Positioning Theory In The English Class
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5. DATA ANALYSIS
5.1 Interaction Strategies
Collaborative learning occurs when students and teachers work together to create knowledge … "It is a pedagogy that starts from the basis that people create meanings together and that the process enriches them and makes them grow".
Students are always eager to learn and check everything that is in their environment questioned, and just as they are not static in their way of creating, thinking, reflecting, their physical body is also in continuous movement, from one side to the other, They are also continually looking for the change of places or spaces as well as psychological and social positions that the celebrities explain to them. Why? However within routine of daily activities falls into monotony or ambiguity.
Education in our country can not be the exception should go hand in hand with all these conceptions, as well as the intentions and needs of our students, without falling into inertia or resistance that over time is more difficult to overcome, than it causes a dissociation, in the natural form of the child or young person to learn by playing and experimenting, with what teachers propose as activities broken down by the curriculum, which are often not structured, nor planned according to their interests, circumstances and its contextual reality, for that reason it is emphasized that all paned activity must start from that interest of the student, his previous knowledge and the contextual reality that influences him in his daily life. In full postmodernity and scientific advances in the so-called information era, children and young people are continuously changing not only their mind and body, but also their spirit and expectations, teachers must then question and redesign the curriculum in their current practices to look for new pedagogical-didactic strategies that adapt to the learning system of children and young people, making their class richer, more attractive and more productive, for the following the following approach is made: What can be effective learning strategies, which use the teacher through the application of the curriculum to achieve develop the skills in the students?
It is proposed to resume the collaborative work that the new educational paradigms rightly propose, but with an application of the open curriculum, taking into account the group, school and individual characteristics of each of the students, the geographical and population situation where praxis is carried out as well as the cultural and axiological experience that surrounds and permeates the students. In this way, working collaboratively has demonstrated a transcendent and positive effect, because there is freedom for the student, through oral or written language, making use of their creativity, to interrelate more naturally within the social environment or school group to which they belong, achieving with the activities to integrate more to live fully their social experiences, and to confront their ideas with the opinions offered by the diversity of a group.
We also highlight important aspects within schools such as the promotion of democracy and the acceptance of differences between students that give rise to cognitive conflicts and diverse learning. It also allows the teacher to take up topics, reaffirm it necessary and improve in all its educational tasks. Within the context of collaborative learning the concept of the teacher also changes, it is reconstructed by Andueza (2007), explaining that within the dynamic groups the teacher becomes a coordinator of the task, his mission is to plan the work, clarify doubts and suggest , organizing learning experiences and guiding the evaluation. It is also emphasized that the teacher should intervene as little as possible, since the student has occupied the place that was previously exclusive to the teacher, who should only intervene as a catalyst and guide agent. It is observed here the relevance of the teacher in innovating and opening up to the creation of fresh and new learning with the awareness that the main role in the didactics of active and meaningful learning is the students, but through their epistemological and didactic approaches that they must offer real and quantitatively evaluable results as qualitatively. Collaborative learning is always reconstructed by all involved, it has a great advantage that is the creation of an aulic space where each one takes what for him has greater significance regardless of what group is learned or what specifically arises from the resume. "Collaborative learning is based on epistemological assumptions and has its origin in social constructivism." The child learns through social interactions, in teams, blocks, workshops, projects, academies, etc. Piaget explains that students respond to motivations of the environment, putting at stake their level of skills, these are built as the human being develops in its relationship with objects. The child learns through continuous cognitive conflicts, in those processes that he calls assimilation and accommodation that take place when the child compares his ideas with the reality he observes, modifying them continuously. Likewise social constructivism sees learning as the result of the child's social interactions with its context. For this reason it is concluded that collaborative work is an excellent trigger for human and social relations, which ultimately will give success in the school and social life of those who learn by collaborating.
5.2. Spoken and Written Interaction in the English Textbooks
The bibliography for English courses generally consists of three parts: a student's book, which is complemented by a book of activities that are a supplementary practice of what has been learned in the course, and a book by the teacher, which basically contains a didactic guide . All the books of the corpus contain these elements except for the series Language to Go, which incorporates the practice exercises to the student's book. In all cases, we have analyzed all the sections of the books in which it was found that in some way it is taught explicitly to dialogue. The following have been included in the analysis:
• The introductions of the teacher's books, in order to check to what extent they give importance to the concepts we trace in the texts.
• The instructions for teaching each unit included in the teacher's book.
• The dialogues included in any section that presents exercises with which they are taught in an explicit way to interact in real-life situations, and that include practice. They are generally found in independent sections, or incorporated into oral language practice and / or listening comprehension exercises. In almost all cases they were found exclusively in the student's book, with the exception of First Direct Certificate, whose activity book was also included because it includes part of the teaching and practice of the verbal interaction of that course.
• The verbal interaction practice sections that do not include dialogues but do contain selections of useful phrases for the exercise.
• The grammar sections, including the grammar summaries that usually appear at the end of the student's books, and the vocabulary sections, in order to find out if their teaching includes the socio-pragmatic aspect, since we believe that this should be the case. In effect, many vocabulary items as well as many syntactic structures tend to appear with different frequency in oral or written language, or in formal or informal contexts.
There have not been included in the analysis, instead:
• Verbal interaction practice sections in which only students are asked to interact, but no aspect of verbal interaction is taught, nor are concrete indications given as to how that conversation would take place in real life. In general, these are free practice exercises with a predetermined theme, or application of grammatical items or vocabulary studied in the same unit. They may contain information relevant to some content that is not the teaching of verbal interaction. These sections appear at least once in all the units of all the books in the corpus.
• Listening exercises that include dialogues but whose exercise is related to the content, pronunciation or practice of grammar or vocabulary items. The only information that has been included about them is their number, to contrast it with the number of dialogues they teach to interact.
Occasionally, activities actually include exercise that contributes to improving the ability to communicate orally, but no mention is made of this purpose either in the teacher's book or in the student's. Therefore, we must conclude that in these cases it is probably expected that the student will learn how to dialogue in English by simple inference. And this, of course, does not happen too often. All the books present in these cases exercise that includes the employment on the part of the student of the phrases learned, which is of course correct, and nevertheless this exercise is not totally adequate nor sufficient. Mainly, because their small number evidently limits the variety of situations and functions that can occur, especially if we take into account that some typical situations (for example "presentations", "telephone conversations", "shopping") tend to repeat themselves in different levels and even in different books of the same series, this lack of variety occurs in some books as a result of their particular objectives.
Something similar happens in the higher level courses, that is to say those of First Certificate and the advanced ones, which give to the oral language a much greater importance than the previous courses, and for that reason we find sections of learning and practice of the verbal interaction in all the units. In spite of this, since its objective is to prepare students for a standardized international examination, the training focuses on the competences that must be acquired to approve it, that is, to interact in a situation that is not usual in real life and in the that it is not easy to have spontaneous communication due to the pressure of the moment. Consequently, the selection of topics is restricted: only expressions that can be useful in certain specific circumstances are taught (for example, and typically, when giving opinions), because they are what they will need in the exam, but they are not included many other characteristics of daily conversation. Regarding the oral comprehension section, in which in the first years dialogues prevail in situations of daily life, from this level a greater number of monologues and more formal situations are observed, such as interviews, a type of dialogue that the students hardly have an opportunity to use in practice. This is because the exercises conform to the guidelines of the exam format for which they are preparation. In the advanced level books it is observed that the dialogues that have the function of teaching disappear, and only a few are presented in the oral comprehension exercises, which follow the exam guidelines corresponding to the level. The learning of oral interaction is abandoned, without giving any explanation of the reasons. Probably because it is considered that it has already been learned in previous stages. So far we have not mentioned the sections that teach to interact without containing dialogues. In the books of First Certificate and the advanced level there are the usual exercises that propose a theme for the students to interact, but with a variant: they systematically include a box that contains a series of phrases or items of grammar and vocabulary useful for the situation, remembering what was previously acquired and adding some new elements. This is certainly useful, but in all cases the above applies: all of these books have topic restrictions, so that what is taught in this section tends to be reduced to little more than useful expressions in conversations held in class or in an exam.
Returning to the totality of the students' books analyzed, it is observed that they are almost never included in them clear indications regarding registration or courtesy, even when the same exercise usually contains structures, vocabulary and phrases that present variations in this sense. In this case, it is also apparently trusted that the student will infer what is its use, and it is not clearly explained in which situations, in addition to the one presented in the book, the acquired knowledge can be used. In fact, the notion of registration in general appears with certain frequency only in advanced level courses, so that there is a paradox that students can learn the degree of formality and the use of any item just several years after have learned it (However, at the intermediate or high intermediate level this concept is already used sporadically, sometimes without prior explanations, in the teaching of formal letter writing.) Let's move on to the grammar section, in which the picture is even less encouraging as far as our subject is concerned. In general, the exercise is presented in contexts in which its use is natural, but since no mention is made of it, we also conclude that, in the best of cases, the student is expected to infer that it is appropriate to use it in the presented contexts. As in the case of dialogues, in grammar topics the teacher's book in general presents very few references to use, registration or courtesy, and the few that are found in the student's book are usually in the grammar section that It is at the end of almost all books. That is, as in the case of the dialogues, they are found outside the text of each unit, which may mean that they are not given due attention. One last observation: when a grammatical explanation is mentioned that some element is used to "speak" about a certain topic, we have noticed that sometimes this term does not refer exclusively to oral language, but includes writing without further clarification. It may seem like a minor detail, but there is also the possibility that this ambiguity creates confusion. Regarding the vocabulary, the adopted criterion is usually to present a set of words or phrases linked by some semantic feature or because they have a common function, usually omitting any reference to the degree of informality or formality of each element, or its use in oral or written language. Especially in the books of the highest levels, the mix of records is constant.
5.3. Initial Tests
”Write a letter to a penfriend who has never visited Romania and invite him to come to your country. Give him/her some information about the country. (100-120 words)”
The initial stage helps to establish the level at which pupils are at the moment of initiation of the psycho-pedagogical experiment, both in the experimental sample and in the control sample.
Table 1
The results obtained at the initial test by the experimental sample
The results are distributed as following:
Average at the class level is of the form: (1×0+2×0+3×0+4×0+5×0+6×0+7×8+8×7+9×10+10×5):30= 8.40
Module (the most frequent mark) is represented by mark 9
Table 2
Nominal table with the scores obtained at the initial test by the experimental sample
Analyzing the results obtained by the 30 students of the grade A, respectively the experimental sample, at the initial test, we can say that the module at the group level is 9, 10 grades being scored over the mark 9. In the same context, one may observe a grouping of marks on a fairly large segment.
Observing the graph above, there is a lack of 1,2,3,4,5 and 6 marks which suggests that the tendencies of promotion are increasing, but there is a high consistency of 9 and 10 marks that suggests the strong involvement of pupils in the teaching-learning process. Also, since not all the students have fully achieved the objectives proposed by the didactic approach, it is easy to understand that success can only be achieved in the future by longer training and by giving more attention and importance to the discipline.
Table 3
Results obtained at the initial test by the control sample
The results are distributed as follows:
Average at the class level has the following form: (1×0+2×0+3×0+4×0+5×0+6×5+7×12+8×5+9×5+10×3):30= 6.30
Module (the most frequent note) is represented by the mark: 7
Table 4
Nominal table with the marks obtained at the initial test by the control group
According to the graphs and tables above, the representative sample of the control group ranges around marks 6,7,8,9 and 10. In this context, in the grade B all the marks were over 5, also observing here a grouping of marks on an extended segment. Also, the fact that marks 1 and 2 are missing suggests an upward trend in the promise of the initial test, but on the other hand, the poor presence of the mark 10 can be attributed to the lack of student concentration. Under the same aspect, no student has fully achieved the objectives proposed by the didactic approach.
According to the results obtained by the students of the experimental and control groups, the following measures for optimizing the didactic approach can be considered:
• Returning with additional information in the field where a deficit is found
• To propose new exercises and text that pupils should analyze from this perspective
• Insisting on resolving exercises of the type corresponding to the initial test
Observing the structural diagram of the averages obtained at the level of the two classes in the context of the initial test, it is noted that the experimental group is relatively higher compared to the control one. One may observe in this context an initial phase of the finding, also known as the initial test, the context in which the starting dates were collected, the level existing at the time of initiation of the experience with which the English language teacher works. Interpreting the results and the information obtained from the pedagogical knowledge test, the analysis of the pupils' products, their systematic observation and the learning outcomes, one may found that there are no very large differences regarding the two samples, as the above diagram emphasizes.
In the context of administering the initial test at the level of the two samples, the following general and specific competencies are noted:
General, social and civic competencies
1. Receiving the written message, from literary and non-literary texts, for various purposes;
2. The correct and appropriate use of the English grammar in the production of written messages, in different contexts of realization, with different purposes.
Specific targeted competencies
1.1 reading a variety of literary or non-literary texts, demonstrating the understanding of their meaning;
1.2. Recognizing the specific modalities of organizing the different types of texts and;
1.3. Knowing the correctness and expressive value of the learned grammar and lexical categories in a text;
2.1. Expressing in writing their own opinions and attitudes;
2.2. The correct and nuanced use of learned semantic categories;
2.3. Use varied modalities for expressing the text.
5.4. Positioning in the English Class (special lessons)
LESSON 1.
Modern Fairy Tales
Practicing the writing skills in a funny way
Project aims:
to teach the students the basic rules of writing a fairy tale
to show the students how a classical fairy tale can be “modernized”
to make the students work in groups and co-operate in order to produce a creative writing task
to make the students discuss (agree, disagree, bring arguments) in English
to make the students work with dictionaries
to make the students present their work in a meaningful way and answer to questions related to their work
Activity no. 1
Aim: establishing the fix items of a fairy tale (beginning, ending, types of characters etc)
Procedure: Brainstorming and a mind map on the blackboard
Interaction: students-teacher
Timing: 10-15 minutes
Activity no. 2
Aim: to make the students produce creative writing by working in teams , discussing their ideas and using dictionaries
Procedure: team work The students will have dictionaries to work with. They will have to choose one of the stories: Little Red Riding Hood, Snow White, Sleeping Beauty or another, but to “modernize” them
Interaction: students-students
Timing: 20-30 minutes
Activity no. 3
Aim: to make the students produce creative writing by working in teams , discussing their ideas and using dictionaries
Procedure: team work The students will have dictionaries to work with They will have to choose one of the stories: Little Red Riding Hood, Snow White, Sleeping Beauty or another, but to “modernize” them
Interaction: students-students
Timing: 20-30 minutes
Activity no. 4:
Aim: to make the students present, discuss and evaluate their work
Procedure: a fairy tale contest(each team leader will present the modern fairy tale and will answer to questions about it; the class will vote the one they liked best
Interaction:Students-students
Timing:40-50 minutes
LESSON 2
Teacher:
Date:
School:
Form:9 th A
Level: advanced
Lesson type: Speaking
Unit 11:Hard at work
Subject: Hard at work
Objectives:
-to introduce the topic of the lesson: Hard at work
-students will be able to express their own opinion about jobs
-students will be able to present advantages and disadvantages of certain jobs
-to develop the speaking and writing skills of the students
Skills:speaking,writing
Methods-conversation ,debate,explanation,argumentation,truss method
Teaching materials: textbook (FCE GOLD PLUS)
Audio-visuals: blackboard and chalk, students 'copy-book
Activity 1-Warm-up
Aim-introducing the topic
Procedure:
The teacher announce the students that today they are going to focus on the speaking skill and explains the importance of the speaking skill.After telling students about the speaking skill the teacher tells the students that they are going to pass to a new unit called,,Hard at work”and writes the title of the unit on the blackboard
Time: 5 mins
Interaction: teacher-student;student-teacher
Activity 2
Aim: a predictive activity in which teacher tells students about jobs
Procedure:
Teacher asks the students various questions: What do you think about having a job?
Do you think there are working students?
What in your opinion are the skills you must focus on before having a job?
Students give their opinion freely
Interaction:teacher-student;student-teacher
Time:5mins
Activity 3
Aim: to develop speaking skill
Procedure:
1.Teacher asks students various questions:What do you would like to become?Which job do you consider more suitable for you?What qualities do you consider you must have in order to become what you want?
2.Students deliver the answers to the teacher
Interaction: teacher-student; student-teacher
Time:10 mins
Activity 4
Aim:to debate certain things connected to jobs
Procedure:
Teacher asks students various questions: Would you go to another city or country to work? Why? Why not
Teacher asks students to give their own opinion about this question
Students deliver the answers to the teacher
Teacher tells the students a quotation: When work is a pleasure life is a joy !
When work is a duty, life is slavery”
Maxim Gorky
Teacher writes the quotation on the blackboard and has a free debate upon the quotation with the students
Interaction: student-student; student-teacher
Time: 10 mins
Activity 5
Aim:to debate upon personality
Procedure:
Teacher asks students: Do you think it is important to have a personality? Why? Why not?
Teacher asks students to perform individually the personality quiz from the page 130 and after finishing it to look at page190 and express their opinion about the question: Do you agree with the results?
Interaction: teacher-student ;student-teacher
Time: 10 mins.
Activity 6
Aim: to develop writing skill
Procedure: Teacher writes on the blackboard a few jobs and ask students to pick-up three jobs and write in their copy-books six advantages and six disadvantages for each chosen job; students are also allowed to choose from the jobs written in their textbook.
Interaction: teacher-student; student-teacher
Time:8 min
Homework: write a short paragraph about an ideal job(mention why you have chosen it, why do you think you are suitable for the job and why the job chosen is an ,,ideal” one for you).
Lesson no. 3
School:
Class: 9th
Time:
Lesson title: ’’Dream On’’
Type of lesson: Reading and Listening
Lesson Aims:
creating interest in the topic of the lesson;
promoting discussion and expressing opinions on reading;
developing speaking and practising the new words;
fostering fluency.
Skills: speaking, reading, writing, listening
Anticipated language problems: The students could become a bit noisy when discussing the given topics. In some cases, pupils may not understand the task given by the teacher;
Possible solutions: The teacher may ask the students to see if there is any misunderstanding regarding the task. He may repeat the task in order to be clear for everybody;
Teaching aids: the textbook, the blackboard; audio material;
Modes of interaction: teacher-student, student-student,
Activity 1 – Warm up
Aim:- To familiarize the pupils with the new teacher;
-To accommodate the students with the topic of the lesson;
– To encourage the students to talk and express their opinion and ideas in English and also to justify them;
Teacher’s role: presenter, guide;
Skills: listening, comprehension;
Materials: the blackboard, the coursebook;
Class management: whole class activity;
Timing: 10 minutes
Activity 2 – Exercise N.1
Aim: To improve students’ level of comprehension and their ability to express themselves in English;
Procedure:
1. Pupils are asked to open their coursebooks. They have to look at exercise n.7 and to answer to a set of questions.
2. After having answered the questions, the teacher plays them an audio material as part of the same exercise.
3. Then after listening to the audio material, the students and the teacher have a discussion regarding the set of questions and the audio material.
Interaction: T-Ss, S-S;
Teacher’s role: guide, controller;
Skills: speaking, comprehension;
Materials: blackboard, copybooks, the coursebook, audio material;
Class management: whole class activity;
Timing: 10 minutes
Activity 3 – Exercise N2
Aims: -To improve students’ ability to read in English;
-To expand their vocabulary;
– To improve students’ ability to express themselves in English;
Procedure: The students are asked to look at exercise n.2 and to choose the right answer. In order for them to know which one is the right one they have to read the text’’ A dream come true?’’ which is on the same page right under the exercise n.2. Then teacher asks for volunteers , for each paragraph, that want read the text or chooses to ask students to read if there are no volunteers.
After each paragraph the teach asks the students if there are any words that they don’t know or asks the students if they know a certain word the he considers to be more ’’difficult’’.
Interaction: T-Ss, group work;
Teacher’s role: guide, controller;
Skills: writing, speaking, reading;
Materials: the coursebook, the blackboard ,copybook;
Class management: whole class activity;
Timing: 10 minutes
Activity 4: Exercise N3
Aim: To comprehend the text better;
Procedure: The students are asked to look at exercise n.4. in order to solve the exercise they need to make use of the text from the previous exercise again. The task is for them is associate each sentence (A-F) from this exercise with a ‘’gap’’(1-6) from the previous text.
Interaction: T-Ss, individual work
Teacher’s role: guide, controller;
Skills: reading, comprehension;
Materials: coursebook, copybooks;
Class management: whole class activity;
Timing: 10 minutes
Activity 5 – Exercise N4
Aims: To improve vocabulary
Procedure: The teacher asks the students to look at exercise n.6. In that exercise they a given several definitions of words(words extracted from the same text used for the last two exercises) . Two of those definitions are not correct. The students have to find the ones which are not correct then to correct them by suggesting a definition for them.
Teacher’s role: observer, guide,
Skills: reading, writing,
Materials: coursebook, copybooks;
Class management: whole class activity;
Timing: 10 minutes
Activity 6 –Homework
Aims: -To improve students’ ability to express themselves in English;
-To reinforce the newly gained information;
Procedure: The teacher asks the students to write a short essay about famous person that inspired them, why did they choose that person and how it inspired them.
Teacher’s role: observer, guide,
Skills: reading, writing,
Materials: coursebook, copybooks;
Class management: whole class activity;
Timing: 20 minutes
5.5. Teacher Reflective Positioning: a questionnaire
The study began with an explanatory-descriptive character. The first step was the gathering of information about the statistics of the last four years regarding the failure rates of the subject in question. Next, a non-participant observation process was selected, whose categories are determined from the literature; that is, the characteristics described on good teaching, effective teaching and the effective teacher set the standards to observe and value. The observation was carried out with six teachers throughout the semester. This process was executed during two semesters. Three teachers were chosen whose students obtained the highest averages and three teachers in the opposite situation. From the theoretical referents, the following observation categories were obtained, which were rated on an arbitrary scale from 1 to 5, in which 1 is deficient and 5 excellent:
The teacher / teacher:
• Clarifies the purposes of the class (topic [s] of the session).
• Defines (establishes) the relationship of the day's theme with previous themes.
• Presents a previous global view of the topic of the session.
• Presents the topics with a logical sequence.
• It has an adequate rhythm.
• Summarize and highlight the main points of the session topic.
• Answer questions that arise during the session.
• Relate the topic of the session with those of future sessions.
• Speak with a properly audible voice volume.
• Varies the intonation according to the emphasis.
• Explain clearly.
• Maintains eye contact with students.
• Listen to the comments and questions of the students.
• Projects non-verbal language consistent with their intentions.
• Defines unfamiliar or unfamiliar terms, concepts or principles.
• Present examples to clarify points.
• Relate new ideas with familiar or familiar concepts.
• Go back to important ideas at appropriate times.
• Presents different ways of explaining complex or difficult points.
• Uses a sense of humour appropriately to maintain interest and reinforce attention.
• Has a limited use of "crutches".
• Invite students to ask questions.
• Invite students to discuss.
• Maintain student attention.
• Responds appropriately to nonverbal cues of confusion, boredom or curiosity.
• Maintains an adequate pace so that students can take notes.
• Invite students to answer difficult questions.
• Ask guiding questions when student responses are incomplete or inaccurate.
• Rethink questions and answers at appropriate times.
• Suggests questions or problems of limited interest to be handled outside of class.
• Support the session with discussions and appropriate exercises.
• Presents audiovisual material to support the session or important points.
• Assigns appropriate tasks.
• Cite relevant sources of information to support your arguments.
• Distinguish between fact and opinion
• Presents divergent views when appropriate.
• Demonstrates mastery of their subject.
The observer took a document with all the previous categories, rated the performance in each class and, in a field diary, made notes related to the teaching style and what happened in class.
Results of the questionnaire for teachers
The questionnaire for teachers is shown in Annex 2. The summarized and systematized responses are presented below:
1. 100% of the teachers on the first day of class inform their students about the evaluation form regarding the 40 points.
2. 28% (7 out of 25) do not consider the 60-40 ratio adequate for the final grade. 2 propose 50-50; 3 propose the reverse: 40-60.
3. 96% (24 of 25) affirm not to award the 40 points to their students "regardless of the work" they perform.
4. 28% (7 of 25) maintain that they have been denied the letter of teaching performance, mainly because of their failure rate.
5. 36% (9 of 25) feel pressured to approve the largest possible number of students and award the 40 points.
6. 88% (22 of 25) do not consider the approval / failure rate as an adequate parameter to evaluate teacher performance.
These results indicate that the second hypothesis can not be validated, which indicates that teachers feel pressured, to some extent, to approve the largest possible number of students at the end of the semester, since only 36% openly admitted feeling pressured to do so. However, it can be deduced indirectly that there is nonconformity with the way in which the teaching performance is evaluated when taking into account the approval / disapproval index.
The results obtained show disparate trends in terms of giving a clear answer to the probable causes of the increasing failure rate. In the first place, it seems that all the working hypotheses, except the first, correspond to what in colloquial language is called urban legend. They were raised because of their high frequency in informal talks with teachers and anecdotal comments among students.
On the other hand, it must be considered that the first working hypothesis was formulated according to the theoretical framework; its invalidation shows that it is most likely that the elements for an effective teaching, for a good teaching or to become an effective teacher, are not adequate enough in our context. This has led us to think that there are other variables related to the characteristics of the technological era that students live.
The above conclusion does not mean that what is presented as the best way to teach in the revised literature has to be discarded, or considered obsolete, but that it is more likely to work in other contexts. Our students value what allows them to see beyond what is expected in a lecture class: they appreciate the entertaining and dynamic classes. It seems that little by little, tacitly, they ask for a change in the traditional teaching practices and in the attitudes of the professors, since the technological influence begins to give its first fruits among the student community. They require more than a class in the scheme of effective teaching with an effective teacher. This is logical in a society in which the new generations no longer bring their cake under the arm as our grandparents said, but now bring their iPod or their cell phone.
In our environment, and because of the results obtained from the questionnaires, it does not seem that the students included in this study -in the year in which the questionnaires were applied- can be considered net throughout the term. We are going through a transition stage where there is an opportunity to change the ways of seeing teaching and learning; to carry out the teaching function in the classroom and attitudes to the growing or technological that seems to overwhelm everything. It has been evident that the observed teaching practices tend more to the traditional form centred on contents, than on the student and his needs. According to the characteristics of the new generations of students, teachers can not continue with the idea that students must adapt to their style and the educational discourse that has prevailed for decades; The time has come when all those involved in the training of future professionals radically change our way of thinking about higher education and adapt to current demands. It is very likely that this way we will achieve that our students improve their academic performance in all senses; We are at the critical moment that requires a complete turnaround in education. The solution, as always, is in our hands.
5.6. Exploiting Student’s Journal in the English Class: teaching, learning, assessment
5.6.1. Student’s Journal: teaching, learning, assessment
‘Diary entries’ – reflective and interactive Positioning.
Three themes emerged from the data. The first theme, “personal process,” captured individual participants’ approaches to reflection. “Synthesis” described the way in which participants engaged in the construction of knowledge. The third theme, “dialogue,” focused on the nature of the communication in which participants engaged in an effort to promote the social construction of knowledge. Data obtained from learners will be presented first and then the data from the interviews with the instructor.
Interactive Journal Writing Personal Process
In this study, interactive journal writing provided a means of communication and conversation with the personal, professional, and academic self and with the instructor. The first category, interactive journal writing as a personal process, captured the individual variations in style and approach that participants used to record their thoughts. Entries ranged from being very chronological or technical, much like a diary or log, to being very expressive and fluid. The journal most like a diary came from a learner who did not perceive herself as reflective by nature. She recognized merit in the process but found that decreased exposure to the professional practice area that semester made writing difficult as the context from which to write the journals was limited. Despite the perceived limitation, she wrote the greatest number of entries. Several journals were spontaneous and free-flowing, full of energy and emotion, integrating academic, professional, and personal life experiences. These were written primarily by individuals who stated that they perceived themselves as being reflective by nature. Of this group, only one person (Andreea V.) normally kept a personal journal. Andreea’s journals were the most fluid, powerful, and passionate. She valued recording her thoughts and subsequently seeing the patterns peek through.
The interactive journals were charged with emotion. There were expressions of feelings about the technology, the medium, situations encountered in practice, and other aspects of the work experience as well as personal issues. Metaphors and poetry were frequently used to capture and express the affective components of the discourse. Figure 1 portrays an example of a response that Cristian, the instructor, wrote to Diane when she shared that her cat had passed away. He expressed his feelings through poetry, capturing a deep sense of caring, respect, and compassion.”I really don’t know what (know what?) to say about the cat i had a cat who sat on my shoulders gone now warmth and heart beat gone now i still wear the sweater i wore when he sat on my shoulders a memory of when I wrote warm (Cristian) ”
Comments on the journal writing process were also integrated into the journals. Consistent with the literature on journal writing, students wrote that it was a useful means of learning about oneself, especially when they looked at the patterns that became evident with the passage of time.
”Journals-great way to see what’s being digested, used, discarded or thought about. Scary stuff when you read it. . . . I can hardly wait to look at these journal reflections in a couple of years. Now that I’ve been at it, I find myself going back through the journals and rereading. The journey of reflection. I haven’t been writing as much as reading and reflecting, digesting and exploring. The heat and passion seem to have passed much like a love affair and now have settled down into that comfortable knowing love that comes from a good relationship, much like the maturing of a good wine.” (Toma)
This observation was also supported by participants in the interviews. The journals offered an open window on the “self.” “Time provides perspective and momentum, and enables deeper level of insight to take place” (Holly, 1984, p. 4).
Three of the participants who engaged in interactive journal writing kept interactive journals in previous courses but did not continue the practice once the courses were over. Toma, who had never maintained a journal, found the experience gratifying. His entries were uninhibited and passionate. He was delighted that someone was taking the time to show interest in what had been going on inside his head but had for so long gone unrecorded. He felt the distance between the instructor and himself close with the use of the journal. This feeling may be a function of the transactional distance that was created by the nature of the dialogue and the degree of structure afforded by journal writing. With this design strategy, the structure is primarily centred on and initiated by the learner, and he or she has the freedom to explore different avenues of thought through dialogue with and support and guidance from the instructor (Gunawardena, 1992).
Saba and Shearer (1994) suggest that “transactional distance (a function of the variance in dialogue and structure as they relate to each other [p. 43]) decreases when dialogue increases and structure decreases (p. 54).” They explained that “if distance is truly a function of the responsiveness of an educational program to its students, then the quality and amount of transaction between the learners and the instructor, regardless of their proximity, becomes of utmost importance” (pp. 54-55). This effect is particularly relevant with respect to CC or other distance media. Although the “geographic” distance between instructor and learner may be great, the “transactional” distance may indeed be close. The following excerpt captures the tone of the feelings generated as an outcome of the closeness inspired by the interactive journal.
I have never been involved in a course before where I have kept a journal like this . . . this is a first time for me. The process however was just a reflection of what has been going on in my mind over the years anyway. This time however . . . someone (Cristian) was interested enough in me to see inside my head. I really liked the process . . . it brought me closer to Cristian. . . . I wasn’t held at arms length and lectured to . . . he wanted to know how I thought. . . . I felt human in this course . . . valued . . cared about . . . for the first time since I started taking courses. . . . To me this was the first learning experience that I have had in the grad program . . . very stimulating. . . . I was amazed that anyone would care about what went on inside my head . . . instead of APA on paper . . . hand it in get the A or B . . . whatever. I was reassured by the process that other people feel similar thoughts and that I wasn’t an anomaly of the universe. (Toma)
Interactive Journal Writing as Synthesis
Journal writing as synthesis portrays the nature of the content inherent in the journals. Analysis of the link between theory and praxis were evident and given the greatest degree of emphasis in all the interactive journals. This finding is not entirely surprising because it was one of the criteria for writing journals provided in the course syllabus. Application of theoretical constructs to learners’ personal and professional selves was also evident. Journals were laden with questions. Asking questions appeared to be a way of brainstorming, manipulating the content, turning it on its side, and reframing it in order to gain a deeper level of understanding. Although there were questions directed specifically to the course instructor, most questions in the journals were rhetorical, as is shown in the following example:
” Is the hidden curriculum based on Natural Laws? Laws of understanding, human behaviour? Is the essence of curriculum Human thought . . . human perception . . . this would change every second with every individual. Variables ad infinitum. Then how does the intended curriculum in Robinson’s article differ from Natural Law? What values make the intended curriculum different from the hidden curriculum? Is the intended curriculum an attempt to change social values? or fundamental principles? or what? Then is Curriculum Potential both positive and negative as Ben-Peretz describes it? or can it be described as chance random fluke? Time to think and read again” (Toma).
Insights into the participants’ personal and professional past and present were also reflected in the journals. The article by Brown on first year teacher planning brought back a lot of memories of my bumbling and stumbling along in those first couple of years. I really felt my teachers’ training did not adequately prepare me for the classroom experience and I would have to say that the biggest subconscious guide to my performance was the emulation of two teachers I admired, one in primary and one in high school. (Donna)
Journals were also used to capture prospects for the future. “This is an experience I hope never to repeat, but having been through it, I now know I would be able to help others who may have to go through the same experience. Perhaps there is a message in this for planning” (Donna). Interactive journals served as a vehicle for travelling along the core and side-streets of knowledge and experiences coupled with the opportunity to question the route and meanings found along the way. They offered a means of making theoretical links with learning in an effort to construct knowledge in collaboration with an experienced guide.
