varied. In statistics, where classification is often made with logistic regression or a similar procedure, the properties of observations are termed explanatory variables (or independent variables etc.), and the categories to be foretold are known as results, which are considered to be possible values of the dependent variable.

In my work three classifications of the scientific terminology are performed.

The first is structural classification, the second one is etymological classification and the third one is the thematic classification of the scientific terms.

II.1.1. Structural Classification

First of all it is better to speak about the structure of the scientific terms, because we should know what type of terms make part of the studied scientific register. Our classification includes 4 groups (Annex 1, fig. 1). Further we shall discuss each of them:

One member terms

This group includes 99 terms (49%), being the largest one (Annex 3, table 1). Below there are some examples, followed by translation into the Romanian and Spanish languages and instances of the use of the terms in sentences:

Cyberspace (EN) – spațiu cibernetic (RO) – ciberespacio (SP), noun;

(EN) Cyberspace is the notional environment in which communication over computer networks occurs.

(RO) Ciberspațiu este mediul imaginar în care se efectuează comunicare prin intermediul rețelelor cumputerizate.

(SP) Ciberespacio es una realidad simulada en la que es efectuada la comunicación por las redes digitales.

Intranet (EN)– Intranet (RO)– Intranet(SP), noun;

(EN) Intranet is a computer network that uses Internet Protocol technology to share information, operational systems, or computing services within an organization.

(RO) Intranet este o rețea computerizată care utilizează tehnologia Internet Protocolul pentru a distribui informație, sisteme operaționale, sau servicii computerizate într-o organizație.

(SP) Intranet es una red informática que utiliza la tecnología del Protocolo de Internet para compartir información, sistemas operativos o servicios de computación dentro de una organización [15, online].

Directory (EN)– Directoriu (RO)– Directorio (SP), noun;

(EN) To change the layout depending on the orientation, you can define two different layouts and apply the appropriate qualifier to each layout's directory name.

(RO) Să schimbi configurarea ce depinde de orientare, puteți defini două proiecte diferite și să aplicați cel mai adecvat candidat calificat fiecarui nume directoriu de proiect.

(SP) Para cambiar las configuraciones que depende por la orientación, puede definir dos proyectos diferentes y aplicar el más adecuado candidato calificado por cada nombre directorio del proyecto.

Debugger (EN)– Depanator (RO)– Depurador (SP), noun;

(EN) The debugger is a compter program that is used to test and debug other programs.

(RO) Depanatorul este un program computerizat care este folosit pentru a testa sau depana alte programe.

(SP) El depurador es un programa usado para probar y depurar (eliminar) los errores de los otros programas.

Two-member terms

There are 66 terms (33%) in this group (Annex 3, table 2). It is on the second place after the first group (Annex 1, fig. 2). The combination of words creates meanings that they do not have in isolation and even meanings that are not wholly predictable from the senses of the words combined. Here are presented some examples of different term combinations with translation and instances of the use in sentences:

Operating System (EN)- Sistem de Operare (RO)- Sistema Operativo (SP);

(EN) The Android Operating System is a multi-user Linux system. (PI+ N)

(RO) Sistemul de Operare Android este un sistem multi-utilizator Linux. (N+ prep.+ N)

(SP) El Sistema Operativo Android es un sistema multiusuario Linux. (N+ Adj)

Here we can observe some changes during translation process, which could be a problem in some cases. I would like to point out that the English language belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. The Spanish language is a part of the Ibero-Romance group of languages, which evolved from several dialects of common Latin in Iberia after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. The Romanian language is a Romance language, belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family, having much in common with languages such as French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese.

As a deduction, from the above told statement, we can notice that the Romanian and Spanish languages have the same root, while English has another one. That is the reason why Romanian and Spanish have a lot in common, especially in their grammar structure.

In the example given above, is clearly seen that the word order in both Latin rooted languages is similar, as to the Spanish and Romanian equivalents have the structure N+ (prep.)+ N corresponding to English PI+ N as the Germanic rooted language has different word order.

Resource files (EN)- fișiere de resurse (RO)- archivos de datos (SP);

(EN) The Android SDK tools compile your code—along with any data and resource files- into an APK.

(RO) Instrumentele SDK ale Android-ului întocmesc codul dumneavoastră- împreună cu orice date și fișiere de resurse- într-un APK.

(SP) Las herramientas del SDK de Android compilan su código- junto con todos los datos y archivos de datos- en un APK.

Resouce files (Noun+ Noun)/ Fișiere de resurse(Noun+ prep.+ Noun)/ Archivos de datos (Noun + prep.+ Noun).

