Racism in sports : A review [622908]

Racism in sports : A review

Ungur Sorin
Student: [anonimizat]’s society people from different backgrounds are living together but due to
different reasons sometimes they have to deal with racism. We are living now in a very
diverse society where people of all races, colours and backgrounds are working, studying and
enjoying l ife together. Unfortunately sometimes different forms of racism appear and have a
negative impact in some people lives. Sport is not immune to racism and especially black
athletes are subject to discrimination in access to professional sports.
It is highlighted that most cases of football racism cases are related to race (668),
more than 50% of the total number of cases. The next type of racism is faith -bearing (235),
followed by sexual orientation (217), gender (107), and disability (43).

Keywords : racism, sports, football , Kick it Out Organization

Introduction
In today’s society people from different backgrounds are living together but due to
different reasons sometimes they have to deal with racism.
We are living now in a very diverse society wh ere people of all races, colours and
backgrounds are working, studying and enjoying life together. Unfortunately sometimes
different forms of racism appear and have a negative impact in some people lives.
Sport attracts people of all races and lifestyles and offers an opportunity to build social
and cultural bridges based on common interests. Successful sports clubs break down racism
by focusing on inclusion, teamwork, and developing individual and team skills. Racism can
have a strong impact on people's involvement in sports. It can affect motivation, joy,
participation levels and, if not verified, can lead to inappropriate, potentially dangerous or
violent behavior.
When talking about racism and discrimination in Romania we are not talking about ample
campaigns or an action of the whole society, we are not talking about documented, analyzed
and debated cases on a large scale. From time to time public information about discriminatory
actions, generally when authorities sanction instit utions, organizations or public figures for
racist, xenophobic or violent events.
Therefore, I think it is appropriate to also discuss this sensitive subject, which can change our
attitude towards the phenomenon of racism.
Ideology based on racist practice s often involves the idea that people can be divided
into distinct groups that are different due to their social behavior and innate capacities and the
idea that they can be classified as inferior or superior. Historical examples of institutional
racism in clude the Holocaust, apartheid regimes in South Africa, and slavery and segregation
in the United States. Racism was also an aspect of the social organization of many colonial
states and empires.
While the concepts of race and ethnicity are considered to b e separated in contemporary social
science, the two terms have a long history of equivalence both in popular use and in older
social science literature. "Ethnicity" is often used in a sense close to that traditionally attributed

to "race": the division of human groups based on qualities that are supposed to be essential or
innate to the group (for example, a parent or common behavior). Racism and racial
discrimination are therefore often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis,
regard less of whether these differences are described as racial. According to a United Nations
convention on racial discrimination, there is no distinction between the terms "racial
discrimination" and "ethnic discrimination". The UN Convention further concludes that
superiority based on racial differentiation is scientifically false, morally, unjustly and
dangerously socially condemned, and there is no justification for racial discrimination,
anywhere, theoretically or in practice.

What is Racism?
According to Oxford Dictionary racism is: “the belief that all members of each race possess
characteristics , abilities , or qualities specific to that race , especially so as to distinguish it as inferior
or superior to another race or races prejudice , discrimination , or antagonism directed against
someone of a different race based on the belief that one’s own race is superior ” (Oxford
Dictionaries, 2012).
“Racism is a complicated problem, and a complete solution requires careful consideration of all its
complexities” (Moore, 2007:78). Governments have the responsibility to tackle racism and all other
forms of discrimination but their policies (if in place) are relatively slow to be implemented. Many
countries are comprised of citizens from different ethnic groups and sometimes discrimination and
racism are much impregnated in the society with resentments based solely on ethnicity. “The
categorization of ethnic groups, especially by officialdom, is not just a matter of socia l classification
practices: it has consequences” (Aspinal, 2007:51) that divide people and countries and can escalate
to interethnic conflicts.
Generally speaking, linguists agree that it comes from English, but there is no such agreement on
how it entered the Latin languages. A recent proposal is that it is derived from the Arabic area,
which means "head, beginning, origin". Generally, theorists considered that some breeds were
inferior to others, and therefore believed that differential treatment of races was fully justified.