Interactive Journal Writing as Dialogue
The nature of the communication processes evident in the journals is described in the third category, journal writing as dialogue. Dialogue with the instructor appeared to be on three levels: academic, professional, and personal. All participants viewed him as a role model and mentor and appreciated the learning and growth that came as an outcome of sharing their thoughts with him. They valued the freedom to express their ideas and feelings without the fear of reprisal or judgement. Cristian frequently advised students to take the opportunity to “suspend disbelief” in an effort to help open them to receiving new understandings. They valued and looked forward to his responses. Tagg (1994) confirms that “students may need assurance that their contributions are valid and valued” (p.47). The interest, respect, sensitivity, and challenge shown were factors that influenced participants’ perceptions of the interactive journal writing process. The following excerpt from Andreea V. captures the power of the dialogue.
He said something about the place where two thoughts occupy the same space. ” It seemed like a very profound thing to say, and it stopped me cold . . . not only had I never heard anyone say something like that, I had never thought about it . . . and I had to spend a long time thinking before I was even sure I understood what he meant. It really made me think in many directions . .. eventually I sent him a small poem connected to the thinking he’d generated. ”
As role model, the instructor offered positive reinforcement, thoughts for consideration, questions and probes, and poetry as expressions of his thoughts and feelings. There seemed to be a partnership, a mutual respect, a balanced, reciprocal, collegial relationship evident in the interactions between the instructor and students. The process of learning shifted from simply being an interaction to becoming a relationship, the latter requiring a more personal connection, respect, and sharing of experiences (Thorpe, 1995). Andreea V. expressed her gratefulness in this way:
Some minds travel in the space between the shadows of our thoughts where light fractures into hues as incandescent as the moon And when they’ve touched the Universe and sensed the space beyond. They know now that there’s an emptiness that only *silence* fills . . . thanks for pushing the parameters of my mind.
Trust played a part in the nature of the communication between learner and instructor. All students stated in the interviews that trust influenced the degree to which they were prepared to reveal their personal selves. The need for trust is a conceptual thread that is tightly woven into the literature on journal writing. Expressing inner thoughts to another can make one feel vulnerable. The instructor is often viewed by learners as a person in authority, in a position of power. The risk of revealing ideas and feelings that are outside the expected norm or of expressing a lack of understanding, the fear that one’s thinking will be manipulated, and not knowing if one’s personal thoughts will be disclosed to others can increase feelings of vulnerability. These fears are normal, and it takes great skill and energy on the instructor’s behalf to allay them and normalize the process. Trust, care, acceptance, and legitimacy of understandings were all characteristics that participants acknowledged as being critical to effective dialogue with the instructor. Not every instructor will wish to or be able to make this kind of investment. However, if interactive journal writing is the desired design strategy, energy, sensitivity, and commitment are indispensable. These elements minimize the distance between the students and the instructor as shown in the next excerpt. Andreea V. found that what originally began as a “course” journal began to blur with what she viewed to be a more personal journal. She wrote, ”The separation between “course” journal vs. personal journal was clear at first, and then became rather blurred. Sometimes I decided I would keep my heart at home and send my thoughts, then the interactive part of the exchange would touch me and I’d send a little heart-sort of testing to see what reaction I would get-the safer I felt the more heart I sent. It was more of a judgment call I guess. ”
Barriers to Dialogue
Written communication through journal writing was hindered by the time element. Time was identified as the most common barrier to reflection. There was a feeling that there was not enough time in a day to record reflections, meet the multiple obligations one has as an adult learner, and learn the technology. It also took time to develop a trusting relationship with the instructor.
Another barrier was the writing process itself. It was explained from two perspectives: writing as a roadblock and writing as a protective device. Recording reflections slowed the process of reflecting. The time needed to write things down interfered with the thoughts that had already been transformed from those recorded.
As the process continued it became more and more mental as I began to leave the writing. The writing became a road block at times to the process. The writing became a snapshot in time sort of like a picture of a teenager with acne . . . you look at it and tear it up and try to forget that stage of life . . . as I look back through the journals they indicate a process and a commitment to myself. When you take the time to write it down and you look at your work your thought process becomes a reality . . . a marker on the thought trail . . . you can find your way back or you can retrace your steps if you run across a marker. But for me the reflective process became more and more a mental process. When I reviewed notes I made in books even hours earlier, I found that growth had occurred and so had the thinking . . . the notes and the journals no longer had a resemblance to what I was currently thinking . . . it wasn’t me anymore. The writing at times looks like a cowtrail through the bush . . . and does not indicate where I am (at least to me). (Toma)
Words can also be used as a means of concealing true feelings, a means of hiding when you do not want someone to really know what you are thinking or feeling or you do not want to face something yourself. [I] was just thinking here inside my mind if writing doesn’t also allow us to mask a lot of what we don’t want others to see, or what we don’t want to see ourselves. . . . I love writing and find it fun to express myself this way, but I also know that I have built tremendous walls using words . . . and found it hard to reach through them to really connect with my own feelings and with other people’s feelings . . . just something I always try to keep in mind when I’m writing . . . have you ever had that feeling that just one look into a person’s eyes tied to a certain smile, or a light touch on someone’s arm can convey more than volumes of writing can ever hope to? (Andreea V.)
Interactive Journal Writing as a Design Tool
During the online interviews, participants reported that journal writing was an effective strategy to facilitate reflection in CC courses. Toma could not imagine how his learning would have been as rich without the interactive journals: “Without the journal writing experience this course would have been a void for me. Empty and without meaning. I would suggest that 80% of the learning would have been missed and the self knowledge would still be a lost treasure.” Participants did offer some recommendations in respect to implementing interactive journal writing as a reflective strategy. They suggested that clear guidelines be established on expectations as well as on how the journals would be used. The CC medium was well suited to the depth or quality of reflections evident in the interactive journals, but it was not perceived as a critical factor.
”I don’t think the difference is due to using CC or face-to-face courses. The difference is that Cristian asked us to reflect and journal and respected our own knowledge as legitimate. I think the legitimizing of my own personal knowledge was the major influence on how I reflected. ” (Diane)
Interactive journal writing was seen as a useful way to encourage deeper, more critical analysis of a variety of issues; however, it was clear that the effectiveness of the strategy was linked to the perceived trust that developed between the instructor and learner, the instructor’s expertise with the design strategy, and whether journal writing was a required component of the course.
”Instructors have to be able to handle what they read in the journals before they implement it in their courses. There are some very intense feelings in the journals and some very personal thoughts after a while. It doesn’t take much for a student that is afraid of the experience to shut down if a prof makes the wrong comment on a sensitive statement . . . thus the trust has to be built and the instructor has to be a very sensitive caring individual”. (Toma)
As a final point, participants cautioned that reflection through interactive journal writing be encouraged and facilitated in CC courses, but they felt that it should not be graded. The concept of grading/evaluating journals is one that is raised in the literature. It is generally accepted that journals themselves should not be subject to grading, although participation or nonparticipation in the process may be evaluated. In addition, students explained that facilitating reflection through interactive journals may not be a strategy that fits the facilitative style of the instructor or the learning style of the individual learner. Despite her support for the design strategy, Andreea V. expressed concern about the bandwagon approach that so often plagues education-”I think using reflective interactive journals takes tremendous sensitivity and skill . . . I do think there is a potential here for hurting people (the other side of learning and growing) . . . so this approach may not be well suited to every instructor or every learner. ”
Instructor Outcomes
The instructor enjoyed interactive journal writing and used it as a reflective strategy in his face-to-face and online courses. Developing a safe learning space was critical to this instructor in order to push students beyond traditional learning boundaries. He embraced the idea that reflective learning should be integrated into the design of courses and that integration would promote a holistic approach to the learning experience.
” [Reflection] should clearly, in my view, be integrated. We are talking about the root of the word “integrated”-integrity-wholeness. To help the student to be whole, I want there to be spinoffs from the course content to the student’s personal experience. We teach what we are. The “areness” of my students is at the centre of their learning and applying that learning. ” (Cristian)
Discussion
From this study, it seems that reflection is a personal process that evolves from the cognitive and affective synthesis of ideas and that it may be strengthened through dialogue. The goal of reflection is the construction of meaningful understandings. Participants described reflection as thinking, pondering, mulling over, and musing. They made it clear that just because thoughts were not recorded did not imply that they were not engaging in the reflective process. Most of the participants noted that their usual way of reflecting was by thinking things over or talking things through with others. The reality is that conversations and thoughts go unrecorded. Andreea V. describes a conversation she had with a colleague: “there is no record of this, words gone, dissolved, spoken then lost, can only reflect what i *think* it was, not what it *was*” (Andreea V.). According to Holly (1984), ”writing serves a useful purpose with respect to reflection because it may lead to further reconstruction of understandings”. ”Reflective strategies that are integrated into the course design can offer the needed opportunity, space, and time for the development of insights as well as offer value and legitimacy to the process” (Thorpe, 1995).
The design strategy provided a means of communication and conversation. The interactive journal offered two-way (learner’s inner/personal self and learner’s academic/professional self) and three-way (learner’s inner/personal and academic/professional selves and instructor) dialogue to occur. Dialogue with the instructor on a regular basis provided reinforcement, validation, and support as well as prompting and probing. The instructor served as an audience to receive and respond to the students’ thoughts and impressions.
The academic/professional self was very evident in the interactive journals. A large proportion of entries was oriented to analysing course material and synthesizing it in relation to professional practice and experience. The inner/personal self, however, was very distinct in the more fluid journals, especially in one belonging to a journal writer and one of a participant who was exhilarated by the process.
Participants supported the value of and need for reflection. The key elements appeared to be the expertise of the instructor with the strategy, the degree of trust and rapport that existed between instructor and students, and the importance of having the process not the substance of the entries, graded.
Reflection: A Personal Process
Although conversation is a useful way of sharing and legitimizing experiences, thoughts remain unrecorded. They can also change form and lose intensity and detail when they are left to memory. The reality in academia, one that has been reinforced in the literature, is that if opportunities are not dedicated to promoting the reflective process, learners may not make the effort to engage in it. Multiple legitimate demands take precedence. This factor is of particular significance to the quality of the learning experience in an electronic learning environment where the current state of technology supports interaction that is primarily text-based. This environment will change as technology advances. Taking the time to reread transcripts and make conceptual links by weaving the multiple strands of conversation together in a meaningful way takes effort. The data from this study indicate that reflection in a computer-mediated learning environment through interactive journal-writing is indeed possible, valuable, and effective in helping learners develop meta-cognitive awareness. The journals captured cognitive as well as affective perspectives at different points in time and provided a baseline from which to see patterns of understandings change and develop personal and professional meaning. The process moved learning to deeper cognitive and affective levels.
Journals provided space for describing experiences, expressing feelings, and making theoretical connections. Participants who had not previously engaged in ongoing dialogue with the instructor through an interactive journal discovered new dimensions to their learning. They shared their thoughts and impressions with an audience, namely themselves and the instructor, an audience that did not judge what was written, that only made observations, prompted, and encouraged them to move one step further, beyond the margin, as Cristian would say. They had a voice. In turn, the instructor assumed a different voice, one of colleague and more advanced learner. The reciprocity was mutually rewarding. Although journal writing was not a strategy many students chose to adopt into their personal lives, they understood and appreciated its value.
The process inherent in the interactive journals, in effect, became the content of what participants were learning. Connections between the personal and professional self and practice became evident. Participants had time to look at themselves, look at what they were learning, look at their practice as professionals, and construct meaning from the myriad dimensions. These elements constitute the dimensions of critical thought. This was one goal the instructor hoped to achieve. It was a means whereby he could remain in the margins of the learning experience, and still encourage risk taking and promote growth through personal and professional enrichment. Participants, students and instructor, cautioned, however, that major ingredients in a successful experience with interactive journal writing were the trust and respect between student and instructor.
Reflection: A Synthesis Process
The second dimension that enabled the process of reflection in the computer-mediated environment was synthesis. This concept embraced the notion that each learner was drawing together learnings from internal and external sources of knowledge and experience and subsequently reconstructing new understandings. This notion is consistent with activities inherent in reflective thinking. Synthesis of theoretical constructs through critical thinking, a process that fused the analysis and evaluation of understandings, was extensive in the interactive journals. It commences when we begin to inquire into the reliability, the worth, of any particular indication; when we try to test its value and see what guarantee there is that the existing data really point to the ideas that is suggested in such a way as to justify acceptance of the latter. (Dewey, 1933, p. 11)
Reflection: A Dialogical Process
Reflective journal writing encouraged learners to process what they were learning and make sense of it by sharing it with an audience. Diamond suggests that if people can understand their own perspectives, as well as those of others, they can not only understand their past but they can also make predictions about their likely behaviour in a given situation, such as the classroom, because they know something about what that series of events is likely to mean to themselves and others. (Diamond, 1991, p. 22)
The instructor became a participant in the student learning experience by assuming the role of audience along with the student. “We need to develop procedures and approaches which generate learning and develop self-aware learners and which also avoid either giving learners all the responsibility and no power, or leaving them to sink or swim” (Thorpe, 1995, p. 176). Interactive journal writing provided a means of integrating the learner’s identity into the learning process. For example, through reflection, the question “what are the points of this theory?,” was reframed to “what does this theory mean to me and my professional practice?” The journal had merit in helping learners transform knowledge to a more personal level of understanding. It legitimized the time spent on constructing new meanings according to a personal knowledge frame. This finding is consistent with Thorpe’s recommendation that instructional designers consider the creation of time and space opportunities for students to reflect on their learning.
Students will not reflect on the outcomes and the processes of their own learning if they are overwhelmed by course material they perceive must take priority . . . study time must be calculated to include time for reflection; space must be also be created in the sense of creating areas of the course where reflection is required and is discussed and legitimated (p.182).
Learner identity, the social context of the learning experience, and the degree of personal awareness were elements that contributed to the quality of the learning experience (Thorpe, 1995). Some participants made discoveries that they would not have likely made had the reflective tool not been a part of the course design; others would have preferred to carve out their own path to meaningful learning. Toma summarized the tone of the feelings towards the need for reflection.
The reflective component must be understood by all learners as the most important aspect of the learning. Learners MUST be given permission to GIVE themselves permission to reflect and learn.
5.7. [anonimizat]: a questionnaire
Results of observation in class
What the observation system shows, through the teaching profiles, is that there is no direct correlation with the method or teaching style and the performance of the students. On the other hand, it is evident that there is a marked difference between each teacher observed, so that, in a first approach, it can be said that the teaching style does not have a significant impact on the students' academic performance – the results of the departmental exams.
In summary, what is extracted from the observations is the following:
• In some cases there is a rapid loss of student attention to the teacher because the latter is the one who exposes the subject in its entirety and does not involve the student in any way during the session to avoid it, either using examples, quick questions related with the theme, or with your own experience. This style contrasts with another that leaves the study and handling of the session in the hands of the students in group work modality. These two positions, of an antagonistic nature, show no significant difference in the results of departmental examinations.
• The use of didactic material for the handling of session topics and examples is null and void – both by the teacher in the expository class and by the team exhibiting students in group learning mode – through simple experiments and the use of the daily experience, until carrying out the session showing experiments with laboratory materials. However, there is no appreciable difference in ratings either.
• The departmental and academic examination scheme rules out that the evaluation, in the part corresponding to the exam, is different in content and depth to the students of different teachers, as well as from the bibliography. It is this observation that reiterates that, despite presenting such diverse teaching styles, the results do not show their influence.
Results of questionnaire 1 for students
In Annex 1 the questionnaire 1 for students is presented. The answer summary is included below: first, the percentage of those who answered what was asked and, in parentheses, the number of them / them. In total there were 33 participants.
1. Do you think you will be awarded a passing grade regardless of performance ?: 33.2%.
2. Do you think that teachers are in some way obliged to approve them ?: 15.1%.
3. Do you think that students who get good grades are "weirdos" ?: 24.3%.
4. Do you think that the departmental exams serve to know the academic reality of the students ?: 48%.
5. Do you consider the studies as a formal job ?: 75%.
These results invalidate the remaining working hypotheses.
Unstructured answer questions
• Students value or appreciate more of their teachers:
1. The way to explain: 18.5%.
2. Entertaining / dynamic class: 18.51%.
3. Interpersonal relationship / enthusiasm / general culture / advice (goes beyond the classroom): 10.75%.
4. Exemplify; real / applicable / everyday examples and problems: 8.36%.
5. Punctuality, not fail to teach: 7.46%.
6. The way to evaluate (it is considered fair): 7.16%.
7. The way of teaching / teaching method: 5.67%.
8. Patience: 4.18%.
9. The content of the subject itself: 3.58%.
10. Give the 40 points: 2.98%.
11. Content domain: 2.69%.
12. Respectful treatment to the student: 1.49%.
• Students find annoying / annoying / bad:
1. Impuntuality / absences: 13.13%.
2. Arrogance / sarcasm / allows disorder: 7.76%.
3. Do not miss to teach / very punctual: 7.46%.
4. Too many tasks: 5.37%.
5. Few examples / few problems / little participation: 4.78%.
6. Tedious / elaborate explanations: 4.78%.
7. Unfair evaluation / favoritism: 3.88%.
5.8. Final Tests
The final experimental stage of this research was the administration of a final evaluation test, the subjects being the same for both classes, experimental and control ones. Subsequently, the results recorded in this context were compared with those obtained from the initial assessment.
As far as the evaluation of the results is concerned, it was possible with the help of the notes, to set the total score for each item. The next step was to compare the results obtained by each class in terms of comparison charts and those that reveal the structure.
In the context of the final stage, the following general and specific competencies were considered:
General, social and civic competencies
1. Receiving the written message, from literary and non-literary texts, for various purposes;
2. The correct and appropriate use of the English grammar in the production of written messages, in different contexts of realization, with different purposes.
Specific targeted competencies
1.1 reading a variety of literary or non-literary texts, demonstrating the understanding of their meaning;
1.2. Recognizing the specific modalities of organizing the epic text and the expressive procedures in the lyrical text;
1.3. Knowing the correctness and expressive value of the learned grammar and lexical categories in a text;
2.1. Expressing in writing their own opinions and attitudes;
2.2. The correct and nuanced use of learned semantic categories;
2.3. Use varied modalities for expressing the text.
Table 5
The results obtained at the final test by the experimental sample
The results are distributed as following:
Average at the class level has the following form: (1×0+2×0+3×0+4×0+5×0+6×0+7×1+8×10+9×7+10×12):30= 9
Module (the most frequent note) is represented by the mark 10
Table 6
Nominal table with the marks obtained at the final test by the experimental class
Based on the graphs and tables representative for the results obtained by the experimental sample at the final test, it can be stated that the module was around the 10th mark, and in terms of the degree of advancement, this is an excellent one, 10 marks being recorded over the 8th mark. As well as in the case of the final test, a grouping of marks on a quite stretched beach is noted. In the same context, none of the marks 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 were recorded, and all pupils with mark 10 achieved the objectives that were initially proposed in the context of the didactic approach.
Table 7
Results obtained at the final test by the control sample
The results are distributed as following:
Average at the class level has the following form: (1×0+2×0+3×0+4×0+5×0+6×1+7×8+8×6+9×10+10×5):30= 8.33
Module (the most frequent note) is represented by the mark 9
Table 8
Nominal table with the marks obtained at the final test by the control class
Analyzing the results obtained at the final test by the control sample, there is a presence of 10 marks over the 9th one. In this context, the module is represented by mark 9, observing a grouping of marks on a large beach.
Also in the case of the control group, marks such as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are missing, which means that the majority of the grade B pupils have fully achieved the objectives proposed during the didactic approach.
In this context, the main measures for optimizing the didactic approach at both levels are:
• Return with additional information
• To identify gaps in the context of the teaching-learning process in which pupils should be involved at maximum capacity
• Insist on solving the exercises similar to the ones received by the students at the final test
Observing the structural diagrams of the averages obtained at the level of the two samples in the context of the final test, it is noted that with respect to the experimental group, the average is higher compared to the control one.
OPTIMIZATION RECOMMENDATIONS:
Difficulties encountered in resolving the test require some remedial measures:
solving several exercises with the correct writing of the orthograms;
performing several morpho-syntactic analysis exercises;
making several sentences with verbs: predictive, copulative and auxiliary;
constant checking of the themes;
I have tried the items to be as varied as possible to cover as much knowledge as possible. Also, I realized as many items as possible. Thus, objective items, semi-objective items, short-response items and subjective ones of problem-solving appear in this final test. The first topics were accessible, while the last one is more complex. The results obtained by the 60 students at the final test, can be summarized as following, in percentage:
The highest percentage was situated at the value of 28.33% (the one of the marks 9 and 10), while at the opposite pole one may find the value of 0% recorded for marks 1, 2, 9 and 10. In this respect, one may consider the following:
• The arithmetic average obtained at the classes level is 8.67.
• The module (the highest frequent mark) is 9 and 10.
• The median is between marks 7 and 8, respectively 7.64.
Through this test, operational concepts were verified, such as: verbal, verbal types, adverb types, noun, adjective, conditional sentences. Students 'grammatical knowledge was also verified.
Thus, according the results of certain dissatisfaction, the teacher will take the following measures:
• she will develop tables with verbal time
• she will develop texts in order to improve students’ vocabulary
• she will develop exercises on different themes
• she will increase the hours when students can practice writing
• she will develop elaborate appropriate tests
The analysis and interpretation of the data and implicitly, of the obtained results suggests the presence of a positive trend aimed at improving the school results of the intermediate level students in favour of both experimental and control samples. Moreover, this trend can not be exclusively attributed to the psychic and physical development of pupils, which is why we can assert that the initial hypothesis is confirmed. Using the interactive methods and techniques, both individually, by group and frontal, is the following:
• children have the ability to learn new knowledge with ease;
• the students' confidence in their ability to decode and comprehend the content, both individually and at group level, is observed;
• students show an increasing desire to be involved in the learning process and show no signs of fatigue as they engage willingly, freely, consciously, learning logically and actively;
• children have acquired a tinted language and enriched by various teaching methods;
The data suggests that there is a positive trend in improving student outcomes in favour of the experimental sample, in terms of transforming the teacher-student relationship into a democratic one, aligned with modern standards. Thus, intermediate level students enjoy effective communication based on cooperation, mutual help, initiative and freedom, thanks to the factual methods used by the English teacher.
In this context, it can be said that the present study was a real challenge for me, in terms of an opportunity to study both the literature and the psycho-pedagogical type, to enrich and deepen my knowledge regarding interactive methods and phenomena characterized by complexity, but topical and vital for the future. In the case of the two samples studied in this research it was found that in the first experimental phase, the differences between the average are statistically relative, the balance inclining towards the control sample, but as the experimental intervention is unfolding, one may observe remarkable differences between environments, on this occasion favouring the experimental group. This is due to the fact that the dynamics of the school performance, which the experimental group follows, contributes to the decrease of the difference between the media to the inflection point, after which the difference between the averages in favour of the experimental sample follows an ascending trend.
The qualitative and quantitative comparative approaches between the two groups (experimental and control) reinforce the assertion that the ascending evolution of the school performance of the experimental sample is strongly influenced by the final experimental intervention.
CONCLUSIONS
What is observed in the classroom seems to be in direct contrast to what has been found in literature. When contrasting with the characteristics of effective teaching, good teaching and what it means to be an effective teacher, the authors mentioned in the corresponding sections affirm that learning can be achieved when the recommended actions are taken. However, it should be noted that of the six teachers that were observed, two obtained high grades in their performance as effective teachers, one was in the middle and three more qualified as teachers away from the practices considered "effective" or "good". " Then, in view of the fact that both for an effective teacher and for another one qualified as traditional, the results of their students do not differ in a significant way -, the failure rates of the students of one teacher and another are not very different-, the study shows that in our context the "good teachers" obtain the same results as the traditional ones.
The present research deals with a current issue, framed in the new orientations of contemporary pedagogy, aiming in particular at replacing the grading methodologies and differentiating ones that support the individualization and the personalization of the educational process, offering equal opportunities to all students regardless of their level, thus promoting various methods with a high training potential that can lead to the optimization of the action taken by the students in the context of their own learning.
The experimental investigation supports the intention to verify the extent to which the use of interactive teaching methods and of the modern educational means in the teaching of English grammar has a particular influence on the achievement of the students' superior performances in terms of the positive impact these methods especially in the field of effective and conscious learning, but also as regards the intention to identify the limits of the use of these methods.
The approach taken in the present research presents clarifying and argumentative aspects, supporting the idea that the interactive methods promoted systematically and with pedagogical relevance in didactic activity have positive effects on school performance.
Appreciating the results obtained from the investigative approach, it can be confirmed that the teaching of English grammar to intermediate level students using modern educational means and interactive methods has significant positive effects, both in the formative segment and in the information plan.
The design and development of the pedagogical experiment was carried out from the perspective of optimizing the teaching and learning process of the English grammar at the intermediate level, the exigency of the systematic use of interactive methods regarding the formation and the development of the fundamental competences, in the dynamics of school performance segment. The pedagogical intervention was performed in the context of the English didactic activities at the level of the A and B grades. The two samples (experimental and control) were selected according to the methodology of pedagogical research while respecting the compatibility with the various requirements imposed by the objectives and the hypothesis of the formative experiment.
With regard to the content sample, its delimitation was possible by the potential of capitalizing on the formative valences that modern and interactive didactic methods have, appreciating also the extent to which the content contributes to the learning and development of the understanding, using the concepts and specific terms of the discipline of study, exploration and investigation capacity of reality. Thus, the content sample covers a significant part of the English contents.
The formative experiment was the fundamental stage of this pedagogical research, at which level the didactic activities did take place at the intermediate level, according to the intervention project. The processing and interpretation of experimental data, referring to specific hypotheses, makes it easier to outline future conclusions.
Using interactive methods makes it possible to create a logical and natural chain between old and new knowledge; didactic units are not separate sequences, but they are inter-conditioned in a training situation, contributing to an optimal understanding of them, as they capitalize and activate the previous knowledge of students.
As expected, conducting this experimental research has given me the opportunity to see new perspectives, address other possible themes or subtopics, set new objectives and, implicitly, distinct working hypotheses, use innovative assessment tools and advanced data analysis techniques. In the same context, the process of collecting and analyzing data has given me the opportunity to know the various limits of research.
To conclude, given that teaching styles do not influence the results of exams applied to students, it is necessary to investigate the other actor in the teaching-learning process: the student. In general, in the observed groups it can be seen that the students do not have study habits; this is evident in that, if they are not required, they do not work and in the poor delivery of assigned tasks, in addition to the students reacting according to the demands of the teacher and with the time they dedicate to them; for example, in the revision of tasks, when questioning them in class or inviting them to participate.
=== 0a4134fa2cfeb8320edffcc221aad6c9ea050287_153239_1 ===
ANNEXES
Annex 1
QUESTIONNAIRE APPLIED TO STUDENTS
1. Regarding your relation with your English teacher, what I like and value the most is/ are……………..
2. What bothers and disgusts me most about my English teacher is ………………………….
3. Do you think that, despite of your performance throughout the semester, the English teacher will eventually give you a passing grade?
Yes
No
4. Do you believe that teachers have a certain obligation to approve the largest number of students each semester, regardless of their performance?
Yes
No
5. Do you consider that your colleagues who always get good grades – sometimes known as nerds – are a kind of „rare diamonds”?
Yes
No
6. Do you worry a lot about failing any subject per semester? In any case. write down the causes:
7. Do you think that departmental exams serve to know the reality of students?
Yes
No
8. Do you think your English teacher is fair regarding her manner of evaluation?
Yes
No
9. If you answered NO to the previous question, how would you like to be evaluated by your English teacher?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Annex 2
QUESTIONNAIRE ADDRESSED TO TEACHERS
Dear colleagues, I want to thank you for your collaboration in this survey to know your point of view about the remaining points of the exams for the final qualification of the students. The survey has a purely statistical purpose and the results will be used to launch a proposal of change to the processes of teacher evaluation.
1. In the first day in classroom, do you use to inform your students about the points, as part of their final evaluation?
Yes
No
2. Do you consider the 60-40 ratio adequate for the final qualification of your subject?
Yes
No
If not, what do you propose?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Below you will find a list of possible actions that the student would have to perform to get the remaining points of the exams; I would like you to assign the score to those taken into account.
4. It is possible that none of this you would like to take into account. Then, at the end of the semester, do you grant the points to your students regardless of the work they do?
Yes
No
5. As a result of not obtaining 80% of approval, were you able to get the teaching performance chart?
Yes
No
6. In case of affirmative answer to the previous question, do you feel pressured and consequently grant all the points- or a very close amount- at the end of the semester?
Yes
No
7. Do you consider that obtaining high approval ratings is an adequate parameter for evaluating teacher performance?
Yes
No
Thank you for your attention!
Annex 3
Initial test
Read about Paul and his family. Write the correct form of the verb shown in brackets in the space provided.
Example: Paul ………………………….. (live) in a small village in the south of England.
He ……………………………….. (have) an older brother and two sisters. His brother is at
university in Scotland, but his two sisters still ………………………………… (live) at home.
Paul’s mother is a journalist for the local newspaper but she ………………………………..
(not work) at the moment. Paul’s father………………………………… (teach) French in a
college and so he…………………………….. (go) to France quite often with his students.
Last year the whole family………………………. (go) to Paris and ……………………………
(see) The Eiffel Tower. Where are they going this year? They …………………………….
(fly) to America but Paul ……………………………………….(not want) to go because he
……………………………………. (not like) flying!
2. Use the information below to help you fill in the missing words
Example: What time is The Clothes Show on?
It’s on at ten o’clock.
1. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,times is the news on?
Four times.
2. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,does the morning movie start?
Ten o’clock.
3.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, is on Channel Three at eleven o’clock.
Looking after your Pets.
4. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,channel has Football at eleven o’clock?
Channel Two.
5. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,of programme is Mib and Mob?
It’s a children’s programme.
3. ”Write a letter to a penfriend who has never visited Romania and invite him to come to your country. Give him/her some information about the country. (100-120 words)”
FINAL TESTS
1. Copy this letter into the space below and using the correct capitals letters.
There should be five capital letters.
wednesday 5th september
dear barry,
thanks for inviting me to stay with you and your family in july. i want to come but i am doing my english exams and my teacher wants me to do well! can we see each other next week?
Chris.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Use the chart to fill in the missing words in the conversation below.
JANET
SARAH
Sarah can come for tea tomorrow. Does she like fish?
No. She doesn’t like fish and I ……………………………. fish either!
Then you can have curry. You both like curry, don’t you?
Sarah ……………………………………… curry but I ………………………… curry very much.
Okay. You can have some onion soup.
Oh no! I ………………………….. soup and Sarah …………………………….onions!
Do you want to make something?
I …………………………. a pizza. Sarah …………………………… pizza, but she ……………………………. cakes. She made some great cakes at school!
Good. You can have some chips and salad with your pizza.
Great, we both ……………………………………..chips and we both …………………………………….. salad too.
3. Look at the picture below and write as much as you can about it on the lines below.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
4. You recently went on a holiday. A friend of yours has written to you expressing an interest in the place you visited and asking you what it was like there. Write an email to your friend, telling him/her about the positive and negative aspects of the place, suggesting him/her (not) to go there next year.
=== FINAL PAPER ===
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION
1.1. The Aims of the Paper
In learning second languages, one of the biggest enemies is the anxiety caused in part by the shame of the students not feeling competent. It is the teacher's job to provide an adequate climate in which the student is relaxed and can fully exploit their qualities. The level of anxiety of students is lower when the teacher uses a good positioning of theory in the English class. For this reason we consider justified the activities proposed in this study, but also an introduction of certain grammatical and vocabulary structures, as well as help for immersion of the student in another culture.
This thesis aims to investigate whether the good positioning of theory in the English class favours the teaching-learning process. We used an intentional sample of articles about empirical research on the inclusion of theory positioning in the English class. A qualitative content analysis methodology was applied to these materials from the elaboration of several categories. The results indicate that these investigations are based, in their majority, on an empiricist perspective and – from there – propose a pragmatic didactics. Such investigations generically attribute a positive influence to the adequate use of a good positioning of theory in the English class, during the teaching-learning processes, as they modify interpersonal and intrapersonal aspects such as affective, social and cognitive. However, the thesis concludes that the positioning of theory in the English class requires new research that uses more current theoretical perspectives. This appreciation was made on the basis of the experimental stage results. This would allow another type of more precise analysis about what the contextual aspects of the classroom scene really are that would be affected by positioning of theory in the English class in the teaching-learning process as a useful tool to favour, for example, the conceptual change. Also, the quantitative method has been used in order to highlight this observation.
The general aim of this thesis is to analyze and theorize about the positioning of theory in the English class’ processes of teaching and learning that focus empirical research selected on the basis of qualitative and quantitative methods applied in the classroom. The following research questions guided the study:
How does the teacher conceptualise his/ her role as a teacher of high school students?
How do learners conceptualise their roles as social members of the broader community and as language and literacy learners in an English language classroom?
How does the teacher position his/ her learners through different pedagogical practices?
How do learners position themselves in response to the teacher’s pedagogical approaches?
1.2. The Structure of the Paper
The present paper is divided into five chapters. In this respect, the theoretical framework represents chapter no. 2, highlighting aspects such as the Communicative Language Competences, Teacher’s and Student’s Roles in the FL Classroom and New Interactive Strategies in the Common European Framework of Reference for languages.
The third chapter emphasize the positioning theory: from Economics into the FL classroom and its implications into the classroom discourse. The approached subjects are, in this regard, the following: Teacher and [anonimizat], Teacher and [anonimizat] and Student’s Journal: a tool used in the context of teaching, learning and assessment.
Then, one would observe that the research methodology would be performed in chapter no. 4. In this respect, aspects such as Research aims and Questions, Research methods and instruments, Research stages and Data Collection will complete this part of study.
