Phenomenon of MassStatelessnessin Latvia [627017]

The long-term
Phenomenon of MassStatelessnessin Latvia
Riga, 2008

The long-term
Phenomenon of MassStatelessnessin Latvia

Main Contributors
© Vladimirs Buzajevs
© Aleksejs Dimitrovs
© Tatjana Ždanoka
Photographs: Aleksandrs Šamrovs,
Tatjana Strahova, Vit ālijs Drobots, Aleksandrs Liv čaks
Design and layout: Vit ālijs Drobots
Published: “Averti-R” ltd., Riga, 2008
Citizens of a Non-Existent State
© Latvian Human Rights Committee, 2008

Latvian Non-Citizens
– Who are they?
Latvian non-citizens can be regarded neither as citizens,
nor as aliens and stateless persons but as persons
with ”a speci fi c legal status”.
Constitutional Court of Latvia, judgment of 7 March 2005
Non-citizens permanently residing in one of the “old” EU Member States are mostly
foreigners, i.e. people having nationality of another country. Their political rights in the country of residence may be different. Nevertheless, being nationals of a particular foreign country they enjoy the full scope of political rights of citizens of that country. They also have the right to freely return to the state of which they are nationals. On the other hand, the state of residence retains the right to deprive them of per-manent residence under certain circumstances.
Non-citizens of Latvia have the right to freely return only to Latvia! No foreign country
grants them this right. Moreover, they are under the legal protection of the Latvian state
and have the right not to be expelled from Latvia. The only political right they enjoy is the right to be a member of a political party in Latvia.
There are about 400,000 non-citizens of Latvia forming 17% of the whole population.
They account for 40% of the ethnic minority population of Latvia.
How did the non-citizens of Latvia come to be?All adult bearers of the status “non-citizen of Latvia” were permanent residents of the
country during the early nineties. In 13 out of 15 former USSR Republics (Lithuania among them), registration of residence served as a suf fi cient basis to automatically
receive citizenship of the independent state – via the so-called “zero option”. But it was not the case in Latvia and Estonia.
In the late eighties the leaders
of Latvia’s independence move-ment promised citizenship to every permanent resident who wished to be a Latvian citizen (para. 2.4. of the pre-election program of the “Popular Front”, adopted in October, 1989). Many persons belonging to ethnic mi-norities believed this promise and voted in favour of an inde-pendent democratic Latvia at the referendum in 1991. However, these people were deceived.
On 15 October 1991, a month
after the recognition of Latviaby most of the UN Member States, on the same day that the Chairman of the Supreme Council of Latvia signed the 1975 Helsinki Act, the Supreme
3The long-term Phenomenon of Mass Statelessness in Latvia
Photo, page 3: Public demonstration in Riga against mass statelessness on 1 May 2004, i.e. on the day
Latvia joined the EU

Council adopted the resolution entitled “On the Renewal of the Republic of Latvia Citizens”
Rights and Fundamental Principles of Naturalisation”. By this act, citizenship of Latvia was grant-
ed only to those residents who were citizens up to 17 June 1940 as well as their descendants.
One third of the population of Latvia were deprived of all political rights in spite of possess-
ing these rights at the time of the previous elections. This is a unique case in parliamentary history: a parliament deprived its own voters of citizenship and, thus, voting rights.
The status of those residents who were not granted citizenship of Latvia after the adoption
of the resolution mentioned above was not certain for a long time.
In June 1992 the Law “On Entry into and Residence in the Republic of Latvia of Aliens and
Stateless Persons”, regulating the procedure for acquiring residence permits by its subjects was adopted by the Supreme Council. Only skilful work by MPs from the opposition group “For Equal Rights” stopped attempts to make all residents not granted Latvian citizenship subject to this law. The Supreme Council announced that the status of those who prior to this law taking effect (namely, 1 July 1992) would have acquired permanent registration of residence would be subject to a special law.
The law in question entitled “On the Status of Former USSR Citizens, Who are not Citizens
of Latvia or Any Other State” was adopted on 25 April 1995. Subjects of this law called “non-citizens of Latvia” were issued special Latvian non-citizen’s/alien’s passports.
What kind of legal status do non-citizens of Latvia have?The Constitutional Court of Latvia in its judgment of 7 March 2005 declared: “After passing
the Non-Citizen Law a new, and hitherto unknown category of persons appeared – Latvian
non-citizens. Latvian non-citizens cannot be compared with any other status of a physical entity, determined in international legal acts, as the rights, established for non-citizens, do not comply with any other status. Latvian non-citizens can be regarded neither as citizens, nor as aliens or stateless persons but as persons with ”a speci fi c legal status”.
4Citizens of a Non-Existent State
The bearer of this passport is under the protection of
the Republic of Latvia. The Government of the Republic
of Latvia requests all those whom it may concern
to allow the bearer to pass freely without let or hindrance
and to afford such assistance and protection
as may be necessary.
This passport is valid for travel to all countries.
The bearer of this passport is entitled to depart and
enter the Republic of Latvia.

What does “a speci fi c legal status” mean?
The Constitutional Court of Latvia in its abovementioned judgment asserts: “The status of
a non-citizen is not and cannot be regarded as a variety of Latvian citizenship”.
On the other hand, the Constitutional
Court declares “However, the rights
and international liabilities, determined for non-citizens testify that the legal ties of non-citizens with Latvia are to a certain extent recognised and mutual obligations and rights have been cre-ated on the basis of the above. It fol-lows from Article 98 of the Satversme (Constitution of Latvia), which inter alia establishes that everyone having a Latvian passport shall be protected by the State and has the right to freely return to Latvia”.
But are protection by the State and
the right to freely return to this state not essential characteristics of nation-als? It is evident that judges of the Constitutional Court had to ask them-selves this logical question. And they did give an answer in their judgment: “the fact, whether the Latvian non-citizens can be regarded as nationals in the understanding of international law is not only a juridical but mainly a political issue, which shall be reviewed within the framework of the demo-cratic political process of the state”.
What is the politics behind the creation of “non-citizens of Latvia”?
The authors of the book “The Last Prisoners of the Cold War. The Stateless People of
Latvia in their own W
ords” (Riga, 2006), three of whom are also the main contribu-
tors to the present edition, gave the following answer to this question: “Twenty years have passed since the end of the Cold War. Fifteen years have passed since the USSR dissolved giving rise either to new or restored independent states… But still the dis-cussion continues on who personally is guilty for the policy of communist governments and how they should be punished… Some nations found a local solution. The most radical of them was invented in the Baltic countries of Latvia and Estonia – the states punished their local Russian-speaking minorities… After sixteen years of indepen-dence, after Latvia joined the EU and NATO it is still holding 400,000 Cold War prison-ers “liberating” them slowly and reluctantly”.
Some theoretical background for the concept of turning those Latvian residents who
had arriv
ed during Soviet times into second class people can be found in the thinking
behind the restoration of the pre-war Latvian Republic. Though de facto non-existent,
the state is presented as if in de jure existence during this period, and now it makes
retrospective claims regarding those generations of people who have lived on its ter-ritory for 60 years. It does so whilst ignoring the logic that these people found them-selves de facto living in the Soviet Union rather than in a Latvian state which was not
able to have supplied them with entrance visas and residents permits.
5The long-term Phenomenon of Mass Statelessness in Latvia
Photo, page 4: Non-citizen’s/alien’s passport
Photo, page 5: “Last prisoners of the Cold War” are taking part in demonstration in Riga, in front of the Freedom Monument on 4 May 2005, i.e. on the day of the 15th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence of Latvia
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6Citizens of a Non-Existent State
Inventors of the “speci fi c” status of non-citizens established in the title of the Law regu-
lating their status make use of the odd notion of “phantom” citizenship of a non-existent
state – the USSR. By stating that non-citizens are not stateless persons they aimed to help Latvia evade ful fi lment of a number of international obligations, in particular, under the UN
Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness (1961) as well as under the European Con-vention on Nationality (1997). But in reality they have created nothing more than the entity of second-class citizens of the country .
It is clear that the rights of persons to be protected by the state and to freely return to Latvia which non-citizens enjoy by Law are essential characteristics of citizens. On the other hand, Latvian non-citizens do not have the right to participate either in national or local elections. Restrictions relating to more than sixty professions are still in force for Latvian non-citizens. Even when some of these restrictions are abolished, new ones ap-pear, and the total has remained almost the same for past 12 years (see “Differences be-tween rights of Latvian citizens and non-citizens” in Appendix 1 and “List of some bilateral and international agreements discriminating against non-citizens” in Appendix 2).
The problem of mass statelessness will remain an issue even in 2040, since the number of
non-citizens will even by that date only have halved, if the status quo persists: the dynamics of changes in the numbers of non-citizens can be found in the article by Vladimirs Buzajevs below.
Moreover, tens of thousands of non-citizens are deprived of the right to be naturalised.
Citizenship Law adopted on 22 July 1994 excludes a large number of residents of Latvia from acquiring Latvian citizenship. According to Article 11 of the Law, citizenship of Latvia shall not be granted to persons who:1) through the use of anti-constitutional methods opposed the Republic of Latvia’s inde-pendence, its democratic parliamentary state system or the existing state authority in Latvia, if this has been established by a court decree;2) after 4 May 1990, have propagated fascist, chauvinist, national-socialist, communist or other totalitarian ideas or have stirred up ethnic or racial hatred or discord, if this has been established by a court decree;3) are of fi cials of institutions of a foreign state authority, foreign state administrative body
or foreign state law enforcement body;4) serve in the armed forces, internal forces, security service or the police (militia) of a foreign state;5) after 17 June 1940, have chosen the Republic of Latvia as their place of residence directly after demobilisation from the USSR (Russian) Armed Forces or USSR (Russian) Interior Armed Forces and who, on the day of their conscription or enlistment, were not
permanently residing in Latvia;6) have been employees, in-formants, agents or have been in charge of conspiratory premises of the former USSR (LSSR) KGB or other foreign security service, intelligence service or other special service, if such a fact has been estab-lished according to the proce-dures established by law;7) have been convicted in Latvia or another state to imprison-ment for a term exceeding one year for an intentional crime which was considered as a crime in Latvia at the moment this Law comes into force;8) after 13 January 1991, have acted against the Republic of Latvia through participation in the Communist Party of the
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Soviet Union (Latvian Communist Party), Working Peoples’ International Front of the
Latvian SSR, United Council of Labour Collectives, Organisation of War and Labour Veterans, or the All-Latvia Salvation Committee and its regional committees.
It has to be pointed out that the organisations mentioned in para. 8 had hundreds of
thousands of members and acted legally in Latvia prior to September 1991 when, having been prohibited, they stopped their activities.
How can the problem of mass statelessness in Latvia be resolved?A number of international recommendations concerning non-citizens in Latvia, including
one to grant them rights to participate in local elections have been completely ignored
(the full list of recommendations compiled by Aleksejs Dimitrovs is included into this edition).
The latest attempt to amend the law on local elections in order to grant non-citizens the right
to participate in local elections on 6 March 2008 by the parliamentary group “ For Human
Rights in a United Latvia” was also unsuccessful as were a number of previous attempts.
For how long will the international community close its eyes to such complete rejection
of such proposals?
Time is running out for the non-citizens of Latvia.
In Latvia our appeals have fallen on deaf ears – the clock is ticking but Latvia’s political masters prefer to keep their heads buried in the sand. Such an ap-proach is unsustainable and is not in keeping with a modern Latvia’s duty and responsibility as a mem-ber of the European Union.
Tatjana Ždanoka MEP
7The long-term Phenomenon of Mass Statelessness in Latvia
Photo, page 6: Demonstrators in front of the Parliament of Latvia on 15 October 2003, i.e. on the day of the
12th anniversary of the adoption of resolution dividing population of Latvia into citizens and non-citizens, are
bearing poster with the slogan: “For How Long!?”

