PEOPLES DEMOCRATIC REPUBLI C OF ALGERI A [630411]

PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLI C OF ALGERI A
MINISTR Y OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFI C RESEARCH
UNIVERSITY OF MOHAMED BOUDIAF – M’SILA

Thesis Submitted to the Depa rtment of English in Partial fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Master ’s Degree

Candidat: [anonimizat]:

GUENDOUZ Hichem

BAKHTAOUI Hicham

Board of Examiners

Mrs. …………………….. University of M’sila Chair man
Mrs. LAOUIDJI Karima University of M’sila Supervisor
Mr. …………………….. University of M’sila Examiner

2017 /2018 The Irish Issue & the Rise of Nationalism FACULT Y OF LETTERS AND LANGUAGE S
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
N°:……………………………………….. DOMAIN: FOREIGN LANGUAGES
STREAM: ENGLISH LANGUAGE
OPTION: LITERATURE & CIVILIZAT ION

I
Abbreviation List

MPs: Members of Parliament
IV: Irish Volunteers
UVF : Ulster Volunteer Force
IRB: Irish Republican Brotherhood
RUC: Royal Ulster Constabulary
IRA: Irish Republican Army

II
Table of Contents

Acknowledgement ………………………………… …………………………. V

Didication1…………………………………………………………………… VI

Didication2…………………………………………………………………… VII

Abstract………………………………………………………… ………….. VIII

1. General Introduction…………………………………………………… 01
Chapter One : The Beginning of the Irish Issue and
Self-Govern ance Dream
1.1. Introduction ………………………………………………………………. 03
1.2. The British Presence in Ireland ………………………………… .……….. 04
1.3. Plantation Policy …………………………………………………………. 04
1.4. Catholicism vs. Protestantism ……………………………………………. 07
1.4.1. Irish Reaction towards this Stru ggle………………………………… 08
1.5. Act of Union (Jan. 1, 1801) …………………………………………….. 09
1.5.1. Reasons lead to this Act ……………………………………………… 09
1.5.2. Components of Act of Union ………………………………………… 10
1.6. The Great Irish Potato Famine ………………………………………… ..11
1.6.1. The Roots of the Famine ……………………………………………… 11
1.6.2. Causes of the Famine ………………………………………………….. 11
1.6.3. The British Response ………………………………………………….. 12
1.6.4. Results of the Great Famine …………………………………………… 13
1.7. Diaspora: Irish beyond bounders ……………………………………….. 15
1.7.1. Reasons for the Emigration …………………………………………….. 15

III
1.7.1.1. Stages of Emigrating beyond boundaries …………………………… 15
1.7.1.2. Irish Immigration to America in the 1800's: The Voyage to America –
the Emigrant Ships …………….………… …………………………………… 15
1.7.1.3. Irish Immigration to Am erica in the 1800's: Canals, Roads, Railways
and Mines ………………………………………………………………………16
1.7.1.4. Irish Immigration to America in the 1800's: Irish Potato Famine ……16
1.7.1.5. Irish Immigration to America in the 1800's: Irish Potato Famine – Coffin
Ships and t he American Wake ………………………………………………… 17
1.7.1.6. Irish Immigration to America in the 1800's: The Panic of 1873 and the
Long Depression ………………………………………………………………. 17
1.7.2. Irish emigration records …………………………………………………. 18
1.8. Home Rule: an attempt for Self -govern ance……………………………… 18
1.8.1. Beginnings of the dream ……………………………………… ………. 19
1.8.2. The beginning of the Home Rule Movement …………………………… 19
1.8.3. First Home Rule Bill…………………………………… ………………. 20
1.8.4. Second Home Rule Bill ………………………………… …………….. 20
1.9. Conclusion …………………… …………………………… ……………. 21
Chapter Two : Ireland in the 20th Century and the 21st
Century and the Rise of Nationalism
2.1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………… 22
2.2. The Road to Independence (1912 -1922) ………………………………… 23
2.2.1. The Third Home Rule1914 ……………………… …………………. 23
2.2.2. Easter Rising 1916 ………………………………………………….. 24
2.2.3. The War of Independence (1919 -1921) …………..…… …………….. 26
2.3. The Irish Division & the Split between Unionists and Separatists ………. 27
2.3.1. The Civil War (1922 -1923) …………………………………………….. .27