Chapter no. 5 is represented by a wide collection of data regarding Interaction Strategies in the Curriculum, Spoken and Written Interaction in the English Textbooks, initial tests, Positioning in the English Class (special lessons focused on spoken and written interaction, roles, identity, multiple intelligences), Teacher Reflective Positioning: a questionnaire, exploiting Exploiting Student’s Journal in the English Class: teaching, learning, assessment through Student’s Journal: teaching, learning, assessment, as well as through Interactive Positioning, [anonimizat]: a questionnaire and final tests.
English teaching at an early age is a topical issue that has been approached from different perspectives and purposes. The object of study in the present research is the in-depth analysis of the characterization of the strategies for the positioning of theory in the English class to high school pupils. Recently, English teaching has become an important field of educational research and applied linguistics, in addition to other disciplines such as educational psychology and specifically from emotional intelligence. This new way of considering language learning has given the subject a multidisciplinary character.
CHAPTER 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1. Communicative Language Competences
Multiple views to understand communicative competence
To enter the theoretical field of communicative competence, it is necessary to take a path that leads to the understanding of several fields of study, ranging from psychology, a discipline that plays an extremely important role from the point of view of behaviour as part of the human expression; linguistics, in terms of language skills formation is related to pragmatics as a multi-factorial discipline indispensable for the study of the subject. The concept of competence evolves from the critique that Noam Chomsky makes to Skinner about his perception of language learning, where he proposes a process based only on the stimulus-response relationship, without taking into consideration the vital importance of the creative process. In 1965, Chomsky proposed the term of linguistic competence and defined it as "capacities and dispositions for interpretation and performance" (Chomsky, 1965: 55). But this concept only glimpses the linguistic competence, which in itself does not guarantee a good communication. Later, Hymes (1971:99) expands the notion of Chomsky and conceives it as a communicative action according to the demands of the environment. The definition of Hymes departs from the purely linguistic fact and gives room to other aspects such as social and psychological. In the psychosocial field, we find the contributions of McClelland (1973:380) in the theory of needs and the identification of social variables from which explains how to arrive at efficiency in work, placing the term competence in the labour field, as it is known today. From this psychological perspective, Piaget (1981:110) posited the theory regarding cognitive development with respect to the use of mental operations considering the existence of an abstract knowledge of the subject that intervenes in the development of his abilities. The confluence of studies both in the area of language, psychology and cognition, gave way to a common perspective that allowed the expansion of the concept of communicative competence. By way of explanation, communicative competence implies, then, a series of knowledge processes and experiences of various types that the transmitter-receiver must o produce or understand speeches appropriate to the situation and to the context of communication.
Booth (2009:223) adds to the components that had already been raised, the learning competence or degree of autonomy that an individual can enjoy to organize his own training, and he points out that it depends on the capacity to make decisions and take responsibility, self-evaluate and supervise their process, to participate actively in it; emotional competence, as an ability to recognize, express and channel emotional life, where personal balance, self-esteem and empathy, as well as the ability of the subject to know and govern the feelings caused by affective phenomena, becomes particularly important; and competence in terms of behaviour, a set of verbal and non-verbal skills that show an adaptation to the situation and context that favour effective communication.
Later, Aguirre (2005:201) argues that the category must be approached from three dimensions: cognitive, communicative and socio-cultural to analyze the subject within its pragmatics, for which it makes an integrative approach. As one may observe, several authors agree that communicative competence is the result of the sum of several competences and sub-competences, called dimensions.
This is reflected in one of the most recent concepts presented by Booth (2009:225), who confirms that communicative competence is knowing how to communicate in a field of knowledge and how to apply it; Knowledge that includes knowledge, skills, attitudes and values (preconditions, criteria, uses, rules and norms) to perform effective communicative acts in a given context, according to needs and purposes. The study of communicative competence requires, then, a holistic vision away from mechanistic and rigid positions to give way to a multi-factorial and necessarily subjective or at least flexible; particularly when applied to the organizational context, where human relationships determine the achievement of objectives. Among the authors who have offered a holistic view of the concept are Knapp, Vangelisti and Caughlin (2014:88) define communicative competence as a psychological configuration that integrates the capacities to interact in diverse socio-cultural contexts, with different purposes and purposes. The author includes in the conception of communicative competence in the cognitive processes, the domination of the discursive structures and the action of socio-cultural nature that characterize the individual. A similar component of the competition referred to by Romeú (2002:11) involves both the acquired cultural knowledge and the culture of the individuals with whom their knowledge, values, needs, emotions and motivations interact in a constant process of feedback.
From this perspective, communicative competence is subject to context, relationships with others, role and social position, which determines that its analysis must be done with an interrelated vision of all its components. As a study variable and based on the fact that communicative competence has been approached by different sciences, an analysis acquires two basic dimensions: the linguistic dimension and the strategic dimension. The linguistic dimension initially includes traditional grammar, with its levels: morphology, syntax, phonetics, phonology and semantics (Chomsky, 1965:44). To these elements, Hymes (1971:10) adds the capacity and the understanding to relate them to the socio-historical and cultural context in which the communication takes place.
According to the author's vision, it is not enough to know the grammatical rules of language use, it is extremely important to have the ability to relate them to the context. As a category of analysis, the linguistic dimension includes discursive competence, psycholinguistic competence and sociolinguistic competence. Discursive competence is the ability of a person to communicate effectively and adequately in a language, giving appropriate use of grammatical rules and meaning to a text, oral or written. Owens (2016:58) describes it as the faculty of assigning macro semantic structure and relations of coherence and cohesion. The sociolinguistic competence implies all the components on the socio-cultural aspects or social conventions of the use of the language; consists of three basic elements: knowledge, theoretical and empirical concepts; know-how: procedures, skills and abilities; know to be or want to do: attitudes that sustain the existential competence of being.
This competence has, according to Hymes (1971:102), the rules of social interaction and cultural competence that entail understanding the norms of behaviour of members of a specific culture, the assimilation of all aspects of culture, specifically Which refer to social structure, values, and beliefs. Socio-cognition or sociolinguistic competence, from Van Dijk's (1980:87) perspective, proposes that mental schemas, attitudes and values are the result of the interaction of the minds of a community, for example a social fact; the members of a community have the common basis for qualifying situations, events and speech acts and of course interpreting the absence of others.
As for the psycholinguistic competence authors such as Owens (2016:58) refers to factors of personality, socio-cognition and the affective component that distinguish the psychological aspect of competences, recognizing in this manner its subjective component, regarding the individual characteristics of the speaker and interlocutors, we must take into account that each one has different intellectual, cultural, system of motivations, age, sex and social status. That is the reason of a language being a tool with which we not only inform and communicate, but also exchange meanings. Last, but not least, one may observe an affective component represented by a person's variable traits, such as his mood that affect the quality and quantity of his interaction in specific events. There is also the social space composed of the institutional context, the moment and the norms of interaction and the interpretation that must be applied in the speech act. From the perspective of pragmatics, the contributions made by Austin (1962:26) allowed to see the communicative competence beyond the domain of the code, incorporating the capacity that the individual possesses to achieve its projects, for which language is used as instrument for To speculate, to reject, to deny and to ask, always according to the culture, to the systems of values and the contextual expectations of cooperation of the participants in a communicative act.
The strategic dimension of communicative competence covers factors related to the effective use of language. It is the ability to use verbal and nonverbal resources to promote communication and compensate for errors in it, resulting from lack of knowledge or other conditions that limit it. As Bachman (1990:110) points out, strategic competence is a skill that enables an individual to make the most effective use of the available skills, when performing a given task, whether that task is related to the communicative use of the language as with nonverbal tasks. Based on the above, to be competent to communicate is closely related to the situation in which the individual develops, which indicates that the notion of competence requires, for analysis, a specific context because of this depends on both theoretical and methodological treatment. For this reason, one contextualizes the communicative competence in the field of organizations and incorporates concepts that are specific to this discipline and that will allow to determine the interrelations necessary to understand the communicative demands of individuals, whose performance depends largely on the effectiveness of an organization.
Features of spoken language
The communication that began from the very dawn of human existence became a necessary element for man. It has a human character because is formed and developed in each person through the establishment of relationships with those and it plays an important role as an activity developed by each individual. This shows that the roots of communication are in the same vital material activity of men. Once the individuals began to speak, the word was the first and most important means of communication, although from the beginning different gestures, actions and poorly articulated sounds were the first means of communication.
However from the early stages of development, society was accompanied by the improvement of the media. The emergence of writing enabled the development of communication by signs, which allowed the transmission and reception of all socio – historical cultural experience achieved through time. In the same manner, as society is developing, communication between individuals is putting greater challenges, aspect that requires a growing training of people in correspondence with each period. For example, at the beginning of the 21st century this mission becomes more complex, due to the scientific and technical development achieved by humanity. The development causes a vast flow of information that men demand, a communicative competence that allows them to decode the most diverse sources of information. This situation has led to the intensification of studies and research on communication, as the vehicle for developing the intelligence of modern civilization. To further substantiate this statement, there is no more to reflect on the different forms of scientific, cultural, artistic and political exchange that are daily performed in the world through different events, forums and conventions. Nowadays, it is common talk about communication and there are innumerable authors who have publications on such a controversial topic. This approach is evidenced by the different existing criteria for the definition of communication, which are briefly illustrated below.
The concept of communication can be associated with different terms that contribute to its definition, without major discrepancies on the part of researchers, such as: mutuality, reciprocity, communion, community, possession of something in common, participation, transmission, information, expression, coding, accessibility, decoding, similarity, treatment, expansion, interaction, and sympathy. From an etymological perspective, the word “communication” is derived from the Latin word "communicatio" which in turn has its origin in the term "communis" meaning common. These terms allow a better description of the complex communicative phenomenology that exists only when, between two subjects, there is an uninterrupted continuum and mutual exchange not only of messages, but also of a certain affectivity and affinity. According to Bateson Gregory (1990:133) is a word of Latin origin (communicare) that means sharing or doing common.
When we communicate, we share each other's thoughts. Communication is the action of communicate, but it also represents the treatment, the correspondence between two individuals, the union that is established between them. It is a continuous chain of learning contexts and, fundamentally, premises for communication. Hall Walfriman and Sheflon (1980:87) express that communication is conceived as the matrix of all human activities, as a permanent and circular process of interactions in which each man participates. Ellis (1196: 272) argues that it is a process of social interaction through symbols of message systems that produce as part of human activity. It can also be understood as exchange, dialogue, life in society, all indissolubly related to the productive needs of men and can not exist without language.
Underwood (1984:69-72) says that communication is an essential process of all human activity, since it is based on the quality of the interactive systems in which the subject performs, and also has a fundamental role in the psychological atmosphere of every human group. For B.F Lomov (1989: 293) communication is the interaction of people who enter into it as subjects. In it an exchange of activities, representations, ideas, orientations, interests are integrated in a system of subject-object relations that is developed and manifested, necessitating at least for its realization, two people, each of them acting as subject. This author considers it a category closely related to the activity category and proposes the following principles:
Communication is not reduced to verbal language because the whole organism is an instrument of it.
It is not restricted to the transmission of information, not only propagates but is created within the communicative process itself.
The communication resolves the contradiction between the particular and the general of men, between their general and particular qualities.
Man realizes and assimilates in the communication its general essence.
Terrel (1991:231) shares the criteria given by Underwood (1984), the theoretical methodological nature of the relationship between personality and communication, since man is involved as a personality in the educational process, personality must be studied from of the communicative contexts. Only through communication do people express themselves and discover their essential irregularities; man as personality is the subject of the communicative process. Swan (1985:77) defines it as the process by means of which the man, using words, gestures and symbols, exchange an information or idea; or as the conscious activity that is established when two or more people are interrelated, with a motive defined by language (either oral or written). It coincides with the view that any definition of communication comprises the following common basic elements:
• The subject issuing the message (source).
• The content of the message.
• The ways and means used to convey the message.
• The subject or subjects receiving the message (recipient).
• The effect achieved by the issuer.
For Anderson (1993:33-34), communication is a complex process related to human behavior. Other authors such as Maldonado, Sebastián and Soto (1999:112) consider that communication is a process where a system transmits information to another system that is able to receive it. Andrieva G.M (1984:58) states that communication is a way of realizing social relations that takes place through direct and indirect contacts of people and groups in the process of life and social activity. In the book Psychological Foundations of the Language, Vigotski L.S. and Rubinstein S.L (2000:114) took into consideration communication as an exchange of thought, feelings and emotions. On the other hand, Brumfit (2017:58) agrees with Leontiev's criteria when he states that communication is the relationship between objects and phenomena, established between people, and more concretely, is the relationship that occurs between them in the verbal process.
Walter Ong (2013:88) considered that "orality is not an ideal, and never has been. Focusing positively does not mean enhancing it as a permanent state for every culture. Knowledge of writing opens up possibilities for word and human existence that would be unimaginable without writing. […] Orality can never be completely eliminated: reading a text is "orchestrated". Both orality and the emergence of writing from orality are necessary for the evolution of consciousness. "
It is necessary to establish a conceptual delimitation of the term "language", trying to describe the content to which this expression refers. When we face this task for the first time, what first strikes us is that there are multiple terms associated with this concept (e.g., communication, voice, information, etc.). While the term "language" can be used and understood in various ways, in the context of this chapter we are going to specifically refer to language as a specific human faculty of communicating through articulated sounds. We will begin this task of delimiting this way of conceiving language by initially supporting the distinction between Ferrandez, Ferreres and Sarramona (1982:5) and Sánchez (1988:38) between the concepts of language, language and speech. Language encompasses all peoples, all ages, all civilizations and all forms of expression. Language is one of the concretions of language as a communication system, therefore, it is an essential part of language. It is a social product, an oral code created by each society and present in the consciousness of its individuals, who use it to communicate.
Each society has its own language, which is the system of signs and rules accepted by its members and used by them to communicate. Language has a normal and primary manifestation that is phonics, respectively the spoken language. In this sense, speech would be an absolutely circumstantial act in which we choose signs and expressions of the language already possessed to communicate with others, that is, it would be the concrete realization of a language at a precise time and place. These considerations, generally derived from the Saussorian conception of language, are reflected in many of the proposed definitions; for example, Bloom's and Lahey's (1978:88) definition of language: "it is a code by which ideas are represented, through an arbitrary system of signs, for communication." As Belinchón, Riviere and Igoa (1992:58) suggest, the different definitions of language in the last decades would account for the following facts:
a) the fact that language can be interpreted as a system composed of units , Linguistic signs) whose internal organization can be the object of a structural or formal description;
b) that the acquisition and use of a language by the speakers allows in these peculiar and specific forms of relationship and action on the medium; And
c) that language materializes in, and gives rise to, concrete forms of behaviour, which allows it to be interpreted, as well, as a modality or type of behaviour.
In this respect, it may be possible to identify the three most common dimensions or components of definition from which a general definition of language can be addressed respecting the formal or structural dimension, along with the functional and the behavioural ones.
Language is interpreted as a code, that is, as a structured set of signs, hence all language presupposes, by definition, the existence of signs. Hence, language can be the subject of a structural or formal characterization, which would include both the definition of its basic constituent units (for example, individual signs) and the conditions under which such signs can be combined ("grammar "Internal of that language). Therefore, all language in a system formed by signs can be the object of phonic, morph syntactic, semantic and pragmatic descriptions that specify the conditions in which combinations of signs and their uses are acceptable. The construction of these four types of principles constitutes one of the essential tasks of the linguistic perspective in the study of language. In addition, language serves as an effective communication tool. In this sense, the absence, in a given communication system, of a well-defined formal code that could be described in terms of units and fixed rules or constraints precludes its consideration as a language in a strict sense (gestural communication is interpreted More as a communication system than as a proper language). Although, in this sense, there are authors who fail to establish these boundaries when considering gestural communication as a communication system with the same properties that characterize language as a sign system (Foster, 2014:89). As for the functional dimension from which a general definition of language can also be addressed, it should be emphasized that the acquisition and development of language is always linked to the performance of activities such as communication and social interaction, knowledge of reality.
In this respect, Bühler (1934:36) identifies three basic functions of language: the representational or symbolic function, the appealing or call function and the expressive function. As for the symbolic function, it must be borne in mind that verbal linguistic signs are not necessarily or directly related to referents immediately present in time or space, and can therefore refer to aspects of present, past, or present reality.
Dimensions of oral language analysis
When analyzing oral language, for reasons of diagnosis, re-education, aetiology and so on, the analysis that Launer and Lahey (1981:36) or Lund and Duchan (1983:7) have shown are quite illuminating, being centred on how the study on language exploration has evolved. The review made by these authors covers the work performed from the fifties to the eighties. As a synthesis of this review, we would note that initially there was some interest in the study of semantic acquisition, so that the receptive vocabulary (such as oral comprehension) was basically analyzed. Subsequently, interest shifts towards the study of language more globally and in natural situations and the exploration of phonetic correction. At the end of the sixties, the importance of analyzing the effectiveness of the children communicative exchanges among themselves, and between children and adults, was emphasized. Hence, the basic context for the analysis of children's language will be represented by the familiar or the school one. What comes to characterize the eighties is precisely a tripartite approach to language analysis and all language exploration must include the analysis of content, form and use. In this respect, below, one may observe the aspects related to each of these dimensions.
Language Content
As Bloom and Lahey (1978:92) point out, the content of language is its meaning or semantics, so it deals with the "representation of what people know about the objects of reality, events and relationships." In this respect, language content refers to the analysis of meaning (comprehension or expression) either in semantic units (isolated words) or in context (understanding and expressing ideas). According to Triadó and Forns (1989:56), the study of language content would deal with aspects related to lexicon, categorization, functions, word definition, spatial relations, and so on. It would be closely related to the cognitive system.
Language form
As for the analysis of the form of language, this would include the phonological and morph syntactic system. In this sense, for Bloom and Lahey (1978:93) the form of language can be described in different ways according to the different components of language itself. If one follows the form of sound units, the phonology will be referred to. In this situation, the phonological evaluation deals with a production analysis of sounds and, in the articulator aspect, the analysis affects the conditions of the orthodontic apparatus, especially the breathing, or the point, the mode of articulation. If one refers to units of morphological significance and to formal grammatical units, there must be made a distinction between the following two dimensions:
a) the first one has is related to the morphology, respectively to the formal categorization of grammatical units (nouns, adjectives, verbs , conjunctions, prepositions and so on)
b) the second one that is related to the syntax, respectively to the combination of those formal morphological values to form minimal units such as the word to higher units like the sentence, through units of grammar organization intermediates as the syntagma.
Use of language
Also, the analysis of the language use is of special relevance that linguistic functions such as the functions of informing, repeating, asking or the various forms (such as promise, mandate, question, criticism, etc.) to take into consideration a single phrase depending on the situation. The analysis of the language functions would be a clearly social aspect, since it informs about the processes of subjects’ communicative interaction.
Reflections on the teaching of oral language
One has tried an approach to the study of what some teachers think about oral language learning and what they do in the classroom context regarding this domain. In this respect, one may intend to collect previously all contributions and suggestions from different authors who within the specific field of language, certain didactics have suggested ways and forms of action in the field of oral language. One may consider that this approach that has been generated around this issue justify the need to study both the implicit theories in teaching oral language, as one have sought in this research.
Importance of context and oral communication
Throughout the present century, the development of language has been described and explained in different ways according to the theoretical currents of reference (referring to psychology, linguistics, sociology or biology). Starting with the 1950s, there was an important and decisive turning point in the study of language development thanks to the contributions of cognitive psychology (Piagetian and Vygotskyan currents) and linguistics one (mainly the Chomskyan one). Researchers have been particularly interested in the underlying mechanisms in the various interpretations that subjects of different ages give to the same statements. This reveals the importance that is beginning to be given to the procedures and strategies used by the speaking subjects. Since 1980, the interest of researchers in many disciplines of the human and social sciences has been directed towards interaction and communication.
As suggested by numerous authors (Schnenwy and Broncart, 1985:33; Vila and Boada, 1989:98; Weck, 1994:78) in the context of different theoretical paradigms, it has been postulated the need to consider that the appearance of language needs a double development during the first year of children’s life. These two areas are at first separated and by the year they are merged in such a way that the thought becomes verbal, and the language becomes intellectual. This approach, has a determining role in the general development of the child, and in particular in the language, has been minimized for a long time. In this respect, language can not appear without children engaging in interaction. These interactions with adults constitute a type of mini-culture. They learn not only the structure of their mother tongue (phonology, lexicon and morph syntax, but also the uses of language and types of discourse (such as pragmatics).
Children are considered to be individuals who communicate from their earliest age. Language is acquired by and for communication. These abilities of language are developed in dialogue, communication being the matrix in which all human activities are organized. Birdwhistell (1970:99) argues that culture emphasizes structure and communication in the process, both terms being linked to the idea of human interrelation. All this leads us to consider that the linguistic competence defended by Chomsky must be understood and extended in the sense of a communicative competence, since the rules of speech are not only linguistic but also cultural and social. All these approaches lead to the proposal of pragmatic proposals.
Brumfit (2017:125) summarizes that language or verbal language continues to be the reference system, and linguistics is the science that provides the basic method of research for all these fields of study. At this point, it must be said that today it seems clear that no message will be understood in all its implications without studying the context in which it occurs. Thus, one considers how the structuralist current and everything that brings with it the study of language in the dimension of code and rules are only a fragment. The study of communicative phenomena analysis must be completed in the study of the contextualization of linguistic production. Derwing and Murray (2013:163-185) proposes to focus attention on speech and on the actual communicative fact. Emphasis is placed on the importance of the study of concrete realizations. There should be no differentiation between the study of language as an essential and social system, and speech as accidental and / or individual use, since communication is jointly with language and speech, comprehension and production. Bygate, Swain and Skehan (2013:88-101) suggest that by using language we are always negotiating its meaning and meaning. For Vygotsky as well as for Bakhtine, interaction is the place par excellence where all the creative, instrumental and regulatory capacity of language is revealed. The interactive spaces are the privileged places of communication with the others and of planning of the own activity.
Authors such as Canale and Swain (1980:28) speak of communicative competence from four distinct dimensions as following: the linguistic competence (recognized as linguistic knowledge of language), sociolinguistic competence (considered an adjustment to the communication situation), discursive competence (such as knowledge of the rules of discourse) and strategic competence ( or the ability to meet the gaps in the other three competencies).
How to approach a didactics of the oral language?
Trying to define concepts within the framework of what can be a work in the classroom, how to approach the teaching of language is necessary and essential. We have to know what theory underlies what we want to teach, what we want to teach and how we are going to do it. By answering these questions we could begin to construct what may be some reflections on the language in the classroom. Oral language and written language are privileged instruments of communication and social interaction. Bronckart (1985:68) have recognized that oral discourses are plural and diverse according to the situations of communication in which language is produced, and its necessary adaptation to the representations that the interlocutor constructs from such situations. This theoretical position leads to introducing the problem of the norm and distinguishing between descriptive norms (related to the different discourses produced in specific communication situations) and prescriptive norms (which refer to the language system) and favour those that are arbitrarily designated as a result of good use (for example, standard language); the consideration of these two aspects involves two forms of entering the oral language and that are complementary, on the one hand, language system and communication, on the other hand.
Communication is a social interaction of exchange and is a situation typical of the oral language. Here one could speak of intentionality, number of interlocutors, types of speech and so on. The study of the language has focused and oriented towards grammar and lexicon, emphasizing the difference between oral and written language to emphasize the primacy of the latter. Today one speaks of the need to have not only a syntactic theory valid for the written language but also another that accounts for the syntactic guidelines of the oral language.
If one talks about teaching oral language, he is talking about developing communication skills that could be understood as:
the speaker produces the different genres of speech.
the speaker adapts to the situations of communication in which it is expressed.
To accomplish this, one will have to say, as Besson and Treversi (1994:77) consider, that the school will select those models that allow the student to gain an important active role in intervening in situations of frequent interaction but which cause him difficulties: defending his point of view in a debate, report an event where he witnessed, school situations in which the student should be able to make a brief statement, justify an attitude, verbalize a reasoning or explain some procedures performed. Authentic discourses will constitute, in the first place, the basic material of the teaching of the oral language, leaving for the reflection and observation discourses recorded and transcribed. Talking about defining the concepts of context, interactive space, communication, competence, from the point of view of language, makes it an anteroom to begin to reflect on what could be the work regarding oral language in classrooms. Thus, Pujol (1992:25-37) suggests that children come to school with an oral linguistic background, so that teaching should be oriented to their oral language. This is important to note, since we are going to encounter large linguistic deficiencies among children, together with differences between the teacher's language and their own language, differences between the language spoken in the school and the standard one.
To summarize, differences of origin and governmental represent requirements. Authors such as Bain (1991:88) and Perrenoud (1991:90), in their work on children of different nationalities in the same classrooms, corroborate those approaches. All this raises how the demands of the school dictated by the governments themselves is an important and decisive factor to delimit what is done in the school. For this reason, one may refer to this later as a basic part of the design of oral language teaching. The "chore" in the classrooms is related to the objectives that one has set and the conceptual definition of the starting point of what teachers try to design. Thus, Pujol (1992:39) speaks of the following aspects that teachers must contemplate regarding the objectives that they propose:
1) types of texts and speeches that teachers will propose,
2) linguistic units of these texts that will be a reason for teaching,
3) connections with other languages (second languages)
4) the relationship with other subjects and extracurricular activities,
5) the evaluation that will be proposed
6) teacher training.
From the aspects listed above, and in accordance with Pujol (1992:39), those related to texts and linguistic units are the two most important. Social reference models will be authentic communication situations. Teachers will have to decide which models are most appropriate, according to ages and course purposes and what criteria they will use in the selection of those they present in the classroom, and they will also decide which ones will be produced by students (argumentative, informative, narrative, expository texts). As for the internal characteristics of the texts, it is necessary to emphasize that the oral language has its own syntax. Some authors (Camps and Giralt, 1991:332) suggest that the syntax of oral language is no deformation of the syntax of written language, and that both syntaxes can explain the facts of the language. Admitting this implies a revolution in the didactic approaches of oral language.
The syntax of oral language shows that the order of words in English is more varied, and that sentences that do not follow this order are less correct than those that follow it. One may continue with Pujol (1992:40) as regards the transfer that can be established between different languages. The didactics of the language (oral and written) should not be reduced when it comes to language. Language is one of the privileged means of the other subjects. In terms of evaluation, teachers must first define the objectives they want to achieve and the criteria on which they will base the evaluation. And as far as the section on teacher training is concerned, it is necessary to see what training, what implicit theory underlies and prevails in teaching, and what kind of activities are worked in the classroom context.
Scinto (1986:363) considered from a psycholinguistic perspective that it is difficult to maintain a sharp separation between the oral language and the written one. The oral and written uses of the language are interrelated while mixed communication situations in which both codes participate are created. Payrate (1988:75) points out that from a communicative perspective, the proper use of language means knowing how to concretize, in a given context, the most effective option of the set of potentialities offered by a specific language (Payrate, 1998:75). Vila and Vila (1994:88), based on the Payrate’s approach, one may consider that, methodologically, in relation with oral language in classrooms, real situations of communication must be created in which the students have to use the language to convey their intentions to Particular partners and in a specific situation. One may think that there must be a balance between the use of oral language and meta- communicative and meta- linguistic reflection as a way to influence the improvement of oral productions. Therefore, the most important skill that a person must acquire is the ability to modify their discourse in function of the contextual circumstances in which it occurs. Therefore, from this perspective, three phases or moments of the oral language are established:
a) planning phase,
b) production phase,
c) revision phase.
During the planning phase, it is time to prepare the text without losing sight of the purpose of the oral discourse (inform, convince, etc.), the content to be transmitted and the communicative context, and the previous knowledge of the recipients. In the production phase is the staging. This phase involves the proper use of extra-linguistic resources and rhetoric to maintain the interest of the audience. In the review phase, one may suggest a collective assessment of the oral text in which students and teachers participate. Self-correction ability is encouraged. The discourse is analyzed based on the use made of the linguistic elements and the exposed content. Looking at what has been written so far about oral language work, it should be noted that the work that exists is almost always related to the study of a second language and often coincides with communities or countries that are bilingual. This must be pointed out because of them we are talking about and they are part of the work in the classroom. Thus, Cooper, Roth, Speece and Schatschneider (2002: 399-416) suggest that the basic contents of programming will be texts, not forgetting the grammatical units that characterize its formal configuration. There will be situations of real and communicative use of both school and non-school language. As far as the evaluation is concerned, it will emphasize a formative evaluation, which will be integrated in the didactic sequence, without being an end in itself. The phases contemplated by the didactic sequence are:
Motivation or sequence presentation. Together with the children, teachers are invited to propose ideas about the informative-narrative text that is to be realized and all the ideas proposed by the children are collected without forgetting any;
Elaboration of the content of the text. An attempt would be made to test children to see what kind of prior knowledge they possess to ensure understanding of certain terms. Both referred to the topic in question and the type of text chosen.
Elaboration of the form of the text. One will propose several of which will be chosen one. Here we can ask comprehension questions to see if the text has been understood.
Situations of oral production of children. These will serve to obtain information and evaluate the learning by obtaining the largest number of recordings by the children.
The evaluation will be performed later taking into account indicators such as what type of morph syntactic structures are present, what lexicon, what uses and what mistakes have been made. For this it is necessary and essential the recording. Regarding the above and following the oral language, one may consider Dannequin (1989:44-52), who speaks of „prepared situations” to manage the conversation in the classroom, situations where the daily knowledge of children / must represent the basis of learning in motivating situations, not forgetting that teachers should not stereotype the sentences they teach. Each geographical context whose language is the same has different ways of expressing reality.
Artigal (1990:68), following the previous approaches, says that language is acquired through its own use, while its acquisition is possible through an interactive process that is developed along with the interlocutors one has. For this, he speaks of the "keys" essential for learning a second language. Thus, one is referring to a set of ritualized, repeatable and actively stories lived by teachers and all students in the classroom. These stories will allow sharing the knowledge about what will be done "to do and say" and procedures to advance this "do and say" that will make meaningful and effective the first uses of the language still in the process of learning. These stories function as first territories shared in the new language that is easily recognizable, as a context whose structure can already be considered for all participants at the same instant of being proposed.
Thus, Artigal (1990:73) concludes that it is essential for students to always understand the oral texts that teachers offer to them, while the expressions that teachers propose to use are always effectively realizable and have meaning for them. At this age (3-6 years) a context is needed where to situate the uses of the new language, a shared territory that makes practically possible the first acts of understanding and expression transmitted through a code still unknown.
Taeschner (1989:20) concludes that the only way to learn to speak a language is to use it in a context. Wells (1985:112-115) has proposed that this way of working advocates a meaningful teaching-learning model. To the extent that the student accesses new levels of the language is precisely because he can start from schemes of knowledge and action that he already knows, because he can recognize in what is proposed to him "something" that he already knows. The approaches presented so far outlining possible ways of approaching the work of oral language respect the basic curricular design. Thus Carrow-Woolfolk (1995:88) emphasizes the new aspects of the language and literature area:
Importance of oral communication in all educational stages,
Respect for linguistic diversity,
Eminently communicative and functional approach,
Elimination of differentiated blocks of vocabulary and study techniques that are incorporated into the rest of the blocks,
Contextualization of language learning and literature
A considerable increase in work, preferably from oral work.
All of this takes relevance especially regarding the essence of compulsory education, a teaching in which the structuralist and innatist theories (Chomsky: 2014: 110) have had the leading role in language teaching. As far as child education is concerned, the most important thing is that the aim is not to teach reading but to prepare the child for this learning. It emphasizes the work of oral language as an important part of language as a communicative process, necessary to live in society. They talk about listening, speaking, understanding and expressing skills. This reference is made to materials such as stories, songs, instructions, dialogues, recordings of literary texts of oral tradition, among others. In short, as the curriculum highlights, it is necessary to start from the uses that students already dominate when they start schooling to promote other jobs, in different situations and with different communicative situations. Entering the second cycle of early childhood education, it is necessary to deepen the development of the capacity for comprehension and oral expression, teaching this in every possible context that we have within our reach.
It is obvious that any study that is designed to expand the knowledge of oral language didactics necessarily involves the observation of this domain in contexts of communicative interaction generated in classroom. For this reason, teachers have selected in the classroom those situations or segments of activity where language is the main protagonist in the classroom scenario. It is precisely in these contexts of interaction that one can analyze what the teacher does in the classroom so that the children can understand the language, learn a syntax, a phonology, uses of language and so on.
Characteristics of the oral language
It is the first manifestation of human language
Acquire and develop all the speakers for the mere fact of living with a particular language community.
It is manifested through articulated sounds produced by the speech apparatus
Use the air channel as the transmission channel.
The message is codified, therefore, making use of the physical qualities of the sound: tone, intensity and quantity.
It is of greater use, practice and frequency than the written language.
It is fleeting and therefore has little duration over time
It has a limited number of receivers.
It allows immediate modification of the message and is subject to interruptions.
Often due to the presence of the interlocutor, it allows a continuous interaction and a permanent process of feed- back: a simple gesture of the interlocutor, for example, can tell the speaker that he should rephrase what he is saying.
The message is reinforced with additional resources such as pauses, changes of rhythm, intonation, tone. The information is complemented with gestures, movements (extra linguistic codes)
Often, their planning and organization are simultaneous with their production.
Does not demand a careful grammar organization.
It is less refined, more spontaneous and more careless than the written language; this implies that the errors committed during their broadcast have little social censorship.