Security sandbox (EN)- mecanism de securitate (RO)- mecanismo de securidad (SP);

(EN) Each Android application lives in its own security sandbox.

(RO) Fiecare aplicație Android se află în propriul său mecanism de securitate.

(SP) Cada aplicación es situada en su propio mecanismo de seguridad.

Not only the word order in both Latin rooted language is similar, but also the root of the word.

Portrait orientation (EN)- orientare de prezentare (RO)- orientaciòn vertical (SP);

(EN) When the device screen is in portrait orientation, you might want a layout with buttons to be vertical.

(RO) În timp ce ecranul dispozitivului este în orientare de prezentare, ați putea dori un proiect cu butoane amplasate vertical.

(SP) Mientras la plantalla del dispositivo es en la orientaciòn vertical, es posible que usted desearà un plano con botones emplazados vertical.

Application code (EN)- codul aplicației (RO)- còdigo de la aplicaciòn (SP);

(EN) The application code runs in isolation from other applications.

(RO) Codul aplicației operează separat de ale aplicații.

(SP) El código de la aplicación funciona separado de otras aplicaciones.

Three-member terms

In this group there are 28 terms (14%), below there are some examples:

Short Message Service (A + N+ N)/ Serviciu Mesaje Scurte (N+ N+ A)/ Servicio Mensajes Cortos (N+ N+ A)

(EN) An application can request permission to access device data, such as the user`s contacts and Short Message Service.

(RO) O aplicație poate solicita permisiunea pentru a accesa datele dispozitivului, precum contactele utilizatorului și Serviciul Mesajelor Scurte.

(SP) Una aplicación puede solicitar autorización para acceder a los datos del dispositivo, tal como los contactos del usuario y el Servicio Mensajes Cortos.

The structure of the Romanian and Spanish constructions is the same N+ N+ A, while English construction is A+ N+ N.

Up to date (Prep+Prep+N)- actualizat (PI)- actualizado (PI);

(EN) Ketarin application keeps your install files up-to-date.

(RO) Aplicația Ketarin păstrează fișierele dumneavostră de instalare actualizate.

(SP) La aplicación Ketarin almacena vuestros archivos de instalación actualizados.

Macintosh Operating System (Pr.N+ PI+ N)- Sistem de Operare Macintosh (N+ prep.+ N+ prN)- Sistema Operativo Macintosh (N+ Adj+ pr.N);

(EN) The "classic" Macintosh Operating System is characterized by its monolithic system.

(RO) Sistemul “clasic” de Operare Macintosh este caracterizat de către sistemul său monolitic.

(SP) El sistema “clásico” Operativo Macintosh es caracterizado por su sistema monolítico.

Four-member Terms

As for this group, there are only 7 terms (4%). An example is given below:

Android Software Development Kit (Pr.N+ N+ N+ N)- Trusă de Dezvoltare ale Programelor Android (N+prep.+N +N +N )- Kit del Desarrollo de los Programas Software (N+ prep.+ N+ prep.+ N+ N);

(EN) The Android Software Development Kit tools compile your code.

(RO) Trusa de Instrumente de Dezvoltare ale Programelor Android întocmeșe codul dumneavoastră.

(SP) Los instrumentos Kit del Dearrollo de los Programas Software compilan su còdigo.

Among other specific issues in technical terms translation, someone can remark the semantic uncertainty, absence of the knowledge of technical terms alike the grammar aspects in view of the fact that in translation of multi-member terms, from one language into another one, numerous syntactic changes can occur (Annex 2, text 2).

In the example given above the rendering of the same message using different parts of speech is shown.

Each translator has to pay attention to the sentence structure, when they change the parts of the sentence, because it can result a difference in the meaning and respectively the translation is not rendering the same message.

II.1.2. Etymological Classification

Etymology can be defined as the systematic study of the birth, historical perspective, and time-to-time changes in the forms and implications of words.

All words have their own history. They are traveling in time, becoming richer in meanings or disappear at all. Usually the words history contains the story of a specific culture and population (Annex 1, fig. 3). Through etymology we are capable to review the Ancient Greek thoughts, even if their culture sat down a long time ago. I cannot conclude without indicating etymology`s meaning “etimos” means truth, while “logia” means science, which in turn comes from “legin”(to speak).

Below there are listed some scientific and technical words followed by their etymological path:

Directory (noun) – directoriu (noun) – directorio (noun), dates from 1540s, with the meaning of a guide book of rules. The word comes from Medieval Latin “directorius”, later in 1908 it gained one more meaning “listing of telephone numbers”

Directory can also refer to:

a council created by five members, who governed France since 1799;

a book that gives a list of names, addresses or another personal information [17, online].

(EN) The files and the directories cannot be differentiated besides the name.