8Citizens of a Non-Existent State
The non-citizens of Latvia form that section of the permanent population of the country,
who are excluded from the community of Latvian citizens, as outlined in the resolution “On the Renewal of the Republic of Latvia Citizens” Rights and Fundamental Principles of Naturalization”, adopted by the Supreme Council of the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic on October 15, 1991, and, later on, in the Citizenship Law, which was adopted by Latvia’s Saeima on July 22, 1994. Under these legislative acts only people who were citizens of the LR on the 17 June 1940 and their descendents were admitted to this community. The legal status of stateless persons is determined by the law “On the Status of Former USSR Citizens who are not Citizens of Latvia or Any Other State” of the 12 April 1995.
The division of the population into citizens and non-citizens, which had been a fundamental
part of the state’s formation of the Republic of Latvia proclaimed on the 4 May 1990, was formally aimed at reviving some sort of a community of citizens of the Republic of Latvia, proclaimed on the 18 November 1918. This does not appear to have been done on ethnic grounds but the fi nal result is such that the granting of citizenship to the representatives of
the ethnic minorities has been selective.
Let’s take one of the of fi cial grounds for the chosen criterion: “One has fi rst of all to
take into consideration that the above matter cannot be regarded as isolated from the
complicated ethno-demographic situation, which was created as the result of the Soviet occupation… During the occupation of Latvia the USSR purposefully committed genocide against the nation of Latvia… As a result, the number of Latvians decreased but that of aliens, especially Russians, Byelorussians and Ukrainians materially increased.” (from the
judgment of the Constitutional Court of Latvia, of the 13 May 2005).
No convincing evidence has been found, however, of the “genocide against the Latvian
nation by the USSR”.
Let’s take an historical excursion into the ethno-democratic background of Latvia
over the past 110 years.
Diagram 1 shows that in the period of the purported “geno-cide against the Lat-vian nation by the USSR” a constant growth in the ethic Latvian population can be observed, re-placed by a similarly constant fall during the period of the in-dependent country since 1990.
The periods of rapid
population growth at the time of the Rus-sian Empire and the USSR can be ex-plained in full by the corresponding indus-The Long-term Phenomenon
of Mass Statelessness in Latvia
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1 2501 3541 467
1 2981 340 1 3421 394 1 365 1 348
6171 000
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1 9001 8451 905 1 8862 0942 354 2 3542 681
2 458
2 285
05001 0001 5002 0002 5003 000
1897 1907 1917 1927 1937 1947 1957 1967 1977 1987 1997 2007Ethnic Latvians Ethnic Minorities Total Population
Diagram 1-The Ethno-demographic Background of Latvia1897 1917 1927 1907 1937 1947 1957 1967 1977 1987 1997 2007Ethnic Latvians Ethnic Minorities Total Population
0Thousands Persons
5001 0001 5002 0003 000
2 500
1 9292 350
1 900
1 8451 905 1 8862 0942 3542 3542 681
2 458
2 285
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1 2981 340 1 3421 3941 365 1 348
9371 0931 287
1 145
1 012
796
6171 000
650
491 438

9The long-term Phenomenon of Mass Statelessness in Latvia
trial development of the region and the migration from other territories with high birth-
rates, which were part of a uni fi ed state.
According to the 1989 census of the population of the USSR, the population of Latvia in-creased by 6% over the previous 10 years, while the population of the USSR as a whole grew by 9%. The population of Riga grew by 10% during this period, and this was the smallest index among all the capitals of the union republics (now sovereign states). On average during this period the population of those cities of the USSR with between 500,000 and one million inhabitants increased by 18%. Thus in this period, there was no deliberate change in the ethno-demographic situation but, on the contrary, a deliberate restraining of the natural demographic pressure.
Statistical Data of the Initial Registration of Non-CitizensThe initial census in the newly created Population Register was chosen as an instrument for
implementing the Resolution of the Supreme Council “On the Renewal of the Republic of Latvia Citizens” Rights and Fundamental Principles of Naturalization” which provided for the division of the population into its citizens and simply “permanent inhabitants”. On the 11 December 1991 the law “On the Register of Population” was passed, which provided for the inclusion (Art. 11) in the Register of “people born on the territory of the Latvian Republic or having entered Latvia, [with the exception of] foreigners specially protected by interna-tional law”. Paragraph 2 of the Resolution, concerning the implementation of this outwardly democratic law, states that Art. 11 of the law “will not apply to active servicemen of the armed forces of the USSR temporarily stationed on the territory of the LR, and persons registered as residents on … military bases”.
The Citizenship and Immigration Department of Latvia (CIDL), set up to enforce the law
“On the P
opulation Register”, at this point embarked on creative interpretations of the terms
“active serviceman”, “military base” and “permanent registration”. The concept of “active
servicemen” included all retired of fi cers together with their families. The term “registered as
resident on a military base” would be understood to mean registered in ordinary homes built at some time by the Baltic Military District and remaining on their books. And residence in hostels was not considered to be permanent.
All persons who were subjected to these arti fi cially (and illegally) enforced restrictions re-
ceived in their Soviet passport a round stamp with the number of the registration division of
the CIDL that they had visited, instead of the square stamp of the Population Register, with
a personal number
. They were known colloquially as “roundstamps” for short.
The total results of this initial census, for which the 31 March 1993 was set as a deadline for completion, are shown in Table 1.
The Latvian Human Rights Com-
mittee estimates that the num-ber of people refused registra-tion under the pretext that they were residing in homes built by the Baltic Military District amounted to 57 thousand, and under the pretext of their re-siding in hostels – 72 thousand people. Following a series of protest actions as well as a legal advice campaign organized by the Latvian Human Rights Committee aimed at explaining to residents of Latvia their rights to inclusion in the Population Register, and mass law suits brought against the CIDL for unlawful actions, the heads of the department announced their decision in May 1994 to register residents of the homes built by the Baltic Military District and also of hostels.
The data of the Population Register as of October 1993 (having been subjected to mass
falsifi cation in terms of lowering the duration of residence and even of fi xing facts of births
in Latvia) bear witness to the fact that 214,387 (or 32%) of all non-citizens entered in the
estactionsaswellasalegaladvicecampaignorganizedTotal Popupation Citizens Registered Non-Citizens “Roundstamps”
Latvia 2,606,176 1,729,740 714,980 161,456
Riga 874,172 431,991 352,973 89,208
Latvia 62.9* 27.4* 6.2*
Riga 49.4* 40.4* 10.2*Table 1
The Register of Inhabitants – Data as at the 9 August 1993
* – in percentage of population

10Citizens of a Non-Existent State
Population Register were born in Latvia. From as recently as 1993 a further 12,716 children
were born in Latvia, who, according to the Register’s data as of the 1 January 2008, were counted as non-citizens.
According to the fi gures of the Population Register, in October 1993 the mother and father
of 1,171,743 inhabitants were citizens of the LR. In law, however, for a person to be consid-
ered a citizen of Latvia, it is suf fi cient for one parent to have been a citizen of the LR on the
17 June 1940 or a descendent of such a person. Over the 50 post-war years in Latvia a con-siderable number of mixed families have appeared. In October 1993, there were 395,928 inhabitants with only one parent who was a citizen of the LR. Among all the descendants of non-citizens the proportion of those who were granted citizenship from one of the parent-citizens amounted in 1993 in Latvia to a total of 32.5%.
It is interesting to note that if Latvia were to adopt the model of the Athenian slave-
state (whereby only a child whose both parents are citizens can be considered a citizen
himself
), then in 1993 there would be 1,217,593 non-citizens in Latvia, i.e. 4% more
than citizens.
Among non-citizens born outside Latvia, the qualifying period for residence has been
broken down as follows:
In 1993, i.e. 14 years ago, the average qualifying period for residence in the country for a non-citizens born outside Latvia was 26.4 years.
The largest number of non-citizens born
in Latvia – 6,749 – was in 1983. They started their studies at school in the year
of the Declaration of Independence, and completed them in 2002. In 2007 there remained in Latvia 4,004 non-citizens who were born in 1983.
In 1993 there were 1,655 non-citizens living in Latvia, having entered the country prior to
1940, and a further 955 who were born in Latvia before that date, including 113 who had entered and 192 who had been born prior to 1918.
In 1993 there were registered a further 5,232 non-citizens, having entered the country dur-
ing the period between 1941 and 1944. The overwhelming majority of these were inhabit-ants of the neighbouring regions of Byelorussia and the Russian Federation, having been forcefully re-settled here by the Nazi regime.
The Dynamics of Changes in the Numbers of Non-CitizensAfter 1993, when the initial census was completed, the appearance of new non-citizens, by
stint of their very status, could only be possible on account of the “roundstamps”, who had proved that they might have the status of non-citizen from the start, and also on account of newborns, who had been registered as non-citizens. The number of children remaining with the status if non-citizen between 1993 and 2008 is approximately 14,000.
On the other hand, over the period from 1993 to 1996, i.e. up until the start of the proce-
dure for naturalization, as set down in the Citizenship Law, the number of non-citizens could only be reduced through emigration and death.
According to fi gures of the 1993 and 1996 Registers, the number of non-citizens has de-
creased by 154,000 people. This represented 82% of the total reduction in the population
over this period, even though the proportion of non-citizens and “roundstamps” in the population amounted to 33%.
According to the fi gures of the 1996 and 2008 Registers, the number of non-citizens was re-
duced by 349,000 people. Of them, 143,000 became citizens of Latvia: 127,786 people un-
In
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stQualifying period (years) >10 >15 >20 >25 >30 >35 >40
Proportion (%) 91.5 80.0 69.4 56.7 45.0 33.1 20.9Table 2
Qualifying Period for Residence in Latvia for Non-Citizens born out-
side the Country
(Data as of October 1993)