IV
2.3.2. The Split between Unionists and Separatists & the Rise of Republic Eire
(1923 -1937)……………………………………………………………………. 30
2.3.3. The Republic of Ireland (1949) ………………………………………… 32
2.4. The Beginning of the Troubles, Bloody Sunday, and the Anglo -Irish
Agreement ………… ..……………………… ………………………………… 34
2.4.1. The Troubles in Northern Ireland ……………………………………….. 34
2.4.2. Bloody Sunday 1972 and Violence Acts ……………………………… 35
2.4.3. The Anglo -Irish Agreement 1985 ……………………………………… 37
2.5. The Good Friday Agreement 1998 ………………………………………. 38
2.5.1. Ireland in the Beginning of the 21st Century ………………………….. 39
2.6. Conclusion ………………………………………………………………… 41
3. General Conclusion ………………………………………………………… .42
Works cited ………………………………………………… ………..…..…… .43
انًهخص… ………………………………………………………… ………………… 54

V

Acknowledgments

First of all, our great thank and praise is for ―ALLAH‖ who helped us to achieve
this humble work.
We would like to express our special thanks to our supervisor Mrs. LAOUIDJI
KARIMA, for her help, guidance, encouragements, endless patience and
devotion of her precious time for fulfillment of this research work.
We would like to thank our Godfather DR. TOUATI MOURAD for his guides,
comments, and support.
We are fortunate in having many wonderful and good teachers and examiners
whose kindly encouragements are so much appreciated for their support and
advice and we apologize because we did no t mention their names…
We express our thanks to all our respectful teachers in the English
Department at M‘sila University.

VI

Dedications 1
First, I would like to thank my Allah for helping me to do this simple work.
If I write of any one the m ost beautiful expression of dedication in this world, so
I write it to my parents, I am so proud, privileged and honored to dedicate the
fruits of my studies and efforts to my lovely parents, they were very patient with
me in my whole life, and also they w ere my advisers.
All my thanks to my brothers, all the members of my big family.
With a big heart, I dedicate this work to all my friends and
Classmates without preceding the names not to forget anyone.
A special dedication to my partner in this research M r. BAKHTAOUI Hicham, I
am proud to work with a person like him and I would like to thank our
supervisor Mrs LAOIUJI Karima and a special thanks to Dr: TOUATI Mourad.
To end, a special dedication to my teachers from the beginning of my studies in
the Univer sity, we spent an unforgettable moments together, without forgetting
my soul mates: Kheloufi Hamza , Ayachi Mounir, Djaidja Nouredine, Khelifi
Taher.

GUENDOUZ Hichem

VII

Dedications 2

First I want to thank ALLAH for giving me the strength and faith to finish this
research. Special thanks goes to all people I know and those who made my life
special with a deep appreciations to my whole family who supported me all the
way especially my mother, my father and my grandfather.
My deepest appreciation and great hearted thanks go to my supervisor Laouidji
Karima for her wise guidance and insightful comments and support. So thank
you very much indeed. A punch of thanks to our legend Dr: Touati Mourad.
To my best friends whom I share my joy a nd sorrow
and, I apologize for those whom I didn‘t mention their names.

BAKHTAOUI Hicham

VIII

Abstract

The present research is an attempt to explore the An glo-Irish issues thr ough historical studies,
also to describe the main events that shaped the history of nationalism in Ireland between the
12th century and the 21st century. Additionally, this work explains the different complexities
between the British and the Irish peoples using the descriptive method and the qualitative
approach . The first chapter tackled the beginning of the issue, the way it pr oceeded, and the
Irish long history of resistance against England. The second chapter focused on the main events in the
20th, and the conflict that reanimated debates about the role of nationalism in politics in
Ireland. Specifically, t he conflict in Northern Ireland, which surfaced one of the most
enduring themes in Irish politics and the study of Irish nationalism , also the descri ption of
Ireland after the peace processes and Friday Agreement that created peaceful Ireland of the
21st century.