(SP) Archivos y directorios no pueden ser diferenciados a través del nombre.

(RO) Fișierele și directoriile nu pot fi diferențiate decît după denumire.

Telematics (noun)- telematică (noun)-telemàtica (noun), comes from Greek “tele”- far away and “matos”- of its own accord.

The term telematics characterizes the process of long-distance conveyance of computer-based information. For the first time this word was inserted in French language by Simona Nora and Alain Minc in L`informatisation de la sociètè.

(EN) The telematics is a scientific and technological disciplinary.

(RO) Telematica este o disciplină științifică și tehnologică.

(SP) La telemática es una disciplina científica y tecnológica.

Aeronautics (noun)- aeronautică (noun)- aeronàutico (noun), comes from Ancient Greek and has the meaning of the science or art of flight.

(EN) The modern aeronautics investigation first of all is controlled by private corporations and universities.

(RO) Investigația în aeronautica modern este în primul rînd controlată de corporații private și universități.

(SP) La investigación en la aeronáutica moderna es principalmente controlada por corporaciones independientes y universidades.

Computer (noun)- computer (noun)- ordenador (noun), before this term referred to an electronic analog or a digital computer, it was used for describing a person who did computing.

(EN) Modern computers can be distinguished from all other machines because they can be programmed.

(RO) Calculatoarele modern pot fi distinse de alte mecanisme deoarece ele pot fi programate.

(SP) Los ordenadores modernos pueden ser distinguidos de otros mecanismos porque ellos pueden ser programados.

This word came into use in the English language in the 1646, as a word which describes one who computes, and then by 1897 as a mechanical calculating machine. Later, in 1946, the word referred to an electronic machine. This word is composed by “compute” which is borrowed in 1631 from French, which was a borrowing from Latin “computare” with the meaning of to sum up, to count and reckon [17, online].

Therefore, according to Hermann Hesse without words, without writing and without books there would be no history, there could be no concept of humanity.

II.1.3. Thematic Classification

This type of classification consists of categorizing the things/objects from an array (Annex 1, fig. 4). Below there are some groups which include categorized term:

Applications: Skype, Facebook, Yahoo, Messenger, Google Map, Calculator, Libon, Gmail, YouTube, Dropbox, Shazam, Ebay etc.

(SP) Skype es un software que permite comunicaciones de texto, voz y vídeo sobre Internet.

(EN) Facebook is an online social networking service headquartered in Menlo Park, California.

(SP) Facebook es un sitio web de redes sociales creado por Mark Zuckerberg.

(SP) ICQ es un cliente de mensajería instantánea y el primero de su tipo en ser ampliamente utilizado en Internet, mediante el cual es posible chatear y enviar mensajes instantáneos a otros usuarios conectados a la red de ICQ.

(EN) Messenger is just like texting, but you don't have to pay for every message.

Operating Systems: Android, Windows, iOS, BlackBerry, Ubuntu, Windows Phone, Windows Mobile, Symbian, Linux etc.

(EN) Macintosh OS is a series of graphical user interface-based operating systems developed by Apple Inc. for their Macintosh line of computer systems.

(EN) Android is a mobile operating system based on the Linux kernel and currently developed by Google.

(EN) The BlackBerry operating system provides multitasking and supports specialized input devices that have been adopted by BlackBerry Ltd. for use in its handhelds, particularly the track wheel, trackball, and most recently, the track pad and touchscreen.

(EN) iOS is a mobile operating system created and developed by Apple Inc. and distributed exclusively for Apple hardware.

Technical devices: camera, Bluetooth, hardware, software, laptop, notepad, phone, Wi-Fi, headphones, speaker, microphone etc.

(EN) A camera is an optical instrument that records images that can be stored directly, transmitted to another location, or both.

(EN) Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances from fixed and mobile devices and building personal area networks.

(EN) Computer hardware is the physical parts or components of a computer, such as the monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data storage, hard disk drive, system unit (graphic cards, sound cards, memory, motherboard and chips), and so on, all of which are physical objects that can be touched.

(EN) Early predecessors of cellular phones included analog radio communications from ships and trains.

(SP) Bloc de notas es un editor de texto simple incluido en los sistemas operativos de Microsoft desde 1985.

(SP) Software es una palabra proveniente del inglés, que en español no posee una traducción adecuada al contexto, por lo cual se la utiliza asiduamente sin traducir y así fue admitida por la Real Academia Española

Each word makes part of a family and can be categorized according to its affiliation to a group or a system of words. The classification of scientific-technical terminology into three groups, in my case, is a logically proved idea of analyzing the vocabulary of the studied field, due to which the main structural, etymologic and thematic features were established.