It always takes place in a situational context as it is framed by a set of social, psychological, cultural, spatial aspects. This situational context determines the linguistic act, and in this respect much of the meaning in the oral language is found outside the text. On many occasions, when we speak, we do not need to be too explicit, since part of the meaning of what we say is in the situational context.
It is more dynamic and innovative than the written language, because it facilitates the use of new words (neologisms) and colloquial expressions.
When we speak, we do not have the way to operate a methodical reflection on what we say. Oral language does not allow us to self-analyze our own thinking.
Communicative competence is a notion that arises within linguistics, but over time it has become an object of study of several disciplines that have approached it from its perspectives, even coming together to do integrative analysis of the concept. At present, communicative competence is seen as a compendium of knowledge, abilities, skills or aptitudes that participates in the production of coexistence and interpersonal and intergroup relations, since human coexistence requires the mediation of an effective communication, "as process of interaction in which two or more subjects are recognized as equals, share experiences, act with a sense of community in function of a dialogue oriented to the construction of agreements "(Fallowfield, Jenkins, 1999: 1592-1597). Thus, communication represents an essential instrument in the disposition of the social fabric that permanently explores new forms of support. In that quest to improve and increase forms of communication, science and technology have created complex and elaborate increasingly sophisticated media and networks. However, all these mechanical advances have contributed to improving the relationship between people and, in many cases, have created a gap that has led to forms of personal isolation that are naturally transferred to groups and organizations. For this reason, communicative competence has an eminently strategic character, both individually and collectively, and it represents a requirement to establish relationships that are not only healthy but also productive, which at the level of organizations contribute to sustain the organizational climate, the sense of belonging and all those components that optimize the productive processes. In any organization, considering that its success depends to a great extent on its people, their capacities, their competences and their attitudes, the effectiveness of the communication generated in it is based on the participation of its members in the process and their abilities to understand, process, ponder and value the necessary interaction in different relations.
Syllabus design
The communicative approach of the English program has been designed around the skills of listening, oral production, reading and writing. Also a structural component has been determined which includes specific grammatical and vocabulary elements. The cultural component is introduced through general themes, speech acts and semantic functions in the cultural context of English.
General objectives
Recognize the great importance of English as a universally used means of communicating with people, countries and cultures different from our own.
Differentiate its own characteristics of the learning of a foreign language in relation with other fields of knowledge.
Critically extract and evaluate the basic content of the messages one may hear from an oral medium or a specific speaker.
One may express feelings, reactions and points of view in English.
One may read texts applying special strategies to appropriate vocabulary, grammatical structures and reading comprehension.
One may assume and demonstrate a positive attitude and self-learning oriented towards the constant practice of English.
One may acquire awareness of the cultural component of the English language
Curriculum Definitions
In the pedagogical literature, curriculum has been defined as a product (Tyler, 1949:3), as a practice (Stenhouse, 1975:66), as praxis (Grundy, 1987:39) and as the content of teaching (Briggs, 1988:39). From our curriculum perspective, the definition of curriculum is close to that expressed by Bringgs, therefore we will take definitions according to those of this author, such as those presented by law, Gleason and Ratner (2016:36) considered the first definition of curriculum is the proposal by the General Law of Education, according to which: "Curriculum is the set of criteria, plans of study, programs, methodologies, and processes that contribute to the integral formation and the construction of the identity Cultural, national, regional and local level, including human, academic and physical resources to implement policies and perform the institutional educational project. " This definition assumes the curriculum as a global element which is represented by working programs, methodologies and processes and it is highlights institution’s general terms. Another definition to analyze is the one presented by Gleason and Ratner (2016:44), according to which "the curriculum is a structured on series of learning experiences that are intentionally articulated by a concrete purpose: when producing the desired learning, one may not confuse the syllabus or Curriculum, because this as well as the contents, topics, organizations and design of proposals, are elements that constitute it but do not represent it ".
From the definition presented by Pansza (1988), it is inferred that curriculum and syllabus although they are linked are not the same, on the contrary the syllabus is part of the curriculum’s global character as an integrating element of this one.
The third definition is that of Gleason and Ratner (2016:45). In this respect, they consider the curriculum to be “a socio-cultural process consisting of a series of pedagogical actions activated when planning, developing, and assessing a critical and transformative educational program aimed at integrating contextually shaped teaching and learning Realities, practices, and experiences ". According to this definition, the curriculum takes into account the realities, needs, learning, practices defined in the planning, development and evaluation of a program, these elements are in the design of the syllabus, however for this author is done the evaluation of each program included in the curriculum, which does not agree with the syllabus, since this is for a single subject. Therefore, for us the curriculum is defined in the present context as: "the ensemble of criteria, planning, programs methodologies, pedagogical actions, theoretical foundations, and assessment and evaluation forms for an academic institution. It takes into account the vision and mission of the school and the obligatory areas in a huge sense." Consequently, in accordance with the above, it is necessary to define the syllabus and differentiate it from the curriculum to support the proposal presented, because the first of them refers to the whole as it is designed to cover all the classes that makes up the educational community, while syllabus refers to a particular curriculum.
Syllabus
The concept of syllabus that is assumed in this work of degree results from the theoretical discussion that different authors present. The first point to differentiate is the fact that for some scholars of the subject there is no clear differentiation between curriculum and syllabus: According to Douglas Brown (2000:36):” the terms Curriculum and languages are American and British terms for the same concept, designs for performing a particular language program". On the other hand, those who differentiate between two concepts do it according to variables such as: the curriculum is broader and contemplates the institution's pedagogical frame, and the syllabus is part of it and is more specific: "syllabus denotes the content or subject matter of an individual subject, while Curriculum designed the health of content to be taught and theorized be realized within one school or educational program”. For Graves (1983:326), “the curriculum stands in the broadcasting as well as the philosophy, purposes, design, and implementation of a whole program, whereas syllabus refers narrowly to the specification and ordering in content of a course or courses." However, dissimilar concepts are found when reading in English, and there is no one-to-one correspondence in the translation of curriculum and syllabus. In order to establish the concept that will support the proposal in this degree work, we will take as a first element into consideration, the definition that characterize the General Law of Education: "The curriculum is a the structured scheme of compulsory areas and fundamental and optional areas with their respective subjects, which are part of the curriculum educational establishments. In formal education, such a plan should establish objectives by levels, grades and areas, methodology, time distribution and evaluation and administration criteria, in accordance with the Institutional Education Project and with the current legal provisions. "
If the definition proposed in the Law is carefully reviewed, Curriculum and Syllabus would seem to be the same, since the syllabus, also called syllabus, is defined globally as encompassing all mandatory, fundamental and optional areas, our proposal is focused solely on the English language curriculum, so this definition is very general and broad. The second definition to be taken into account was that of Candlin (2014:36), who defined it as follows: "The syllabus is concerned with the specification and planning of what is to be learned, frequently set down in some written form as prescriptions for action by teachers and learners. They have, traditionally, the mark of authority. They are concerned with the achievement offends, often, though not always, associated with the pursuit of particular means. “In other words, the concept of syllabus is perceived as a mark of authority and it provides teachers and students with a detailed model to follow.”
For David Nunan (2016:85) a syllabus is: " A syllabus may contain all or any of the following: phonology, grammar functions, notion, topics, themes, tasks ". From the previous definition, one may consider that the syllabus is an element that indicates what is going to be taught and contains some elements, such as : the topics to work and the tasks, these elements providing a first notion about what a syllabus should take into consideration. Dubin and Olshtain (1193:181-202), on the other hand, define syllabus as "a more detailed and operational statement of teaching and learning which translates the philosophy of the curriculum into a series of planned steps leading to more narrowly defined objectives at each level". Of the previous definition, the importance of the objectives for the syllabus and the steps of the planning that lead to them, the objectives are an important feature in our syllabus and will be reflected in each didactic unit. Hadley (1998: 50-71) considered that a syllabus "represents and endorses the adherence to some sociolinguistic and philosophical beliefs regarding power, education, and cognition that guide a teacher to structure his or her class in a particular way." It is inferred that syllabus should be approached from the sociolinguistic perspective and philosophical of the student, so that the teacher can structure the class according to these components that are part of the educational context. On the other hand, Douglas Brown (2000:36) refers to the Syllabus as: "a sequential list of objectives, topics, skills, and forms to be taught, it is often helpful to perform a review of options in materials (textbooks and other recourses) that are already available ".
The definition of Douglas Brown provides a conception about the elements that must integrate a syllabus or curriculum and without which it would be incomplete, since it is part of the organization and sequencing of it. The American author Lacey Thompson (2011:77) defines the syllabus as follows: "An EFL syllabus is a set of headings indicating which items have been selected, by a language planner or materials writer, to be covered in a particular part of the curriculum or in a course series. The definition given by Lacey Thompson emphasizes the need to incorporate into the syllabus elements such as the skills and linguistic elements that were present in our syllabus proposal. Finally, a syllabus is defined as: " the program, which is a small part of the wider setting covered by the curriculum. One also examined the syllabus of a syllabus (Ur, 1991:11; Dubin and Olshtain, 1986:258; Nunan, 1988:258), a comprehensive document that specifies the orderly components of a course or series of courses in terms of contents (vocabulary, grammar / topics) and process (explicit aims / goals / objectives, teaching and learning tasks, materials / resources associated with those tasks, evaluation / assessment, and sometimes approach / method, time schedule or pacing guidelines).
This last definition differentiates the syllabus from the curriculum, in addition it enumerates the elements to include in this and how the process is going to be performed, incorporating the evaluation materials and a whole series of elements that make it detailed, orderly and suitable for the teaching of English in the classroom. For the construction of a definition of syllabus, one may take elements from the following authors: Candlin, Nunan, Brown, Dubin, Olshtain, Chavez and Hernandez and therefore, syllabus is a curriculum which makes part of the curriculum (White, 1988:58), it is a public document (Dubin and Olshtain (1986:68), Nunan (1988:587), Brown (1994:28), Chavez and Hernandez (2012:33)), since it can be accessed without restriction. For a series of contents, such as vocabulary, subjects, this for foreign languages and additionally it is accompanied by the learning orientations for the student, which is explained in our syllabus through objectives, tasks and materials associated not only with the learning tasks But also with meaningful learning, a syllabus should be guided by the context of the students, the curriculum must be continuously evaluated, therefore, in teachers’ proposal will be represented by formative evaluation at the end of each topic and project at the end of the course.
In the design and implementation of the syllabus one may be based on the criteria of Douglas Brown, Lacey Thompson and CigdemYukcuson.
Designing a Syllabus
For the elaboration of the syllabus proposal, conceptions of the mentioned authors were taken, detailed in principles or steps to design a syllabus understood the first as the basic elements to be included in the syllabus and the steps are the sequences to be followed for its elaboration. Some of the principles for designing a syllabus according to Douglas Brown are the following: Having the idea of teaching from active learning, in addition must be based on the work of the student rather than on the information provided (learn through the manipulation of Information rather than memorization) and we must take into account the progressivity of the learning difficulty in the student, therefore for the syllabus design we include significant learning in the development of the proposed methodologies, since the student's teaching must be focused not so much on the memorization of concepts but on the manipulation of the information by the student, which leads him to generate an autonomous knowledge, just as the teacher can increase the "difficulty" of the contents that teaches him according to the progressivity of the student's learning.
For Lacey Thompson (2011:36), the most important principles regarding a syllabus are the following: a syllabus is not designed only for teachers; it is also an element of guidance for the student and it details teaching progress, but also, the student must know why is he learning a certain subject, so it is important to present the students a sequence of what is going to be done in the classes, likewise, the production phase of students with respect to the knowledge acquired is detailed in our class plans. Finally, for the development of syllabus, for Lacey Thompson (2011:33) to define the purposes and objectives of the course is to say what it is that the student wants to learn how it is going to be evaluated, to identify and to develop the resources that will be used in each one of the classes and finally the structuring of the work to be performed by the students; these elements are detailed in the present proposal and in the same way in the lesson plans realized by the teachers while training certain classes; the syllabus must also contain general information of the teacher and the subject, along with and the calendar in each unit, the course objectives, class methodology and grading scales. In this respect, in other words, the teacher must specify it before the beginning of the course.
The student's academic cycle, what teachers expect from the student to learn and what to do with that acquired knowledge, the materials and time that will be used in it. In addition, another important aspect is the evaluation of student learning, since it is an effective way not only to measure, but to correct possible errors of the teacher. The subjects can be ordered by different periods according to the particular case of each institution.
Taking into consideration the opinion of Lacey Thompson, an English syllabus should include an extra part as the introduction of students to new words and language-specific expressions that mean the elementary student, this element we took into account when we teach cultural topics such as Easter, Saint Valentine's Day, Halloween, Thanksgiving Day, in our proposal, as well, should include universal dates such as the day of the earth and the day of the language, among others. Lacey Thompson (2011:38) argues that when designing a syllabus one must take into account: "the meaningful learning that will get the student to link new information with what he has already seen", for which the same author points out: "The design of a syllabus does not should be emphasized for a specific group or course, but it should encompass the educational cycles, because through it, the student presents a conducive knowledge linked to this type of learning.
Therefore the syllabus was designed according to the conceptions of meaningful learning, since, students learn a foreign language better if they are taught through it information that they already know, in addition, it must be taken into account the contexts in which children are handled and what is meaningful to them to learn. In conclusion, the design of a syllabus should encompass a general introduction, objectives, contents, methodologies, materials, evaluation that offer the most detailed information possible to the teacher and students, hence the importance of structuring first: what themes are going to work, how, what to employ, what time will it take? and what to evaluate?, all in order to make a greater organization in the foreign language class.
2.2. Teacher’s and Student’s Roles in the FL Classroom
Teaching as a Profession
Although the civil service status (in the public system) marks a decisive way industrial relations and they have not changed significantly in the last quarter century, it does not happen the same way as it affects the strictly professional field where changes faster . In recent times they have questioned many aspects that until now they were considered irremovable. One have seen how it has been questioning the immutable science education as a substrate of knowledge and it has been opened to other conceptions in which uncertainty plays an important role. But above all it has also incorporating ethical, collegial, attitudinal, emotional, all necessary to achieve a democratic education of future citizens. Thus, it has begun to appreciate the importance of the subject, and your participation, and therefore the relevance acquired in education the socio-cultural background (e.g. communication, teamwork, joint project development, the democratic decision-making, etc.).
Of course you should be alert to prevent the case of a reconceptualization of economic systems and market regulation to introduce elements that may pose a supervised autonomy, authorized or contrived collegiality; and in any case, to avoid compromise on autonomy (educational policy decisions, autonomous management, contextualized curricula) and to further enhance a real professional collective participation. This renewed educational institution, and this new form of education, requires a significant reconceptualization of the teaching profession and assumption of new professional skills in the context of a revised educational, scientific and cultural knowledge.
This new era requires a different professional education. But one can not analyze the changes in the teaching profession without forgetting that it has planned for many years around the debate on teacher professionalization, and as Craft (1997: 250) says: "There are a number of reasons to believe that the way to professionalization of teachers is cratered and quicksand: the problems that arise when trying to promote professional standards in such a crowded profession, the possibility of devaluation credentials as a result of increased educational requirements, the leveller legacy of teaching unions, the historical position of teaching as a form of self-employment of women, the resistance offered parents, citizens and politicians to claim of professional control of schools, the fact that education has been latecomers to a studded field of professionalized work, previous professional managers of the centres and the entrenched power of the administrative bureaucracy, the long tradition of bringing out education reforms by bureaucratic means (…) and the diversity of environments in which teacher’s education occurs."
And here the question is, with so many difficulties in taking a professionalization, what are the skills required for the professional teaching for one in order to assume that professionalism in the school have an educational and social impact? Historically, the characteristics of the teaching profession, or the assumption of a certain professionalism (from the time that teaching is assumed to be generic rather than trade "profession" as it has always been considered as a semi-profession in the social context) , was characterized by traits in prevailing objective knowledge, knowledge of the disciplines, alongside with the image and likeness of other professions. ( Zeichner, Gore, 1990: 79)
This is a formal knowledge that one had to assume the ability to teach. Besides these characteristics of a pre-established formal knowledge, professional autonomy is advocated, if one wants to be a professional, to make decisions on professional practice issues. Today, for the education of the future, these historical characteristics are considered insufficient although they are not necessary debatable.
The context is becoming increasingly important, the ability to adapt to it methodologically, the vision of the not so technical education as the transmission of a thorough and formal knowledge, but rather as a not immutable knowledge construction, which analyzes the education as a political commitment fraught with ethical and moral values (and therefore the difficulty of developing a training from a clinical process) and development of the person and cooperation among them being considered an important factor in professional knowledge. This leads us to appreciate the great importance for teaching while learning about the relationship, coexistence, culture, context and development capacity of interaction of each person with the rest of the group, with their peers and the community into an educational framing.
Education and Teaching Resources
Education is one of the most important elements related to human activity and interest has arisen through history. It implies a great responsibility, a commitment and a company vital for companies and governments. Through educational system countries they have been meeting the needs of its citizens, with the idea of establishing a proportional relationship between quality of life and education. It is in schools where lies the responsibility to create future leaders and people committed to improve society in which they live and develop.
The need to establish a positive environment and school environment will provide the achievement of educational and personal through cooperative learning objectives, discussion, reflection in class, addressing relevant issues in the lives of students, non-aggressive conflict resolution the value of tolerance, respect and positive appreciation for ethnic and cultural diversity, etc. As a result of underachievement that involves the use of behavioural teaching techniques, it has now concluded that "what is true for a child, does not apply to others". (Day, Norma, 1983: 100)
It is education that develops in each student principles and values, by encouraging them equal opportunities in achieving common and personal interests, developing the talent to achieve maximum potential skills and abilities. (Dodd, 1971: 89) Promoting interest in educational tasks will lead to a motivated student, who always pays more attention and draws more closely the material presented in class, and most importantly, continues to accomplish tasks without worrying about any external incentive.
The aim would be to use a model of teaching and learning that motivate, enthuse and educate young people in a fun way to create an environment in which the acquisition of knowledge is not a boring and monotonous educational process; to help them develop psychological, emotional, social and creative aspects. Teaching as an educational resource and under proper working environment offers many opportunities for the development of school curriculum through its strong motivational character, providing a secure environment for the exploration of ideas, promoting the creative development and providing a variety of resources for development in different fields of learning (Neelands, Dodson, 2000:10).
One emphasized that the educational value of the skit comes from the contributions that makes to the school curriculum transmits values, improving communicative, expressive and creative skills in different areas, as well as the development of different forms of art.
Educational resources promote among students, the discovery of learning which implies a "teaching exposure", through which young people not only manipulates and discover the information, but listening to their classmates and teachers setting their own strategies work to help you plan and control their learning sequentially, learning to learn.
The similarity between constructivism and teaching becomes more evident when we look at some of the features of the theory of Vygotsky (1980-145):
The student builds knowledge and no one can replace him in this task.
The student relates new information to prior knowledge, which is essential for the construction of knowledge.
Knowledge gained in one area is further enhanced when relations are established with other areas.
The student gives a meaning to the information received.
The constructive mental activity of the student applies to content that they are already prepared, ie, the contents are the result of a process of building a social level.
Teacher, peers, parents’ support is needed to establish the "scaffolding" that helps build student’s knowledge.
The teacher should be a counsellor to guide student learning, trying at the same time to approximate what is considered true knowledge.
The teacher should promote interaction in the classroom and learning engine
Teaching resources have very similar characteristics to those developed both by constructivism, active learning or discovery learning. Thereby, its application in the classroom can be effectively developed, based on endorsed educational principles and effective results.
Teachers’ Characteristics and Their Functions
For teachers, teaching process in the classroom is rarely a simple process despite its playful character. Regarding the activities and according to Yaffe (1989: 29-32), teachers should not worry about whether or not they possess different skills with a dramatic play, for example, as each day face standing before an audience, which qualifies them for it. Establishing new relationships with students, the need for more time to prepare these classes, as well as the few systems of assessment, delimit the scope for action of teachers and undermine their interest in applying different activities in the classroom.
Teachers feel more confident they will know what will be its role and functions, which the following authors are:
The teacher is a facilitator, collaborator and guide, devoid of that image of authority that has always preceded it. (Wolfreys, Robbins, 2000: 98)
It must be an assistant, guide and provocative thinking and value judgments, their function being to suggest and propose new ideas. (Morris, 2001: 41-44)
The teacher should help students to express themselves. (McCaslin, 1990)
The teacher have to guide students through their learning process (Amies, Warren, Watling, 1986) in order to:
Induce knowledge, teaching and encouraging any kind of expression.
Make develop personal initiative, because it is a provocative, trigger and catalyst element.
Encourage participants to express their ideas and feelings with absolute freedom. Listen and receives the proposals and spontaneous reactions of the group, promoting respect and privacy to creative proposals.
Orients, does not impose it;
Coordinates from pre-established rules and guidance on specific technical bases.
Maintains an open, attentive and intuitive relationship.
Plans with the group to achieve common goals.
Maintains a flexible, divergent and creative attitude.
Although it has a total security on the method, has modifying and experimentation will.
Evaluates the process as a group.
From another perspective, Anderman and Maehr (1994: 287-309) expose what kind of behaviour a teacher must not perform:
• He must not be a model of showing how, rather than encourages an action.
• He must not be a silent observer, who does not plan or intervene, not even arriving to direct or order the practical exercise.
• He must not be a stage manager, which uses participants as actors in their own project.
• He must not be a always smiling and agree with everything, without setting goals and perform corrections permissive and uncritical teacher.
• He must not be a traditional expert, which prevents the generation of proposals for fear that they fail.
• He must not be a lecturer, who theorizes participants and explains everything you experience, without allowing these to analyze their own experiences.
• He must not be a mediator of conflicts that continually involved in groups and prevents them resolve their differences autonomously, so be developing new skills.
• He must not be a therapist, which analyzes psychologically every one of the actions of its participants, acting as a psychologist without being prepared for it.
To conclude this point, one will seize Asher (1969: 12) words: “The leader does not have to teach, but to mobilize, engage, motivate, encourage. The protagonists are the participants, who need to be led from imitation to creation, the feeling acting, recognizing their own feelings and sensations.”
Relations Between Students, Teachers and the Teaching Process
Given the teaching method that employs the teacher in the classroom, teachers will influence onto how it relates to their students. In cases where the teacher is teaching class traditionally, as a speaker and evaluating through tests, their relationship with the students will be much more distant than in cases which perform activities from a constructivist pedagogy. (Baldwin, Fleming, Hendy, 1994: 36)
An example of this can be seen in the research conducted by Moore (1997: 235) when after the use of different exercises to improve language skills of students in a class, during the English course, some teachers felt uncomfortable when the tide role of teaching changed significantly, reducing the distance or barrier between teachers and students to almost nothing. When this situation occurs it is necessary that teachers be prepared to allow their students to establish new emotional, affective and social ties that had previously not had.
According to the study of Morgan Norah and Juliana Saxton (1987: 232), there are two types of teachers, respectively the "noisy" ones, which in turn are subdivided into speakers, persuasive, intellectual and tamers, and "silent" ones which are often very technical and not very expressive from the emotional point of view.
Both a group or another have four different types of attitudes toward their students, and they are (Clipson-Boyles, 1998: 99):
• Those who tend to have attachment behaviour towards those students who require them little and show a good performance without creating behaviour problems in class.
• Those who are indifferent towards those students who are passive, nervous, sad and little conflicting.
• Those with a growing concern for those students who perform poorly, but they are docile character. Often treated as immature and consider aid needed to improve their performance.
• And finally, one can talk about the negative attitude of teachers toward students who require continuous care, perform poorly in school; they are hyperactive, hostile and conflicting. Before them, the teacher often develops a negative emotional reaction, worrying more control in class to improve their academic performance and motivational.
There is a clear cause-effect relationship between academic performance of students and teachers attitude. For example, the higher the student group relationships are more distant, but to divide them into small groups, the attitude of teachers changes, this being more positive, and if the relationships are more individualized, usually occurs an increase academic performance. Cases where students who had been rejected or given out by their peers, have more attention from teachers influenced the rest of peers to change their behaviour and perception he had of them, establishing new and better relations.( Ackroyd, 1998: 545)
In this sense, teachers support to a group of students involves not only an increase in qualifications but also to improve their social relations (Flinders, Mills, 1993: 89) . It is therefore necessary to "develop a type of education associated with the democratic style that promotes cooperation between students and reduces the tendency to competitiveness and frustration" (Tricia, 1984: 33). Even the order and discipline improve socialization so that students show high acceptance rates. On the contrary, those groups in which greater control by teachers are generally characterized by levels of acceptance, companionship organization and low perceived, though no academic performance decreases significantly.
STUDENT’S ROLE
Each teaching method requires the teacher and student certain characteristics and attitudes in the classroom. Here is the description of the student's role according to the six most frequent methods as explained by Stevick (1996)
Grammar-Translation Method: In this method the student has to remember the different grammatical rules of the language he is learning. You must know how the prefixes and suffixes are articulated, and you must know the terms (eg, verb, noun, adverb, etc.). The student is a passive subject who is limited to receiving what the teacher gives and focuses on memory skills.
Reading Method: As in the Grammar-Translation method, the student must memorize grammatical categories, rules and vocabulary. However, this knowledge is applied by the student in more or less real contexts. The student is asked to use expressions in the target language, rather than reciting them by heart. The student must practice to correct any mistakes he may have.
Audio Lingual Method: Unlike previous methods, this method requires the student to work for long periods of time to improve his or her ability in the language. However, with regard to production, the student is limited to say what is related to the textbook, elements that are not within that context should be avoided. On the other hand, the student is not asked to remember certain grammatical categories, memory is a secondary element, the most important is repetition.
Silent Method: In this method the student must have three fundamental characteristics: independence, autonomy and responsibility. The student should focus on his own learning process and the resources he has at his disposal. Upon receiving few or very few instructions from the teacher the student is obliged to learn and analyze the contents on his own. It focuses on repetition of words to improve pronunciation. In addition, the student must infer grammatical structures.
Community approach: In this method the student must participate in conversations with his / her classmates, with elements of the target language as well as their mother tongue, the teacher corrects or translates and the student must repeat. The students are the ones who generate the conversations, after the phase of conversation the student must copy the transcription of the talk. The student must be active and participate in activities.
Natural Method: Based on the fact that learning a second language is similar to learning the mother tongue, the student is passive in principle while listening to the teacher, then the student is responsible for making their own productions and assimilating corrections Made by him. No memorization of rules or vocabulary is required, but the student will produce as he feels more secure with his knowledge.
The role of the teacher on the other hand, also has quite clear parameters that allow their identification and classification. These are presented below.
TEACHER'S ROLE
Generally teaching is seen as an activity performed by a teacher in order to generate changes in apprentices. A central component of the methodology is the development of the role of the teacher, which has to do with the choice of how to act in the classroom. It should be noted that this choice affects decisions regarding the development of the teaching program (activities to be performed, techniques to be used, etc.), which in turn influences the students' learning experience. (Harmer, 2007)
In the first place Harmer (2007) presents the role of the teacher as controller. In this one, the teacher assumes the whole charge of the class and the students work to the same rate. In addition, the teacher not only controls what students do, but when they should speak and what language to use to do so. Some stages of the session lend themselves to this type of role, for example, the practice of language.
When a teacher acts as a controller tends to talk most of the time, which can be seen as unhelpful for the student, since it decreases his communicative practice time. However, it is essential to remember that the teacher can not play an absolutely controlling role if students are expected to have the opportunity to learn, rather than just being taught.
On the other hand, it is clear that a great part of the teacher's role is to evaluate the performance of his students, a necessary question not only pedagogically, but also demanded almost naturally by students, especially in communicative activities. However, it is pertinent to establish a differentiation between two types of evaluation: correction and organized feedback. In the teaching stages in which the teacher is totally in control of the class and the student is required to reproduce correctly what is presented to him / her, the possible errors that this one can commit are corrected almost immediately. Thus, the role of the teacher is to show the student the origin of his mistake and help him to clarify ideas and / or concepts and finally make him repeat the sentence without errors.
A slightly less formal style of correction than the previous one is usually given when students engage in activities that involve creative production in the foreign language. According to Hawkey (2006: 242 – 252), in this type of activities the teacher also has to correct the errors, however, he does it in a more cordial way; Informs the student of his mistake by saying for example: "I think that's not the right way to say what you want to express". After this, the student should not necessarily repeat the sentence correctly. This type of correction, in most cases, helps maintain the atmosphere of group work and free conversation.
The other type of evaluation – organized feedback – occurs when the students have done some homework and it is sought that they themselves can see how many successes or failures they have had in their realization, in addition they are given ideas about how to solve their problems of communication in language Foreign. Harmer (2007) states that, in providing feedback to students, the teacher must first assess activity as an activity and not as a language exercise (feedback of content). If the teacher focused his assessment solely on the students' linguistic performance, the activity as such would lose all importance. Once the activity is evaluated by its nature, the teacher can then proceed to feedback form, in which he communicates to his students how successful his linguistic performance has been.
Probably the most difficult role to achieve for a teacher, is that of teacher as an organizer. According to Harmer (2007), the fundamental purpose of the teacher when organizing an activity is to inform the students about what they are going to do, to give them clear instructions regarding their task, to perform the activity as planned and to finally provide feedback when It has ended. At first glance this would not entail any major complications, however, an organizing role demands from the teacher great precision in his lesson plans and instructions given to students, since if students are not clear about what they are asked, they will not be able to perform the activity successfully.
Harmer (2007) offers an organizational model for an activity. In this the organization consists of three parts. In the first, the teacher makes an introduction of the activity that will allow students a familiarization with the subject to work. After the introduction phase, the teacher communicates to the students exactly what they should do and how they should do it; In some cases, it is necessary for the teacher to offer a demonstration of the exercise, to make it clearer. Finally, the teacher starts the activity, but not before asking the students again if they have understood the task they are asked to perform. During the activity the teacher does not intervene unless it is to correct some errors in a "cordial" way, to repeat the instructions or, if necessary, to motivate students to study.
According to Harmer (2007) the role of motivator should be played with discretion, since if the teacher is too aggressive in his role, he may have more participation than the student himself and forget that his role is to help the learner only when necessary.
On the other hand, the teacher can adopt a participant role in the activities assigned to his students, acting as a student. However, as Hedge (2000: 107) clarifies, this may not be advisable insofar as the teacher might have a tendency to dominate the activity and students would not only allow it, but would expect this to happen. It would then be the teacher's responsibility to prevent this from happening, and taking this into account, should not be allowed to participate, since this would not only help to improve the atmosphere of the class, but also give them the opportunity to practice together person with a higher level of foreign language than theirs.
So far, the importance of non-intervention of the teacher has been emphasized, especially in activities that are considered communicative. Despite this, it should be mentioned that although the teacher should avoid getting too involved in the tasks, his role in the classroom is not relegated to the level of observer. For Harmer (2007: 58) one of the roles that the teacher should adopt in a communicative instruction, is that of teacher as a resource. In this way, the teacher should be available for consultation whenever students require it.
There are other roles that the teacher adopts when students find, for example, in the development of a project. The students then come to the teacher as tutor, looking for guidance and academic advice. This role, which incorporates some elements of other roles such as the organizer, motivator and teacher as a refuse; Is more appropriate in an intermediate and advanced level of language learning, in which the teacher helps students clarify concepts, delimit the research or project and motivates them in the performance of tasks. (Harmer, 2007).
Finally, Harmer (2007) refers to the role of the teacher as a researcher, which is not necessarily related to the behaviour adopted by the teacher towards students in the classroom. As a researcher, the teacher wants to deepen his knowledge about the best ways of teaching a foreign language. For this, the teacher can attend seminars or training courses, which provide tools for their investigative work. In addition to this, the teacher can perform small experiments and observations within his class; try new techniques and activities that allow to reflect on the best way to defuse the job.
2.3. New Interactive Strategies in the Common European Framework of Reference for languages
To perform communication tasks, users have to develop language activities of a communicative nature and put communication strategies into operation. Many communicative activities, such as conversation and correspondence, are interactive and participants alternate as producers and recipients, often with several shifts. In other cases, such as when speech is recorded or transmitted or when texts are sent for publication, the senders are far away from the recipients, whom they may not even know about and who can not respond to them. In these cases, the communicative act can be considered as the act of speaking, writing, listening or reading a text. In most cases, the user as a speaker or author of a written text is producing its own text to express its own meanings. In others, it is acting as a communication channel (often, but not necessarily, in different languages) between two or more people who for one reason or another can not communicate directly. This process, called mediation, can be interactive or not.
Many situations, if not almost all, involve a combination of several types of activities. In a classroom at a language school, for example, a student can be asked to listen to a teacher's presentation, read silently or aloud a passage from the textbook, interact with his peers as a couple or work in groups , write essays, and even mediate, either as a class activity or to help another student. Strategies are a means that the user of the language uses to mobilize and balance their resources, put into practice skills and procedures in order to satisfy the communication demands that exist in the context and successfully complete the task in question in the form more complete or more economical possible, depending on its specific purpose. Therefore, communication strategies should not be seen simply from a perspective of disability, as a way to compensate for a lack or bad communication.
Native speakers usually use all kinds of communication strategies when the use of a specific strategy is adequate in response to the communicative demands that are presented to them. The use of communication strategies can be considered as the application of metacognitive principles: planning, execution, control and repair of the different types of communicative activity: understanding, expression, interaction and mediation. The term "strategies" has been used in different ways. Here one would refer to the fact of adopting a concrete line of action in order to maximize efficiency. The skills that are an inevitable part of the process of understanding or articulating the spoken or written word (for example, fragmenting a stream of sound in order to decode it and convert it into a string of words that have a propositional meaning) are treated as skills low level in relation to the appropriate communication process.