11The long-term Phenomenon of Mass Statelessness in Latvia
derwent the naturalization procedure together with their children, 7,089 children acquired
citizenship separately from the parents, 8,027 people became citizens by registration. In addition, on the 1 January 2008, 46,000 foreigners were permanently resident in Latvia, the overwhelming majority of whom were the erstwhile “roundstamps” or non-citizens. Over the same period approximately 9,000 children were born, having been registered with the status of non-citizen.
Thus, over the period from 1996 to 2008:349+9-143-46=169,000 people (48% of the total reduction in non-citizens) left for rea-
sons that had nothing to do with the change in their legal status. Let us note here that the country’s population had decreased over this period by 229,000, i.e. the decrease in the numbers of non-citizens for reasons other than a change in their status represented 74% of the reduction of the country’s population.
The rate of the reduction in the numbers of non-citizens is re fl ected in the following graph
(Diagram 2):From 1993 up until
2008 the number of non-citizens was reduced 2.35 times, their proportion of the country’s popu-lation decreased from 34% to 16%, whereas the propor-tion amongst eth-nic minorities was reduced from 70% to 40% (or 45% in-cluding foreigners).
The absolute and
relative numbers of non-citizens be-longing to the main ethnic groups, as at August 1993, January 2000 and January 2007, are shown in table 3:
Ethnicity Total No. of Non-CitizensEthnicity
of Non-Citizens
as a percentagePercentage
of Non-Citizens
in the Ethnicity
1993 2000 2007 1993 2000 2007 1993 2000 2007
Russians 505,486 393,190 259,651 64.24 66.84 66.10 60.9 55.61 40.16
Byelorussians 81,919 74,111 52,382 12.06 12.60 13.33 79.9 75.63 61.31
Ukrainians 70,555 54,705 37,171 8.62 9.30 9.46 93.7 85.54 64.32
Lithuanians 259,918 17,087 10,933 3.81 2.90 2.78 79.5 50.87 35.23
Poles 21,581 20,114 13,369 3.53 3.42 3.40 38.4 33.49 24.38
Latvians 21,745 4,712 1,851 3.20 0.80 0.47 1.57 0.34 0.14Total within
the population876,436 588,225 392,816 33.6 24.6 17.20Table 3The Ethnicities of the Non-Citizens
392816
372421418440
452033 481352 504227
523095
551064 588225 619971646882735000820000876436
722167
682965
01000002000003000004000005000006000007000008000009000001000000
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 20081 000 000
900 000
2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993800 000
700 000
500 000600 000
200 000300 000400 000
0100 000876 436
820 000
735 000722 167
682 956
646 882
619 971
588 225
551 064523 095504 227481 352
452 033
418 440
392 816
372 421
Diagram 2. The Reduction in the Number of Latvian Non-citizens

12Citizens of a Non-Existent State
It is clear from the table that the number of non-citizens amongst the ethnic Russians
decreased 1.95 times, the proportion of non-citizens within that ethnicity falling from 61% to 40%. The corresponding figures for Byelorussians, Ukrainians, Lithuanians and Poles are respectively: 1.6, 80% and 61%; 1.9, 94% and 64%; 2.4, 79% and 25%; 1.6, 38% and 24%. It should also be taken into account that the table shows a lowered (by approximately 20%) absolute number of stateless persons for each ethnic group in 1993, as the data of the Population Register does not include “round-stamps” (see Table 1).
Incidentally, more reliable data of the Population Register in 2000 show that if in
2000 non-citizens were pre-dominant in the 4 largest of the 5 groups of ethnic mi-norities, then by 2007 there remained only two of these groups: the Ukrainians and the Byelorussians.
The change in the distribution of non-citizens by age groups (1993 and 2007) is
shown in table 4.
The change in the numbers of non-citizens in the six
largest towns of Latvia and in the country as a whole over the last years is given in table 5.
As can be seen from table 5, over the last 7 years amongst ethnic minorities residing in Daugavpils, citizens of the LR continue to dominate; in the communities of Liepāja and Ventspils – non-
citizens; in Jurmala and Jelgava the proportion of ethnic minor-ity citizens has started to exceed the proportion of non-citizens;
and in the country’s capital a ratio of 50:50 has evolved.
In the Latgalian towns of Daugavpils, R ēzekne, in all the regions of Latgale (one of
the five districts of Latvia, immediately adjacent to Russia and Byelorussia) and in
a further eight regions there are more ethnic minority citizens than non-citizens. In 17 out of the 34 administrative regions non-citizens are pre-dominant within the Russian-speaking community.
NaturalizationAs has already been noted, the process of naturalization has over the past 10-12 years
secured the reduction of only 128,000 out of 349,000 non-citizens, or 37%. Consider-
ing that the total number of non-citizens has decreased by 503,000 people since 1993,
the coefficient of this process is even lower – 25%.
Age
GroupCitizens Non-Citizens
2007 2007 1993
0-14 14.65 3.66 13.75
15-17 4.74 2.01 3.16
18-30 21.57 12.61 13.88
31-40 14.43 11.53 17.25
41-50 13.86 18.45 15.30
51-60 10.97 20.40 15.27
>60 19.78 31.33 21.39Table 4
The distribution of Citizens and Non-Citizens of Latvia
by Age Groups(in percentages)
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Table 5The Legal Status of the Population in the Largest Towns of Latvia
Town YearAll
Inhabitants CitizensEthnic
Minority
CitizensNon-
Citizens Foreigners
Liepāja2000 86,597 54,474 11,732 29,898 2,225
2007 85,532 59,579 15,308 22,762 3,191
Riga1993 874,172 431,991 127,901 442,1812000 736,753 469,942 167,880 248,107 18,704
2007 723,931 503,573 196,776 197,752 22,606
Ventspils2000 43,971 28,903 6,223 13,970 1,0982007 43,693 31,777 8,148 10,246 1,670
Daugavpils2000 111,878 77,191 59,338 32,540 2,1472007 107,083 78,359 59,634 25,675 3,049
Jurmala2000 55,200 38,199 11,089 15,860 1,1412007 55,562 41,277 13,335 12,648 1,637
Jelgava2000 65,577 46,961 13,539 17,641 9752007 66,034 51,256 15,198 13,555 1,223
Latvia
in total1993 2,606,176 1,729,740 366,966 876,436
2000 2,374,124 1,797,234 454,112 494,319 32,3772007 2,284,871 1,850,616 505,253 392,816 41,439

13The long-term Phenomenon of Mass Statelessness in Latvia
The dynamics of naturalization is shown in diagram 3.
The fi gures relating to the number of people becoming citizens in 2008 have been calcu-
lated from the number of applications made in 2007, taking account of the claimant sifting
coeffi cient characteristic of 2006 and 2007.
The peaks of application submissions fall one year behind the peaks of the granting of citizenship, which is explained by the fact that it takes approximately one year to consider applications, including verifying that the biography of the person applying for naturalization satisfi es legal requirements, and taking examinations.
The peak in 1999 is explained by the abolition of “windows” for naturalization, which dra-matically widened the circle of applicants.
The peak of 2004-2005 was not caused by any noticeable changes in legislation. The most
popular explanation for this in the media is the mass decision of non-citizens to emigrate to Europe as a result of Latvia’s entry into the EU. And the following sharp fall is explained by the fact that MEP Tatjana Ždanoka managed to achieve the lifting of the visa requirement for non-citizens within the EU (except for United Kingdom and Ireland).
We are not aware of any particular public opinion surveys that might con fi rm or disprove
this conclusion. At any rate, the last part of it arouses some doubt as the lifting of the visa
requirement for non-citizens only materialized in January 2007, whereas the number of applications had already decreased twofold in 2006. An equally likely explanation for the dramatic rise in applications in 2004-2005 is the unprecedented revival of the Russian-speaking community, occasioned by the struggle against the “school reform”; and for the sharp fall – the realization just how dif fi cult it is to achieve from this country even the slight-
est recognition of national minority opinion.
The motivation for naturalization can clearly only be traced in the gender statistics of the
Naturalization Board. The ratio between female and male applicants for the title of citizen has for many years been approximately two to one, reaching 2.5 in 2002 and even 2.7 in 2000, in favour of female applicants. And only when the issue of conversion to a profes-
56081126821297
19169
11987
7104
29601031915183
4543
26272992837086721069219805
203816064
1004914900
12427
9844439 3075 301610637
9844
0500010000150002000025000
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008Applications Naturalized Citizens
Diagram 3. The Rate of Naturalization19955 000
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008015 000
10 00020 00025 000Applications Naturalized Citizens
4 543
2 9923 0755 608
9842 6273 0164 43912 42715 183
14 900
10 637
9 84410 04916 06419 169
10 629
8 672 8 37011 26221 297
19 805
11 987
10 319
7 104
2 0382 960