II.2. Problems of Translating the Scientific Register

The translation of scientific documents is determined one of the most important matter of contention as the world develops, new technology appears, and along with them emerge new terms to which finding an equivalent may pose a problem. As Eugen Nida said in this regard that it is not easy at all to translate scientific terms that emerged in eastern developed countries languages into a language of third world countries which are still having financial and social problems [10, p. 243].

In order to translate a text from Romanian into English and vice versa, first of all we should perceive it, that means if we are not accustomed with some specialized notions, terminological combinations or sentences from a certain domain, in our case the field of science, we should, first of all, check different mother tongue dictionaries for understanding the word in our native language and after this to translate in TL as well as to consult specialized explanatory dictionaries in the field. This work implies a lot of efforts, because we, students are not experts in a certain domain.

In the first section there were listed the differences between languages from different families and below is a more detailed information about differences and problems which emerge in translating a scientific register.

Usually the biggest problem in translating represents the “play” of meaning.

Once the translator used the suitable word, the sentence is meaningful and the idea is rendered in a good way (Annex 2, text 1).

Another important problem regards the non-equivalent words, these usually bring at inserting new meanings of the words. A good translation could be ruined by a wrongly-chosen word equivalent and the unrighteous placing of the word.

An example of synonymy is presented below:

(EN) Android applications are written in the Java programming language.

(RO) Aplicațiile Android sunt scrise în limbajul de programare Java.

(SP) Las aplicaciones Android son escritas en el lenguaje Java [15, online].

The word language has the meaning of:

a system of communication used by a particular country or community;

a system of symbols and rules for writing programs or algorithms;

a method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way [17, online].

Translating the word language from English into Romanian it is necessary to choose either to use the word limbă or limbaj. Taking into account that in the text it is spoken about computer applications, the suitable word is limbaj because this word expresses the idea from the sentence of the word language. The same happens while translating into Spanish, the adequate translations of this word is lenguaje, because the words vocabulario and idioma have another connotation [16, online].

We cannot use in this context the word vocabulario because its general meaning is un libro en que se contiene conjunto de palabras que usa o conoce una persona.

The word idioma means lengua de una comunidad de hablantes[15, online].

I would like to point out a major problem in performing a translation is intradisciplinary polysemy.

It is a problem in translating scientific-technical terms as each of two or more words have the same spelling or pronunciation but different meaning and origin, for example:

(EN) Application software is a set of computer programs designed to permit the user to perform a group of coordinated activities and tasks.

(RO) Aplicația software este un set de programe computerizate proiectat pentru a permite utilizatorului să realizeze un grup de activități și sarcini coordonate.

(SP) La aplicaciòn software es un equipo de programas computarizados creados para permitir al usuario actuar un grupo de actividades y tareas coordinadas.

In the sentences given above, the word application has the meaning of computerized program, but a quite different meaning of this word will be presented below:

(EN) A job application letter should be sent or uploaded with your resume when applying for job.

(RO) Scrisoarea de aplicare la un job trebuie să fie remisă sau încarcată împreună cu CV pentru a aplica la un post de lucru.

(SP) Una letra de aplicaciòn para un trabajo debe ser enviada o subida con el CV al aplicar para un trabajo.

In these examples the meaning of the word application have the same spelling and pronunciation but a totally different meaning [16, online]. In the both given examples in English and Spanish the key words are unchangeable, while in Romanian aplicație passed into aplicare.

Intradisciplinary polysemy is not a desirable phenomenon in specialized language, as a scientific lexical unit (term) must have only one meaning and denote only one scientific object or phenomenon.

The scientific-technical vocabulary mainly consists of polysemantic words, such as: operation, landscape, portrait etc.

For example the lexical unit operation has the meaning of: a process or manner of working, an act, a process of a practical or mechanical nature, business transaction and many others. While in the Romanian language the word operation (operație) means a surgery or an economic process. The equivalent for the English operation in our context is operare. As for English-Spanish and vice versa translators, this word will not cause any difficulty, due to similarities. The Spanish equivalent is operaciòn.

Another fact is that polysemantism is divided into two groups:

general language- from this group make part the following words: operation, store, bug, forum etc.

The term store everybody knows with the meaning of a shop, but if to get deeper into the meaning especially in the scientific-technical sector it has the meaning of a reserve memory. In order to feel the difference between the two above noticed connotations, below is an example of each one:

(EN) In our city are twenty restaurants and only one health food store.

(RO) În orașul nostru sunt douăzeci de restaurante și doar un magazin cu produse organice.

(SP) En nuestro ciudad hay veinte restaurantes y solo una tienda naturista.

(EN) The data store for the company was backed up daily.