Progress in language teaching is more clearly evidenced in the student's ability to perform observable language activities and put communication strategies into practice. Therefore, these are an adequate basis for the elaboration of scales of linguistic capacity. In this respect, one suggests a scale for various aspects of the analyzed activities and strategies.
Activities and strategies of expression
The activities and strategies of expression include activities of oral and written expression
Oral expression activities In oral expression activities (speaking), the user of the language produces an oral text that is received by one or more listeners. Some examples of oral expression activities are the following:
– make public announcements (information, instructions, etc.);
– Addressing an audience (speeches at public meetings, university conferences, sermons, shows, sports commentaries, sales presentations, etc.).
They can assume, for example:
– reading a written text aloud;
– speak on the basis of notes, a written text or visual elements (diagrams, images, graphics, etc.); – represent a rehearsed paper;
– speak spontaneously;
– to sing.
Written expression activities
In the activities of written expression (writing) the user of the language produces, as an author, a written text that is read by one or more readers. Let's see some examples:
– complete forms and questionnaires;
– write articles for magazines, newspapers, newsletters, etc .;
– produce posters to exhibit;
– write reports, memos, etc .;
– take notes to use as future references;
– take dictation messages, etc .;
– write creatively and imaginatively;
– write personal or business letters, etc.
Expression strategies
Expression strategies involve mobilizing resources, seeking a balance between different competences -maximizing the qualities and avoiding the insufficiencies- in order to equate the available potential with the nature of the task. The internal resources are put into operation, possibly involving a conscious preparation (Preparation), the calculation of the effect of styles, discourse structures or formulations (attention to the recipient), and the search in a dictionary or the obtaining of help when trying a lack (Location of resources). When adequate resources have not been mobilized or localized, the user of the language may find it more advisable to undertake a more modest version of the task and, for example, write a postcard instead of a letter. On the contrary, after locating an appropriate help, the student can decide to do the opposite: raise the level of the task (Readjustment of the task). Similarly, without sufficient resources, the student or user will have to make concessions regarding what they would really like to express in order to adapt to the available linguistic means; and conversely, the complementary linguistic resources that may be available later, during reworking, may allow you to be more ambitious when it comes to shaping and expressing your ideas (readjustment of the message).
Avoidance strategies are defined as downward adjustment procedures for our objectives when the resources available are limited. The Strategies of use, on the other hand, are the ones that allow finding the means to manage through an upward adjustment of our resources. When using Exploitation Strategies, the user of the language adopts a positive approach to the resources available, which allows for approximations and generalizations with a very simple language level, as well as paraphrasing or describing aspects of what is meant.
By using a very accessible and "prefabricated" language, the user feels safe – "islands of safety" – to create bridges through what is for him a new situation or a novel concept that he wants to express (Support in previous knowledge ), or simply to try to use what one half remembers and thinks it might work (Attempt). In addition, especially in non-interactive activities (for example, making a presentation, writing a report), the user of the language can consciously control both linguistic and communicative aspects of momentary lapses and the most frequent errors, and correct them (Autocorrection )
Planning –Preparation- Location of resources- Attention to the recipient- Resetting the task Resetting the message
Execution- Compensation- Support in previous knowledge -Attempt
Success- Control- Evaluation
Autocorrection-correction
Activities and comprehension strategies – Listening and reading activities are included.
Listening activities
In auditory comprehension activities, the user of the language as a listener receives and processes input information as a statement issued by one or more speakers. Auditory comprehension activities include:
– listen to public statements (information, instructions, notices, etc.);
– listen to media (radio, television, recordings, movies);
– listen to lectures and presentations in public (theater, public meetings, conferences, shows, etc.);
– listen to conversations by chance, etc.
In each case, the user may be listening:
– to capture the essence of what is said;
– to get specific information;
– to get a detailed understanding;
– to capture possible implications, etc.
Reading comprehension activities
In reading comprehension activities, the user as a reader receives and processes as input information written texts produced by one or more authors. Some examples of reading activities are the following:
– read to have a general orientation;
– read for information; for example, use reference works;
– read to follow instructions;
– reading for pleasure.
The user of the language can read:
– to grasp the general idea;
– to get specific information; –
to get a detailed understanding;
– to capture implications, etc.
Audiovisual comprehension activities
In audiovisual comprehension, the user simultaneously receives an auditory and visual input information. These activities include:
– understanding a text read aloud;
– watch television, a video or a movie with subtitles;
– use new technologies (multimedia, CD-ROM, etc.).
Comprehension strategies
Comprehension strategies involve identifying the context and knowledge of the world appropriate to that context, putting into operation in this process what are considered appropriate schemes. These, in turn, establish expectations regarding the organization and content of what will happen. During the process of the comprehension activity, the keys identified in the total context (linguistic and non-linguistic) are used, as well as the expectations regarding this context established by the adequate schemes to elaborate a representation of the expressed meaning and a hypothesis with respect to the communicative intention that underlies it.
Through a process of successive approximation, the apparent and possible voids in the message are filled in order to materialize the representation of meaning, and the importance of the message and its constituent parts is inferred (Inference). The gaps that are solved by inference may have been caused by linguistic restrictions, difficult receptive conditions, lack of associated knowledge or by a supposed familiarity, predisposition, underestimation or phonetic reduction on the part of the issuer. The viability of the model that has been reached by this process is verified with the evidence of the co-textual and contextual keys to see if they "fit" in the scheme put into operation: the way in which one is interpreting the situation (Checking hypothesis). If an imbalance is identified, it is necessary to return to the first phase (Framing) in search of an alternative scheme that could better explain the cited keys (Review of hypothesis).
Activities and interaction strategies
Oral interaction activities
In oral interaction activities, the user of the language acts alternately as a speaker and listener with one or more interlocutors to jointly construct a conversation through the negotiation of meanings following the principle of cooperation. Comprehension and expression strategies they are constantly used during the interaction. There are also types of cognitive and collaborative strategies (also called discourse strategies and cooperation strategies), which involve controlling collaboration and interaction in actions such as taking the floor and giving it up, formulating the topic and establishing an approach, proposing and evaluate the solutions, recapitulate and summarize what has been said and mediate a conflict. Here are some examples of interaction activities:
– transactions;
– casual conversation;
– informal discussion;
– formal discussion;
– debate;
– interview;
– negotiation;
– joint planning;
– practical cooperation focused on the objectives.
Written interaction activities
Interaction through the written language includes activities such as the following:
– pass and exchange notes, memos, etc. when the spoken interaction is impossible and inappropriate;
– correspondence by letter, fax, email, etc .;
– negotiate the text of agreements, contracts.
– redrafting and exchanging drafts, modifications, proofreading, etc .;
– participation in conferences by computer, connected or not to the Internet.
Face-to-face interaction can naturally involve a mixture of media: spoken, written, audiovisual, paralinguistic and paratextual.
Interaction strategies
The interaction includes both the activity of understanding and that of expression, as well as the activity of the construction of a joint discourse, and, therefore, all the strategies of understanding and all the strategies of expression mentioned up to now are also involved in the interaction. However, the fact that oral interaction involves the collective creation of meaning through the establishment of a certain degree of common mental context, the definition of what is to be considered as given, the deduction of the origin of people, the convergence of each other or the definition and maintenance of a comfortable distance, usually in real time, mean that, in addition to comprehension and expression strategies, there are a number of strategies exclusive to the interaction that have to do with the control of this process. Also, the fact that the interaction is mainly face-to-face usually provides greater abundance in terms of both textual and linguistic terms as well as paralinguistic characteristics and contextual signals, all of which can be more or less elaborated, more or less explicit, as far as the constant control of the process by the participants considers appropriate.
The planning of the oral interaction supposes the putting in operation of mental schemes or a "praxeogram" (diagram that represents the structure of the communicative interaction) of the possible and probable exchanges of the activity that is going to be performed and the consideration of the communicative distance between the interlocutors (identification of information and opinion gap, assessment of what can be taken for granted) in order to decide on options and prepare the possible development of such exchanges (Planning of exchanges ). During the activity itself, the users of the language adopt strategies in order to take the initiative in the speech, to consolidate the collaboration in the task and keep the debate alive (Interpersonal cooperation), to contribute to the mutual understanding and to keep a precise focus of the task in progress (Cooperation of thought) and so that they themselves can ask for help when formulating something (Request for help).
As in the case of planning, the evaluation takes place at the communicative level and considers the adjustment between the mental schemes that were thought to be applied and what actually happens (control of the schemes and the "praxeogram") and the degree to which that things work as you want (Control of the effect and success); unacceptable misunderstandings or ambiguities cause requests for clarification that may be at a linguistic or communicative level (request or clarification offer), as well as active intervention to re-establish communication and clear up misunderstandings when necessary (repair of communication).
Activities and strategies of mediation
In mediation activities, the user of the language does not care to express their meanings, but simply to act as an intermediary between interlocutors that can not be understood directly, normally (but not exclusively), speakers of different languages. Examples of mediation activities are oral interpretation and written translation, as well as the summary and paraphrasing of texts from the same language when the recipient does not understand the language of the original text.
Oral mediation activities
– Simultaneous interpretation (congresses, meetings, formal speeches, etc.).
– Consecutive interpretation (welcome talks, visits with guides, etc.).
– Informal interpretation:
of foreign visitors in their own country;
of native speakers abroad;
in social situations and in communicative exchanges with friends, family, clients, foreign guests, etc .;
of signals, menu letters, advertisements, etc.
Written mediation activities
– Exact translation (for example, contracts, legal and scientific texts, etc.).
– Literary translation (novels, plays, poetry, booklets, etc.).
– Summary of the essentials (articles of newspapers and magazines, etc.) in the second language or between the mother tongue and the second language.
– Paraphrasing (specialized texts for laymen, etc.).
Mediation Strategies
Mediation strategies reflect the ways to address the demands of limited use of resources to process information and establish equivalent meaning. This process may involve some prior planning to organize and make the most of the resources (Development of prior knowledge, Search for support, Preparation of a glossary). During the process of interpretation, explanation or translation, the mediator needs to see what comes next while formulating what has just been said, generally juggling two different "fragments" or units of interpretation simultaneously (Forecast). He has to point out the ways of expressing things to increase his glossary (Annotation of possibilities and equivalences) and build "islands of reliability" ("prefabricated" fragments), which frees up processing capacity for foresight. On the other hand, the mediator also has to use techniques to avoid uncertainties and to avoid interruption while maintaining the forecast (Save obstacles). The evaluation takes place at a communicative level (Verification of congruence) and at a linguistic level (Verification of coherence), and of course, with regard to written translation, causes correction by consulting reference works and people who have knowledge in the field in question (Precision by consulting dictionaries, consulting experts and sources).
Non-verbal communication
Gestures and actions
The gestures and actions that accompany the activities of the language (normally, face-to-face oral activities) include:
– Point, for example, with the finger, with the hand, with the look, with an inclination of the head. These actions are used with deictics to identify objects, people, etc .; for example: "Can you give me that? No, not that; that".
– Demonstration, with deictics. For example: "I take this one and I hold it here, like this. Now, do the same to you "
– Observable actions with clarity, which can be assumed as known in narrative texts, comments, orders, etc .; for example: "Do not do that! ", "Well done! ", "Oh, no, he has thrown it! ".
CHAPTER 3. POSITIONING THEORY: FROM ECONOMICS INTO THE FL CLASSROOM
3.1. Teacher and [anonimizat]
Regarding the present research, in general, reflexive positioning appears combined with an interactive positioning, and the positions that define it include apprentice positions according to the learning context, general characteristics of this, and characteristics in relation to the process. Learning. Between the apprentice positions according to the learning context, there are those that the students identify with a formal learning context (English learner in Primary and secondary education, English learner in extracurricular activities, English learner in private lessons, and apprentice of English in language academy), and those that equate to a natural context (English learner in context of language immersion, bilingual simultaneous / family, intercultural speaker) (Coll & Falsafi, 2010). The positions that describe apprentice types according to general characteristics include those of 'active apprentice', 'motivated apprentice', 'passive apprentice', and 'unmotivated apprentice'. Those that allude to apprentice types according to the learning process contain the categories of 'visual apprentice', 'auditory apprentice', and 'apprentice dependent / independent of the context', among the most common (Ellis, 2004). The first ones refer to identities related to specific learning situations that the students have experienced at certain moments of their lives, and, therefore, they will be included within the 'learner identity process' (LIP) of Coll and Falsafi (2010), while the second refer to the 'learner identity' (LI) that is generated through time and space (ibid.). Of all these positions that appear in almost all texts, students only perceive some as silencing identities, transit identities, and real or imaginary competition identities (Manyak, 2004, Norton, 2010, Norton & Toohey, 2011) ( Table 2).
Table 2. Reflective positioning.
Thus, the silencing identities include for students mainly the position of 'English Learner in Secondary Education'. Students associate this position with positions that describe less effective types of apprentices such as 'passive apprentice' and 'unmotivated apprentice' (see Norton, 1995, 2010, Norton & Toohey, 2011). On the other hand, they mainly identify positions such as 'English Learner in Primary Education', 'English Learner in Extracurricular Activities', 'English Learner in Private Lessons', and 'English Learner in Language Academy' with transit identities or positions that facilitate the reach of real or imagined competition identities, to which the position of 'consumer of audiovisual material in English' is added. Unlike the previous ones, they do not perceive the latter as a specific learner identity (LIP) but as part of their identity as learners of English (LI) (Coll & Falsafi, 2010). Finally, they equate competency identities to the positions of 'English learner in the context of linguistic immersion', 'English learner with almost native oral competence', 'native speaker', 'simultaneous bilingual / family', 'intercultural speaker', ' teacher of English in Primary Education ',' active learner ', and' motivated learner '(Norton, 2010; Zacharias, 2012; Cummins et al., 2015). Only these two positions together with 'intercultural speaker' are described as specific learner identities (LIP) (Coll & Falsafi, 2010). The rest emerge as imagined learner identities (LI) that students want to achieve.
3.2. Teacher and [anonimizat]
On the other hand, the positions that define the interactive positioning in the TIDs constitute different categories of spectators, among which are:
i) a generic entity to whom the narrator addresses, equivalent to the 'listening audience' (Bell, 1984), and
ii) the teacher and / or classmates who will view and evaluate the text. To these, the narrator sometimes addresses directly (eg, "Hello class"), thus constituting the 'addressees' of the message, or indirectly, so that they are 'listeners' (auditors) of the message ( ibid.). The combination of reflexive and interactive positioning is given in a balanced way, in which the interactive positioning is observed in an indirect interaction that the narrator maintains with the viewer. In these conversations, the viewer is the only interlocutor, or another more together with friends and relatives of the narrator.
In relation to our research, the participants of this study show their identity as English learners in their texts mainly through a reflexive positioning, based on multiple subject positions that offer a fragmentary image of that identity, and sometimes , contradictory (Darvin, 2016). This corroborates the non-unitary and fluid character of this construct, and the fact that the trainee factors that have traditionally been characterized as binary and mutually exclusive in ASL (eg motivated / unmotivated learner) (Ellis, 2004), are more complexity, and, in spite of being opposed, they coexist in the same individual (Norton, 1995, 2010; Norton & Toohey, 2011). The following example illustrates these results.
(1) TIP-NA In addition, I went to private lessons for seven years. There, I learned a lot of English grammar. (Image of grammar books from the elementary level to the intermediate level). In those lessons, I was unmotivated, because I was doing fill in the gaps exercises all the time. (Picture of fill-in-the-blank and multiple-choice grammar exercises). In this example the position of 'English learner in private classes' promotes positive feelings in the student, since it contributes to show an image of self-efficacy in her English learning (I Learned a lot of English grammar) (Cummins et al., 2005; Cummins & Early, 2011; Cummins et al., 2015), but at the same time, it provokes negative feelings and rejection, because it shows a negative image based on the demotivation that he felt in his learning (I was unmotivated because I was doing fill in the gaps exercises all the time). The position that exemplifies the extract constitutes a transit identity. The identities of competence identified by the students are associated with a specific vision of academic success and the development of literacy, based mainly on the use of the English language in oral communication in general, and intercultural exchanges in particular (Zacharias, 2012 ). This coincides with the findings of Manyak (2004), in whose work a group of Hispanic English Learner students and their teacher understood the capacity of simultaneous translation as an advantageous, distinctive and special language proficiency skill, and, consequently, as a identity of competence. Example (2) shows these results.
(2) TIH-JH The truth is after the days went by and saw myself forced to speaking in the academy, my fear of speaking in public began to disappear at the same time as my level of English kept increasing. My self-esteem grew and my attitude started to change. In this extract, the student describes how, through effort, he manages to overcome his shyness and communicate orally in the foreign language, presenting himself as an effective learner. In this way, he identifies with a competence identity that motivates him to continue striving in his learning. These types of examples are frequent in our corpus, highlighting the liberating and transforming role of identity texts (Cummins et al., 2005, Cummins & Early, 2011, Cummins et al., 2015). On the other hand, the students link the silencing identities and the positions that sustain them to a 'pedagogy of transmission' (transmission pedagogy) (Cummins, 2006: 57), namely, a pedagogy that denies the language learner access to their real use, and the possibility of attributing meaning to their learning process. This pedagogy is mainly associated with secondary education, which emerges as an institutional context that reproduces linguistic and social inequalities (cf. Bordieu & Passeron, 1990):
(3) TIIMP-DH But everything changed when I was 17 years old. My extrinsic motivation started to increase in all my subjects due to high school final exams. In this scenario, the pressure of getting good marks to enter a good career become strong. In addition, all lessons including the English one, were boring, repetitive and decontextualized […] It was in this period that my motivation reached a minimum as I decided to leave English lessons out of having failed the FCE exam.
This example shows how the student associates the position of apprentice in secondary education with a silencing identity that emerges from a traditional pedagogy that demotivates him, and from an educational context that is structured around exams and notes. This context forces him to adopt this identity that he wishes to reject, appearing as a coercive context. Information such as the one provided by this example, among others, can be useful for the language teacher when implementing instructional practices that allow their students to combat silencing identities of this type (Coll & Falsafi, 2010, Cummins et al., 2015 Norton & Toohey, 2011). Finally, the students relate the interactive positioning in the TIDs and the subject positions that describe it with competing identities when they establish a close relationship with the viewer, and aim to promote a community vision in which they inscribe this and themselves to reinforce their identity as competent subjects, for example, when they position themselves and position the viewer as participants of the foreign language teaching course in which they have produced their texts (Norton, 2010). However, they link such positioning and subject positions to silencing identities, when they become experts in and from their stories, indirectly ascribing a position of inexperienced subject to the spectator, especially when they emphasize their status as authors as well as narrators (Cummins et al. , 2015).
Reflective and interactive positioning and subject positions in the TIDs: Discursive practices and resources
Regarding our research, the reflexive positioning and the positions that define it are materialized in descriptions of these, descriptions of positive or negative emotions towards them, and implicit and explicit justifications, as well as metalinguistic justifications about the content or the form of history. The abundance of these communicative acts is not surprising if one takes into account that these types of statements help to regulate human ambitions and frustrations (Antaki, 1994), and allow the individual to give coherence and continuity to a fragmented and discontinuous 'I' ( Coll & Falsafi, 2010), thus reproducing the dominant ideology of the unitary and self-contained 'I' that characterizes our Western culture (Sampson, 1993). In the following example, the narrator of the text describes her identity in a general way to the viewer, telling her story about how she has lived, and thus trying to produce some kind of coherence between the different subject positions that define her (Baxter, 2016).
(4) TIP-AG […] I was born on April 11, 1995 in a little town called Benigembla. It is surrounded by beautiful mountains where the air is breathe (unintelligible) it is near the nature and hardly any is on the streets. When I started school my family and I moved on to another city called Denia. The discursive practices and resources that underlie the interactive positioning and subject positions that comprise it are based, on the one hand, on questions such as' How did I become a language learner? 'Or' why did I decide to learn English? ' These questions appear in written and oral form, and are used to enhance the viewer's interest in history and increase the dramatic tension of the story (Gregori-Signes, 2014, Robin, 2016). This positioning and the positions that define it are observed in the TIDs of balanced combination (n = 38, 74%) in the use of statements like 'Welcome to my story', 'Me as a language learner', etc., at the beginning of the text; and expressions like 'thanks for watching!' at the end. Sometimes they also emerge through a short interaction with the viewer, which initiates the story, and is characterized by conversational openings in the form of presentation or greeting, accompanied by statements that
i) affirm the author's identity as an English or language learner,
ii) contextualize the story,
iii) anticipate their content, and even
iv) express the wish that the narration be pleasant:
(5) TIP-ABC Hello, as you know me, my name is A and I'm going to show you my life experience as an EFL learner. I hope that you enjoy my video. In texts that emphasize interactive positioning, this emerges through direct conversations with the viewer in the middle or at the end of the story, which appear in some cases preceded by a question that the narrator raises and intends to resolve in the interaction with the latter ; while in others they serve to mark a different part of the story in temporal terms, introduce an anecdote or comment on a topic related to ASL (ibid.). The following example shows a conversation between the narrator of the story and the viewer, who responds to a question that arises about whether she felt motivated in the English classes of the institute.
(6) TIH-POW-MH (Image with the question: Were we motivated in the High school's lessons?). We were not, for example, when we spoke in English, for example, during a dialogue, ooor playing games, it was not a way of learning. She thought that we were only playing. Furthermore, she told us we were not there to play; we were there to learn Soo, I think this is a way of demotivating us […].
Finally, in the texts in which the interactive positioning constitutes the whole of the story, the narrator stands in front of the camera and establishes an ongoing conversation with the spectator through which he tells his story. Thus, reflexive and interactive positioning is fundamentally constructed through descriptions and justifying acts of various kinds. The latter also materializes through questions, statements that constitute greetings and farewells at the beginning and end of the texts, and more or less extensive and direct or indirect conversations with the viewer. In addition to these discursive practices and resources, we observe the predominance of an affective discursive style characteristic of some forms of textual-based digital communication, marked by a high degree of intensification that can be seen in the use of non-normative punctuation marks (Why did I decide to learn English ?? !!); words or letters in upper case; abundance of intensifying elements (very, really, etc.); extreme quantifiers (everyone, all); diverse repetitions (see Jones & Hafner, 2012; Page, 2012); and a more common colloquial register of speech than of writing resulting from the transformation that language has suffered because of technology (Darvin, 2016).
This study explores the identity that students present and discursively construct in digital identity texts produced in the context of a specific subject of the Master's Degree in Primary Education (English) of a Spanish university. In relation to the reflexive and interactive positioning, the different subject positions adopted by the students in the construction of the 'I', and the identities of competence, of transit and silencers with which they are associated (PI1 and PI2), the students present in general, a non-unitary identity, which sometimes includes contradictory subject positions, combining mainly reflexive and interactive positioning in a balanced manner. Reflective positioning is related to different subject positions that students identify with:
i) silencing identities, which generally include English learner positions in Secondary Education;
ii) transit identities, which are the means to reach competitive identities and refer mainly to positions with characteristics or constituent elements of an opposite nature; and finally,
iii) competency identities, which allude fundamentally to the efficient use of the English language as a means of oral and intercultural communication. The interactive positioning corresponding to the dialogic / performative plane in the study of the concept of identity is based on positions that describe different types of spectators such as a generic entity or the teacher and / or classmates. These types of spectators are sometimes linked to identities of competence, and in others to silencing identities. The use of certain discursive practices and linguistic resources sustain this positioning and reflective positioning in the texts analyzed.
In the case of interactive positioning, these constitute communicative exchanges of the student with the viewer, which are produced through questions of various kinds, short statements at the beginning and end of the texts in the form of greetings and farewells, more or less extensive conversations and direct or indirect, and a whole series of descriptive and justifying acts that also support the reflexive positioning. Some of the limitations of this study include a stronger quantitative support of the results, as well as a lower intervention in the slogan for the production of the TIDs by the teacher / researcher. Future work on identity construction and language learning in apprentices through these texts could address these issues and implement longitudinal treatments in the use of them, in addition to incorporating other methods of data collection and qualitative analysis to obtain more information about the students such as interviews, the 'significant circle' and the self-portrait (Esteban-Guitart & Moll, 2014).
The comparison between the use of identity texts and other similar tools to explore the construction of learners' identity could be the object of research, as well as the relationship between the use of these tools and learning outcomes. We consider that the findings of this work could be useful for the language teacher when planning and designing didactic interventions that offer the student the possibility of knowing and learning to use linguistic elements and diverse discursive structures, which will allow him, on the one hand , fight against silencing identities with which it is identified, and on the other, occupy more advantageous positions for social and cultural participation in the target language both inside and outside the classroom. Likewise, this study shows the value of the use of identity texts in the ILE classroom as a tool to reinforce the identity of the student, since they offer the possibility to feel heard, attribute personal value, and enhance feelings of pride towards oneself. The use of these texts can thus contribute to revert the negative perception that some students have about the educational context and the pedagogical practices that surround them, helping them to perceive that context as a more just and positive space, and experience teaching-learning as more pleasurable and meaningful.
3.3. Student’s Journal: a tool for teaching, learning, and assessment
When working in the distance mode there are few opportunities to attend, witness or witness the work and processes followed by students in the construction of school activities. The spatial and temporal barrier places the teacher and the student at a distance from each other; Therefore, the teacher needs to have tools such as the reflective Journal, which allows him to have a closer and more precise knowledge about how the student lives the different stages of the educational exercise.
Therefore, this study will deal with the management of the reflective Journal of the student as a pedagogical and evaluation tool; giving an account of: what is the reflective Journal ?, with what educational intention is it incorporated ?, from what elements is it structured ?, what is its theoretical foundation ?, how and with what results has it been used ?, and what are the advantages of the permanent use of a certain tool in the process of evaluation in general and the performance of the actors of the educational exercise in particular? Thus, the experience in relation to the use of this tool will be the central theme of this participation.
What is the reflective Journal ? With what educational intention is it incorporated? How is it structured? At what stage of the process is it inserted and what moments and aspects do it recover?
According to Kelly (2014), the Journal collects the "conversation" (or impressions product of the interaction) between the person who makes it, the themes or contents of the various activities and the situations that, around them, are generate in the virtual classroom space of training. It is about making an analytical and thoughtful description of, for example, the ideas, feelings and emotions that the reading of the study materials has aroused; the appreciation of the general dynamics of the course (structure and content, generated processes, assigned times, difficulty of the tasks, among others); the broader social context in which the student moves (home, work, learning community, etc.), and even family, work, health problems (to name a few), which could occasionally cause delays in delivery or decrease in the quality of the products delivered.
The purpose of the Journal for reflection is, according to Alfageme (2007): "to help reflect on daily practice [as students], to be critical of the work done, to be responsible for their learning and to contribute to personal and academic growth. In this sense, this author recommends that "the journal be performed", gathering different assessments and reflections on each of the practices [or performed activities]", regarding:
During the course, at the end of each activity:
Difficulty in performing the practice and assessment of the time used to prepare it.
Steps [that were followed] in the development of the practice.
Assessment of how the practice has been done, both individually and as a group; how it has been worked and what has been the contribution or self-evaluation of the practice [lessons learned].
At the end of the course:
• Point out what would have improved from each practice.
• Evaluate each of the practices according to their usefulness for the subject and personal development.
• Mention which activity they liked the most and which one they liked least. (Alfageme, 2007).
The Journal is part of the activities of a week, block or a specific period and gives an account of the way in which the process for the elaboration of the task in general was lived, in relation to the planning, execution and supervision; covers the moments and activities of initiation, development and closure; It also puts into play processes aimed at achieving autonomy and self-regulation in the student, which as a whole would be helping him learn to learn. Among the aspects that the Journal has recovered, as a result of the systematization of the experience, we can mention:
Problems in understanding the instructions for activities and reading materials.
Description of the process followed by the student for the preparation of the task:
Basic processes such as paying attention, reading, understanding, obtaining main and secondary ideas.
Cognitive processes such as observation, analysis, synthesis, etc.
Lessons learned:
Recognition of aspects of the subject that were especially significant to them (topics that relate to the moment they are currently living).
Recognition of the future application of the aspects or topics reviewed (attitude or willingness to continue applying what has been learned).
Results of the reflection after the completion of the activities.
Interest to deepen the subject analyzed.
Emotions and feelings that generated the learning of the subjects of study.
For the research professor of his practice -with a view to transforming it-, it is important to have explanatory frameworks, methodological resources and elements in general that allow him to know what and how the students learn, that lead him to improve his teaching practice and, starting of this, support the achievement of the intended educational goals. In this way, the reflective Journal can be used as an "object of investigation" and as a methodological instrument to assess: "classroom activities [virtual or portfolio], thinking skills, collective reflection and teacher mediation; besides the emotional and attitudinal factor in relation to the motivation, commitment and interest that the student deposits in the tasks performed "(Paniagua and Morán, 1999, cited in Rekalde, 2009).
According to Zabala (2004, quoted in Rekalde, 2009), "[…] the Journal plays a metacognitive role for those who elaborate it, since it expresses in words a lived experience, implies returning to it, making it conscious and making an effort to translate it in writing. " This exercise of narration is, following Benavides (2012), an essential step for real learning to be achieved, even when integrating the analysis and questioning of the prevailing paradigms, allows to move towards critical, reflective and transformative learning (Brockbank , 2008).
The use of this Journal has its strength in the support that reflective practice gives, given the enormous potential it represents for the awareness of what is done and how it is done. Reflective practice is inherent to the human capacity aimed at the review and critical analysis of the task, the motivations of it, and the evaluation of the obtained results. The teacher (as well as the other educational agents) has in his hands a series of tools that can take him to analyze each situation in a more rational way, if given the opportunity to review the facts from a personal perspective (from his own eyes) , but also from that of the interlocutor (the student) regarding their way of working the educational content and its results. Hence, when it comes to making decisions, it is necessary to take into account various criteria and alternatives that allow you to review the different situations deeply and critically, and not only partially and superficially. This would seek to leave behind experiences where decisions were more due to inertia or "doing more of the same", to give way to reflection for action (before), reflection from action (at the time of) and reflection on the action (after), which leads to learning, unlearning and relearning of each situation, returning it or assigning its formative character to the conscious experience or, in other words, to the awareness of what is done , of how it does it and of the results obtained from that which is done (which implies, according to Benavides, "to realize that I realize that I realize"), understanding or assuming that "we reflect to guide the future action "(Brubacher, 2000).
The information that is collected through the student's Journal allows regulating and adjusting the educational proposal in each of its phases, by having first-hand information that tells the teacher how clear, appropriate or effective their didactic proposal is to the students. This exercise allows, as Rekalde (2009) points out: "put on the glasses through which they see the world" and thus be able to put themselves in their shoes, attending closely to their problems, needs or shortcomings.
It is from the students' diaries that, Rekalde continues (2009), we can investigate and know "how they live our didactic actions and from there reflect and introduce innovations in our teaching". This places us, necessarily, on the path of permanent education, trying to respond to the challenges presented daily by the teaching, which leads us to locate and apply other forms of action to improve our practice. Thus, an adequate practice either as students or as teachers has to do with making conscious and reflective decisions, within the framework of an action plan that augurs the achievement of the expected performances (given that it is the result of a systematic process , organized and strategic). According to this, it is worth recalling the teachings of Dewey, who since the beginning of the last century already pointed out the need to promote reflective thinking, considering the convenience of exercising a logical or analytical reflection, applied to the resolution of real problems (academic and of everyday life). For all the above, it would be recognizing and reaffirming, according to Corrales Mora (2005), the potential of reflective educational practice (modelled by teachers and exercised by students), by assuming it as a critical process and concordant with education. critical, which considers the analysis to identify relationships, the inference to take into account reasoned correlations, the explanation to affirm the results, the interpretation to understand and express, the evaluation to confirm the credibility of the affirmations and the self-regulation to monitor the cognitive activities (Facione, 1988, in Corrales Mora, 2005).
This is where we can find the strength of those recommendations or proposals that lead us to clarify or clarify the understanding of certain things, through reflection processes for action, action and action, allowing us to "see things as different from what they are. They are". Thus, it is in this exercise (of looking at things differently) that reflective practice (as a means of meaning analysis) takes on meaning, performed by learners and educators, in a search to find meaning in their work, endeavouring to enrich it. through the understanding of everyday events (Brockbank, 2008), expressed and recovered through the students' diaries.
It is important to develop the reflective capacity that leads students to question their role as learners and to rethink their position before learning, assuming the leading role, self-managed and self-determined to assume the challenge of learning to learn.
An important competence to develop, to help achieve the profile sought in the upper secondary level, is the critical and reflective thinking of the student that leads to achieve a transformative learning. It is necessary to consider that any educational innovation must be accompanied by a change in the way of evaluating by implementing new instruments, such as the reflective journals of the student, that allow to verify the achievement of the predicted competences by the students; and, in addition, to have reliable referents on how the didactic planning is working, which serves as an input for the improvement proposals and guidance to guide the process of permanent teacher training, from the point of view as "researcher of their practice".
In this sense, the teacher-researcher of his practice that seeks the knowledge and understanding the reality of the virtual classroom, can use the reflection for, from and about the action, as a conceptual and methodological framework, access to it in all its complexity, counting for it with the Journals of the students.