14Citizens of a Non-Existent State
sional army was resolved, did this coef fi cient start to approach a single unit – 1.8 in 2004,
1.3 in 2005 and 1.1 in 2006.
Let’s attempt to answer the question, what factors hinder the process of naturalization? Perhaps the taxes are too high?
The rules relating to the rates of state taxes have been revised four times. As a result, the basic
rates of taxes have been reduced from 30 Ls to 20 Ls, and there has been some widening of the categories of different concessions, giving the right to pay tax of 10 Ls, 3 Ls or none at all.
The proportion of naturalized persons paying the full amount of tax fl uctuates between 45%
(in 2002) and 75% (in 2000). The number of people enjoying full exemption from taxes
only came to 0.6% in 2006, but an entire 18% in 1997. These changes do not have any noticeable in fl uence on the rate of naturalization (see Diagram 3).
Perhaps an individual approach is needed to applicants from different ethnic backgrounds?
Table 6 shows the fi gures relating to the ethnic composition of applicants set against the
proportion of corresponding ethnicities amongst non-citizens.*
1 – Data relating to the ethnic-
ity of non-citizens are given for
1993 and those relating to ap-plicants – for 1996;
*
2 – Numbers of applicants are
given together with Estonians,
of whom the total fi gure of non-
citizens is relatively small.
The disproportionately high num-
ber of Lithuanians and Poles among
the 1996 applicants can be explained by the presence of groups having the right to sub-mit applications without the need to be placed on a waiting list, and of “windows” for the main mass of applicants.
In principle, the ratio of ap-
plicants of a given ethnicity is almost proportionate to that of ethnicities amongst the non-citizens. Except perhaps that special measures are needed to attract the Bye-lorussians to the process of naturalization.
Of far greater substance, in
our opinion, is the obvious connection between the num-ber of people not being able to pass a test the fi rst time, and
the standard of education of the applicants (Diagram 4).
the 1996 applicants can beEthnicity 1993/1996*12000 2007
Res Nat Res Nat Res Nat
Russians 64.24 49.68 66.84 71.33 66.1 65.50
Byelorussians 12.06 8.03 12.06 9.61 13.33 10.40
Ukrainians 8.62 4.30 9.3 9.01 9.46 11.63
Lithuanians*23.81 25.77 2.9 2.11 2.78 3.92
Poles 3.53 8.30 3.42 3.55 3.4 3.88
Latvians 3.2 0.65 0.8 0.01 0.47 0.00Table 6
Data Relating to the Ethnicity of Applicants for Latvian Citizenship
th
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19
13,88
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31,94
23,28
14,99 15,69
14,1920,89
10,56
2,24 3,91
051015202530354045
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007% of applicants w ith higher education % of applicants failing tests
Diagram 4. The Standard of Education of Applicants for Latvian Citizenship and Examination Results1997% of applicants with higher education
0
1996 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007510202530354045
15% of applicants failing tests
13.88
3.91
2.24
1.1610.5614.1920.89
15.69
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1920.423.4726.6930.6 29.5834.2339.242.67
35.02
21.14
16.83

15The long-term Phenomenon of Mass Statelessness in Latvia
A mirror correlation between the two factors is obvious. It is also possible that the high
educational potential of applicants has already been physically exhausted. It should not be forgotten that the number of people with a higher education throughout the population (the fi gures are from the 2000 census) only comes to 13.9%, i.e. an increased number of people
not being able to pass examinations is to be expected.
The increase in the number of people unable to pass examinations in the last three years
has been steadily accompanied by a decrease in applications submitted (see Diagram 3).
In answer to an enquiry from the “ For Human Rights in a United Latvia ” parliamentary
group on the 28 February 2007 on the comparative linguistic complexity of the tests used
in applying for citizenship of Latvia and other countries of Europe, the Director of the Natu-ralization Board explains the problem as follows:In 2006 work was started in earnest, and continues today, on preparing for an audit, which is being carried out by the Association of Language Testers in Europe (ALTE). The Naturalization Board will in the near future have to send to the ALTE auditors a packet of standard documents used for monitoring examinations, as well as an Information Report. Following the audit, the Naturalization Board will submit an information report to the Committee of the Ministry of Justice for the attention of the Cabinet of Ministers, assessing the control mechanisms of tests and how the procedures for the naturalization tests meet the requirements of ALTE. We believe that only after the audit by ALTE and once the documents mentioned above have been prepared, will it be expedient to embark on an analysis of the procedures, contents and the legal documents relating to the tests for obtaining citizenship, as well as actions for optimizing them.
There are clearly contradictions between the legal requirements relating to tests in
Latvian – a working, everyday knowledge of the language – and the regulations of the Cabinet of Ministers, which stipulate that tests on the Constitution and history of Latvia must be done in Latvian.
The comparison of the distribution of applicants according to age with that of all non-
citizens shows that the process of naturalization is absolutely ineffective for elderly people, who now form the majority of the non-citizens:
The conclusion to be drawn from all the facts presented is obvious – the procedure for
naturalization needs to be simpli fi ed radically, particularly for people over the age of 50.
This conclusion also coincides with the recommendations of international experts (see the list of recommendations compiled by Aleksejs Dimitrovs below).
Age GroupTotal Number
of Applicants in the
Age Group over the
Entire Period
of NaturalizationAverage Proportion
of Applicants for
Citizenship in the
Age Group over the
Entire Period
of NaturalizationAverage No.
of Non-Citizens
in the Age Group
in 2007Proportion
of Non-Citizens
in the Age Group
in 2007
15-17 10,540 8.8% 7,896 2.09
18-30 37,917 31.5% 49,534 13.09
31-40 23,882 19.8% 45,292 11.97
41-50 24,779 20.6% 72,475 19.15
51-60 14,929 12.4% 80,134 21.18
>60 8,197 6.9% 123,069 32.52Table 7
The Rate of Naturalization of the Main Age Groups of Non-Citizens

16Citizens of a Non-Existent State
The Children of Non-Citizens
In accordance with the Citizenship Law, children of non-citizens may obtain Latvian citi-
zenship in three ways:• by becoming naturalized together with their parents by the age of 15;• by being registered, on application by both parents by the age of 15 (provided they were born on Latvian territory after the 21 August 1991);• on reaching the age of 15, by undergoing naturalization independently.
The only privilege enjoyed by young
people leaving school in Latvia is the exemption from the naturalization test in the Latvian language, provided that they have passed the general second-ary examination by achieving one of the three highest grades out of six.
13,572 children were naturalized
together with their parents as of the 1 January 2008.
A further 7,089 children were regis-
tered as citizens of Latvia on applica-tion by their parents.
10,540 young people aged between 15
and 17 were naturalized independently.
In addition, the 8,027 people who re-
ceived Latvian citizenship through reg-istration in accordance with other ar-ticles of Law were partly children who had not come of age. If the same ratio between children and adults that is characteristic of the naturalization pro-cess were applied, then there would be another 858 people.
Thus, the total number of young people below age of 17 (at the point of application submis-
sion) having received Latvian citizenship is 32,060 people.
According to the fi gures of the 1993 Register, the number of non-citizens included 92,000
people below 15 years of age. Consequently, all of the possible means of acquiring citizen-
ship described above were used by approximately one third of young people.
There are around 16.5 thousand children born after 21 August 1991 who still remain
non-citizens, according to the Register’s fi gures today in Latvia.
The international recommendations with regard to non-citizen children born in Latvia after 21 August 1991 are to accept them as citizens of Latvia on account of their birth. This would enable the “statelessness issue” to be resolved at least in terms of the lives of one generation.
The Predicted Rate of Reducing the Number of Non-Citizens
The decrease in numbers of any population, including non-citizens, can be described
as an attenuating exponential, and the period over which these numbers are reduced can be calculated by using the formula: t = ln(2)/v, where v is the annual relative rate of population decrease.
elow age of 17 (at the point of application submis

17The long-term Phenomenon of Mass Statelessness in Latvia
Let’s assume that the population of non-citizens in 2007 numbered 400,000 people. The
growth in the number of non-citizens as a result of the birth rate runs at around a thou-sand people a year. Let’s assume that their loss through naturalization (see Diagram 3) is set at 2,000 people per year. A further 3,000 people per year leave through emigration (2002 fi gures). Assuming that the average age of non-citizens is 50 years the death rate
is 10.8 per 1,000 people (statistics as at 2003).
Thus, the rate of population decrease is:V = (10.8 x 0.4 + 3 + 2 – 1) / 400 = 0.0208.The population’s “half-life”, i.e. the reduction in the number of non-citizens to 200,000
people, amounts to:
0.693/0.0208 = 33 years.Thus in the event that legislation on citizenship does not change, the problem of mass
statelessness will remain an issue even in 2040.
The number of non-citizens can be reduced almost three-fold by recognizing as Latvian
citizens those non-citizens:• born in Latvia (approximately 120,000 people);• having attained the age of 60 (approximately 120,000 people);• non-citizens with disabilities.
The parliamentary group “ For Human Rights in a United Latvia ” of which I am a member
is campaigning for a “zero option” of citizenship – the recognition of all non-citizens as
citizens of Latvia, i.e. the collective restitution to them of all political as well as a number of other rights, of which they were collectively deprived on the 15 October 1991.
As has been noted above, the Latvian authorities have
already once assumed a “half-way” zero variant by recognizing as Latvian citizens all those with at least one parent who was a citizen of the LR. As a result of this one-off act, 395,928 people received Latvian citi-zenship. As at the 1 January 2008 there are 372,421 non-citizens living in Latvia.
Vladimirs Buzajevs
Photo, page 16: These children came with their parents to participate in the public demonstration in Riga
against mass statelessness on 30 September 2005