(RO) Făceau copii zilnice ale spațiului de stocare a datelor firmei.

(SP) Cada dìa hicieron respaldos de los datos del almacenaje de la empresa.

In the first example, the lexical unit store has totally different meaning from the second example. This kind of polysemantism represents “the false friend” of the translator, because it can lead to undertake an error in the rendering of the ST message. The equivalent lexis in Romanian is spațiu de stocare and in Spanish almacenaje.

specialized language- in this group are listed the following words: Bluetooth, web, computer, telephony, directory, process, website, hardware, megabit etc.

One more example of the translator`s “false friend” the word apparatus, because in general vocabulary it has the meaning of equipment while in the scientific-technical field this lexical unit means a system, that is why the Romanian equivalent is sistema, Spanish is aparato.

(EN) The whole apparatus has to be cleaned and arranged.

(RO) Întregul echipament trebuie să fie curățat și aranjat.

(SP) El equipamiento al completo debe ser limpiado y ordenado.

(EN) The computer apparatus is full with bugs.

(RO) Sistema calculatorului este infectată cu viruși.

(SP) El aparato del ordenador es infectado por software malicioso.

No one is capable to know all the synonyms of the words and in which cases to use one or another thesaurus, for this reason even a specialist consults the dictionary. Due to a large number of terms, a dictionary can be regarded as the whole universe in alphabetical order.

Another difficulty in translating process is created by the borrowed words. In fact, borrowings are divided into: completely assimilated, partly assimilated and non-assimilated.

Speaking about borrowed words from the scientific-technical domain, mostly are completely assimilated, for example: Bluetooth, notepad, software, hardware, website, computer, forum, camera, chat, laptop, megabit, kilobit etc. This type of borrowings is not felt as foreign words in the language. Sentence example:

(EN) An Internet forum is an online discussion site where people can hold conversations in the form of posted messages.

(RO) Un Internet forum este un site de discuții online în care oamenii duc conversații sub formă de mesaje postate.

(SP) Un Internet forum es un web site de charlas online en el cual las personas tienen conversationes por el ambiente de mensaje postados.

(EN) The unit kilobit is used for measuring the traffic of the information from a digital canal, and is counted kilobits per second.

(RO) Unitatea kilobit se folosește pentru a calcula traficul de informație printr-un canal digital, și se exprimă în kilobits pe secundă.

(SP) La unidad kilobit se usa para medir el tráfico de la información por un canal digital, y se expresa en unidades de kilobits por segundo.

All the words and examples I have listed above, in the Romanian and Spanish languages maintain the structure and pronunciation as in English.

Partly assimilated borrowings are subdivided into the following groups:

non-assimilated semantically, because they denote objects and notions specific to the country from the language of which they were borrowed, e.g. formula;

In computing, a formula typically describes a calculation, such as addition, to be performed on one or more variables.

În mediul calculelor, o formulă deobicei descrie un calcul, precum adunare, pentru a fi reprezentată în o sau mai multe variabile.

En la informàtica, una formula normalmente describe un càlculo, como es adiciòn, para ser presentada por una o màs variables.

non-assimilated grammatically, e.g. datum- data;

Data is a set of values of qualitative or quantitative variables.

Data este un set de valori de variabile calitative sau cantitative.

Data es un equipo de valores de variables cantitativas o cuantitativas.

non-assimilated phonetically, e.g. machine.

Game developers assume they're pushing the limits of the machine.

Dezvoltatorii de jocuri dezvoltă mecanismele.

Los desarrolladores de juegos desarrolla las màquinas.

Non-assimilated borrowings (barbarisms) are borrowings which have an equivalent word in another language and the borrowing cannot be assimilated, e.g. duende (SP), elf (EN), spiriduș (RO).

Widgets are an essential aspect of home screen customization.

Widget-urile sunt un aspect esențial al ecranului de start personalizat.

Adminìculos son un aspecto esencial para la pantalla principal personalizada.

One of the techniques used in translating texts/ documents is the text adaptation, especially modulation. Due to differences in grammar, the structure of TT may deviate from the ST. The most common example of this difference is English “of+ Noun” while in Romanian and Spanish is used the genitive case “a/al lui+ Noun”. For example:

(EN) The principle of least privilege monitors the user rights and what opportunities they can have doing their jobs.

(RO) Principiul privilegiului minim monitorizează drepturile utilizatorului și oportunitățile de care poate profita în timp ce operează.

(SP) El principio del privilegio mìnimo monitoriza los derechos del usuario y las oportunidades de cuales el puede profitar durante su trabajo.

The correct way of translating a document is to convey the information from it into TL that is why sometimes the translator appeals to the modulation and compensation.