Generally speaking, linguists agree that it comes from English, but there is no such agreement on
how it entered the Latin languages. A recent proposal is that it is derived from the Arabic area,
which means "head, beginning, origin" (Online Etymology Dictionary, 2016). Generally, theorists
considered that some breeds were inferior to others, and therefore believed that differential
treatment of races was fully justified ( Garner, 2009, The Canadian Encyclopedia. 2013).
These early th eories have led to pseudo -scientific research assumptions; collective efforts to
properly define and properly formulate racial differences are generally termed scientific racism,
although this term is a wrong name due to the lack of any real science that s upports the claims.
Today, most biologists, anthropologists and sociologists reject a taxonomy (science of classification
of living organisms) of races in favor of more specific and / or verifiable criteria, such as geography,
ethnicity, or endogamy (Patr inos, 2004). history. Until now, there is little evidence in human
genome research, indicating that the breed can be defined to be useful in determining a genetic
classification of humans. Racial and racial relations are notable fields of study in sociolo gy and
economics. Much of the sociological literature focuses on white racism. Some of the earliest
sociological papers on racism were written by the sociologist W. E. B. Du Bois, the first African
American to obtain a Ph.D. degree from Harvard University. Du Bois wrote: "The 20th century issue
is the issue of the color line" (Du Bois, 1903). Wellman, 1993 defines racism as "sanctioned cultural
beliefs, which, irrespective of the intentions involved, defend the advantages of others because of
the subordinat e position of racial minorities. More (more hidden and less detectable) forms of
racism – which can be considered embedded in social processes and structures – are more difficult to
explore and challenge. It has been suggested that while in many countries explicit racism has

become more and more taboo, even among those who display attitudes of equality, an implicit or
aversive racism is still maintained subconsciously. This process has been extensively studied in social
psychology as implicit associations a nd implicit attitudes, a component of implicit knowledge.
Implied attitudes are assessments that occur without conscious awareness of an object of attitude
or self. These assessments are generally favorable or unfavorable. They come from different
influenc es in individual experience (Devos, 2008). Implied attitudes do not consciously identify (or
incorrectly identify) traces of previous experience that mediate sentiment, thought, or action that is
favorable or unfavorable to social objects (Greenwald, Ban aji, 1995). These thoughts, feelings or
actions have an influence on the behavior on which the individual can not be conscious (Gawronski,
Payne , 2010) .
Consequently, subconscious racism can influence the visual processing and the way our mind works
when exposed to sublime faces of different colors. In crime thinking, for example, social
psychologist Jennifer L. Eberhardt (2004) at Stanford University claims that "blackness is so
associated with crime that you are ready to choose these criminal object s." Such exposures
influence our minds and can cause subconscious racism in our behavior towards other people or
even objects. Thus, racist thoughts and actions can arise from stereotypes and fears we do not know
(Belenko, Spohn, 2014).

Forms of racism

There are four forms of racism and according to (Moore, 2007:74):
“First, racism is a form of dominance in which one racial group enjoys control over the outcomes of
another racial group. Second, the beliefs that sustain and rationalize group dominance pr esume the
superiority of the in -group and the inferiority of the out -group. Third, racism is a multilevel
phenomenon that is expressed by individuals (micro level), is critically influenced by institutions
(meso level), and deeply embedded in the entire cu lture (macro level). Fourth, racism contributes
directly and indirectly to persistent racial inequality”.
At the individual level “racism has three components: stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination”
(Moore, 2007:74) and is based on one’s attitudes, fe elings and perceptions. As individuals we are
influenced in our behaviours by society, educational and historical background and the environment
we are living in. The most common way of dealing with individual racism is through education
strategies where p eople are learning about other groups, their cultures, problems and challenges
and the fact that racism is wrong. “Symbolic racism is a new expression of prejudice that has
developed in the United States based on the belief that blacks violate key American values,
particularly the idea of individualism, the belief in working hard to get ahead in life”. (Moore,
2008:111)
Racism in Sport