18Citizens of a Non-Existent State
European Union
European Parliament resolution on the comprehensive monitoring report of the
European Commission on the state of preparedness for EU membership of the Czech Republic, Estonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Malta, Poland, Slovenia and Slovakia. P5_TA(2004)0180, 11 March 2004
74. Welcomes the increase in the naturalisation rate in 2003 mainly due to the referendum campaign for the EU accession, even if the naturalisation pro-cess remains too slow; therefore invites the Latvian authorities to promote that process and con-siders that minimum language requirements for elderly people may contribute to it; encour-ages the Latvian authorities to overcome the existing split in society and to favour the genu-ine integration of “non-citizens”, ensuring an equal competitive chance in education and labour; proposes that the Latvian author-ities envisage the possibility of al-lowing non-citizens who are long-time inhabitants to take part in local self-government elections;
welcomes the continuing dialogue between representatives of government and civil society regarding the rati fi cation of the Council of Europe’s Framework Convention for the Protection
of National Minorities as well as the establishment of a speci fi c subcommission on society inte-
gration in the Saeima’s Human Rights Commission; recommends that the Latvian authorities quickly ratify this Framework Convention.
United Nations1. Concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee: Latvia. CCPR/CO/79/LVA,
1 December 2003
16. While noting the measures taken by the State party to make the naturalization process
more accessible and to increase the rate of naturalization of non-citizens, the Committee is concerned about the limited results of these policies, with many candidates not even initiating the procedure. The Committee takes note of the different reasons underlying this phenomenon, but considers that it has adverse consequences in terms of enjoyment of Covenant rights, and that the State party has a positive duty to ensure and protect those rights. Furthermore, the Committee is concerned at the possible obstacles posed by the requirement to pass a language examination.The State party should further strengthen its efforts to effectively address the lack of ap-plications for naturalization as well as possible obstacles posed by the requirement to pass a language examination, in order to ensure full compliance with article 2 of the Covenant.International recommendations
concerning non-citizens in Latvia
74
th
m
ca
ev
ce
in
pr
sid
re
m
ag
ov
so
in
en
ch
pr
iti
low
tim
loc
welcomes the continuing dialogue between representatives o

19The long-term Phenomenon of Mass Statelessness in Latvia
17. The Committee is concerned at the low level of registration as citizens of children born
in Latvia after 21 August 1991, to non-citizen parents (art. 24).The State party should take all necessary measures to further encourage registration of children as citizens.
18. With regard to the status of non-citizens, the Committee notes the policy of the Government
to further social integration through naturalization. However, the Committee is concerned about the large proportion of non-citizens in the State party, who by law are treated neither as foreign-ers nor as stateless persons but as distinct category of persons with long-lasting and effective ties to Latvia, in many respects comparable to citizens but in other respects without the rights that come with full citizenship. The Committee expresses its concern over the perpetuation of a situation of exclusion, resulting in lack of effective enjoyment of many Covenant rights by the non-citizen segment of the population, including political rights, the possibility to occupy certain State and public positions, the possibility to exercise certain professions in the private sector, restrictions in the area of ownership of agricultural land, as well as social bene fi ts (art. 26).
The State party should prevent the perpetuation of a situation where a considerable part of the population is classi fi ed as “non-citizens”. In the interim, the State party should facilitate
the integration process by enabling non-citizens who are long-term residents of Latvia to participate in local elections and to limit the number of other restrictions on non-citizens in order to facilitate the participation of non-citizens in public life in Latvia.
Concluding observations of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Latvia.
E/C.12/LVA/CO/1, 7 January 2008
11. The Committee regrets that it did not receive full and adequate information on the
fulfilment of the obligation of the State party to guarantee the enjoyment of rights enshrined in the Covenant without discrimination, as stipulated in article 2, paragraph 2, of the Covenant, with respect to non-citizens with permanent resident status who make up some 20 per cent of the population in Latvia.
37. The Committee urges the State party to ensure that the lack of citizenship of permanent
residents does not hinder their equal enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights, including employment, social security, health services and education. The Committee also requests the State party to provide, in its next periodic report, detailed and comprehensive information on the enjoy-ment of all economic, social and cultural rights, disaggregated by citizen/non-citizen status.
Concluding observations of the
Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Latvia. CERD/C/63/CO/7, 10 Decem-ber 2003
12. The Committee recognizes
that political rights can be le-gitimately limited to citizens. Nevertheless, noting that most non-citizens have been residing in Latvia for many years, if not for their whole lives, the Com-mittee strongly recommends that the State party consider facilitating the integration pro-cess by making it possible for all non-citizens who are long-time permanent residents to partici-pate in local elections.
Photo, page 18: Demonstrators in Riga on 1 May 2004, i.e. on the day Latvia joined the EU, are keeping banner
with the slogan: “27% are Aliens in Latvia. Welcome to Europe”
Photo, page 19: Demonstrators in Riga on 4 May 2005, i.e. on the day of the 15th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence of Latvia, are releasing balloons allegorizing aliens

20Citizens of a Non-Existent State
13. While noting the measures taken by the State party to increase the rate of natural-
ization of non-citizens, the Committee remains concerned at the limited results of these efforts. The Committee is concerned at the growing number of persons who fail the lan-guage examination and at the possible lack of availability or accessibility of Latvian lan-guage instruction for all those wishing to benefi t from this facility.
The Committee recommends that the State party further study the underlying rea-sons for the low level of naturalization applications with a view to devising strate-gies targeting specific groups of potential applicants. The Committee stresses that positive measures should be employed to attract non-citizens to the process, while ensuring that any measures taken do not adversely affect their current status. It also strongly urges the State party to ensure the availability of Latvian language instruction, to the extent possible, for those wishing to avail themselves of such opportunities.
Concluding observations of the Committee on the Rights of the Child: Latvia. CRC/C/LVA/
CO/2, 28 June 2006
26. The Committee welcomes the various steps taken by the State party to ex-
pedite the naturalization process of non-citizen and stateless children. The Com-mittee remains concerned, however, that despite the 1998 amendment of the Citizenship Law, which entitles children born in the period 1992-2005to citizenship, and is granted upon application, a considerable number of children in Latvia still do not yet have Latvian citizenship or are stateless.
27. The Committee recommends that the State party strengthen its efforts to accelerate
the naturalization process for those who wish to gain citizenship, with the goal of eliminat-ing the transitional legal status of non-citizens. The Committee encourages the State party to provide more information and support to the parents of non-citizen and stateless children to ensure that all children in Latvia can easily acquire citizenship.
Concluding observations of the Committee against Torture: Latvia. CAT/C/LVA/CO/2,
19 February 2008
19. While noting a number of measures adopted by the State party, including the re-cent amendment to article 48 of the Criminal Law to include racial motivation as an aggra-vating factor for criminal liabil-ity, the Committee expresses its concern at report of acts of violence against and discrimi-nation of vulnerable groups, in-cluding Roma and the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) community. The Com-mittee is concerned at reports that the number of allegedly racially motivated crimes has recently increased and that the number of reported hate crimes is underestimated due to the
lack of an effective hate crime recording and monitoring system. Furthermore, while the Committee takes note of the efforts made by the State party in recent years in the pro-cess of naturalization, it remains concerned at the continued existence of the status of non-citizens and stateless persons, affecting a large group in Latvian society (art. 16).The State party should intensify its efforts to combat discrimination against and illtreatment of vulnerable groups, in particular Roma and the LGBT community, including through the strict application of relevant legislation and regulations providing for sanctions. The State
19
of
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21The long-term Phenomenon of Mass Statelessness in Latvia
party should ensure prompt, impartial and thorough
investigations into all such motivated acts and pros-ecute and punish perpetrators with appropriate penal-ties which take into account the grave nature of their acts, and ensure adequate training and instructions for law enforcement bodies and sensitization of the judi-ciary. The State party is encouraged to adopt the draft national programme to facilitate tolerance and to pro-vide detailed information in its next periodic report on the effective measures adopted to prevent and combat such acts. The State party should simplify and facilitate the naturalization process and integration of non-citi-zens and stateless persons.
Council of EuropeParliamentary Assembly. Resolution 1527(2006): Rights
of national minorities in Latvia. 17 November 2006
17. The Parliamentary Assembly therefore invites the Lat-
vian authorities to:17.5. consider all possibilities and explore all appro-priate ways leading to the implementation of the per-tinent recommendations made by the Assembly, the Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights, and by relevant OSCE and United Nations bodies, in order to grant voting rights at local elections to all permanent residents; 17.7. continue their awareness-raising campaign in order to further the policy for the acquisition of Latvian nationality by naturalisation, particularly among the workforce and young people; 17.8. consider automatically naturalising people who are elderly, as well as those born in Latvia or having made a worthwhile contribution to the establishment of the newly inde-pendent Latvian state; 17.9. avoid requirements that can undermine the ethnic and cultural dignity of those ap-plying for naturalisation, by asking them to express convictions that are contrary to their reading of the history of their cultural community or nation; 17.10. consider making the conditions attached to the existing naturalisation procedures more fl exible in order to increase the rate of naturalisation and to speed up the process;
17.11. devise and introduce means of encouraging and guaranteeing the civic integration of ethnic communities, including their integration in the political process and the public service, and, inter alia :
17.11.1. to amend legislation so as to make it possible to use the minority language in re-lations between national minorities and the administrative authorities in areas where they live in substantial numbers; 17.11.2. to review the existing differences in rights between citizens and non-citizens with a view to abolishing those that are not justi fi ed or strictly necessary, at least by provid-
ing non-citizens with the same rights as are enjoyed by nationals of other European Union member states within the Latvian territory;
The Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe. Recommendation 47(1998)
on local and regional democracy in Latvia. 28 May 1998
9. Considering the large number of Latvian residents who have no political or civic rights,
reaching nearly 50% of the population in some cities, such as the capital, and having regard to the Preamble of the European Charter of Local Self-Government:
Photo, page 20: Protestors in Riga against mass statelessness on 4 May 2005, i.e. on the day of the
15th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence of Latvia
Photo, page 21: Demonstrators in front of the Ministry of Education and Science in Riga on 2 June 2003
are keeping banner with the slogan: “YES to Integration, NOT to Assimilation”
y by naturalisation particularly