(EN) system services/ (Ro) Servicii de system/ (SP) Servicios de sistema;

(EN) user identifier/ (RO) document de identificare al utilizatorului/ (SP) documento de identificaciòn del usuario.

(EN) The system shares the data with other applications as the application can access the system services.

(RO) Sistemul împarte datele cu alte aplicații pentru ca aplicația să acceseze serviciile sistemului.

(SP) El sistema comprate los datos con otras aplicaciones lo que la aplicaciòn puede accesar los servicios del sistema.

(EN) The system assigns each application a unique user identifier.

(RO) Sistemul distribuie fiecărei aplicații un document de identificare unic al utilizatorului.

(SP) El sistema asigna a cada aplicaciòn un documiento ùnico de identificaciòn del usuario.

Eclipse ADT will be the official Android integrated development environment once it is ready.

Eclipse ADT va deveni oficial mediu de dezvoltare înglobat Android odată ce va fi finalizat.

Eclipse ADT serà el oficial entorno de desarrollo integrado Android cuando serà finalizado.

Transposition is one of frequently encountered technique in translating process. It implies changes in parts of speech order. For example:

(EN) Application components are the essential building blocks of an Anfroid application.

(RO) Componentele aplicației sunt blocurile esențiale în contruirea aplicației Android.

(SP) Los componentes de la aplicaciòn son bloques esenciales en la construcciòn de la aplicaiòn Android.

(EN) Platforms typically provide a carefully designed set of user interface elements that are themed in a very distinctive fashion.

(RO) De obicei platformele oferă un set bine proiectat de elementele ale interfeței utilizatorului care sunt tematizate într-un mod specific.

(SP) Siempre la plataforma ofrece un equipo de elementes con cuidado designado por la interfaz del usuario cuales sont tematizadas en una manera special.

The literal or also known as word-for-word technique is applied for technical, scientific, technological or legal texts translation. Examples are shown below:

(EN) An activity represents a single screen with a user interface.

(RO) O activitate reprezintă un singur ecran cu o interfață a utilizatorului.

(SP) Una actividad representa un solo monitor con una interfaz del usuario.

(EN) A content provider manages a shared set of aplication data.

(RO) Un furnizor de conținut conduce un set comun de aplicații data.

(SP) Un proveedor de contenido dirige un equipo comùn de aplicaciones data.

(EN) One of the most important aspects of providing resources separate from your source code is the ability to provide alternative resources for different device configurations.

(RO) Unul dintre cele mai importante aspecte ale furnizării de resurse distincte ale codului dumneavoastră sursă este abilitatea de a oferi resurse alternative pentru diferite configurări ale dispozitivului.

(SP) Uno de los màs importantes aspectes de provisto de recursos distintos de su còdigo fuente es la abilidad de ofrecer recursos alternativas para diversos configuraciones del dispositivo.

It is very advantageous to be familiar with the word the person uses and to know where and when to introduce it. On account of all the problems I have listed above, the translator`s work is one of the hardest job, because one mistake can lead to a bad reputation which will not help in the future development.

CONCLUSION

Every translation activity has one or more specific purposes and whichever these could be, the main aim of the translation is to serve as a cross-cultural bilingual communication vehicle among people.

For the future specialists the practical period has a significance, because it offers a real experience for masters on the way to developing. Due to practice, we are given the possibility to use in a rational way our knowledge, mind and resistance.

During the practical time, each student is capable to decide if he or she is ready to start working for becoming a specialist in the domain he or she has studied. For students is very important to develop certain professional skills and to get ready for working into an integrated team.

The practice in translating domain is a kind of initiation for future specialists. As for me, I performed my practice in the science of technology sector, and can firmly remark that this field of science is a difficult one, and even if you think that you are a specialist, always is needed to study more and more, due to fast updating of new technologies and creating new ones.

Nowadays everything tend to be computerized, even the work of the translator could be done with the help of the translating applications or machines. Nevertheless, all these machines altogether are not as good as a human being translation, because people are flexible and can apply extra-knowledge while translating. Always a human translated document will be a better one, due to logical abilities and a deep knowledge in diverse fields.

The problems of machine translations are the lack of the grammar rules and namely endings, articles, number and many other features which have to be taken into account by a translator, who pretend to be called professional. Some translated words from the sentence don’t have any value if are translated with the wrong synonym, these are just like separate words and nothing more. Machine translations are good only for translating separate words, but not for entire texts or sentences. Human translation is the best translation ever seen, because a human being thinks very rational before translating something logically from SL into TL.