Learning journals and their use in the classroom
There are many definitions that can be found to illustrate what a learning Journal consists of. In the words of Cassany (1999b: 368), it constitutes a way of "capturing in writing the feelings and opinions of the learner throughout the course and of the various learning activities". For its part, the Dictionary of key terms of ELE of the Cervantes Institute informs us that it is a "technique by which the learner writes about experiences, both inside and outside the classroom, related to their learning process." Likewise, it emphasizes that its elaboration supposes important advantages not only for the student but also for the professor and the researcher. In fact, there are many benefits that the use of this tool gives us and that we summarize below:
Advantages:
Its pedagogical function: It makes the learner question how he learns and what the contents of the course program in which he has participated really are. It makes the learner analyze how the teacher has organized the presentation of the contents in class (herself, with the help of the media, with the help of external experts, with guests, with visits to companies, etc.). It observes and values the learner how the relationships have been between the teacher and the group of students, between the students themselves, etc.
It invites the learner to develop skills such as reflective thinking, openness of criteria, assessment of independence and reflective writing.
Its communicative and constructive function: It allows establishing a constructive dialogue between student and teacher in order to assess their progress within the teaching / learning process of E / LE.
Its different modalities and formats: The student usually has enough freedom when putting this technique / tool into practice
Its simple use: The student has no difficulties in handling this tool and knows its use in other areas not directly readied with the academic field.
Instructor permanent training tool: It indicates which pedagogical methods or didactic materials have been most effective. It shows us which activities are most valued by students. It tells us where we have not reached the objectives set and what we should change for future courses.
However, we must also comment on some of the difficulties we have faced and that materialize in the following points:
a) For students: involve them in the preparation of the Journal and convince them of its usefulness.
b) For teachers: have the necessary time to follow up and reflect on how to improve this tool in order to develop our professional skills.
Journal model
Although there are different models of learning Journal that we could use in class depending on the needs of each group, we are committed to a simple model that tries to answer four very specific questions that will help both the student and the teacher to establish a point common starting. Obviously it can be expanded or modified according to the needs of each student:
1. What have I learned?
2. How have I learned it?
3. Where have I had problems / difficulties?
4. What can I do to solve them?
The first question is designed to establish what effect the learning process has had and in what aspects it has materialized. In this way, it is possible to evaluate the greater or lesser compliance with the learning objectives and detect those aspects that have been the object of greater interest on the part of the students. It also has a high emotional value because it accounts for all the achievements and those points where it is finding greater satisfaction. The second question has an impact on the strategies that have provided the student with this learning, giving him the opportunity to get to know himself better as an apprentice and establish what style of learning he has. For the teacher, it provides a lot of information about the way in which the students perceive the dynamics that have been put into practice and their impact. The third question allows students to express their concerns and also their frustrations. Far from supposing an emotional problem, we have verified that in fact it helps them to extol their affective sensibility, in the words of Raya (1994: 129). In this way, they also establish an order of priorities on the aspects that they want to improve throughout the course and even assume the starting point to establish a learning contract with the teacher. The last question helps the students to consider what strategies they could implement and also forces them to decide to what extent they can and want to incorporate the strategies that are presented in class.
Conditions for writing
As Galindo (2007) comments, we also "start from the basis that the ideal is to write the Journal in the target language […] although it is also possible to make the Journal in the mother tongue, when limitations prevent us from expressing ourselves well but we want to reflect about the progress of our learning ». For this reason, we explain from the first day that the Journal can be written in German or Spanish, or even if the case change language depending on the degree of difficulty or motivation. We are convinced that Journal s do not have to be a daily activity and so we transfer it to our students overwhelmed at first when we mention this tool. For this reason, we ask you to perform this reflection exercise only at the end of each thematic unit and do not have a deadline for delivery. Some students verify the usefulness of this exercise and do it at the end of each session, but for the moment this occurs very exceptionally. Regarding the length of the writings, the students have full freedom on this point. In an academic tradition that always insists on the exact number of words that a text must have, it is a step that helps to gain autonomy and to establish what and in what form they want to communicate. To date, the learning journals have only been used as a procedure for the formative evaluation although we are aware that it could be used as a summative evaluation mode at the end of the course. However, given the high subjective component and the fact that its ultimate goal is to improve reflection on personal variables that encourage or hinder learning, we have decided not to give a note for this work although its realization is essential so that they can be evaluated.
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1. Research Aims and Questions
The aims of the research
The present research aims to:
highlight the efficiency of the skill development and abilities of receiving the information and use of pupils' skills as the main measure to be taken in order to achieve effective communication behaviour in the context of positioning theory in the English class.
identify the effects of positioning theory in the English class based on the basic idea that one of the objectives of studying English language and its grammar particularities in school is to create oral and written communication skills.
General objectives
Explore new teaching techniques in the context of positioning theory in the English class giving priority to the student as the centre of the learning process.
To exercise in the student the development of the basic skills of communication in the English language, through the interpretation of codes and ways of expressing information of daily life and the correlation with the fundamental areas, in order to unify criteria and globalize the educational processes.
To promote the need of a good positioning of theory in the English class for students’ personal and professional development of the student.
Specific objectives
To stimulate an efficient positioning of theory in the English class through dynamic approaches.
To allow a greater interest in the language in the context of positioning theory in the English class.
To promote almost real situations of dialogue that allow the student to handle various contexts of communication.
Use everyday expressions in a foreign language.
To seek a better use of theory positioning in the English class by using themes extracted from the Curriculum.
To develop skills in the context of an efficient positioning theory in the English class in order to analyze, synthesize and integrate information and ideas in a foreign language.
Objectives’ summary of the present research
• Prevention of the consequences caused by the inadequacy of the educational objectives in the English language educational curriculum and the way of their implementation through the main auxiliary didactic available to all pupils, the English language textbook, with the help of a planning adapted to the materials and means of the school;
• to identify the main problems faced by pupils in receiving and using grammatical information in the context of positioning theory in the English class;
• to identify the main problems faced by pupils in receiving literary information in the context of positioning theory in the English class;
• to identify ways to positively influence the quality of reception and use of grammatical English language through the interdisciplinary approach of novice at the IXth grade.
4.2. Research Methods and Instruments
The basis of this work was the pedagogical research. Thus, pedagogical research starts from the specifics of education and reaches to research in order to highlight the formative valences that certain elements (instruments, situations) have on children. In this respect, the concept of education implies a responsible and centred manner in which a moral and independent adult establishes an inter-human relationship with a child in need of support, who follows his way to maturity, leads and has an uplifting influence on his life. As a universal and characteristic of human life, this phenomenon of reality (Education) should not be seen only as a preparation for a normative life somewhere in the future, but it must be seen as life itself.
Thus, the present pedagogical research has the role of highlighting the phenomenon of adequate education and it is essential to understand that education is the practice where the actions of the teacher are driven by experience or knowledge (a certain type of intuitive knowledge) and education; it is also the theoretical subject of examination, reflection and description.
The present pedagogical research seeks to discover and reveal the core essentials of the educational phenomenon, and also to describe, among other things, what education really means, but it is also an observation and investigation action on the basis of which we know, improve or innovate the educational phenomenon in the context of positioning theory in the English class.
Educational practice constitutes, during the process of positioning theory in the English class, for the researcher, a source of knowledge, a means of experimentation, hypothesis verification and generalization of positive experience. At the same time, pedagogical research, through its conclusions, contributes to the innovation and improvement of the education and educational process.
The role of pedagogical research consists in: explaining, interpreting, generalizing and innovating the educational phenomenon through structural changes, or by introducing more efficient methodologies highlighting the value of positioning theory in the English class.
The research project is a synthesis of the organization of the phased research and may have the following structure:
• topic(s) to be investigated: importance and timeliness;
• motivation of choice of theme: purpose and mode of assessment;
• the history of problem research: the current state;
• general hypothesis, partial assumptions and research objectives;
• research methodology: research duration, place, research team, stages, dependent and independent variables, sample, methods, techniques and means of education, research tools (tests, didactic projects);
• verifying the research hypothesis by final tests or other means;
• finalizing the research and capitalizing on it (elaboration of a scientific paper, implementation of the conclusions, etc.).
Pedagogical research methods can be categorized according to the pursued fundamental objectives. From this point of view, one can talk about:
a) methods of data collection (observation, experiment, interview, questionnaire, case method, test and so on);
b) data processing methods (statistical method, mathematical method, graphical representation);
c) methods of interpreting the conclusions (historical method, hermeneutical method, psychoanalytic method and so on).
The most important methods used in pedagogical research are :
The method of observation. It is one of the most used methods of pedagogy and consists of intentionally pursuing, according to a plan, the specific phenomena of education under the conditions of their natural, natural development. Even if in the initial stages the observation is unintentional, diffused, fragmented, over time it specializes in becoming systematic, organized, continuous. The effectiveness of systematic observation is given by the observance of certain conditions: the studied subjects do not have to learn that their observation is exercised (their behaviour changes), the observed facts will be recorded immediately and completely – in order not to interfere with other facts or with the observations of the observers .
The quality observation is made after a certain plan. Teachers who want to learn more about their students using this method need to go through the following steps:
• highlighting a fact that is worthy of observation or establishing a field of interest;
• theoretical information on the specificity of the field observed;
• the actual observation of the facts and the recording of the results;
• interpretation of results and their integration into the field of educational practice.
This method has the advantage that it does not require special research conditions (sophisticated equipment, laboratories and so on) and the allocation of special time for research. It can be done at any time of the teacher's activity with students.
The method in question also has some limitations: the observer is dependent on the phenomena observed, the results of the observation are more qualitative approaches that do not support high-level processing, the consequences are observed, not the causes that generate certain phenomena.
The observation method should be correlated and supplemented with other research methods.
Method of pedagogical experiment. The pedagogical experiment is a "provocative observation" and consists in the intentional production or modification of the phenomena in order to pursue them under favourable conditions. This method has the following characteristics: the phenomenon to be researched is produced "synthetically" under determined conditions; the phenomenon is repeated under certain conditions; production conditions undergo systematic controls that can be controlled. The pedagogical experiment can be classified as follows:
1. After the researched object: individually and collectively.
2. Following the intended purpose: constructive, constructive, verification.
3. After the conditions of the course: laboratory, natural.
4. After the research issue: educational, didactic, organizational.
5. By the number of independent variables: univariate, multivariate.
6. After the investigation level: transversal, longitudinal.
Method of the products of the activity research. These products are the materializations of the knowledge, the abilities of the values incorporated by the pupils and they can appreciate the quality and deepness of the instructive-educational activity. In the range of products made by students, thematic or quarterly papers, theses, quarterly or half-yearly papers, papers, portfolios, compositions, other personal works (drawings, albums) can be entered. These works faithfully reflect the quality of instruction, inclinations, natural dispositions, interests and aspirations of students. It can be seen on this occasion the level of preparing students with respect to the requirements established by the school policies, but also the attention given by the teachers to some important aspects of the students' training.
Case method. It consists in studying representative situations to arrive at some theoretical or practical conclusions. The implementation of this method involves the following steps:
• selecting the subjects to be studied;
• gathering data about subjects by applying several methods;
• synthesizing of data gathered as diagnostic;
• performing the adopted measures in time.
In case of failure, the case study resumes while another diagnosis is identified and another treatment is prescribed.
Test method. This instrument is a standardized sample, usually a written one, that is administered to subjects and aims for measuring as objectively as possible a psychic, behavioral, aptitude, and acquisition phenomenon. Involvement of the tests in pedagogical research involves several stages: the proper elaboration of the test, the application of the test, the interpretation of the data. The most commonly used test is the knowledge test (or docimological). The results obtained from the use of the test are not always conclusive, which necessitates the need to use complementary tools of knowledge of the educational reality.
The research problem has origins of an empirical nature because it occurs in an Educational Institution, in a specific degree of schooling and in a specific socio-cultural context that requires a theoretical treatment on authors who have worked on this research topic. In the same way, it requires precise characterization of the actors involved. According to the nature of the problem it is not only analytical empirical, it is necessary an integral and explanatory management of the problem through a treatment of qualitative nature regarding the data.
The methods of this research offer the teacher multiple possibilities for the exercise of reflective teaching; Among them, observing classroom behaviours, exploring the subjects 'beliefs, teaching context and interpreting the discourse by placing themselves in the participants' position (the emic principle) and relating the observed to the overall set of that culture (holistic principle ) (Van Lier, 1988).
To measure these variables, information was collected on the following instruments:
Questionnaire addressed to English teachers, the observation sheet in the classroom and a questionnaire addressed to students.
These instruments made it possible to measure whether English teachers are truly able to help students to develop communicative skills, specifically the skills that are investigated in this work, namely Grammar expression, Oral Expression and Listening Comprehension.
The present research is designed to investigate the effective use of positioning theory in the English class as a teaching resource, at high school level.
The textbook as a material that is used in teaching influences a lot in it, therefore, some of the most important decisions of the teacher have to be done with the didactic material. In the last decades, there has been a change in the way the teaching material is viewed, and in choosing the material, the teacher is no longer so controlled by curricula (Juhlin Svensson, 2000). In other words, the freedom of the teacher has increased, something that implies more opportunities, but also being demanded of the teacher. According to the curriculum (Skolverket, 2006a), the teacher has a lot of freedom in selecting the material, but how does the teacher know what are the most important aspects to take into account when choosing materials? What are the determining factors for students to have an interest in teaching English?
Varanoglulari et al. (2008) argue that a good position of theory in the English class should make students have a positive attitude towards teaching, while Skolverket (2006b: 93) argues that most teachers believe that it is important for materials to generate student interest. Yet teachers often use materials that do not seem good enough. Another problem posed by Skolverket (2011: 9) is that there are currently a large number of students who do not complete their studies of English or another modern language, so it is important to look for solutions so that more students continue with their language studies. Skolverket (2006a: 4) expresses that the teacher has to increase the learning interest of the student, and according to the course programs (Skolverket, 2000a, 2000b) students will work with topics related to their interests. For all of the above, it seems fundamental to find out about factors that influence the interest of students in teaching in the context of positioning theory in the English class. The teacher's knowledge of students' attitudes and thoughts toward teaching materials should be positive for learning, so I want to include students in this study.
The research problem has origins of an empirical nature because it occurs in an Educational Institution, in a specific degree of schooling and in a specific socio-cultural context that requires a theoretical treatment on authors who have worked on this research topic. In the same way, it requires precise characterization of the actors involved. According to the nature of the problem it is not only analytical empirical, it is necessary an integral and explanatory management of the problem through a qualitative treatment of the data. All of the above, state that the use of qualitative methods were used in the course of research and are within educational ethnography.
The methods of this research offer the teacher multiple possibilities for the exercise of reflective teaching while positioning theory in the English class. Among them, observing classroom behaviours, exploring the subjects' beliefs, teaching context and interpreting the discourse by placing themselves in the participants' position (the emic principle) and relating the observed to the overall set of that culture (holistic principle ) (Van Lier, 1988).
The contribution of the present work is to provide more information on how pedagogues can choose and use different types of positioning theory in the English class to increase and maintain interest in learning English of their students. As a teacher, one believes it is important to obtain information about what he/ she can do to facilitate the learning of the students.
Questionnaire
In order to develop the survey technique, the questionnaires that were addressed to each of the different groups of information subjects were used, namely: Teachers and Students.
Observation sheet in the classroom
It was used as a guide for the visit to the classroom in order to observe the teachers teaching the English lessons, specifically developing the skills of oral expression and listening comprehension of the students. It was divided into four sections, one for each variable being worked, which is called observation units and these, in turn, in categories and subcategories; A fourth column was to note other observations that were made.
Characteristics of data collection instruments
Although the instruments in their structure are very similar by the type of information that needed to be obtained, all are structured in four parts, one for each variable to be investigated. Also by the same nature of the investigation all present questions of the three types: open, closed and mixed.
Questionnaires: Each questionnaire is introduced by an information guide that allowed the person interviewed to have a clear idea of what was being pursued and how to answer the questions that were being asked. At the end of each, a space for observations was left in case one wanted to add, clarify or suggest some aspect that was important to point out
Observation method: It guides teachers’ observation and it was divided into four sections, corresponding to each of the variables to be investigated: Didactic activities, Didactic resources, Assessment techniques and Teacher training.
The heading allowed to write down the name of the Institution, a number to identify the teacher being observed, the level of the group and the date on which the observation was made. Each variable or unit of observation was treated with the categories corresponding to the indicators or specifications that were to be observed, both for the development of oral expression and for listening comprehension; one worked on a third column that was precisely where the subcategories were noted, which allowed the observer to quantify the observed data for each aspect indicated, as well as when questions or conversation were made with any of the subjects involved in the process. It was the axis during the 4 hours that was made observation in the classroom to each group of the sample, as well as when the researcher sat down to converse with them and them in the hour of the recess or at the end of the lesson. For this short period of observation, it can be said that it was a brief observation and with a general or holistic approach because, as already mentioned, all variables were considered. Basically this observation was intended to verify the answers given in the questionnaires by both teachers and students.
Validation process of questionnaires for teachers and students
The questionnaires in question were subject to the criteria of 10 experts who were asked to read the questions, make comments and suggestions and eliminate or add items. After incorporating the experts' suggestions, a pilot test of the interviews of 20 teachers and two sections, one tenth and one eleventh, of schools not belonging to the study population was applied.
Procedure for the collection of information
The information was collected by applying the instruments to the populations under study; once this was collected, coding and typing were done to design the databases for both teachers and students. The data obtained by the questionnaire for the Advisers were worked on separately since they were only two people and the data obtained through the observation guide in the classroom were quantified by variable to add them to the analysis that was done of the data obtained from the questionnaires.
Steps for analyzing and interpreting the data
In order to analyze and interpret the data obtained, a review was first made by the teacher of the group surveyed in order to verify that the questions had been answered. In relation to the questionnaire applied to teachers, it was the researcher who checked that everything was answered. When something was left blank or the answers were not accurate, the doubts were noted and were taken up at the time of observation or when talking to them. The data were then coded and processed using the statistical package SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences), with the purpose of designing statistical tables and graphs for each study population. For the analysis of the data the descriptive statistic was used with sum of frequencies, percentages, average and standard deviation.
4.3. Research Stages
During the diagnostic phase on the conceptual framework, three types of comparisons were made; the first were the data, the second methodological and the third a triangulation of results. Three phases were developed:
– Phases of the investigation: Phase 1 was developed with the purpose of establishing the evolution and the current state of the problem. For the development of this phase, the following were taken into account: study of national and institutional documentation, Basic Standards of Language Competence: English and Educational Projects in terms of teaching grammar production in English. As an instrument, the evaluation grid was taken into account.
– Phase 2 was called Analysis and triangulation of information on the state of teaching practices based on a good positioning of theory in the English class: This phase consisted in the analysis of information found in national and international documentation. When performing a critical analysis, it is coherent to highlight the general structure of the grids and how they relate to the main research topics, as well as to identify a theoretical reference that was not taken into account in the project and manifests in the documents, as an important reference, of the oral production in English.
– Phase 3: consisted in the design of the didactic proposal, which arises from retaking the factors that favour the development of students’ competence and the gaps and difficulties that oppose their development from the referents used in the analysis, all in the context of a good positioning of theory in the English class.
4.4. Data Collection
Data Collection Techniques
The collection technique applied was the self-administered survey, in which:
questionnaires to be applied to the different information subjects, including the high school students;
questionnaires to be applied to the different information subjects, including the teachers of English.
On the other hand, the observation technique defined as „Systematic, valid and reliable record of behaviours that manifest during the English class”, was accomplished by the researcher to the English teachers as well as the students of the IXth grade. Here the researcher was classified as an open participant observer.
Population
The examined group consisted of a total of 60 pupils, boys and girls, all studying at the “Grigore Moisil” HighSchool in Ialomita county, in two IXth grades. The other part of the examined group is represented by 10 teachers in our school.
Sample
100% boys and girls, students at the “Grigore Moisil” High School in Ialomita county served as sample for the study. Subjects have normal intellectual development and different academic results. Questionnaire for students was attended by 40 students.
According to the students’ age, whereas in terms of psychosocial development, “the growing independence leads first thoughts on identity” (Cosmovici 1999: 46), and in terms of cognitive development view, at this age "increases children’s mental ability to analyze and to test deductive assumptions”. (Cosmovici, 1999: 46).
Besides these purely psychological reasons, there was taken into account the fact that students’ classes in discussion are studying English since the IInd grade, having, at the moment, a total of four hours a week.
5. DATA ANALYSIS
5.1 Interaction Strategies
Collaborative learning occurs when students and teachers work together to create knowledge … "It is a pedagogy that starts from the basis that people create meanings together and that the process enriches them and makes them grow".
Students are always eager to learn and check everything that is in their environment questioned, and just as they are not static in their way of creating, thinking, reflecting, their physical body is also in continuous movement, from one side to the other, They are also continually looking for the change of places or spaces as well as psychological and social positions that the celebrities explain to them. Why? However within routine of daily activities falls into monotony or ambiguity.
Education in our country cannot be the exception. It should go hand in hand with all these conceptions, as well as the intentions and needs of our students, without falling into inertia or resistance that over time is more difficult to overcome, than it causes a dissociation, in the natural form of the child or young person to learn by playing and experimenting, with what teachers propose as activities broken down by the curriculum, which are often not structured, nor planned according to their interests, circumstances and its contextual reality, for that reason it is emphasized that all paned activity must start from that interest of the student, his previous knowledge and the contextual reality that influences him in his daily life. In full postmodernity and scientific advances in the so-called information era, children and young people are continuously changing not only their mind and body, but also their spirit and expectations, teachers must then question and redesign the curriculum in their current practices to look for new pedagogical-didactic strategies that adapt to the learning system of children and young people, making their class richer, more attractive and more productive, for the following approach is made: What can be effective learning strategies which the teacher uses through the application of the curriculum to achieve develop the skills in the students?
It is proposed to resume the collaborative work that the new educational paradigms rightly propose, but with an application of the open curriculum, taking into account the group, school and individual characteristics of each of the students, the geographical and population situation where praxis is carried out as well as the cultural and axiological experience that surrounds and permeates the students. In this way, working collaboratively has demonstrated a transcendent and positive effect, because there is freedom for the student, through oral or written language, making use of their creativity, to interrelate more naturally within the social environment or school group to which they belong, achieving with the activities to integrate more to live fully their social experiences, and to confront their ideas with the opinions offered by the diversity of a group.
We also highlight important aspects within schools such as the promotion of democracy and the acceptance of differences between students that give rise to cognitive conflicts and diverse learning. It also allows the teacher to take up topics, reaffirm it necessary and improve in all its educational tasks. Within the context of collaborative learning the concept of the teacher also changes, it is reconstructed by Andueza (2007), explaining that within the dynamic groups the teacher becomes a coordinator of the task, his mission is to plan the work, clarify doubts and suggest , organizing learning experiences and guiding the evaluation. It is also emphasized that the teacher should intervene as little as possible, since the student has occupied the place that was previously exclusive to the teacher, who should only intervene as a catalyst and guide agent. It is observed here the relevance of the teacher in innovating and opening up to the creation of fresh and new learning with the awareness that the main role in the didactics of active and meaningful learning is the students, but through their epistemological and didactic approaches that they must offer real and quantitatively evaluable results as qualitatively. Collaborative learning is always reconstructed by all involved, it has a great advantage that is the creation of an aulic space where each one takes what for him has greater significance regardless of what group is learned or what specifically arises from the resume. "Collaborative learning is based on epistemological assumptions and has its origin in social constructivism." The child learns through social interactions, in teams, blocks, workshops, projects, academies, etc. Piaget explains that students respond to motivations of the environment, putting at stake their level of skills, these are built as the human being develops in its relationship with objects. The child learns through continuous cognitive conflicts, in those processes that he calls assimilation and accommodation that take place when the child compares his ideas with the reality he observes, modifying them continuously. Likewise social constructivism sees learning as the result of the child's social interactions with its context. For this reason it is concluded that collaborative work is an excellent trigger for human and social relations, which ultimately will give success in the school and social life of those who learn by collaborating.
5.2. Spoken and Written Interaction in the English Textbooks
The bibliography for English courses generally consists of three parts: a student's book, which is complemented by a book of activities that are a supplementary practice of what has been learned in the course, and a book by the teacher, which basically contains a didactic guide . All the books of the corpus contain these elements except for the series Language to Go, which incorporates the practice exercises to the student's book. In all cases, we have analyzed all the sections of the books in which it was found that in some way it is taught explicitly to dialogue. The following have been included in the analysis:
• The introductions of the teacher's books, in order to check to what extent they give importance to the concepts we trace in the texts.
• The instructions for teaching each unit included in the teacher's book.
• The dialogues included in any section that presents exercises with which they are taught in an explicit way to interact in real-life situations, and that include practice. They are generally found in independent sections, or incorporated into oral language practice and / or listening comprehension exercises. In almost all cases they were found exclusively in the student's book, with the exception of First Direct Certificate, whose activity book was also included because it includes part of the teaching and practice of the verbal interaction of that course.
• The verbal interaction practice sections that do not include dialogues but do contain selections of useful phrases for the exercise.
• The grammar sections, including the grammar summaries that usually appear at the end of the student's books, and the vocabulary sections, in order to find out if their teaching includes the socio-pragmatic aspect, since we believe that this should be the case. In effect, many vocabulary items as well as many syntactic structures tend to appear with different frequency in oral or written language, or in formal or informal contexts.
There have not been included in the analysis, instead:
• Verbal interaction practice sections in which only students are asked to interact, but no aspect of verbal interaction is taught, nor are concrete indications given as to how that conversation would take place in real life. In general, these are free practice exercises with a predetermined theme, or application of grammatical items or vocabulary studied in the same unit. They may contain information relevant to some content that is not the teaching of verbal interaction. These sections appear at least once in all the units of all the books in the corpus.
• Listening exercises that include dialogues but whose exercise is related to the content, pronunciation or practice of grammar or vocabulary items. The only information that has been included about them is their number, to contrast it with the number of dialogues they teach to interact.
Occasionally, activities actually include exercise that contributes to improving the ability to communicate orally, but no mention is made of this purpose either in the teacher's book or in the student's. Therefore, we must conclude that in these cases it is probably expected that the student will learn how to dialogue in English by simple inference. And this, of course, does not happen too often. All the books present in these cases exercise that includes the employment on the part of the student of the phrases learned, which is of course correct, and nevertheless this exercise is not totally adequate nor sufficient. Mainly, because their small number evidently limits the variety of situations and functions that can occur, especially if we take into account that some typical situations (for example "presentations", "telephone conversations", "shopping") tend to repeat themselves in different levels and even in different books of the same series, this lack of variety occurs in some books as a result of their particular objectives.
Something similar happens in the higher level courses, that is to say those of First Certificate and the advanced ones, which give to the oral language a much greater importance than the previous courses, and for that reason we find sections of learning and practice of the verbal interaction in all the units. In spite of this, since its objective is to prepare students for a standardized international examination, the training focuses on the competences that must be acquired to approve it, that is, to interact in a situation that is not usual in real life and in the that it is not easy to have spontaneous communication due to the pressure of the moment. Consequently, the selection of topics is restricted: only expressions that can be useful in certain specific circumstances are taught (for example, and typically, when giving opinions), because they are what they will need in the exam, but they are not included many other characteristics of daily conversation. Regarding the oral comprehension section, in which in the first years dialogues prevail in situations of daily life, from this level a greater number of monologues and more formal situations are observed, such as interviews, a type of dialogue that the students hardly have an opportunity to use in practice. This is because the exercises conform to the guidelines of the exam format for which they are preparation. In the advanced level books it is observed that the dialogues that have the function of teaching disappear, and only a few are presented in the oral comprehension exercises, which follow the exam guidelines corresponding to the level. The learning of oral interaction is abandoned, without giving any explanation of the reasons. Probably because it is considered that it has already been learned in previous stages. So far we have not mentioned the sections that teach to interact without containing dialogues. In the books of First Certificate and the advanced level there are the usual exercises that propose a theme for the students to interact, but with a variant: they systematically include a box that contains a series of phrases or items of grammar and vocabulary useful for the situation, remembering what was previously acquired and adding some new elements. This is certainly useful, but in all cases the above applies: all of these books have topic restrictions, so that what is taught in this section tends to be reduced to little more than useful expressions in conversations held in class or in an exam.
Returning to the totality of the students' books analyzed, it is observed that they are almost never included in them clear indications regarding registration or courtesy, even when the same exercise usually contains structures, vocabulary and phrases that present variations in this sense. In this case, it is also apparently trusted that the student will infer what is its use, and it is not clearly explained in which situations, in addition to the one presented in the book, the acquired knowledge can be used. In fact, the notion of registration in general appears with certain frequency only in advanced level courses, so that there is a paradox that students can learn the degree of formality and the use of any item just several years after have learned it (However, at the intermediate or high intermediate level this concept is already used sporadically, sometimes without prior explanations, in the teaching of formal letter writing.) Let's move on to the grammar section, in which the picture is even less encouraging as far as our subject is concerned. In general, the exercise is presented in contexts in which its use is natural, but since no mention is made of it, we also conclude that, in the best of cases, the student is expected to infer that it is appropriate to use it in the presented contexts. As in the case of dialogues, in grammar topics the teacher's book in general presents very few references to use, registration or courtesy, and the few that are found in the student's book are usually in the grammar section that It is at the end of almost all books. That is, as in the case of the dialogues, they are found outside the text of each unit, which may mean that they are not given due attention. One last observation: when a grammatical explanation is mentioned that some element is used to "speak" about a certain topic, we have noticed that sometimes this term does not refer exclusively to oral language, but includes writing without further clarification. It may seem like a minor detail, but there is also the possibility that this ambiguity creates confusion. Regarding the vocabulary, the adopted criterion is usually to present a set of words or phrases linked by some semantic feature or because they have a common function, usually omitting any reference to the degree of informality or formality of each element, or its use in oral or written language. Especially in the books of the highest levels, the mix of records is constant.
5.3. Initial Tests
”Write a letter to a penfriend who has never visited Romania and invite him to come to your country. Give him/her some information about the country. (100-120 words)”
The initial stage helps to establish the level at which pupils are at the moment of initiation of the psycho-pedagogical experiment, both in the experimental sample and in the control sample.
Table 1
The results obtained at the initial test by the experimental sample
The results are distributed as following:
Average at the class level is of the form: (1×0+2×0+3×0+4×0+5×0+6×0+7×8+8×7+9×10+10×5):30= 8.40
Module (the most frequent mark) is represented by mark 9
Table 2
Nominal table with the scores obtained at the initial test by the experimental sample
Analyzing the results obtained by the 30 students of the grade A, respectively the experimental sample, at the initial test, we can say that the module at the group level is 9, 10 grades being scored over the mark 9. In the same context, one may observe a grouping of marks on a fairly large segment.
Observing the graph above, there is a lack of 1,2,3,4,5 and 6 marks which suggests that the tendencies of promotion are increasing, but there is a high consistency of 9 and 10 marks that suggests the strong involvement of pupils in the teaching-learning process. Also, since not all the students have fully achieved the objectives proposed by the didactic approach, it is easy to understand that success can only be achieved in the future by longer training and by giving more attention and importance to the discipline.
Table 3
Results obtained at the initial test by the control sample
The results are distributed as follows:
Average at the class level has the following form: (1×0+2×0+3×0+4×0+5×0+6×5+7×12+8×5+9×5+10×3):30= 6.30
Module (the most frequent note) is represented by the mark: 7
Table 4
Nominal table with the marks obtained at the initial test by the control group
According to the graphs and tables above, the representative sample of the control group ranges around marks 6,7,8,9 and 10. In this context, in the grade B all the marks were over 5, also observing here a grouping of marks on an extended segment. Also, the fact that marks 1 and 2 are missing suggests an upward trend in the promise of the initial test, but on the other hand, the poor presence of the mark 10 can be attributed to the lack of student concentration. Under the same aspect, no student has fully achieved the objectives proposed by the didactic approach.
According to the results obtained by the students of the experimental and control groups, the following measures for optimizing the didactic approach can be considered:
• Returning with additional information in the field where a deficit is found
• To propose new exercises and text that pupils should analyze from this perspective
• Insisting on resolving exercises of the type corresponding to the initial test
Taking into consideration the structural diagram that presents the averages at the level of the two classes in the context of the initial test, it is noted that the experimental group is relatively higher compared to the control one. One may observe in this context an initial phase of the finding, also known as the initial test, the context in which the starting dates were collected, the level existing at the time of initiation of the experience with which the English language teacher works. Interpreting the results and the information obtained from the pedagogical knowledge test, the analysis of the pupils' products, their systematic observation and the learning outcomes, one may found that there are no very large differences regarding the two samples, as the above diagram emphasizes.
In the context of administering the initial test at the level of the two samples, the following general and specific competencies are noted:
General, social and civic competencies
1. Receiving the written message, from literary and non-literary texts, for various purposes;
2. The correct and appropriate use of the English grammar in the production of written messages, in different contexts of realization, with different purposes.
Specific targeted competencies
1.1 reading a variety of literary or non-literary texts, demonstrating the understanding of their meaning;
1.2. Recognizing the specific modalities of organizing the different types of texts and;
1.3. Knowing the correctness and expressive value of the learned grammar and lexical categories in a text;
2.1. Expressing in writing their own opinions and attitudes;
2.2. The correct and nuanced use of learned semantic categories;
2.3. Use varied modalities for expressing the text.
5.4. Positioning in the English Class (special lessons)
LESSON 1.