22Citizens of a Non-Existent State
a) Believes that it is important to integrate these residents into the country’s democratic sys-
tem and that local democracy offers a signi fi cant opportunity to achieve this;
b) Recommends that the Latvian parliamentary and governmental authorities recognise the people’s right to vote on issues within the competence of local authorities by acceding to the European Convention on the participation of foreigners in public life at local level.
Commissioner for Human Rights. Memorandum to the Latvian Government: Assessment of the
progress made in implementing the 2003 recommendations of the Council of Europe Commis-sioner for Human Rights. CommDH(2007)9, 16 May 2007
31. The Department responsible for naturalisation, which operates under the authority of the
Ministry of Justice, receives between 1 200 and 1 400 applications for naturalisation per month. It has conducted a number of activities to inform non-citizens of the formalities to be ful fi lled
for naturalisation: Information Days organised in co-operation with voluntary associations and awareness-raising campaigns; a free hotline; on-line information on the Department’s website; and some twenty booklets published over three years. Its budget has been constantly increas-ing since 2004, and an extra LVL 180 000 will be made available in 2007. This funding should be earmarked for an audit of the language test to be taken by applicants for naturalisation. One of the Commissioner’s recommendations has therefore been partly respected. However, there is still a huge number of non-citizens. The Commissioner invites the Latvian authorities to continue the efforts initiated in 2004 in the naturalisation fi eld.
33. According to of fi cial statistics, 38.1% of non-citizens are between the ages of 41 and 60,
and 28.9% are over the age of 60. Information and awareness campaigns have been con-ducted for the elderly, who, as we have seen, account for a large percentage of the non-citizen population. Yet the language and history tests used have not yet been simpli fi ed. The fact is
that above and beyond the lack of information and the lack of initiative in some circles, these tests are a serious obstacle to persons who speak little or no Latvian. The delegation was in-formed that the Cabinet of Ministers would shortly be considering a proposal to simplify these tests for the elderly and disabled. This proposal apparently has the backing of several minis-tries. The Commissioner hopes that it will be adopted and implemented as soon as possible to
enable those who wish to become better integrated into Latvian society but consider themselves too old to engage in a new learning process to actually do so.
38. In fact, over 13 000 children are still non-citizens,
and, children are still being born as non-citizens. This is a disturbing fi gure, and insuf fi cient progress has been
made, pointing to a lack of commitment to the issue on the part of the Latvian authorities. The Commissioner is in no way advocating systematic registration regardless of the parents’ wishes. On the other hand, he does consider it vitally necessary to conduct intensive information cam-paigns, particularly targeting young parents, and to de-velop dialogue. Legislation should be amended to enable parents to choose the status they want for their children when they register their births.
43. The exclusion of non-citizens from political life does
nothing to encourage their integration. The Commis-sioner stressed this point in the previous report, recom-mending that Latvia examine the possibility of granting them, among other things, the right to vote in local elections. It should be highlighted that the overwhelm-ing majority of non-citizens belong to minorities, and that this status debars them from participating in the political life of their country. They can neither vote nor be elected, even at the local level. Although a bill has been drafted granting non-citizens the right to vote at the local level, the text has not yet been examined by
en
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in
38
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23The long-term Phenomenon of Mass Statelessness in Latvia
Parliament. The Commissioner hopes that Parliament will soon adopt a law improving
the participation of non-citizens in political and social life.
European Commission against Racism and Intolerance. Third report on Latvia. CRI(2008)2,
29 June 2007
117. ECRI urges the Latvian authorities to do their utmost to further facilitate the
naturalisation process for non-citizens. To this end, they should consider making the requirements for the existing naturalisation procedures more flexible. They should also continue encouraging the take-up of Latvian citizenship by non-citizens through the naturalisation process.
118. ECRI urges the Latvian authorities to look into the problem of the status of non-citizens
with a view to fi nding rapid and humane solutions for persons who live under such a sta-
tus. In particular, ECRI reiterates that the imbalance between the situation of non-citizens and the Latvians in a number of fi elds and for a number of rights should be addressed and
remedied as a matter of priority. In particular, the Latvian authorities should review the list of professions which are not currently accessible to non-citizens.
132. Noting that most non-citizens have resided in the country for most or all of their lives,
ECRI urges the Latvian authorities to confer eligibility and voting rights to resident non-citizens in local elections.
OSCEOSCE Parliamentary Assembly. Resolution on National Minorities. 5-9 July 200416. Strongly recommends that the Latvian authorities create conditions for participation
of stateless persons in the political life of the country by granting them the right to vote in local elections.
OSCE Of fi ce for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights. Republic of Latvia: Parliamen-
tary Elections. 8 February 20072. Consistent with previous recommendations by
OSCE/ODIHR and other international organizations, the Saeima should give consideration to grant-ing the “non-citizens” of Latvia the right to vote in municipal elections. In addition, the Government should further intensify its endeavours to encour-age non-citizens to initiate and undergo the natu-ralization procedure.
Aleksejs Dimitrovs
Photo, page 22: Demonstrators in front of the Parliament of Latvia on 15 October 2003 are bearing poster
symbolising division of Latvian population into citizens and non-citizens

24Citizens of a Non-Existent State
APPENDIX 1
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RIGHTS OF LATVIAN CITIZENS
AND NON-CITIZENS – LATVIAN RESIDENTS
DATA OF THE LATVIAN HUMAN RIGHTS COMMITTEE (F.I.D.H.) ON MARCH, 2008
I. Prohibition to occupy certain state and public positions,
to be employed in certain professions
a) State Institutions
Jobs reserved for Latvian citizens only:
1. State of fi ce
(Senior Public Service) Satversme (The Constitution of the Republic of
Latvia), as amended of 15.10.98, Art. 101
2. Civil Servants (A) The Law “On State Civil Service”, adopted on
05.06.00, Art. 7
3. Constitutional Court Judges The Law “On Constitutional Court”, adopted on
05.06.96, Art. 4 (2)
4. Judges (A) The Law “On Judicial Power”, adopted on
15.12.92, Art. 51 (1)
5. Public Prosecutors (A) The Law “On the Public Prosecutors Of fi ce”,
adopted on 19.05.94, Art. 33 (1)
6. State Security Of fi cers (A) The Law “On State Security Institutions”, adopt-
ed on 05.05.94, Art. 18 (2)
7. Diplomatic and Consular Service (A) The Law “On Diplomatic and Consular Service”,
adopted on 21.09.95, Art. 3 (6)
8. State Controllers, Members of the State Control Council, Manager of the Auditing Department (A)The Law “ Оn State Control”, adopted on
09.05.02, Art. 30
9. Workers and of fi cials of the Corruption Prevention
and Combating Bureau (A)The Law “On Corruption Prevention and Combat-ing Bureau” adopted on 18.04.02, Art. 4-6
10. Members of the Councils of Regulators of Public Services (A)The Law “On Regulators of Public Services”, adopted on 19.10.00, Art. 37
11. Members of the Central Election Commission
The Law “On Central Election Commission”,
adopted on 13.01.94, Art. 2
12. Police (A) The Law “On Service of Persons having Special
Service Degrees in the System of the Interior Ministry and Prison Administration”, adopted on 15.06.06, Art. 4 (1)
13. Prison Guards (A) The Law “On Service of Persons having Special
Service Degrees in the System of the Interior Ministry and Prison Administration”, adopted on 15.06.06, Art. 4 (1)
14. State Fire Fighting and Rescue Service (A) The Law “On Service of Persons having Special
Service Degrees in the System of the Interior Ministry and Prison Administration”, adopted on 15.06.06, Art. 4 (1)
15. Border guards The Law “On Service of Persons having Special
Service Degrees in the System of the Interior Ministry and Prison Administration”, adopted on 15.06.06, Art. 4 (1)
16. Of fi cials of the State Revenue Service The Law “On State Revenue Service”, adopted on
28.10.93, Art. 17 (1) (as amended of 25.10.01)
17. Of fi cials of the Labour Inspection The Law “On State Labour Inspection”, adopted
on 13.12.01, Art. 5

25The long-term Phenomenon of Mass Statelessness in Latvia
18. Workers of the departments of Records of Acts of Civil
StatusThe Law “On Acts of Civil Status”, adopted on
17.03.05., Art. 3 (2)
19. Jobs related to access to information declared a state secret (A) (B)Law “On State Secrets”, adopted on 17.10.96, Art. 9 (2)
b) Private SectorJobs reserved for Latvian citizens only:
20. Sworn Advocates and Advocate’s Assistants (A) (B)
The Law “On Advocacy”, adopted on 27.04.93,
Art.14 (1) and 83
21. Defender in criminal proceedings (B). Non-citizen couldn’t
participate as a defender in a criminal action even if he/she has got advocate quali fi cation in one of the EU countries The Criminal Procedure Law, adopted on 01.10.05, Art. 79
22. Sworn Notaries and Notary’s Assistants (A) “The Notary Law”, adopted on 01.06.93, Art. 9
(1), 147 (1)
23. Court Bailiffs (A) The Law “On Court Bailiffs”, adopted on 24.10.02,
Art. 12 (1)
24. Heads of the detective agency (A) (B) The Law “On Detective Activity”, adopted on
05.07.01, Art. 4
25. The managers of security guards (A) (B) The Law “On Security Guard Activities”, adopted
on 29.10.98, Art. 6
26. Professional patent of fi cial (A) (B) The Patent Law, adopted on 15.02.07, Art. 26 (1)
27. Only citizen of Latvia has the right to be employed in civil positions for army unitsThe Law “On Military Service”, adopted on 30.05.02, Art. 16.
28. Internal auditors in public institutions The Law “On Internal Auditors”, adopted on
31.10.02., Art. 14 (2)
c) Public sectorOnly citizens have the right:
29. To participate in parliamentary elections Satversme (The Constitution of the Republic of
Latvia), Art.8 and 9
30. To participate in local elections (A) (B) Satversme (The Constitution of the Republic of
Latvia), Art.101; the Law “On the Elections to
City Domes, Regional and Rural District Coun-cils”, adopted on 13.01.94, Art. 5 and 8.
31. To be elected to Commissions and working groups of considerable part of municipalitiesThe Statute of Riga Municipality with amendment, adopted on 22.05.01 establishes this restriction only for Auditing Commission (para.26). In some other municipalities (for example, in Jelgava) the restriction is expanded to all commissions.
32. To participate in the elections to the European Parlia-ment (A) (B)The Law “On the Elections to the European Par-liament”, adopted on 29.01.04, Art. 2 and 4
33. To participate in state referenda Satversme (The Constitution of the Republic of
Latvia), Art. 80
34. In some municipalities only residents having Latvian or EU citizenship may initiate public referenda and participate therein (B)The Statutes of Madliena (14.09.05, Art.97) and Seja (18.10.05, Art.89) Rural District Councils
35. To be elected to the municipal election commissions The Law “On City, Regional and Rural District Elec-tion Commissions”, adopted on 10.05.95, Art. 6 (1)
36. To establish political parties The Law “ Оn Political Parties”, adopted on
07.07.06, Art. 12 (1)
37. Political parties are allowed to operate if at least 1/2 of the members are citizens of LatviaThe Law “ Оn Political Parties”, adopted on
07.07.06, Art. 26 (3)