In the second chapter I have made a deep analysis of sentences, terms and whole texts. As a conclusion I can remark that terms from the scientific domain are mostly nouns, monolexemic terms and Germanic originated. Monolexemic terms have the highest coefficient in comparison with polylexemic terms, most of which are Germanic rooted words.

A problem in the translating process constitutes the polysemantic words, which are frequently encountered in the scientific field. These types of word require attention and specialized knowledge because these words can serve as “false friends” of a translator. Generally, polysemantic words have the same spelling and pronunciation but different meanings and origins this is the reason why the polysemy is not a desirable phenomenon in specialized language, whilst the scientific terms must have only one meaning and denote only one scientific object or phenomenon.

I would like to emphasize that a translator cannot be a perfect translator in all fields, such as medicine, law, science etc, he has to be specialized in one or two most familiar sectors. Unquestionable, a good translator can translate a text from an unfamiliar field, but only with the help of the specialist or dictionary, nevertheless, the translation might not be at the certain level.

As for me, this practice gave me a great experience, because it offered me the chance, first of all, to practice myself in a prestigious company, the second, I met native speakers from abroad and the third, I enlarged my vocabulary, using a lot of neologisms, borrowings words and notions from informational industry, and I’m proud of myself, because I coped with such a complicated job.

In conclusion, I would like to say that this practice pointed out the gaps in my translations and communication and showed me that before practice I was not so advanced in English as I considered myself, but after this, I can firmly say that I have learned a lot of new things, not only for university as practice, but also for my daily life, and I think that this experience will follow me each moment, on the grounds that what we learn hardly, we never forget for ages.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Al- Hassnawi, Ali. Aspects of Scientific Translation. Ibri: College of Education, 2013. 320 p.

Bosco, Gabriella. Translation Techniques. California: University of California at Santa Barbara, 2014. 200 p.

Catford, John. A Linguistic Theory of Translation: Essay in Applied linguistics. London: Oxford University Press, 2002. 333 p.

Chukovsky, Korney.The Art of the Translation. Tennesse: University of Tennessee Press, 1984. 245 p.

Ghazala, Hasan. Translation. Valetta: University of Malta, 1995. 190 p.

Hatim, Basil. Translation: An Advanced Resource Book. London: Heriot Watt University, 2004. 230 p.

Jakobson, Roman. On Linguistic Aspects of Translation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 265 p.

Lataiwish, Muftah. Principles of Translation. Benghazi: University of Garyounis, 2000. 190 p.

Lefevere, Andre. Translation Poetry: Seven Strategies and a Blueprint. Amsterdam: University of Assen, 1975. 440 p.

Nida, Eugene. Toward a Science of Translation. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma, 1964. 340 p.

Ramirez, Miguel. Science. San Carlos: Colegio Americano de Mexico, 2007. 320 p.

Taber, Charles. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1982. 304 p.

Thieverge, Bethany. Translating Scientific Text: Practicalities and Pitfalls. Maine: University of Maine, 2002. 190 p.

Yowell, Aziz. Some Pitfalls in Translation. Benghazi: University of Banghazi, 1971. 230 p.

http://www.wordreference.com/ (accessed 15.03.15)

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http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/ (accessed 26.04.15)

ANNEXES

ANNEX 1

ANNEX 2

TEXT 1 (original)

Application Fundamentals

Android apps are written in the Java programming language. The Android SDK tools compile your code—along with any data and resource files—into an APK: an Android package, which is an archive file with an .apk suffix. One APK file contains all the contents of an Android app and is the file that Android-powered devices, use to install the app.

Once installed on a device, each Android app lives in its own security sandbox:

The Android operating system is a multi-user Linux system in which each app is a different user;

By default, the system assigns each app a unique Linux user ID (the ID is used only by the system and is unknown to the app). The system sets permissions for all the files in an app so that only the user ID assigned to that app can access them;

Each process has its own virtual machine (VM), so an app's code runs in isolation from other apps

By default, every app runs in its own Linux process. Android starts the process when any of the app's components need to be executed, then shuts down the process when it's no longer needed or when the system must recover memory for other apps.

In this way, the Android system implements the principle of least privilege. That is, each app, by default, has access only to the components that it requires to do its work and no more. This creates a very secure environment in which an app cannot access parts of the system for which it is not given permission.

TEXT 1 (translation)

Regulile de Bază ale Aplicației

Aplicațile Android sunt scrise în limbajul de programare Java. Instrumentele SDK ale Android-lui întocmesc codul dumneavoastră – împreună cu orice date și fișiere de resurse – într-un APK: un pachet Android, care este un fișier de arhive cu un sufix .apk. Un fișier APK include tot conținutul unei aplicații Android și este fișierul pe care dispozitivele susținute de Android, îl folosește la instalarea aplicației.