1

1. General Introduction

This thesis is going to study the long period of Irish -British relationships through
history; it also d escribes the major events, facts, and different stories that shaped the Anglo –
Irish deep history and relationships. Regardless to their neighborhood and boundaries, the
history of Ireland and Britain was known with its brutality, bloodiness, and wars.
This research work is going to highlight the enmity between Irish and British,
Unionists and Nationalists, Protestants and Catholics through history, and to understand the
past conflict between the two neighbor nations. The aim behind this research is to trac e back
the origins of the conflict from the beginning of the 12th century and to show how this led to
complexly -constituted communities with multiple aims, which ended with the Friday
Agreement that shaped Ireland of the 21st century.
The Anglo -Irish confl ict is not a new debate. It has been discussed by many historians
and authors such as Paul Johnson‘s book (Ireland: A History from the Twelfth Century to the
Present Day), J. C. Beckett, the Making of Modern Ireland, 1603 -1923(New York, 1966), R.
F Foster, Modern Ireland, 1600 -1972(New York, 1989) , Foster‘s books are essential -they are
considered the most important example of contemporary revision in Irish historiography , and
the recent publications of articles by the Irish historian Brendan Bradshaw .

Since the research that is going to be conducted, is a study of the history of the Irish
Issue and the Rise of Nationalism, the qualitative approach is more appropriate in such field
of study . This research paper is going to describe also the main reason beh ind the Irish Issue
and the main events in the period between the 12th century and the beginning of the 21st
century.
Our study aims at addressing the following questions:
1-How the conflict appeared? And what was about?
2-Why the struggle lasted for more than 900 years?
3- Why has this separation between the two Irish nations taken place?
4- How has the Irish conflict shaped the history, society, economic, culture, and geography of
the area? What are the consequences on the Irish people s identity?

2
The first chapter deals with the beginning of struggle that happened between Ireland
and England. The Norman invasion was the spark of the war in which England felt that the
Norman presence in Ireland was a true threat to the kingdom because as known Ireland was
the backdoor of England, after that the English conquests started to take over all the lands of
Ireland and it did not succeed until the starting of what is call ―plantation‖ in this process
English crown intended to assimilate and integrate the Englis h lordship on Irish people The
following years precede the showed a massive rebels against the English, this rebels were as a
rejection to the English presence in the Irish lands, the government saw the Act of Union the
only solution to keep the Irish land s under its eyes.
After many years the Great Potato Famine a natural disaster hit Ireland and coast it
millions of deaths and poverty was dominant figure at that time, this natural disaster lead to a
huge immigration of the Irish people to North America a nd the rest of the world ―Irish
Diaspora‖. The Irish parliament start a recall of the Irish self -governance by many demands
called Home Rules, the first Home Rule was introduced in 1886 and it was abolished but the
Irish politicians and people did not give up and for the second time demanded the Second
Home Rule Bill in 1893, unfortunately it was refused.
The second chapter will focus on the main events that happened in the 20th century and
the beginning of the 21st century, starting from the third Ho me Rule of 1912, which was
successful than the previous Home Rules, but was delayed, because of World War I break out.
The period 1916 –1921 was marked by political violence ; this period witnessed the Easter
Rising and the war of independence. The chapter w ill show the main reason behind partition
in Ireland that started with the Anglo -Irish Treaty and the role of Britain behind making the
treaty. In addition, the second chapter of this research will tackle the circumstances of Ireland
during the Civil War a nd the role of political leaders in stopping the Irish -Irish conflict. This
chapter will describe the eventual development in the political relations with Britain and
Northern Ireland, in which Ireland declared itself a republic instead of Eire in 1949.
Furthermore, the chapter also will talk about the Irish neutrality during World War II
and its effect on the country, also the beginning of the Troubles between the ethno -nationalist
groups and paramilitaries of the two Irelands in the late 1960s and the 19 70s. This part from
the thesis will show the attempts of stopping the bloody actions by making the Anglo -Irish
Treaty 1985, but this last could not end the conflict between the clashed groups. Peace
negotiations and historic cease fire will be described, i n which Good Friday Agreement will
come to existence in April 1998; this last will create Ireland of the 21st century that is
different from the one in the 20th century. Ireland of the 21st century is marked by peace,
economic development and power, and it s good relations with Britain.

3
Chapter One : The Beginning of the Irish Issue and Self –
Governance Dr eam

1.1. Introduction
Ireland‘s history is a long story of suffering, suppression and poverty, but also one of
strong est people who up till now refuse to give up and who mange to see things from a
resistful side in the face of hardship. This chapter will tackle the Anglo -Irish relations through
history. From the Norman invasion of Ireland in the late 12th century to the beginning of the
19th century, it will also cover cultural, political, social and religious conditions at that time
(1171 -1900).It will shed the light on the Great Famine and the failure of the home rule one
and two. Due to its complex history it cannot be possible to study the mod ern Irish history or
the Anglo -Irish relations without going back to the initial nature of their relationship. That is
to say, we need a deeper study of their relation from the beginning to the early years of 19th
century.