26Citizens of a Non-Existent State
38. To be elected as Jurors The Law “On Judicial Power”, adopted on
15.12.92, Art. 56
39. To serve in the National Guard (Zemessardze) The Law “On National Guard (Zemessardze)”,
adopted on 06.04.93, Art. 5 (1)
40. To be elected as the Ombudsman The Law “On Ombudsman”, adopted on 06.04.06,
Art. 5 (2)
41. To be elected to the National Radio and Television
Council The Law “On Radio and Television”, adopted on 24.08.95, Art. 42 (2)
42. Only citizens of Latvia can become a Chancellor and Award Capitulars (who are dealing with items related to state awards) The Law “On State Awards” adopted on 04. 03.04., Art. 43
43. Only citizens of Latvia can become bishops, chaplains and military co-ordinators of the Catholic churchThe Law “On the Treaty between the Holy God’s Throne and Latvian Republic” adopted on 12.09.02., Art. 5, 24 and 25
44. Contacts with foreign citizens, access to cultural monu-ments and mass media are guaranteed to citizens only in some of the Agreements9 Agreements signed from 7.08.92 to 16.04.03 (see Appendix 2, Para 2.1)
II. Property Rights
Only citizens have the right to:
45. Obtain the land into ownership (paying with privatisa-
tion certifi cates) whether owning a building or a garden on
it, if the land was not owned by them before 22.07.40 The Law “On the Land Reform in the Cities of LR”, adopted on 20.11.91, Art. 12 (1), (2) (as amended on 31.03.94, Art. 8)
46. Persons being not citizens of Latvia or EU, as well as judicial persons in the case when less than a half of its statute capital belongs to citizens of Latvia or EU, have the right to acquire ownership of the land plot in the Latvian cities only by a special permission of City Council (B)The Law “On the Land Reform in the Cities of LR”, adopted on 20.11.91, Art. 20 (as amended on 24.11.94, Art. 3)
47. Analogous to No. 48 limitation for physical and judicial persons when buying land plots in rural areas (B)The Law “On the Land Privatisation in Rural Re-gions”, adopted on 09.07.92, Art. 28 (as amend-ed on 08.12.94, Art.14)
48. Only close relatives of the citizens of Latvia enjoy the right to use privatisation certi fi cates when acquiring owner-
ship of the land with a building or garden through inherit-ance or gift The Law “On Finalising the Land Reform in the Cities”, adopted on 30.10.97, Art. 3 (1)
49. Every citizen of Latvia is allotted 15 certi fi cates more then
a non-citizen. A non-citizen born outside Latvia gets another 5 certi fi cates less. One certi fi cate is an equivalent of state
property volume, created during 1 year of a person’s lifeThe Law “On Privatisation Certi fi cates”, adopted
on 16.03.95, Art. 5
50. Non-citizens who arrived in Latvia after the retirement age (60 for men, 55 for women) and who had less than 5 years of hired employment receive no privatisation certi fi cates The Law “On Privatisation Certi fi cates”, adopted
on 16.03.95, Art 5 (4)
51. A Latvian citizen is allotted with certi fi cates if he lived
in Latvia before 31.12.1992 and at any time was registered as permanent inhabitant.Non-citizen of Latvia is allotted with certi fi cates since the
last arrival to Latvia only and having purpose for the per-manent living in Latvia.The Law “On Privatisation Certi fi cates”, adopted
on 16.03.95, Art 5 (3)
52. Only citizens and legal entities are guaranteed the pro-tection of their investments abroad32 Agreements adopted within the period of 05.03.92 – 22.09.99 (see Appendix 2, Para 2.2)

27The long-term Phenomenon of Mass Statelessness in Latvia
53. Protection of intellectual property abroad is guaranteed
by some bilateral Agreements to citizens only5 Agreements adopted within the period of 06.07.94 – 26.10.06. Out of them 3 Agreements lost their power after Latvia became a member of EU (see Appendix 2, Para 2.3)
III. Private enterprise
54. Licenses for air transportation abroad are guaranteed, by bilateral agreements to the companies controlled by Latvian citizens. If such control is lost, the license is re-voked23 Agreements signed within the period of 01.07.92 – 18.10.99 (see Appendix 2, Para 2.4)
55. Non-discrimination regarding double taxation is guar-anteed to citizens only12 Agreements signed within the period of 17.11.93 – 14.05.04 (see Appendix 2, Para 2.5)
56. Only citizens of Latvia are guaranteed with state sup-port in various cases if trading abroad5 Agreements signed within the period of 29.11.91. – 16.10.02. (see Appendix 2, Para 2.6)
57. Commercial handling of weapons is allowed only for Latvian citizens and European Union citizens (A) (B)The Law “On the Handling of Weapons”, adopted on 06.06.02, Art. 36
58. Only citizens of Latvia and the EU have the right to be com-pany owners, directors, board members as well as those directly dealing with production, reparation, distribution, storage, trans-portation, rendering of services or guarding of the goods includ-ed into the common list of military goods of the EU (A) (B)The Law “On Turnout of the Goods of Strategic Importance”, adopted on 21.06.07, Art. 5 (4)
IV. Social Rights
59. Years of employment outside Latvia are not included into the non-citizen’s employment record when calculating pension rates Law “On State Pensions”, adopted on 02.11.95, transitional regulations, Art. 1
60. The right to rent premises in the of fi cial hostels in Riga
for non-restricted period of time have only those non-citi-zens whose length of residence as well as of work in Riga is more than 10 years The Rules of Riga Municipality No. 52 “On the Order to Use the Of fi cial Hostels”, adopted on
26.03.96, Art. 4
61. Only citizens have the right to receive different kinds of social aid on the territory of Finland. Years of employment on the territory of Finland are included only into the citi-zen’s employment record when calculating social insuranceAgreement with Finland on social bene fi ts of
11.05.99, Art. 4.1., 5.2., 16, etc.
V. Right to Entrance and Family Reunifi cation
62. Latvian citizens may enter 82 foreign countries without visas. Non-citizens may enter, without visas, only 31 of themSee Appendix 2, Para 2.7 or web site of the Min-istry of Foreign Affairs: http://www.mfa.gov.lv/en/service/4728/
63. Latvian non-citizen in order to receive the status of the permanent resident of the European Union must pass examination in the state language pro fi ciency as well as
prove his/her long-term residence in Latvia, demonstrate a suffi cient level of income and to pay a state duty The Law “ Оn the Status of the Permanent Resi-
dent of the European Union in the Republic of Latvia”, adopted on 22.06.06, Art.3
64. Non-refoulement to the other country is not guaran-
teed to non-citizens. Latvian citizens are guaranteed from non-refoulement with the exception of cases included into international treaties under condition that the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Satversme are not violated. The Law “On Criminal Process” of 01.10.05, Art. 697. Satversme (The Constitution of the Repub-lic of Latvia), as amended of 15.10.98, Art.98
65. The right on repatriation is enjoyed only by Latvian citizens

as well as by persons whose ancestors are Latvians or LivsRepatriation Law, adopted on 21.10.95, Art. 2
66. Only Latvian citizens and (in some cases) legal entities are guaranteed of legal assistance when being abroad10 Agreements signed between 11.11.92 and 15.04.04 (See Appendix 2, Para 2.8)

28Citizens of a Non-Existent State
67. Non-citizens who have received compensations when
leaving Latvia (i.e. as compensation for apartments left behind) from any state institutions or from abroad, apart from losing their former legal status, also lose the right to enter Latvia for residencyThe Law “ Оn the Status of Former USSR Citi-
zens who are not Citizens of Latvia or Any Other Country”, adopted on 12.04.95, Art.1 (3); ac-cording to the Law “On Immigration”, adopted on 31.10.02, they may enter, if they pay back the compensation
68. The right to reuni fi cation with an adult child having no
Latvian citizenship reserved for Latvian citizen onlyThe Law “On Immigration”, adopted on 31.10.02. Art. 24(1), 31(1)
69. The invitation to receive visa is not needed if the per-son applying for visa is ethnic Latvian or Liv or if one of his parents is the citizen of LatviaThe Law “On Immigration”, adopted on 31.10.02. Art. 12(2), p.5
V. Other Rights and Freedoms
70. Only citizens have the right to study in certain higher education establishmentsStatute (Constitution) of the Academy of Police, adopted by the Cabinet of Ministers on 17.06.98, Art. 69; 27.02.02., Art. 84.Statute (Constitution) of the National Academy of Defence, adopted by the Cabinet of Ministers on 30.06.98, Art. 22; 08.01.03, Art. 22.
71. A citizen can be deprived of citizenship by court deci-sion only. A non-citizen can be deprived of his status by decision of administrative authoritiesThe Law “ Оn the Status of Former USSR Citi-
zens who are not Citizens of Latvia or Any Other Country”, adopted on 12.04.95, Art. 7
72. Non-citizens can be acknowledged as politically re-pressed persons (by the Nazi regime), if only they were repressed because of their national identity or who were young children and were con fi ned in prisons and concentra-
tion camps in the territory of Latvia at that time (B)The Law “On Determining the Status of Politically Repressed Persons who are Victims of Commu-nist and Nazi Regimes”, adopted on 12.04.95, Art.4, pp. 1-3
73. The right to self-defence: to acquire and receive a weap-on as a personal award is allowed only to citizens (A) (B) The Law “On the Handling of Weapons”, adopted on 06.06.2002, Art. 19(6)
74. Only Latvian citizens are entitled to form collections of weapons (B)The Law “On the Handling of Weapons “, adopt-ed on 06.06.2002, Art. 34
75. Non-citizens are not considered as belonging to na-
tional minorities. Non-citizens who identify themselves with
a national minority that meets the de fi
nition, shall enjoy
the rights prescribed in the Framework Convention, unless specifi c exceptions are prescribed by law.The Law “On Framework Convention for the Pro-
tection of National Minorities” of 31.05.05., Art. 2.
Comments:
1) with (A) those laws are marked which offend non-citizen’s honour and self-respect because they equate
non-citizens with incapable persons, criminals, enemies of the Latvian Republic and alcoholics;
2) according to the laws marked with (B) rights forbidden to non-citizens are ensured to foreigners, mainly
to EU citizens.