Odată instalat pe un dispozitiv, fiecare aplicație Android este localizată în propriul său mecanism de securizare:

Sistemul de operare Android este un sistem multi-utilizator Linux în care fiecare aplicație este un utilizator diferit;

În mod predefinit, sistemul distribuie fiecărei aplicații un unic ID Linux utilizatorului ( ID-ul este folosit doar de sistem și este necunoscut de aplicație). Sistemul stabilește permisiuni pentru toate fișierele într-o aplicație în modul în care doar utilizatorul căruia i s-a distribuit ID pentru aplicație îl poate accesa;

Fiecare proces are propria mașină virtuală (MV), deci codul aplicației operează separat de alte aplicații;

În mod predefinit, fiecare aplicație operează în propriul proces Linux. Android începe procesul când orice component al aplicației necesită să fie executat, apoi închide procesul când nu mai e necesar sau când sistemul trebuie să recupereze memorie pentru alte aplicații.

Astfel, sistemul Android implementează principiul restrângerii privilegiilor. Adică, fiecare aplicație, în mod predefinit, are acces doar la componentele pe care le solicită să-i efectueze lucrul și la nimic mai mult. Aceasta crează un anturaj foarte sigur în care o aplicație nu poate accesa părți ale sistemului pentru care nu are permisiune.

TEXT 2 (original)

Tehnologii informaționale: concepte de bază

Tehnologia este un proces social-istoric care nu poate fi abordata separat de întreaga realitate sociala, de cultura si de filosofie. Sub acest aspect, se poate afirma ca omul a devenit uman din momentul în care a început sa munceasca, sa gândeasca si sa creeze tehnologie, construind, treptat, între societate si natura, un mediu tehnologic tot mai dens, cu impact profund asupra dezvoltarii.

Conceptele tehnologiei și tehnologii informaționale

Notiunea de tehnologie s-a conturat în amplul proces al devenirii omenirii, fiecare epoca a evolutiei societatii fiind marcata de progresul tehnologic, în varii domenii de activitate umana.

Într-o alta formulare, el rezida în "cunostintele, uneltele si tehnicile accesibile unei organizatii pentru a transforma inputuri în outputuri; un proces de transformare care se poate referi la ceva foarte abstract, cum ar fi o formula, o reteta sau o metoda, sau la ceva concret, cum ar fi masini si echipamente".

Într-un perimetru mai cuprinzator, conceptul de tehnologie desemneaza 'ansamblul sistematizat de cunostinte despre activitatile umane care fac uz de rezultate ale cercetarii stiintifice, experimentari, calcule si proiecte, precum si de unelte, masini si aparate; restrâns, ansamblul procedeelor (metode, retete, reguli) si mijloacelor materiale (unelte, masini, aparate) utilizate în vederea desfasurari unei activitati'.

Totodata, privita ca domeniu de activitate si în contextul revolutiei tehnico-stiintifice contemporane, tehnologia este și "o știinta a realizarii, în mod cât mai eficient, de funcțiuni necesare societații și omului, dar și o practica, o inginerie ale acestor funcțiuni".

În acelasi timp, prezintă interes și caracter filosofic al conceptului de tehnologie, care apare mai relevant, odată ce tehnologia se adânceste în sfera informațională.

TEXT 2 (translation)

Information technologies: basic concepts

Technology is a social-historic process which cannot be tackled separately from the entire social reality, culture and philosophy. In this respect, we can say that the man has become a human from the moment he started to work, to think and create technology, building, gradually, between society and nature, a technological environment increasingly dense, with deep impact on development.

Technology concepts and information technologies

The notion of technology was outlined in the extensive process of becoming of humanity, each era of the evolution of society being marked by the technological progress, in various fields of human activity.

In another form, he also resides in “the knowledge”, the tools and techniques available to an organization to transform the inputs in outputs; a transformation process which may refer to something very abstract, such as a formula, a recipe or method, or something tangible, such as machinery and equipment '.

In a more comprehensive perimeter, the concept of technology means "the totality of systematized knowledge about human activities that make use of results of scientific research, experiments, computations and projects, as well as tools, machines and apparatus; restricted, all procedures (methods, recipes, rules) and material resources (tools, devices, machines) used for extending a business".

At the same time, regarded as the domain of activity, and in the context of contemporary scientific-technical revolution, technology is a science of achievements , in the most efficient way, by the necessary functions of society and human being, but also a practice, an engineering of these functions '.

At the same time, presents interest and philosophic character of the concept of technology, which appears more relevant, once the technology get deeper into the sphere of information.

ANNEX 3

Table 1. Monolexemic Terms

Table 2. Polylexemic Terms