Modern Fairy Tales
Practicing the writing skills in a funny way
Project aims:
to teach the students the basic rules of writing a fairy tale
to show the students how a classical fairy tale can be “modernized”
to make the students work in groups and co-operate in order to produce a creative writing task
to make the students discuss (agree, disagree, bring arguments) in English
to make the students work with dictionaries
to make the students present their work in a meaningful way and answer to questions related to their work
Activity no. 1
Aim: establishing the fix items of a fairy tale (beginning, ending, types of characters etc)
Procedure: Brainstorming and a mind map on the blackboard
Interaction: students-teacher
Timing: 10-15 minutes
Activity no. 2
Aim: to make the students produce creative writing by working in teams , discussing their ideas and using dictionaries
Procedure: team work The students will have dictionaries to work with. They will have to choose one of the stories: Little Red Riding Hood, Snow White, Sleeping Beauty or another, but to “modernize” them
Interaction: students-students
Timing: 20-30 minutes
Activity no. 3
Aim: to make the students produce creative writing by working in teams , discussing their ideas and using dictionaries
Procedure: team work The students will have dictionaries to work with They will have to choose one of the stories: Little Red Riding Hood, Snow White, Sleeping Beauty or another, but to “modernize” them
Interaction: students-students
Timing: 20-30 minutes
Activity no. 4:
Aim: to make the students present, discuss and evaluate their work
Procedure: a fairy tale contest(each team leader will present the modern fairy tale and will answer to questions about it; the class will vote the one they liked best
Interaction:Students-students
Timing:40-50 minutes
LESSON 2
Teacher:
Date:
School:
Form:9 th A
Level: advanced
Lesson type: Speaking
Unit 11:Hard at work
Subject: Hard at work
Objectives:
-to introduce the topic of the lesson: Hard at work
-students will be able to express their own opinion about jobs
-students will be able to present advantages and disadvantages of certain jobs
-to develop the speaking and writing skills of the students
Skills:speaking,writing
Methods-conversation ,debate,explanation,argumentation,truss method
Teaching materials: textbook (FCE GOLD PLUS)
Audio-visuals: blackboard and chalk, students 'copy-book
Activity 1-Warm-up
Aim-introducing the topic
Procedure:
The teacher announce the students that today they are going to focus on the speaking skill and explains the importance of the speaking skill.After telling students about the speaking skill the teacher tells the students that they are going to pass to a new unit called,,Hard at work”and writes the title of the unit on the blackboard
Time: 5 mins
Interaction: teacher-student;student-teacher
Activity 2
Aim: a predictive activity in which teacher tells students about jobs
Procedure:
Teacher asks the students various questions: What do you think about having a job?
Do you think there are working students?
What in your opinion are the skills you must focus on before having a job?
Students give their opinion freely
Interaction:teacher-student;student-teacher
Time:5mins
Activity 3
Aim: to develop speaking skill
Procedure:
1.Teacher asks students various questions:What do you would like to become?Which job do you consider more suitable for you?What qualities do you consider you must have in order to become what you want?
2.Students deliver the answers to the teacher
Interaction: teacher-student; student-teacher
Time:10 mins
Activity 4
Aim:to debate certain things connected to jobs
Procedure:
Teacher asks students various questions: Would you go to another city or country to work? Why? Why not
Teacher asks students to give their own opinion about this question
Students deliver the answers to the teacher
Teacher tells the students a quotation: When work is a pleasure life is a joy !
When work is a duty, life is slavery”
Maxim Gorky
Teacher writes the quotation on the blackboard and has a free debate upon the quotation with the students
Interaction: student-student; student-teacher
Time: 10 mins
Activity 5
Aim:to debate upon personality
Procedure:
Teacher asks students: Do you think it is important to have a personality? Why? Why not?
Teacher asks students to perform individually the personality quiz from the page 130 and after finishing it to look at page190 and express their opinion about the question: Do you agree with the results?
Interaction: teacher-student ;student-teacher
Time: 10 mins.
Activity 6
Aim: to develop writing skill
Procedure: Teacher writes on the blackboard a few jobs and ask students to pick-up three jobs and write in their copy-books six advantages and six disadvantages for each chosen job; students are also allowed to choose from the jobs written in their textbook.
Interaction: teacher-student; student-teacher
Time:8 min
Homework: write a short paragraph about an ideal job(mention why you have chosen it, why do you think you are suitable for the job and why the job chosen is an ,,ideal” one for you).
Lesson no. 3
School:
Class: 9th
Time:
Lesson title: ’’Dream On’’
Type of lesson: Reading and Listening
Lesson Aims:
creating interest in the topic of the lesson;
promoting discussion and expressing opinions on reading;
developing speaking and practising the new words;
fostering fluency.
Skills: speaking, reading, writing, listening
Anticipated language problems: The students could become a bit noisy when discussing the given topics. In some cases, pupils may not understand the task given by the teacher;
Possible solutions: The teacher may ask the students to see if there is any misunderstanding regarding the task. He may repeat the task in order to be clear for everybody;
Teaching aids: the textbook, the blackboard; audio material;
Modes of interaction: teacher-student, student-student,
Activity 1 – Warm up
Aim:- To familiarize the pupils with the new teacher;
-To accommodate the students with the topic of the lesson;
– To encourage the students to talk and express their opinion and ideas in English and also to justify them;
Teacher’s role: presenter, guide;
Skills: listening, comprehension;
Materials: the blackboard, the coursebook;
Class management: whole class activity;
Timing: 10 minutes
Activity 2 – Exercise N.1
Aim: To improve students’ level of comprehension and their ability to express themselves in English;
Procedure:
1. Pupils are asked to open their coursebooks. They have to look at exercise n.7 and to answer to a set of questions.
2. After having answered the questions, the teacher plays them an audio material as part of the same exercise.
3. Then after listening to the audio material, the students and the teacher have a discussion regarding the set of questions and the audio material.
Interaction: T-Ss, S-S;
Teacher’s role: guide, controller;
Skills: speaking, comprehension;
Materials: blackboard, copybooks, the coursebook, audio material;
Class management: whole class activity;
Timing: 10 minutes
Activity 3 – Exercise N2
Aims: -To improve students’ ability to read in English;
-To expand their vocabulary;
– To improve students’ ability to express themselves in English;
Procedure: The students are asked to look at exercise n.2 and to choose the right answer. In order for them to know which one is the right one they have to read the text’’ A dream come true?’’ which is on the same page right under the exercise n.2. Then teacher asks for volunteers , for each paragraph, that want read the text or chooses to ask students to read if there are no volunteers.
After each paragraph the teach asks the students if there are any words that they don’t know or asks the students if they know a certain word the he considers to be more ’’difficult’’.
Interaction: T-Ss, group work;
Teacher’s role: guide, controller;
Skills: writing, speaking, reading;
Materials: the coursebook, the blackboard ,copybook;
Class management: whole class activity;
Timing: 10 minutes
Activity 4: Exercise N3
Aim: To comprehend the text better;
Procedure: The students are asked to look at exercise n.4. in order to solve the exercise they need to make use of the text from the previous exercise again. The task is for them is associate each sentence (A-F) from this exercise with a ‘’gap’’(1-6) from the previous text.
Interaction: T-Ss, individual work
Teacher’s role: guide, controller;
Skills: reading, comprehension;
Materials: coursebook, copybooks;
Class management: whole class activity;
Timing: 10 minutes
Activity 5 – Exercise N4
Aims: To improve vocabulary
Procedure: The teacher asks the students to look at exercise n.6. In that exercise they a given several definitions of words(words extracted from the same text used for the last two exercises) . Two of those definitions are not correct. The students have to find the ones which are not correct then to correct them by suggesting a definition for them.
Teacher’s role: observer, guide,
Skills: reading, writing,
Materials: coursebook, copybooks;
Class management: whole class activity;
Timing: 10 minutes
Activity 6 –Homework
Aims: -To improve students’ ability to express themselves in English;
-To reinforce the newly gained information;
Procedure: The teacher asks the students to write a short essay about famous person that inspired them, why did they choose that person and how it inspired them.
Teacher’s role: observer, guide,
Skills: reading, writing,
Materials: coursebook, copybooks;
Class management: whole class activity;
Timing: 20 minutes
5.5. Teacher Reflective Positioning: a questionnaire
The study began with an explanatory-descriptive character. The first step was the gathering of information about the statistics of the last four years regarding the failure rates of the subject in question. Next, a non-participant observation process was selected, whose categories are determined from the literature; that is, the characteristics described on good teaching, effective teaching and the effective teacher set the standards to observe and value. The observation was carried out with six teachers throughout the semester. This process was executed during two semesters. Three teachers were chosen whose students obtained the highest averages and three teachers in the opposite situation. From the theoretical referents, the following observation categories were obtained, which were rated on an arbitrary scale from 1 to 5, in which 1 is deficient and 5 excellent:
The teacher / teacher:
• Clarifies the purposes of the class (topic [s] of the session).
• Defines (establishes) the relationship of the day's theme with previous themes.
• Presents a previous global view of the topic of the session.
• Presents the topics with a logical sequence.
• It has an adequate rhythm.
• Summarize and highlight the main points of the session topic.
• Answer questions that arise during the session.
• Relate the topic of the session with those of future sessions.
• Speak with a properly audible voice volume.
• Varies the intonation according to the emphasis.
• Explain clearly.
• Maintains eye contact with students.
• Listen to the comments and questions of the students.
• Projects non-verbal language consistent with their intentions.
• Defines unfamiliar or unfamiliar terms, concepts or principles.
• Present examples to clarify points.
• Relate new ideas with familiar or familiar concepts.
• Go back to important ideas at appropriate times.
• Presents different ways of explaining complex or difficult points.
• Uses a sense of humour appropriately to maintain interest and reinforce attention.
• Has a limited use of "crutches".
• Invite students to ask questions.
• Invite students to discuss.
• Maintain student attention.
• Responds appropriately to nonverbal cues of confusion, boredom or curiosity.
• Maintains an adequate pace so that students can take notes.
• Invite students to answer difficult questions.
• Ask guiding questions when student responses are incomplete or inaccurate.
• Rethink questions and answers at appropriate times.
• Suggests questions or problems of limited interest to be handled outside of class.
• Support the session with discussions and appropriate exercises.
• Presents audiovisual material to support the session or important points.
• Assigns appropriate tasks.
• Cite relevant sources of information to support your arguments.
• Distinguish between fact and opinion
• Presents divergent views when appropriate.
• Demonstrates mastery of their subject.
The observer took a document with all the previous categories, rated the performance in each class and, in a field diary, made notes related to the teaching style and what happened in class.
Results of the questionnaire for teachers
The questionnaire for teachers is shown in Annex 2. The summarized and systematized responses are presented below:
1. 100% of the teachers on the first day of class inform their students about the evaluation form regarding the 40 points.
2. 28% (7 out of 25) do not consider the 60-40 ratio adequate for the final grade. 2 propose 50-50; 3 propose the reverse: 40-60.
3. 96% (24 of 25) affirm not to award the 40 points to their students "regardless of the work" they perform.
4. 28% (7 of 25) maintain that they have been denied the letter of teaching performance, mainly because of their failure rate.
5. 36% (9 of 25) feel pressured to approve the largest possible number of students and award the 40 points.
6. 88% (22 of 25) do not consider the approval / failure rate as an adequate parameter to evaluate teacher performance.
These results indicate that the second hypothesis can not be validated, which indicates that teachers feel pressured, to some extent, to approve the largest possible number of students at the end of the semester, since only 36% openly admitted feeling pressured to do so. However, it can be deduced indirectly that there is nonconformity with the way in which the teaching performance is evaluated when taking into account the approval / disapproval index.
The results obtained show disparate trends in terms of giving a clear answer to the probable causes of the increasing failure rate. In the first place, it seems that all the working hypotheses, except the first, correspond to what in colloquial language is called urban legend. They were raised because of their high frequency in informal talks with teachers and anecdotal comments among students.
On the other hand, it must be considered that the first working hypothesis was formulated according to the theoretical framework; its invalidation shows that it is most likely that the elements for an effective teaching, for a good teaching or to become an effective teacher, are not adequate enough in our context. This has led us to think that there are other variables related to the characteristics of the technological era that students live.
The above conclusion does not mean that what is presented as the best way to teach in the revised literature has to be discarded, or considered obsolete, but that it is more likely to work in other contexts. Our students value what allows them to see beyond what is expected in a lecture class: they appreciate the entertaining and dynamic classes. It seems that little by little, tacitly, they ask for a change in the traditional teaching practices and in the attitudes of the professors, since the technological influence begins to give its first fruits among the student community. They require more than a class in the scheme of effective teaching with an effective teacher. This is logical in a society in which the new generations no longer bring their cake under the arm as our grandparents said, but now bring their iPod or their cell phone.
In our environment, and because of the results obtained from the questionnaires, it does not seem that the students included in this study -in the year in which the questionnaires were applied- can be considered net throughout the term. We are going through a transition stage where there is an opportunity to change the ways of seeing teaching and learning; to carry out the teaching function in the classroom and attitudes to the growing or technological that seems to overwhelm everything. It has been evident that the observed teaching practices tend more to the traditional form centred on contents, than on the student and his needs. According to the characteristics of the new generations of students, teachers can not continue with the idea that students must adapt to their style and the educational discourse that has prevailed for decades; The time has come when all those involved in the training of future professionals radically change our way of thinking about higher education and adapt to current demands. It is very likely that this way we will achieve that our students improve their academic performance in all senses; We are at the critical moment that requires a complete turnaround in education. The solution, as always, is in our hands.
5.6. Exploiting Student’s Journal in the English Class: teaching, learning, assessment
5.6.1. Student’s Journal: teaching, learning, assessment
‘Diary entries’ – reflective and interactive Positioning.
Three themes emerged from the data. The first theme, “personal process,” captured individual participants’ approaches to reflection. “Synthesis” described the way in which participants engaged in the construction of knowledge. The third theme, “dialogue,” focused on the nature of the communication in which participants engaged in an effort to promote the social construction of knowledge. Data obtained from learners will be presented first and then the data from the interviews with the instructor.
Interactive Journal Writing Personal Process
In this study, interactive journal writing provided a means of communication and conversation with the personal, professional, and academic self and with the instructor. The first category, interactive journal writing as a personal process, captured the individual variations in style and approach that participants used to record their thoughts. Entries ranged from being very chronological or technical, much like a diary or log, to being very expressive and fluid. The journal most like a diary came from a learner who did not perceive herself as reflective by nature. She recognized merit in the process but found that decreased exposure to the professional practice area that semester made writing difficult as the context from which to write the journals was limited. Despite the perceived limitation, she wrote the greatest number of entries. Several journals were spontaneous and free-flowing, full of energy and emotion, integrating academic, professional, and personal life experiences. These were written primarily by individuals who stated that they perceived themselves as being reflective by nature. Of this group, only one person (Andreea V.) normally kept a personal journal. Andreea’s journals were the most fluid, powerful, and passionate. She valued recording her thoughts and subsequently seeing the patterns peek through.
The interactive journals were charged with emotion. There were expressions of feelings about the technology, the medium, situations encountered in practice, and other aspects of the work experience as well as personal issues. Metaphors and poetry were frequently used to capture and express the affective components of the discourse. Figure 1 portrays an example of a response that Cristian, the instructor, wrote to Diane when she shared that her cat had passed away. He expressed his feelings through poetry, capturing a deep sense of caring, respect, and compassion.”I really don’t know what (know what?) to say about the cat i had a cat who sat on my shoulders gone now warmth and heart beat gone now i still wear the sweater i wore when he sat on my shoulders a memory of when I wrote warm (Cristian) ”
Comments on the journal writing process were also integrated into the journals. Consistent with the literature on journal writing, students wrote that it was a useful means of learning about oneself, especially when they looked at the patterns that became evident with the passage of time.
”Journals-great way to see what’s being digested, used, discarded or thought about. Scary stuff when you read it. . . . I can hardly wait to look at these journal reflections in a couple of years. Now that I’ve been at it, I find myself going back through the journals and rereading. The journey of reflection. I haven’t been writing as much as reading and reflecting, digesting and exploring. The heat and passion seem to have passed much like a love affair and now have settled down into that comfortable knowing love that comes from a good relationship, much like the maturing of a good wine.” (Toma)
This observation was also supported by participants in the interviews. The journals offered an open window on the “self.” “Time provides perspective and momentum, and enables deeper level of insight to take place” (Holly, 1984, p. 4).
Three of the participants who engaged in interactive journal writing kept interactive journals in previous courses but did not continue the practice once the courses were over. Toma, who had never maintained a journal, found the experience gratifying. His entries were uninhibited and passionate. He was delighted that someone was taking the time to show interest in what had been going on inside his head but had for so long gone unrecorded. He felt the distance between the instructor and himself close with the use of the journal. This feeling may be a function of the transactional distance that was created by the nature of the dialogue and the degree of structure afforded by journal writing. With this design strategy, the structure is primarily centred on and initiated by the learner, and he or she has the freedom to explore different avenues of thought through dialogue with and support and guidance from the instructor (Gunawardena, 1992).
I have never been involved in a course before where I have kept a journal like this . . . this is a first time for me. The process however was just a reflection of what has been going on in my mind over the years anyway. This time however . . . someone (Cristian) was interested enough in me to see inside my head. I really liked the process . . . it brought me closer to Cristian. . . . I wasn’t held at arms length and lectured to . . . he wanted to know how I thought. . . . I felt human in this course . . . valued . . cared about . . . for the first time since I started taking courses. . . . To me this was the first learning experience that I have had in the grad program . . . very stimulating. . . . I was amazed that anyone would care about what went on inside my head . . . instead of APA on paper . . . hand it in get the A or B . . . whatever. I was reassured by the process that other people feel similar thoughts and that I wasn’t an anomaly of the universe. (Toma)
Interactive Journal Writing as Synthesis
Journal writing as synthesis portrays the nature of the content inherent in the journals. Analysis of the link between theory and praxis were evident and given the greatest degree of emphasis in all the interactive journals. This finding is not entirely surprising because it was one of the criteria for writing journals provided in the course syllabus. Application of theoretical constructs to learners’ personal and professional selves was also evident. Journals were laden with questions. Asking questions appeared to be a way of brainstorming, manipulating the content, turning it on its side, and reframing it in order to gain a deeper level of understanding. Although there were questions directed specifically to the course instructor, most questions in the journals were rhetorical.
Insights into the participants’ personal and professional past and present were also reflected in the journals. The article by Brown on first year teacher planning brought back a lot of memories of my bumbling and stumbling along in those first couple of years. I really felt my teachers’ training did not adequately prepare me for the classroom experience and I would have to say that the biggest subconscious guide to my performance was the emulation of two teachers I admired, one in primary and one in high school. (Donna)
Journals were also used to capture prospects for the future. “Interactive journals served as a vehicle for travelling along the core and side-streets of knowledge and experiences coupled with the opportunity to question the route and meanings found along the way. They offered a means of making theoretical links with learning in an effort to construct knowledge in collaboration with an experienced guide.”
Interactive Journal Writing as Dialogue
The nature of the communication processes evident in the journals is described in the third category, journal writing as dialogue. Dialogue with the instructor appeared to be on three levels: academic, professional, and personal. All participants viewed him as a role model and mentor and appreciated the learning and growth that came as an outcome of sharing their thoughts with him. They valued the freedom to express their ideas and feelings without the fear of reprisal or judgement. Cristian frequently advised students to take the opportunity to “suspend disbelief” in an effort to help open them to receiving new understandings. They valued and looked forward to his responses. Tagg (1994) confirms that the interest, respect, sensitivity, and challenge shown were factors that influenced participants’ perceptions of the interactive journal writing process. The following excerpt from Andreea V. captures the power of the dialogue.
“He said something about the place where two thoughts occupy the same space. It really made me think in many directions . .. eventually I sent him a small poem connected to the thinking he’d generated. ”
As role model, the instructor offered positive reinforcement, thoughts for consideration, questions and probes, and poetry as expressions of his thoughts and feelings. There seemed to be a partnership, a mutual respect, a balanced, reciprocal, collegial relationship evident in the interactions between the instructor and students. The process of learning shifted from simply being an interaction to becoming a relationship, the latter requiring a more personal connection, respect, and sharing of experiences (Thorpe, 1995). Andreea V. expressed her gratefulness in this way:
Some minds travel in the space between the shadows of our thoughts where light fractures into hues as incandescent as the moon and when they’ve touched the Universe and sensed the space beyond. They know now that there’s an emptiness that only *silence* fills . . . thanks for pushing the parameters of my mind.
Trust played a part in the nature of the communication between learner and instructor. All students stated in the interviews that trust influenced the degree to which they were prepared to reveal their personal selves. The need for trust is a conceptual thread that is tightly woven into the literature on journal writing. Expressing inner thoughts to another can make one feel vulnerable. The instructor is often viewed by learners as a person in authority, in a position of power. The risk of revealing ideas and feelings that are outside the expected norm or of expressing a lack of understanding, the fear that one’s thinking will be manipulated, and not knowing if one’s personal thoughts will be disclosed to others can increase feelings of vulnerability. These fears are normal, and it takes great skill and energy on the instructor’s behalf to allay them and normalize the process. Trust, care, acceptance, and legitimacy of understandings were all characteristics that participants acknowledged as being critical to effective dialogue with the instructor. Not every instructor will wish to or be able to make this kind of investment. However, if interactive journal writing is the desired design strategy, energy, sensitivity, and commitment are indispensable. These elements minimize the distance between the students and the instructor as shown in the next excerpt. Andreea V. found that what originally began as a “course” journal began to blur with what she viewed to be a more personal journal. She wrote, ”The separation between “course” journal vs. personal journal was firstly clear at first, and then became rather blurred. Sometimes I decided to keep my soul at home and send my thoughts, while an interactive part of the exchange touched me and I saw what reaction I would get-the safer I felt the more heart I sent. It was more of a judgment call I guess. ”
Barriers to Dialogue
Written communication through journal writing was hindered by the time element. Time was identified as the most common barrier to reflection. There was a feeling that there was not enough time in a day to record reflections, meet the multiple obligations one has as an adult learner, and learn the technology. It also took time to develop a trusting relationship with the instructor.
Another barrier was the writing process itself. It was explained from two perspectives: writing as a roadblock and writing as a protective device. Recording reflections slowed the process of reflecting. The time needed to write things down interfered with the thoughts that had already been transformed from those recorded.
As the process continued it became more and more mental as I began to leave the writing. The writing became a road block at times to the process. The writing became a snapshot in time sort of like a picture of a teenager with acne . . . you look at it and tear it up and try to forget that stage of life . . . as I look back through the journals they indicate a process and a commitment to myself. When you take the time to write it down and you look at your work your thought process becomes a reality . . . a marker on the thought trail . . . you can find your way back or you can retrace your steps if you run across a marker. But for me the reflective process became more and more a mental process. When I reviewed notes I made in books even hours earlier, I found that growth had occurred and so had the thinking . . . the notes and the journals no longer had a resemblance to what I was currently thinking . . . it wasn’t me anymore. The writing at times looks like a cowtrail through the bush . . . and does not indicate where I am (at least to me). (Toma)
Words can also be used as a means of concealing true feelings, a means of hiding when you do not want someone to really know what you are thinking or feeling or you do not want to face something yourself. [I] was just thinking here inside my mind if writing doesn’t also allow us to mask a lot of what we don’t want others to see, or what we don’t want to see ourselves. . . . I love writing and find it fun to express myself this way, but I also know that I have built tremendous walls using words . . . and found it hard to reach through them to really connect with my own feelings and with other people’s feelings . . . just something I always try to keep in mind when I’m writing . . . have you ever had that feeling that just one look into a person’s eyes tied to a certain smile, or a light touch on someone’s arm can convey more than volumes of writing can ever hope to? (Andreea V.)
Interactive Journal Writing as a Design Tool
During the online interviews, participants reported that journal writing was an effective strategy to facilitate reflection in CC courses. Toma could not imagine how his learning would have been as rich without the interactive journals: “Without the journal writing experience this course would have been a void for me. Empty and without meaning. I would suggest that 80% of the learning would have been missed and the self knowledge would still be a lost treasure.” Participants did offer some recommendations in respect to implementing interactive journal writing as a reflective strategy. They suggested that clear guidelines be established on expectations as well as on how the journals would be used. The CC medium was well suited to the depth or quality of reflections evident in the interactive journals, but it was not perceived as a critical factor.
”I don’t think the difference is due to using CC or face-to-face courses. The difference is that Cristian asked us to reflect and journal and respected our own knowledge as legitimate. I think the legitimizing of my own personal knowledge was the major influence on how I reflected. ” (Diane)
Interactive journal writing was seen as a useful way to encourage deeper, more critical analysis of a variety of issues; however, it was clear that the effectiveness of the strategy was linked to the perceived trust that developed between the instructor and learner, the instructor’s expertise with the design strategy, and whether journal writing was a required component of the course.
As a final point, participants cautioned that reflection through interactive journal writing be encouraged and facilitated in CC courses, but they felt that it should not be graded. Despite her support for the design strategy, Andreea V. expressed concern about the bandwagon approach that so often plagues education-”I think using reflective interactive journals takes tremendous sensitivity and skill . . . I do think there is a potential here for hurting people (the other side of learning and growing) . . . so this approach may not be well suited to every instructor or every learner. ”
Instructor Outcomes
The instructor enjoyed interactive journal writing and used it as a reflective strategy in his face-to-face and online courses. Developing a safe learning space was critical to this instructor in order to push students beyond traditional learning boundaries. He embraced the idea that reflective learning should be integrated into the design of courses and that integration would promote a holistic approach to the learning experience.
” [Reflection] should clearly, in my view, be integrated. We are talking about the root of the word “integrated”-integrity-wholeness. To help the student to be whole, I want there to be spinoffs from the course content to the student’s personal experience. We teach what we are. The “areness” of my students is at the centre of their learning and applying that learning. ” (Cristian)
Discussion
From this study, it seems that reflection is a personal process that evolves from the cognitive and affective synthesis of ideas and that it may be strengthened through dialogue. The goal of reflection is the construction of meaningful understandings. Participants described reflection as thinking, pondering, mulling over, and musing. They made it clear that just because thoughts were not recorded did not imply that they were not engaging in the reflective process. Most of the participants noted that their usual way of reflecting was by thinking things over or talking things through with others. The reality is that conversations and thoughts go unrecorded. Andreea V. describes a conversation she had with a colleague: “there is no record of this, words gone, dissolved, spoken then lost, can only reflect what i *think* it was, not what it *was*” (Andreea V.). According to Holly (1984), ”writing serves a useful purpose with respect to reflection because it may lead to further reconstruction of understandings”. (Thorpe, 1995).
The design strategy provided a means of communication and conversation. The interactive journal offered two-way (learner’s inner/personal self and learner’s academic/professional self) and three-way (learner’s inner/personal and academic/professional selves and instructor) dialogue to occur. Dialogue with the instructor on a regular basis provided reinforcement, validation, and support as well as prompting and probing. The instructor served as an audience to receive and respond to the students’ thoughts and impressions.
The academic/professional self was very evident in the interactive journals. A large proportion of entries was oriented to analysing course material and synthesizing it in relation to professional practice and experience. The inner/personal self, however, was very distinct in the more fluid journals, especially in one belonging to a journal writer and one of a participant who was exhilarated by the process.
Participants supported the value of and need for reflection. The key elements appeared to be the expertise of the instructor with the strategy, the degree of trust and rapport that existed between instructor and students, and the importance of having the process not the substance of the entries, graded.
Reflection: A Personal Process
Although conversation is a useful way of sharing and legitimizing experiences, thoughts remain unrecorded. They can also change form and lose intensity and detail when they are left to memory. The reality in academia, one that has been reinforced in the literature, is that if opportunities are not dedicated to promoting the reflective process, learners may not make the effort to engage in it. Multiple legitimate demands take precedence. This factor is of particular significance to the quality of the learning experience in an electronic learning environment where the current state of technology supports interaction that is primarily text-based. This environment will change as technology advances. Taking the time to reread transcripts and make conceptual links by weaving the multiple strands of conversation together in a meaningful way takes effort. The data from this study indicate that reflection in a computer-mediated learning environment through interactive journal-writing is indeed possible, valuable, and effective in helping learners develop meta-cognitive awareness. The journals captured cognitive as well as affective perspectives at different points in time and provided a baseline from which to see patterns of understandings change and develop personal and professional meaning. The process moved learning to deeper cognitive and affective levels.
Journals provided space for describing experiences, expressing feelings, and making theoretical connections. Participants who had not previously engaged in ongoing dialogue with the instructor through an interactive journal discovered new dimensions to their learning. They shared their thoughts and impressions with an audience, namely themselves and the instructor, an audience that did not judge what was written, that only made observations, prompted, and encouraged them to move one step further, beyond the margin, as Cristian would say. They had a voice. In turn, the instructor assumed a different voice, one of colleague and more advanced learner. The reciprocity was mutually rewarding. Although journal writing was not a strategy many students chose to adopt into their personal lives, they understood and appreciated its value.
The process inherent in the interactive journals, in effect, became the content of what participants were learning. Connections between the personal and professional self and practice became evident. Participants had time to look at themselves, look at what they were learning, look at their practice as professionals, and construct meaning from the myriad dimensions. These elements constitute the dimensions of critical thought. This was one goal the instructor hoped to achieve. It was a means whereby he could remain in the margins of the learning experience, and still encourage risk taking and promote growth through personal and professional enrichment. Participants, students and instructor, cautioned, however, that major ingredients in a successful experience with interactive journal writing were the trust and respect between student and instructor.
Reflection: A Synthesis Process
The second dimension that enabled the process of reflection in the computer-mediated environment was synthesis. This concept embraced the notion that each learner was drawing together learnings from internal and external sources of knowledge and experience and subsequently reconstructing new understandings. This notion is consistent with activities inherent in reflective thinking. Synthesis of theoretical constructs through critical thinking, a process that fused the analysis and evaluation of understandings, was extensive in the interactive journals. It commences when we begin to inquire into the reliability, the worth, of any particular indication; when we try to test its value and see what guarantee there is that the existing data really point to the ideas that is suggested in such a way as to justify acceptance of the latter. (Dewey, 1933, p. 11)
Reflection: A Dialogical Process
Reflective journal writing encouraged learners to process what they were learning and make sense of it by sharing it with an audience. Diamond suggests that if people can understand their own perspectives, as well as those of others, they can not only understand their past but they can also make predictions about their likely behaviour in a given situation, such as the classroom, because they know something about what that series of events is likely to mean to themselves and others. (Diamond, 1991, p. 22)
The instructor became a participant in the student learning experience by assuming the role of audience along with the student. “We need to develop procedures and approaches which generate learning and develop self-aware learners and which also avoid either giving learners all the responsibility and no power, or leaving them to sink or swim” (Thorpe, 1995, p. 176). Interactive journal writing provided a means of integrating the learner’s identity into the learning process. For example, through reflection, the question “what are the points of this theory?,” was reframed to “what does this theory mean to me and my professional practice?” The journal had merit in helping learners transform knowledge to a more personal level of understanding. It legitimized the time spent on constructing new meanings according to a personal knowledge frame. This finding is consistent with Thorpe’s recommendation that instructional designers consider the creation of time and space opportunities for students to reflect on their learning.
Students will not reflect on the outcomes and the processes of their own learning if they are overwhelmed by course material they perceive must take priority . . . study time must be calculated to include time for reflection; space must be also be created in the sense of creating areas of the course where reflection is required and is discussed and legitimated (p.182).
Learner identity, the social context of the learning experience, and the degree of personal awareness were elements that contributed to the quality of the learning experience (Thorpe, 1995). Some participants made discoveries that they would not have likely made had the reflective tool not been a part of the course design; others would have preferred to carve out their own path to meaningful learning. Toma summarized the tone of the feelings towards the need for reflection.
The reflective component must be understood by all learners as the most important aspect of the learning. Learners MUST be given permission to GIVE themselves permission to reflect and learn.
5.7. [anonimizat]: a questionnaire
Results of observation in class
What the observation system shows, through the teaching profiles, is that there is no direct correlation with the method or teaching style and the performance of the students. On the other hand, it is evident that there is a marked difference between each teacher observed, so that, in a first approach, it can be said that the teaching style does not have a significant impact on the students' academic performance – the results of the departmental exams.
In summary, what is extracted from the observations is the following:
• In some cases there is a rapid loss of student attention to the teacher because the latter is the one who exposes the subject in its entirety and does not involve the student in any way during the session to avoid it, either using examples, quick questions related with the theme, or with your own experience. This style contrasts with another that leaves the study and handling of the session in the hands of the students in group work modality. These two positions, of an antagonistic nature, show no significant difference in the results of departmental examinations.
• The use of didactic material for the handling of session topics and examples is null and void – both by the teacher in the expository class and by the team exhibiting students in group learning mode – through simple experiments and the use of the daily experience, until carrying out the session showing experiments with laboratory materials. However, there is no appreciable difference in ratings either.
• The departmental and academic examination scheme rules out that the evaluation, in the part corresponding to the exam, is different in content and depth to the students of different teachers, as well as from the bibliography. It is this observation that reiterates that, despite presenting such diverse teaching styles, the results do not show their influence.
Results of questionnaire 1 for students
In Annex 1 the questionnaire 1 for students is presented. The answer summary is included below: first, the percentage of those who answered what was asked and, in parentheses, the number of them / them. In total there were 33 participants.
1. Do you think you will be awarded a passing grade regardless of performance ?: 33.2%.
2. Do you think that teachers are in some way obliged to approve them ?: 15.1%.
3. Do you think that students who get good grades are "weirdos" ?: 24.3%.
4. Do you think that the departmental exams serve to know the academic reality of the students ?: 48%.
5. Do you consider the studies as a formal job ?: 75%.
These results invalidate the remaining working hypotheses.