4

1.2. The British Pre sence in Ireland
The Norman invasion of the late 12th century was a true reason behind the English rule
of Ireland; this invasion marked the beginning of almost 700 years of insurrection, war, and
strained diplomacy between England and Ireland.1 After the Norman aggressive Compiegne
the king of England, Henry II, promptly capitalized on the incursion by landing in Co.
Wexford in 1171 and securing lordship over many parts of the country, later he sent his son
John L akeland as Lord of Ireland this move was no t an attempt to control the island fully at
first but until the rebellions of the Irish to the British presence especially the rebellion of Earl
of Kildare which the British monarchy saw it as a threatening to the English hegemony2.
Henry VIII proclaimed h imself as the King of Ireland he wanted to assert a full control on the
Irish lands by bringing the English Reformation, this later failed as it witnessed a huge
rejection from the Irish, the king introduced that the best course to follow was to advance the
authority of the crown forcefully in those parts of the country where it was being challenged,
and, through a process of colonization, aim at establishing model English settlements to take
the place of those Irish lords, and their subordinates, who had resisted the authority of the
King or who had consorted with his enemies.

1.3. Plantation Policy

Throughout the 16th century, the British monarchy and after many attempts either to
conquer or assimilate the British Lordship on the Kingdom of Irel and struggled to control
Ireland by imposing English language, English customs and the Protestant faith. So this time
they tried another way of assimilation which is known as the Plantation Policy3. In the 16th
century the English were seeking to extend th eir control over Ireland, and one of the ways ,
they tried to drive the Irish landowners off their land and replace them with English or
Scottish settlers. In other word, it was a settlement process which consisted of `planting‘
English farmers, merchants a nd craftsman in Ireland by giving them land and incentives to
settle there. So between the 1550`s and the 1650`s Four Plantations took place in Ireland.
Each plantation was the result of a rebellion by the Irish who were trying to resist the
extension of E nglish control over Ireland.
The first plantation was ordered by the Queen Mary I; it occupied Laois and Offaly in
1556 as a result to the revolt of Moores and Connors in 1553. The second Plantation was
Munster in 1586 was under the demand of Queen Elizab eth I, this plantation was a reaction to
the rebellion of Desmond in 1579. The third wave of plantation was called plantation of
Ulster in 1609, King James I was the king at that time this plantation comes after the Nine
Year Wars from 1594 to 1603. The fo urth and last plantation was Cromwellian Plantation in
1652; Oliver Cromwell made this plantation against the rebellion of 1641. The Irish people

1 .Barnard Toby. ―The Kingdom of Ireland: 1641 -1760. Palgrave Macmillan, ‖ 2004. p.1-6.
2 Toby, «the Kingdom of Ireland ,‖ P.15-20.
3 Robinson Philip, «the Plantation of Ulster (British se ttlement in an Irish Landscape:1600 -1670),” Amazon.

5
did not accept these plantations not only by making rebellions and wars but also with
terrorizing the Planters who had taken their land, they refused to work for those Planters or to
be their laborers and this cost the English many financial problems and also protection. In one
hand, English people have a bad image on the Irish; they considered them as uncivilized and
rebellious savages who needed to be subdued. On the other hand, the Irish claimed that the
incomers were savages and brutal conquerors who stole their land.
In his book titled Making Ireland British4, Nicholas Canny emphasis how big the
struggle b etween two types of civilizations was not just taking over lands but a cultural,
social, religious struggle. Canny considered the Irish at that time as victims of plantation
policy due to the lost of their language which was not preferable or the neglectin g of the Irish
traditions and customs let alone to those who left Ireland seeking for peace or those who were
forced to leave, he showed that it was impossible for Ireland to remain immune from the
impact of the plantation or the reformation and these last were a destruction of Gaelic
civilization in the upper levels of society.

4Canny Nicholas , ―Making Ireland British 1580 -1650 ,‖ Oxford University, Oxford. p. 166 -169.

6

Figure 15

5 . Plantation and settlement of English and Scottish 1556 -1626.