Sport is not immune to racism and especially black athletes are subject to discrimination in access to
professional sports. Sports are one of the main attractions of everyday life and are an integrated
part of what we call entertainment. People are aware of the health benefits of sports and are
directly involved in sport activities but even more people are ‘sport consumers’ as spectators or
followers of different sports and teams. Due to the increased demand for sports and their
entertainment value athletes of all colours and backgrounds are moving between teams, clubs and
countries with the purpose of impro ving their quality and chances of winning trophies.
“Many also believe that the sports world is a model of race relations for the rest of society. Through
television and other media coverage, fans see that on the playing field it does not matter whether
you are black or white, what matters is your ability” (Anderson, 1996:357).
Sport is considered an avenue where racism, discrimination and racial barriers do not exist. This is a
false representation and reality shows that racism and discrimination is very m uch present in sport
as it is in the society as a whole contrary to the view that “sports is often used as a paradigm of how

an integrated society should look” (Anderson, 1996:357).
“In USA black players were excluded from professional sports until 1940’s” (Kahn, 1991:396) and it
took them a long time to be accepted as equal employees in sports clubs. It can be said that
everything happening in sport mirrors the society and “as in the larger society, patterns of race
discrimination in sport are rampant. The se patterns, including evidence of institutional racism,
receive far more attention than any other topic in the area of race relations and sport” (Washington,
Karen, 2001:191).
“The system is a sort of vicious cycle, as black student -athletes are encourage d to focus on athletic
success from all sides and are not given proper aid to succeed academically (Anderson, 1996:369)
and after the end of their athletic career their chances to be employed as coaches or in
management are very slim but the “success of bl ack coaches disputes any notion that they cannot
be successful, and the overwhelming number of players who are black shows that there are many
candidates” (Anderson, 1996:373).
Athletes are somehow isolated in the society due to the huge effort they put in training and
competitions to be the top in the world and “they do not feel racist attitudes in professional sports;
however, at the same time they think that "whites generally received favoured treatment in their
sport" and "that blacks were far less like ly than whites to be allowed into team management after
their playing years" (Anderson, 1996:374).
There have been cases of racism in various sporting disciplines, both in collective sports and in
individual sports, including tennis, athletics, basketball, boxing, handball, basketball, volleyball and
football.

Scope
We propose a brief analysis of racism cases in English football, information obtained from specialist
articles and from the Organization's Kick it Out reports, with reference to Premier League , English
Football League (EFL), Women’s Super League și non -English leagues, starting with the 2014 -2015
competitive season and ending with the 2016 -2017 season.

Discussions
Se observă menționarea primelor cazuri de rasim în sport începand cu anii 1936 de la
Olimpiada din Berlin, scopul principal al organizatorilor acestei Olimpiade, fiind acela de a
dovedi supremația rasei ariene. De reamintit este cazul atletului James Cleveland „Jesse“
Owens – căștigator a patru medalii de aur (100 m, 20 0 m, 4 x 100 m si Săritura în lungime).
Despre acest triumf, Hitler spunea: "Acești oameni au rădăcini primitive. Fizicul lor e mai
puternic decît cel al albilor civilizați, de aceea ar trebui excluși de la Jocurile viitoare".
It is noted that the first ca ses of rasim in sport since the 1936 Olympics in Berlin, the main
goal of the organizers of this Olympiad, was to prove the supremacy of the Aryan race.
Remembered is the case of James Cleveland athlete Jesse Owens – winner of four gold medals
(100 m, 200 m, 4 x 100 m and Jumping in length). About this triumph, Hitler said, "These
people have primitive roots. Their physics is stronger than that of civilized white people, so
they should be excluded from future Games." (Whitman, 2017).