29The long-term Phenomenon of Mass Statelessness in Latvia
APPENDIX 2
LIST
OF SOME BILATERAL AND INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS
DISCRIMINATING AGAINST NON-CITIZENS
2.1. General agreements (difference No. 44)
1. With Hungary of 07.08.92, Art. 8, 14, 17
2. With Ukraine of 23.05.95, Art. 9, 15, 183. With EU of 12.06.95 (in force from 1998), Preamble, Art. 37 – 444. With India of 01.09.95, Art. 3.1. Education in India is allowed to Latvian citizens only5. With Czech Republic of 10.05.99, Preamble6. With Mexico of 15.04.05, Art. 21. Scholarships to study in Mexico are allowed to Latvian citizens only7. With EU of 16.04.03 (in force from 01.05.04), Art. 45. Only Latvian citizens may be delegated to work in the European Commission8. With Canada of 25.09.2006. On exchange of young citizens9. Between EU and ACAT of 08.03.2007. Addendum to Cotonou agreement on assistance to contacts between young citizens
2.2. Agreements on the protection of investments (difference No. 52)1. With Iceland of 26.08.91, Art. 4.
2. With Finland of 05.03.92, Art. 1 (1) ‘c’3. With Sweden of 10.03.92, Art. 1(3)4. With Denmark of 30.03.92, Art. 1(3)5. With France of 15.05.92, Art. 1.2, 1.36. With Norway of 16.06.92, Art. 1.37. With Taiwan of 17.09.92, Art. 1.38. With Switzerland of 22.12.92, Art. 1. (1a)9. With Poland of 26.04.93. Art. 1. (1 а)
10. With Great Britain of 24.01.94, Art. 1(c)11. With Israel of 27.02.94, Art. 1.312. With the Netherlands of 14.03.94, Art. 1(b)13. With Czech Republic of 25.10.94, Art. 1.214. With Austria of 17.11.94, Art. 1(2)15. With USA of 13.01.95, Art. 1 (1c)16. With Canada of 26.04.95, Art. 1.* Canada, unlike Latvia, protects the interests of both its citizens and residents17. With Greece of 20.07.95, Art. 1 (3)18. With Portugal of 27.09.95, Art. 1.319. With Spain of 26.10.95.* The only example, when Latvia equally protects the rights of its citizens and non-citizens. The only exception is Art. 7.1, by which the transfer of salaries and other compensations is guaranteed to citizens only20. With Vietnam of 06.11.95, Art. 1 (1c)
21. With Estonia of 07.02.96, Art. 1.222. With Lithuania of 07.02.96, Art. 1.223. With Belgium of 27.03.96, Art. 1.1 (1a)24. With Lux
embourg of 27.03.96, Art. 1.1 (1a)
25. With Korea of 23.10.96, Art. 1.226. With Egypt of 24.04.97, Art. 1 (2a)27. With Italy of 11.07.97, Art. 1.3, 7.1.e28. With Ukraine of 24.07.97, Art. 1.2.a29. With Belarus of 17.06.1998, Art. 1c, 2, 3, 530. With Slovakia of 11.06.1998 Art. 1 (2)31. With Hungary of 10.06.99. Art. 1 (2)32 With Moldova of 22.09.99. Art. 1 (3)
2.3. Agreements protecting intellectual property (difference No. 53)1. With USA of 06.07.94, part II
2. With Ukraine of 21.11.95, Art. 15.2, lost power from 01.05.043. With EFTA of 07.12.95, Art. 15.2, lost power from 01.05.044. With Slovenia of 22.04.96, Art. 15, lost power from 01.05.045. With Albania of 26.10.06, Art. 3 (Add.V)

30Citizens of a Non-Existent State
2.4. Air traffi c agreements (difference No. 54)
1. With Poland of 01.07.92, Art. 3.4, 4.1(a)
2. With Hungary of 09.03.93, Art. 3.2(a), 4.1(a), 5(c)3. With the Netherlands of 25.03.93, Art. 4.4, 5(c)4. With Israel of 03.11.93, Art. 3.4, 4.1(a)5. With Finland of 29.11.93, Art. 4(a)6. With Great Britain of 06.12.93., Art. 4 (4), Art. 5 (1)7. With Belgium of 12.12.94, Art. 5.1(d)8. With Estonia of 20.01.95, Art. 3.5, 4.1(c)9. With Ukraine of 23.05.95, Art. 3.410. With Uzbekistan of 06.06.95, Art. 4.4, 5.1(a)11. With Belarus of 07.09.95, Art. 4(1), Art. 5(3), Art. 13(3)12. With Turkey of 15.09.95, Art. 3.4, 4.1(a)13. With Lithuania of 09.09.96, Art. 3.5, 4.1(c)14. With Thailand of 08.11.96, Art. 6.5, 7.1(a)15. With Egypt of 23.04.97, Art. 6 (4), Art. 7 (1)16. With India of 12.10.97, Art. 3.4, 4.117. With Slovakia of 09.04.98., Art. 3(2), Art. 5(1)18. With Kazakhstan of 19.05.199819. With China of 04.03.1999, Art. 3.2, 4.120. With Morocco of 19.05.99. Art. 4 (1)21. With Bulgaria of 19.05.99, Art. 3(5), Art. 4(1)22. With Singapore of 06.10.99. Art. 3(2), Art. 4(1)23. With Croatia of 18.10.99., Art. 3(4), 4(1), 6(2)
2.5. Taxation Agreements (difference No. 55)The Agreements preventing double taxation (anti-discrimination clauses apply to citizens only):
1. With Poland of 17.11.93, Art. 3, 252. With Canada of 04.06.95, Art. 24 (1)3. With Belarus of 07.06.95, Art. 23.14. With China of 07.06.96, Art. 3.1 (h), 265. With Germany of 07.06.96, Art. 3.1(g), 246. With France of 14.04.97, Art. 247. With Italy of 21.05.97. Art. 268. With Singapore of 06.10.99, Art. 249. With Switzerland of 31.01.02, Art. 2410. With Romania of 25.03.02, Art. 2611. With Spain of 04.09.03, Art. 2512. With Hungary of 14.05.04, Art. 24
2.6. Free trade Agreements (difference No. 56)
1. With Ukraine of 29.11.91, Art. 12
2. With USA of 09.12.92, Art.23. With USA of 06.07.944. With Bulgaria of 16.10.02, Art. 5 (2)5. With Hungary of 29.10.02, Art. 5 (2)
2.7. Treaties on Visa-Free Regime (difference No. 64)Latvian citizens may enter without visa 82 countries:Albania, Andorra, Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Belize, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brunei, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile,
Costa Rica, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Estonia, Fiji, Finland, France, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Honduras, Hungary, Hong Kong SAR, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macao, Malaysia, Maldives, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Morocco, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Korea, Romania, Samoa, San Marino, Serbia, Seychelles, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, St.Vincent and the Grenadines, Swaziland, Sweden, Switzerland, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, Uruguay, Venezuela.

31The long-term Phenomenon of Mass Statelessness in Latvia
Non-citizens may enter without visa 31 country:
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Dominica, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia,
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Samoa, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden.
2.8. Agreements on legal assistance (difference No. 66)The Agreements envisage the following main advantages for Latvian citizens:
a) equal rights with the citizens of the host country regarding legal assistance;b) free legal assistance and non-payment of court expenses;c) sending documents free of charge and (in many cases) without translation;d) consular assistance;e) recognition of marriages, sanity, adaptation etc. in accordance with the laws of another party to the Agreement;f) non-refoulement to the other country in case of criminal offences.1. With Estonia and Lithuania of 11.11.92, Art. 1, 16, 17.1, 18, 21, 25* Non-citizens are only mentioned in Art. 17.2. The parties must provide the following information: about convictions, instigation of criminal proceedings, recognition as chronic alcoholics, drug addicts and insane. Among non-citizens, 4% are ethnic Lithuanians.2. With Russia of 03.02.93, Art. 1, 11, 16, 17, 19, 22, 26, 62.1* Regarding non-citizens, (Art. 76, 77) information about convictions and instigation of criminal proceeding is transferred. Among non-citizens, 64% are ethnic Russians.3. With Russia of 04.03.93, Art. 14. With Moldova of 14.04.93, Art. 1, 16, 17, 18, 61(1)5. With Belarus of 21.02.94, Art. 1, 11, 16, 19, 21, 25, 60* Regarding non-citizens, (Art. 75, 76) information about convictions and instigation of criminal proceedings is transferred. Among non-citizens, 12% are ethnic Byelorussians.6. With Poland of 23.02.94, Art. 1, 11, 18, 20, 22, 27, 49, 68.1* Among non-citizens, 3.5% are ethnic Poles.7. With Ukraine of 23.05.95, Art. 1, 11, 16, 17, 18, 21, 24, 44, 55(1)* Among non-citizens, 9% are ethnic Ukrainians.8. With Uzbekistan of 23.05.96, Art. 1, 11, 16, 17, 19, 22, 25, 44, 559. With Kirgizia of 10.04.1997, Art. 1, 17, 19, 41.10. With China of 15.04.2004, Art. 16.