Unstructured answer questions
• Students value or appreciate more of their teachers:
1. The way to explain: 18.5%.
2. Entertaining / dynamic class: 18.51%.
3. Interpersonal relationship / enthusiasm / general culture / advice (goes beyond the classroom): 10.75%.
4. Exemplify; real / applicable / everyday examples and problems: 8.36%.
5. Punctuality, not fail to teach: 7.46%.
6. The way to evaluate (it is considered fair): 7.16%.
7. The way of teaching / teaching method: 5.67%.
8. Patience: 4.18%.
9. The content of the subject itself: 3.58%.
10. Give the 40 points: 2.98%.
11. Content domain: 2.69%.
12. Respectful treatment to the student: 1.49%.
• Students find annoying / annoying / bad:
1. Impuntuality / absences: 13.13%.
2. Arrogance / sarcasm / allows disorder: 7.76%.
3. Do not miss to teach / very punctual: 7.46%.
4. Too many tasks: 5.37%.
5. Few examples / few problems / little participation: 4.78%.
6. Tedious / elaborate explanations: 4.78%.
7. Unfair evaluation / favoritism: 3.88%.
5.8. Final Tests
The final experimental stage of this research was the administration of a final evaluation test, the subjects being the same for both classes, experimental and control ones. Subsequently, the results recorded in this context were compared with those obtained from the initial assessment.
As far as the evaluation of the results is concerned, it was possible with the help of the notes, to set the total score for each item. The next step was to compare the results obtained by each class in terms of comparison charts and those that reveal the structure.
In the context of the final stage, the following general and specific competencies were considered:
General, social and civic competencies
1. Receiving the written message, from literary and non-literary texts, for various purposes;
2. The correct and appropriate use of the English grammar in the production of written messages, in different contexts of realization, with different purposes.
Specific targeted competencies
1.1 reading a variety of literary or non-literary texts, demonstrating the understanding of their meaning;
1.2. Recognizing the specific modalities of organizing the epic text and the expressive procedures in the lyrical text;
1.3. Knowing the correctness and expressive value of the learned grammar and lexical categories in a text;
2.1. Expressing in writing their own opinions and attitudes;
2.2. The correct and nuanced use of learned semantic categories;
2.3. Use varied modalities for expressing the text.
Table 5
The results obtained at the final test by the experimental sample
The results are distributed as following:
Average at the class level has the following form: (1×0+2×0+3×0+4×0+5×0+6×0+7×1+8×10+9×7+10×12):30= 9
Module (the most frequent note) is represented by the mark 10
Table 6
Nominal table with the marks obtained at the final test by the experimental class
Based on the graphs and tables representative for the results obtained by the experimental sample at the final test, it can be stated that the module was around the 10th mark, and in terms of the degree of advancement, this is an excellent one, 10 marks being recorded over the 8th mark. As well as in the case of the final test, a grouping of marks on a quite stretched beach is noted. In the same context, none of the marks 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 were recorded, and all pupils with mark 10 achieved the objectives that were initially proposed in the context of the didactic approach.
Table 7
Results obtained at the final test by the control sample
The results are distributed as following:
Average at the class level has the following form: (1×0+2×0+3×0+4×0+5×0+6×1+7×8+8×6+9×10+10×5):30= 8.33
Module (the most frequent note) is represented by the mark 9
Table 8
Nominal table with the marks obtained at the final test by the control class
Analyzing the results obtained at the final test by the control sample, there is a presence of 10 marks over the 9th one. In this context, the module is represented by mark 9, observing a grouping of marks on a large beach.
Also in the case of the control group, marks such as 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are missing, which means that the majority of the grade B pupils have fully achieved the objectives proposed during the didactic approach.
In this context, the main measures for optimizing the didactic approach at both levels are:
• Return with additional information
• To identify gaps in the context of the teaching-learning process in which pupils should be involved at maximum capacity
• Insist on solving the exercises similar to the ones received by the students at the final test
Observing the structural diagrams of the averages obtained at the level of the two samples in the context of the final test, it is noted that with respect to the experimental group, the average is higher compared to the control one.
OPTIMIZATION RECOMMENDATIONS:
Difficulties encountered in resolving the test require some remedial measures:
solving several exercises with the correct writing of the orthograms;
performing several morpho-syntactic analysis exercises;
making several sentences with verbs: predictive, copulative and auxiliary;
constant checking of the themes;
I have tried the items to be as varied as possible to cover as much knowledge as possible. Also, I realized as many items as possible. Thus, objective items, semi-objective items, short-response items and subjective ones of problem-solving appear in this final test. The first topics were accessible, while the last one is more complex. The results obtained by the 60 students at the final test, can be summarized as following, in percentage:
The highest percentage was situated at the value of 28.33% (the one of the marks 9 and 10), while at the opposite pole one may find the value of 0% recorded for marks 1, 2, 9 and 10. In this respect, one may consider the following:
• The arithmetic average obtained at the classes level is 8.67.
• The module (the highest frequent mark) is 9 and 10.
• The median is between marks 7 and 8, respectively 7.64.
Through this test, operational concepts were verified, such as: verbal, verbal types, adverb types, noun, adjective, conditional sentences. Students 'grammatical knowledge was also verified.
Thus, according the results of certain dissatisfaction, the teacher will take the following measures:
• she will develop tables with verbal time
• she will develop texts in order to improve students’ vocabulary
• she will develop exercises on different themes
• she will increase the hours when students can practice writing
• she will develop elaborate appropriate tests
The analysis and interpretation of the data and implicitly, of the obtained results suggests the presence of a positive trend aimed at improving the school results of the intermediate level students in favour of both experimental and control samples. Moreover, this trend can not be exclusively attributed to the psychic and physical development of pupils, which is why we can assert that the initial hypothesis is confirmed. Using the interactive methods and techniques, both individually, by group and frontal, is the following:
• children have the ability to learn new knowledge with ease;
• the students' confidence in their ability to decode and comprehend the content, both individually and at group level, is observed;
• students show an increasing desire to be involved in the learning process and show no signs of fatigue as they engage willingly, freely, consciously, learning logically and actively;
• children have acquired a tinted language and enriched by various teaching methods;
The data suggests that there is a positive trend in improving student outcomes in favour of the experimental sample, in terms of transforming the teacher-student relationship into a democratic one, aligned with modern standards. Thus, intermediate level students enjoy effective communication based on cooperation, mutual help, initiative and freedom, thanks to the factual methods used by the English teacher.
In this context, it can be said that the present study was a real challenge for me, in terms of an opportunity to study both the literature and the psycho-pedagogical type, to enrich and deepen my knowledge regarding interactive methods and phenomena characterized by complexity, but topical and vital for the future. In the case of the two samples studied in this research it was found that in the first experimental phase, the differences between the average are statistically relative, the balance inclining towards the control sample, but as the experimental intervention is unfolding, one may observe remarkable differences between environments, on this occasion favouring the experimental group. This is due to the fact that the dynamics of the school performance, which the experimental group follows, contributes to the decrease of the difference between the media to the inflection point, after which the difference between the averages in favour of the experimental sample follows an ascending trend.
The qualitative and quantitative comparative approaches between the two groups (experimental and control) reinforce the assertion that the ascending evolution of the school performance of the experimental sample is strongly influenced by the final experimental intervention.
QUESTIONNAIRE ADDRESSED TO TEACHERS
Positioning theory in the English class is an essential component of the educational process, along with teaching and learning and it provides information about their quality and functionality. The analysis of school performance offers the society a possibility to decide on education as a subsystem, to confirm or infirm an accumulation by people trained to the knowledge and necessary skills for socially useful activities.
Also, the administrative arrangements would be necessary to opt for a transitional measure of personnel gradual specialization in secondary education for working to secondary classes, context in which at least two or three years one should have the same generation teachers who teach. This time should be used for the training of several new teachers for this level.
The emphasis on capacity, attitudes related to socio-emotional development (to live and work together and with others, to manage emotions, respect diversity), the physical (motility fine and coarse, but also health and healthy eating) or attitudes and capabilities in learning (curiosity and interest, initiative, persistence in business, creativity), along with academic skills traditionally followed (in the field of cognitive development and language and communication) requires teachers to rethink the educational approach, the specific modalities organization of teaching and learning modalities and specific assessment at this level of schooling.
Are you used to make continuous positioning class tests that provide insight into the progress of student learning?
Always
Usually
Sometimes
Seldom
Never
2. In your opinion, are continuous positioning theory tests appropriate to the teaching-learning process?
Yes
No
The content of tests and examinations in the context of continuous assessment agrees with the subject’s and curriculum’s objectives:
100% of the time
90% of the time
70% of the time
50% of the time
Less than 50% of the time
How often do you use oral questions to explore concepts and processes in evaluating your students?
Very often
Often
Rare
Very rare
Never
How important are portfolios, folder or files with a collection of chronologically ordered student works and reflections for the evaluation process?
Extremely important
Important
Moderately important
Somewhat important
Not very important
What are the strategies regarding the assessment for learning in the context of positioning theory in the English class that you use?
examples and models of good and bad work;
I offer descriptive feedback to students regularly;
I teach the students to self-assess and set goals;
I engage students in self-reflection, in monitoring and sharing their learning, emphasizing self-assessment and coevaluation
Please tick the appropriate box:
During formative assessment processes you are used to:
Correct the activities and / or documents,
Report on how to improve
Report on how to correct errors
Other
In your opinion, regarding unplanned evaluation:
One can accumulate a lot of work at the end
There is no planned evaluation disproportion
It requires work / credits
It requires more effort
There are difficulties in the working group
In my class, portfolios are used for students to:
Document their progress.
Monitor their progress towards achieving goals.
Use feedback from their teacher to improve on their work
Attribute their success to their efforts.
Identify how they are being evaluated.
Evaluate their own work.
In my class, students generally:
Identify strategies for achieving their goals.
Set their own process goals
Evaluate their own work
Know how they are being evaluated
How often do each of the following activities happen throughout this school year?
What is your gender?
Male
Female
What is the highest level of formal education that you have completed?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
How long have you been working as a teacher?
This is my first year
1-2 years
3-5 years
6-10 years
More than 10 years
Age Group:
Under 25 years old
26-35 years old
36-55 years old
56-65 years old
over 65 years old
Thank you very much for your cooperation!
DATA INTERPRETATION
The variables of the present reseearch are represented by teachers’ gender, completed level of formal education, experience in teaching and age.
In order to apply the present questionnaire, there were interviewed 50 teachers of which 39 were female, while 11 were men.
44 respondents completed a master degree level of education, while 6 of them have only a Bachelor’s Degree. In this respect, one may consider that teachers should follow a didactic master's degree program, for example. Therefore, a master in pedagogy is an alignment to standards in the European Union, but also an opportunity for teachers to learn new aspects regarding children education.
The biggest part of the interviewed respondents have 3-5 years of professional experience in education, at the opposite pole being those teachers with more than 10 years of experience (4 answers). In modern school, education is meant to be one focused on the interactive model, which involves the relationship and mutual interaction of teaching-learning-assessment. If in the traditional school the most important element was the act of teaching and the main character was the teacher, the student is the main pawn, strengthening, correcting and modifying his cognitive experience of knowledge, to improve the teacher to serve as the cognitive-affective support motivational and attitude, thus achieving a balance between teaching and learning, an efficient and experienced professor aims to support him motivational- cognitive – affective – attitudinal, thus achieving a balance between teaching and learning.
Regarding teachers’ age, 20 of them are 26-35 years old and 18 ones are 36-55 years old. There are 4 teachers of over 65 years old and 2 under 25 years old. Therefore, a young workforce, with particular experience in the educational system, signifies that the Romanian educational system has great development opportunities. Of course, the older teachers must be appreciated at their fair value, because their long experience in this field marks and can make a difference relating to students’ performance. In this respect, irrespective of their age, teachers he should improve evaluation practice, alternating traditional assessment methods and tools (written, oral examination, practical tests) with the complementary (direct and systematic observation of the student, investigation, interview) and active ones (laboratory work, research projects, portfolio, case study, reflective diary, conceptual maps).
Usually, 25 teachers are used to make continuous positioning class tests that provide insight into the progress of student learning. Evaluation is essential to determine if students have the educational skills in order to create favorable premises of the study disciplines. The chance to achieve the purpose of the evaluation is even greater as teachers manage to encourage students to be receptive and to understand the importance of school evaluation, treating seriously proposed solving tasks, an opportunity to check their knowledge and to confront with new learning situations, that arouse motivation for knowledge and the ambition of resolving mentioned problems in a correct manner.
In 48 teachers’ opinion, positioning theory tests are appropriate to the teaching-learning process. The main purpose of positioning theory tests is formative for both teachers and students. Based on information obtained using current assessment, one may decide regarding the organization of the teaching process, attained by the pupil in a certain period of time. This information also helps teachers to track and identify scholar progress , but alsostudent's learning difficulties.
The content of tests and examinations in the context of continuous assessment agrees with the subject’s and curriculum’s objectives 90% of the time, as 28 respondents considered. In this respect, one mai consider that assessment is needed for improvement. Apart from tests and examinations, teachers should use alternative methods of assessment. The use of alternative assessment methods encourages the creation of a pleasant and relaxed learning environment.
Active learning extends beyond the classroom and all the interviewed teachers use oral questions to explore concepts and processes in evaluating students. When the English teacher asks questions in the classroom, he is modeling a process that pupils can and should use themselves. A good teacher should encourage his students to use the questioning strategies to assess what they have learned, to develop their thinking skills and to study.
The English teacher should use “closed” questions, or questions with a limited number of correct answers, to test students’ comprehension and retention of important information. The English teacher should also ask managerial questions to ensure, for example, that his students understand an assignment or have access to necessary materials.
Portfolios, folder or files with a collection of chronologically ordered student works and reflections for the evaluation process are extremely important, in respect with the opinion of 26 teachers. Students at all levels see assessment as something that is done to them by someone else-out of their control or circle of influence. Most often, they do not acknowledge knowing any evaluation criteria beyond the letter grade or percent correct recorded on their work. Portfolios, for example, can bridge this gap by providing a structure for involving students in developing and understanding criteria for good work and through the use of critical thinking and self-reflection, enable students to apply these criteria to their own work efforts and that of other students.
The strategies regarding the assessment for learning that teacher uses is mostly represented by teaching students to self-assess and set goals, while 28 of respondents offer a descriptive feedback to children regularly.
Please tick the appropriate box:
It is critical for a majority of respondents to provide information to properly perform evaluation activities.
20 respondets consider that identifing the knowledge and skills of students at the beginning of the English course or each unit is important.
37 teachers take somewhat into account activities and products as evidence for qualification and accreditation of the subject. In our country, Teaching English as a foreign language involves teaching children whose first or main language is not English.
76% of teachers consider the results of the evaluation (counseling, complementary works, information search, etc.) to make improvements in students’ learning.’
It is a very important aspect for most teachers to obtain qualifications within the prescribed period. In this respect, participation in professional training courses is recommended to teachers who want to improve their practical knowledge to be better suited to their job. Continuous training is subsequent to the initial training and helps teacher either already developing professional skills or acquire new ones.
It is crtical for 36 teachers to give students the opportunity to improve the results of the assessment of learning. Supporting systematic training of key competencies, the assessment process, as well as systematic and stimulated monitoring of academic process support quality education by developing innovative extracurricular non-formal interventions with a focus on developing students' personal skills through active involvement.
In this modern society, it is critical for a teacher to show opening for correcting errors of assessment and evaluation (42 answers). In this manner, one may reach a more objective assessment, acquired to be summative. Some activities’ objectives of teachers, in this situation, could be the following one:
verification of the main curricular goals
recapitulation, systematization and consolidation of the studied aspects;
improving learning outcomes;
establishing additional training program for students with very good results and a recovery program for students with poor results (these programs can be followed by students during holidays).
39 of teachers consider that giving impartial grades is important. One can make the following recommendations to improve the grading system:
replacing traditional notation with less rigid means;
introducing standardized grading criteria;
replacing one-man marking by scoring through collaboration;
using a scoring scale ;
introducing in teacher’s portfolio students’ individual progress which contain a large number of observations and oblige the teacher to pay more attention to the educational process and to the relationships with students to collaborate with their families and so on;
use of objective assessment methods;
capitalizing on a wider assessment and self-assessment using computer.
During formative assessment processes , most teachers are used to report students how to improve. The other part of respondents consider that reporting on how to correct errors (10 answers) and correcting activities and/ or documents (7 answers) are representative action.
As 36 teachers considered, unplanned evaluation requires more effort and there are difficulties in the working groups.
Usually, portfolios are used for students to use feedback from their teacher to monitor their progress towards achieving goals (23%), to evaluate their own work (23%), to improve on their work (20%), to document their progress (16%) or to identifiy how they are being evaluated (14%). Portfolio is not only an alternative method for assessing students. By materials they contain, portfolios may be illustrative for creating the image of a school or they can be used as a way to represent a group, a school. Portfolio is a representative example of the activity and performance of learners in course context. The school institution seeks to create such an image among students or parents prospectives, while the teacher, based on portfolios, show them samples of activities and actions performed by students in that school.
Portfolio can be considered both a complementary tool used for teacher training in the implementation of strategies centered on teamwork, developing projects on extensive research and learning. The portfolio is compatible with individualized instruction as a strategy centered on different learning styles. With a complexity and richness of the information portfolios provide, student-synthesizing activity over time (one semester or school year cycles), portfolio may be a part of a summative evaluation or review.
In general, students identify strategies for achieving their own goals (45 answers), set their own process goals (40 answers), know how they are being evaluated (37 answers) and evaluate their own work (220 answers). Thus, an integrated approach to learning and the use of alternative valuation methods stimulates the creation of a collaboration, trust and mutual respect between teacher and students and among students. The student does not feel "controlled", but supported. The teacher must be more an organizer of learning situations and a link between the student and society, mediating and facilitating access to information. Involving students in the teaching process must be carried out in all its sides: teaching-learning-assessment.
How often do each of the following activities happen throughout this school year?
Throughout this school year, the most represetative actions that happened were the following ones:
The teacher presents new topics to the class in almost every English lesson (38 answers)
The teacher reviews with the students their homework in almost every English lesson (41 answers)
The teacher gives different work to the students with learning difficulties and to those who can advance faster in about one-half of the English lesson (28 answers)
The teacher checks pupils’ exercise books in about one-half of the English lesson (29 answers)
Students evaluate and reflect upon their own work in almost every English lesson (32 answers)
Students work in groups based on their abilities in almost every English lesson (21 answers)
The teacher administers a test or quiz to assess student learning in about one-half of the English lesson (46 answers)
The teacher asks students to write an essay in which they are expected to explain their opinion regarding a certain subject in about one-half of the English lesson (19 answers) or in almost every English lesson (18 answers)
Students hold a debate for a particular point of view in almost every English lesson (22 answers)
By taking part in the process of assessment, students gain a deeper understanding of topics, the process of assessment and what they are doing in their own work. This helps to make them more aware of ‘what learning is’ and thus see their own learning in this way. Students could self- or peer- mark homework or assessments. This could be done in pairs or individually with a student-made or ‘official’ mark-scheme.
CONCLUSIONS OF THE PRESENT RESEARCH
The use of alternative or complementary assessment encourages a pleasant, relaxed climate of learning where students are evaluated in the usual environment of learning through tasks in order to: perform experiments, develop projects, realize portfolios, which are both tasks and training samples evaluation. It is important that students understand the evaluation criteria, evaluative process, to reflect on the performances, to explain and to find ways to progress. Students should not be evaluated in relation to each other, the purpose is not to rank them, but to see their evolution, progress, acquisitions.
Concerning the finding and exploiting new methods of evaluation in the context of positioning theory in the English class, especially for measuring those objectives of the affective domain, one may materialize them in the discovery and use of alternative or complementary methods of evaluation. These are effective methods in assessing attitudes and behaviors, but also the intellectual capacities and acquisitions, emphasizing the scale of the action aiming to provide students with sufficient evaluative and varied opportunities to demonstrate what they know, but more importantly, what they can do.
In modern schools, positioning theory in the English class is meant to be one focused on the interactive model, which involves the relationship and mutual interaction of teaching-learning-assessment. If in the traditional school the most important element was the act of teaching and the main character was the teacher, the student is the main pawn, strengthening, correcting and modifying his cognitive experience of knowledge, to improve the teacher to serve as the cognitive-affective support motivational and attitude, thus achieving a balance between teaching and learning, an efficient and experienced professor aims to support him motivational- cognitive – affective – attitudinal, thus achieving a balance between teaching and learning.
Also, the chance to achieve the purpose of the evaluation is even greater as teachers manage to encourage students to be receptive and to understand the importance of school evaluation, treating seriously proposed solving tasks, an opportunity to check their knowledge and to confront with new learning situations, that arouse motivation for knowledge and the ambition of resolving mentioned problems in a correct manner.
In school practice, improved positioning theory methods and techniques in order to achieve effective correlations between teaching-learning-assessment and achievement of the desires propose the forming of an autonomous, free and creative personality. Alternative valuation methods call on student creativity, divergent thinking, generalizations and teamwork, developing some intellectual capacities of an interdisciplinary character and so on.
Assessment should become relevant and the Enghlish teachers should:
– be based on systematic observation of the child's behavior, which provides the evaluator information about student’s capabilities for action and networking skills in the context of available abilities to directly and proving daily activities;
– Identify, during the educational process areas of vulnerability of its development strategies for the deficient or inadequate profile of each student;
– Provide nuanced and differentiated feedback according to the results of each student;
– Concern with assessing the child's progress in relation to himself and less than reporting to group norms;
– Observe and evaluate student in natural contexts as diverse in his natural environment: in the classroom, while playing outdoors during extracurricular activities, family, etc;
– Assess not only matters of affecting cognitive side, but also seek to build a global picture of the development level of the child's physical, cognitive and socio-emotional behaviour and analyze interconnected information obtained;
– Appreciate and identify the most productive ways of motivation, stimulation and attention spans and volunteer effort for each student;
– Do not label or place students in classes. The student should not feel frustrated, not must form a negative self image because in a particular area is not as good as others;
– Evaluation results comparing himself exclusively with child performances, successes and own failures, and this needs to instill and parents to explain why not it is correct and that has repercussions on the child's self image when one compares classroom colleges or with their other children;
– Appreciate children's developmental levels, strengths, skills to students adapt school type applications and areas of vulnerability and risk;
– consider supporting the educational process as a whole, the regulator intervening during its deployment, aiming to improve and build opportunities for success personalized;
– Leverage multiple and varied sources of information / observation on the profile development student in the preparatory class;
– Base guidance decisions on educational counseling;
– Supports the development of personalized plans for success;
– Build and consolidate an integrated vision on teaching / learning / assessment optimizing the educational process as a whole.
To assist the child in developing attributes such as resourcefulness, curiosity, persistence, commitment, reasoning, problem solving, responsibility, imagination and creativity, the teacher should guide the child's learning through actions that will encourage him to: invent, apply , adapt, imagine, persist, resist, compare, predict, fantasize, start, evaluate, adjust, perform, create, analyze, discriminate, design, meet, plan, generalize wonder, think, describe, deliberate, view, face, lead, conclude debate.
Other recommentations regarding effective students’s assessment are:
Teachers should put lesson objectives on the board at the beginning of the lesson.
Teachers should talk to students about why they are studying and what they are studying.
Teachers should contextualise short-term aims in long-term aims (e.g. analysing Shakespeare will contribute to a wider knowledge of the cultural canon and stronger analytical skills among other long term aims)
Teachers should check with students that they are clear about the aims of the lesson/unit/subject
Teachers should produce aims together with students
Methods and techniques related to positioning theory in the English class should be connected to our learning objectives. To properly assess student learning, you need to know what you want your class to accomplish: The content you wish to convey and the skills you want to nurture.
Methods and techniques related to positioning theory in the English class require an instructor to be highly specific about what outcomes to assess. He needs to spell out objectives that are clear and precise, and not vague or allusive.
The objectives need to be student-focused rather than instructor-focused.
Assessing student background and experience
Assessing student learning on key points
At a glance considerations for large lecture classes
Examples and worksheets
Breaking an English courts into interactive, self-directing groups is one strategy that can make even large classes more participatory. If the chairs are bolted to the floor in rows or if there is auditorium-style seating, students can still talk in pairs. Many teachers use intermittent small-group interaction to break up the course and to allow time to assess student learning on a more personal level. For example, some teachers stop their lecture several times during the class to ask students to compare and rework their class notes.
Another strategy is to write some questions on the overhead projector and then ask students to form pairs to discuss the question. You may ask some pairs to report to the entire class.
A second strategy for making large classes more interactive and, thus, facilitating the assessment process is to give formative, ungraded quizzes to determine how students are comprehending course material. Using the kinds of questions that students might see on final texts, the teacher should place questions on the overhead, and then give students a few minutes to respond. If the question entails multiple choices, break the question down into components that students can quickly answer. The preview of students’ answers can help the teacher to determine student understanding of course content and show students problem areas that warrant further study.
A third strategy for making large English classes more interactive, and creating more opportunity for assessment, is to build in tasks that ensure students come prepared to a lab or discussion section. Time can be taken during lecture to ask students to complete a few questions, talk with a neighbor, or sketch out a lab procedure to prepare them for the lab or discussion to come. Another device for interactive learning in a large class is for the lab instructor or discussion leader to collect a “ticket” from each student before the student is allowed into class.
The “ticket” might be a short statement of basic principles the student should have learned from the reading or in the lecture, thus showing the instructor that the student is prepared. In practice, many of the assessment techniques discussed in this chapter can be used for English lessons.
CONCLUSIONS
What is observed in the classroom seems to be in direct contrast to what has been found in literature. When contrasting with the characteristics of effective teaching, good teaching and what it means to be an effective teacher, the authors mentioned in the corresponding sections affirm that learning can be achieved when the recommended actions are taken. However, it should be noted that of the six teachers that were observed, two obtained high grades in their performance as effective teachers, one was in the middle and three more qualified as teachers away from the practices considered "effective" or "good". " Then, in view of the fact that both for an effective teacher and for another one qualified as traditional, the results of their students do not differ in a significant way -, the failure rates of the students of one teacher and another are not very different-, the study shows that in our context the "good teachers" obtain the same results as the traditional ones.
The present research deals with a current issue, framed in the new orientations of contemporary pedagogy, aiming in particular at replacing the grading methodologies and differentiating ones that support the individualization and the personalization of the educational process, offering equal opportunities to all students regardless of their level, thus promoting various methods with a high training potential that can lead to the optimization of the action taken by the students in the context of their own learning.
The experimental investigation supports the intention to verify the extent to which the use of interactive teaching methods and of the modern educational means in the teaching of English grammar has a particular influence on the achievement of the students' superior performances in terms of the positive impact these methods especially in the field of effective and conscious learning, but also as regards the intention to identify the limits of the use of these methods.
The approach taken in the present research presents clarifying and argumentative aspects, supporting the idea that the interactive methods promoted systematically and with pedagogical relevance in didactic activity have positive effects on school performance.
Appreciating the results obtained from the investigative approach, it can be confirmed that the teaching of English grammar to intermediate level students using modern educational means and interactive methods has significant positive effects, both in the formative segment and in the information plan.
The design and development of the pedagogical experiment was carried out from the perspective of optimizing the teaching and learning process of the English grammar at the intermediate level, the exigency of the systematic use of interactive methods regarding the formation and the development of the fundamental competences, in the dynamics of school performance segment. The pedagogical intervention was performed in the context of the English didactic activities at the level of the A and B grades. The two samples (experimental and control) were selected according to the methodology of pedagogical research while respecting the compatibility with the various requirements imposed by the objectives and the hypothesis of the formative experiment.
With regard to the content sample, its delimitation was possible by the potential of capitalizing on the formative valences that modern and interactive didactic methods have, appreciating also the extent to which the content contributes to the learning and development of the understanding, using the concepts and specific terms of the discipline of study, exploration and investigation capacity of reality. Thus, the content sample covers a significant part of the English contents.
The formative experiment was the fundamental stage of this pedagogical research, at which level the didactic activities did take place at the intermediate level, according to the intervention project. The processing and interpretation of experimental data, referring to specific hypotheses, makes it easier to outline future conclusions.
Using interactive methods makes it possible to create a logical and natural chain between old and new knowledge; didactic units are not separate sequences, but they are inter-conditioned in a training situation, contributing to an optimal understanding of them, as they capitalize and activate the previous knowledge of students.
As expected, conducting this experimental research has given me the opportunity to see new perspectives, address other possible themes or subtopics, set new objectives and, implicitly, distinct working hypotheses, use innovative assessment tools and advanced data analysis techniques. In the same context, the process of collecting and analyzing data has given me the opportunity to know the various limits of research.
To conclude, given that teaching styles do not influence the results of exams applied to students, it is necessary to investigate the other actor in the teaching-learning process: the student. In general, in the observed groups it can be seen that the students do not have study habits; this is evident in that, if they are not required, they do not work and in the poor delivery of assigned tasks, in addition to the students reacting according to the demands of the teacher and with the time they dedicate to them; for example, in the revision of tasks, when questioning them in class or inviting them to participate.
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ANNEXES
Annex 1
QUESTIONNAIRE APPLIED TO STUDENTS
1. Regarding your relation with your English teacher, what I like and value the most is/ are……………..
2. What bothers and disgusts me most about my English teacher is ………………………….
3. Do you think that, despite of your performance throughout the semester, the English teacher will eventually give you a passing grade?
Yes
No
4. Do you believe that teachers have a certain obligation to approve the largest number of students each semester, regardless of their performance?
Yes
No
5. Do you consider that your colleagues who always get good grades – sometimes known as nerds – are a kind of „rare diamonds”?
Yes
No
6. Do you worry a lot about failing any subject per semester? In any case. write down the causes:
7. Do you think that departmental exams serve to know the reality of students?
Yes
No
8. Do you think your English teacher is fair regarding her manner of evaluation?
Yes
No
9. If you answered NO to the previous question, how would you like to be evaluated by your English teacher?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Annex 2
QUESTIONNAIRE ADDRESSED TO TEACHERS
Dear colleagues, I want to thank you for your collaboration in this survey to know your point of view about the remaining points of the exams for the final qualification of the students. The survey has a purely statistical purpose and the results will be used to launch a proposal of change to the processes of teacher evaluation.
1. In the first day in classroom, do you use to inform your students about the points, as part of their final evaluation?
Yes
No
2. Do you consider the 60-40 ratio adequate for the final qualification of your subject?
Yes
No
If not, what do you propose?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Below you will find a list of possible actions that the student would have to perform to get the remaining points of the exams; I would like you to assign the score to those taken into account.
4. It is possible that none of this you would like to take into account. Then, at the end of the semester, do you grant the points to your students regardless of the work they do?
Yes
No
5. As a result of not obtaining 80% of approval, were you able to get the teaching performance chart?
Yes
No
6. In case of affirmative answer to the previous question, do you feel pressured and consequently grant all the points- or a very close amount- at the end of the semester?
Yes
No
7. Do you consider that obtaining high approval ratings is an adequate parameter for evaluating teacher performance?
Yes
No
Thank you for your attention!
Annex 3
Initial test
Read about Paul and his family. Write the correct form of the verb shown in brackets in the space provided.
Example: Paul ………………………….. (live) in a small village in the south of England.
He ……………………………….. (have) an older brother and two sisters. His brother is at
university in Scotland, but his two sisters still ………………………………… (live) at home.
Paul’s mother is a journalist for the local newspaper but she ………………………………..
(not work) at the moment. Paul’s father………………………………… (teach) French in a
college and so he…………………………….. (go) to France quite often with his students.
Last year the whole family………………………. (go) to Paris and ……………………………
(see) The Eiffel Tower. Where are they going this year? They …………………………….
(fly) to America but Paul ……………………………………….(not want) to go because he
……………………………………. (not like) flying!
2. Use the information below to help you fill in the missing words
Example: What time is The Clothes Show on?
It’s on at ten o’clock.
1. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,times is the news on?
Four times.
2. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,does the morning movie start?
Ten o’clock.
3.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, is on Channel Three at eleven o’clock.
Looking after your Pets.
4. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,channel has Football at eleven o’clock?
Channel Two.
5. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,of programme is Mib and Mob?
It’s a children’s programme.
3. ”Write a letter to a penfriend who has never visited Romania and invite him to come to your country. Give him/her some information about the country. (100-120 words)”
FINAL TESTS
1. Copy this letter into the space below and using the correct capitals letters.
There should be five capital letters.
wednesday 5th september
dear barry,
thanks for inviting me to stay with you and your family in july. i want to come but i am doing my english exams and my teacher wants me to do well! can we see each other next week?
Chris.
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Use the chart to fill in the missing words in the conversation below.
JANET
SARAH
Sarah can come for tea tomorrow. Does she like fish?
No. She doesn’t like fish and I ……………………………. fish either!
Then you can have curry. You both like curry, don’t you?
Sarah ……………………………………… curry but I ………………………… curry very much.
Okay. You can have some onion soup.
Oh no! I ………………………….. soup and Sarah …………………………….onions!
Do you want to make something?
I …………………………. a pizza. Sarah …………………………… pizza, but she ……………………………. cakes. She made some great cakes at school!
Good. You can have some chips and salad with your pizza.
Great, we both ……………………………………..chips and we both …………………………………….. salad too.
3. Look at the picture below and write as much as you can about it on the lines below.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
4. You recently went on a holiday. A friend of yours has written to you expressing an interest in the place you visited and asking you what it was like there. Write an email to your friend, telling him/her about the positive and negative aspects of the place, suggesting him/her (not) to go there next year.
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