Dacă luam in discuție tipologia rasismului putem evidenția faptul că cele mai multe
cazuri de rasims se referă la rasă (surorile Williams, Tiger Woods, Magic Johnson, Manny
Pacquaio, Allison Pineau, Kathrine Switzer, Kathrine Switzer, Karim Benzema, Roberto
Carlos, Dani Alves, Neymar, Mario Balotelli și Kevin -Prince Boateng).
Remarcăm faptul că agresorii implicați în cazurile întâlnite sunt jucători, oficiali și
suporteri.
If we are discussing the typology of racism, we can point out that most of the ra cims are related
to race (sisters Williams, Tiger Woods, Magic Johnson, Manny Pacquaio, Allison Pineau,
Kathrine Switzer, Kathrine Switzer, Karim Benzema, Roberto Carlos, Dani Alves , Neymar,
Mario Balotelli and Kevin -Prince Boateng).
We note that the aggressors involved in the c ases encountered are players, officials and
supporters.
Cazurile de rasim nu au rămas nesancționate, de exemplu: Luis Suarez, a fost suspendat
8 etape și amendat cu 40.000 de lire sterline pentru remarci rasiste aduse jucătorului Patrice
Evra; Ilie Năsta se este suspendat din orice rol oficial în competițiile ITF (Federația
Internaționlă de Tenis), pe echipe sau în cele individuale de sub egida ITF până la 31 decembrie
2020, pentru că a jignit o jurnalistă britanică, dar și pe jucătoarea Johanna Konta și p e căpitanul
nejucător al britanicelor, Anne Keothavong.; Giorgos Katidis suspendat la echipa națională a
Greciei și de la echipa de club pentru salutul în stil nazis t. Race cases have not been
unsanctioned, for example: Luis Suarez, has been suspended 8 stages and fined £ 40,000 for
racist remarks to Patrice Evra; Ilie Năstase is suspended from any official role in the ITF
(International Tennis Federation), Team or Indiv idual ITF awards until December 31, 2020,
because he offended a British journalist, but also the player Johanna Konta and Britain's
captain, Anne Keothavong .; Giorgos Katidis suspended at the national team of Greece and
from the club for the Nazi -style sa lute. ( https://www.rt.com/news/nazi -salute -ban-football –
396/ )
The sportive discipline with most of the ra cism cases encountered is football. This is reinforced
by the establishment of "Kick It Out" in England, which signals / informs the institutions
responsible for racial cases in football to take the necessary measures / sanctions.
According to the Kick It Out Organization, in the 2014/2015 English football season, 393
incidents were reported, covering professional and local football as well as incidences of
discriminatory abuse that appeared on social media. 225 cases related to race, 35 cases related
to gender, 15 related to disability, 68 related to the faith and 50 cases related to sexual
orientation were encountered.

In the next competitive season 2015/2016 there were 408 incidents. There were 216 cases
related to race, 28 cases related to gender, 12 related to disability, 84 related to the faith and
68 cases related to sexual orientation.
In the competitive season 2016/2017 there were 469 cases. Those related to the race were
227, 44 cases related to gender, 16 related to disability, 83 related to the faith and 99 cases
related to sexual orientation.

It is highlighted that most cases of football racism cases are related to race (668), more
than 50% of the total number of cases. The next type of racism is faith -bearing (235), followed
by sexual orientation (217), gender (107), and disability (43). – fig 1.

66810743235
217Total number of cases
Rasă
Gen
Dizabilitate
Credință
Orientare sexuală

Conclusions

Over time, there have been reports of rasings in most sports (tennis, golf, boxing,
basketball, volleyball, handball, athletics and football), due to lack of interest, some cases have
been overlooked, but there are incidents that have marked the sport in question, which has been
reflected in the futu re actions / competitions and the regulation.
Football being the most popular and publicized sport in the world, racist cases are equally very
common. In the fight against racism in sports, comes the Kick It Out in England. This
organization wants equality and inclusion of football in all sectors of education and community
to challenge discrimination, encourage inclusive practices and promote positive change, the
organization is funded by the Football Association (FA), the Association of Professional
Footba ll Players (PFA), the Premier League and Football League (EFL). At international level,
Kick It Out has close links with FIFA, the European Football Union (UEFA) and the European
Racism Network in Europe (FARE).
According to this "Kick It Out" organization , following the incidents reported during the
2014/2015, 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 seasons, there is a season -to-season increase in the
number of racial cases encountered in football. In the 2015/2016 season, 15 incidents were
reported in addition to the 201 4/2015 season, and in the 2016/2017 season there were 61
incidents in addition to the 2015/2016 season. In these three seasons the total number of cases
in English football was 1270.
It is also worth mentioning that technology has evolved over the last fe w years, and
incidents can be very easy to report. To signal a case of "Kick It Out", you can use the free
phone line, "Kick It Out" available on iPhone and Android devices in England and online on
the organization's website.
Probably in the past, racism h as often happened, but the lack of technology has meant that these
cases have not been omitted and so have been overlooked without taking action against the
aggressors (clubs, officials, players or supporters).

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