7

1.3. Catholicism vs. Protestantism
The Republic of Ireland is historically a Catholic country . The majority of the Irish
people are Catholics6. Many people in Northern Ireland are descendants of the original
population of this region and are also Catholics. However, the majority of the Northern Irish
have forefathers who emigrated from England and Scotland and these two countries have
been Protestant f or almost 500 years. The Troubles dated back to the reign of Henry VIII who
sent Protestant settlers from England and Scotland to occupy Ireland and he demanded that all
of the United Kingdom, including Ireland convert to Protestantism after he founded the
Church of England. The Irish did not follow the command of the king.
As a result he asked to take over the lands and farms of poor and ordinary Irish
Catholics. Therefore, those Protestants made money from the work that Catholics did in their
Farms, and C atholics weren‘t allowed to own lands or make money from their own labor.
There was a discrimination between the Protestants and the Catholics in every domain of life,
for example during the Great Famine the Protestant had the money and the ability to lea ve
the country, while the Catholics were left behind to starve and finally to die. During conflicts
and wars, Protestants were protected and supported by the British Crown, while Catholics had
only the Church. The Catholics were forbidden from practicing t heir origin and preferred
religion which was Catholicism. The Irish did not have access to education and they were
neglected due to their religious orientation. So Catholics population is changed from being
majority of Ireland to become a minority, since P rotestants settled in the north of Ireland
especially in Ulster which was predominantly Catholic, there was no equality and economic
differences, there was South and North. In the north the standards of living rose as industry
and manufacturing flourished, whereas in the south (Catholics) the unequal distribution of
land and resources and these lands and resources were owned by the Anglican Protestants.
It is said that the desire for land wasn‘t the only reason why English crown wanted to
rule Ireland. Another issue was religion. In order to stamp out Catholicism in their Irish
colony, English leaders sentenced a series of laws, known as Penal Laws in which everything
has a relation with Catholicism must be cut and forbidden, for the Irish it was a persecution
for their religious orientation, their catholic worship was outlawed they had to practice their
faith by holding services in secluded places. Many Catholic Irish children were obliged to
attend Protestant schools or had no appropriate education.
In additio n, Irish who were Catholics couldn‘t vote or to have public offices. It was
impossible for them to become teachers or to practice law. It was also illegal for Catholics in
Ireland to own a weapon, to buy lands, or to own a horse that cost more than five po unds.

6 Wolffe John , ―Irish Religious Conflict in Comparative Perspective: Catholics, Protestants , Muslims,‖ UK,
Palgrave Macmillan. 2014 p. 110 -112.

8

1.4.1. Irish Reaction towards this Struggle
Many moderate Irish politicians wanted Catholic Emancipatio n and parliamentary
reform, but thought that Ireland should support England in the crises and wanted to preserve
the connection with Britain. Ho wever, there were others who were more extreme in their
perspectives. Among these were Theobald Wolfe Tone and Lord Edward FitzGerald who
were against the moderate Irish politicians by forming the United Irishmen in 1792 which
aimed at ―breaking the link w ith England, asserting the independence of our country, uniting
all Irishmen in place of the denominations of Protestants and Catholics‖.7 The organization
attempted to unite Dissenters and Catholics against Anglican rule, and it grew rapidly. As a
result in 1793 the Irish parliament was persuaded to pass the Catholic Relief Act which gave
Catholics the right to vote. Voters still had to be 40 freeholders, and Catholics although they
could stand as candidates, they were not allowed to take a seat in parliam ent. Catholic voters
could realistically only vote for Protestants.
After these tricky virtual games there were increasing incidents of sectarian violence
in Ireland, exacerbated by the attempts of the United Irishmen to enlist French help in their
struggl e to free Ireland from English control. The Protestants in Ireland formed the Orange to
safeguard Protestantism in Ireland which merely es calated the problem. In May 1 798 an Irish
rising occurred with the avowed aim of Catholic Emancipation and parliamenta ry reform.
Many peasants joined because they wanted tithes to be abolished; some educated men wanted
independence. The British ministry believed that Ireland could not be allowed the luxury of
an independent parliament, because the Irish might decide on an independent nation and make
Ireland a base for England‘s enemies. British Prime Minister William Pitt therefore decided
on an Act of Union which would totally tie Ireland to Great Britain.

7Nolan Paul, «Two Tribes: A divided Northern Ireland,” Irish times, accessed April 1, 2017,
http;//www.irishtimes.com

9

1.4. Act of Union (Jan. 1, 1801)
The most famou s act in the Irish people history was a legislative agreement , which
unified Great Britain (England and Scotland) and Ireland under the name of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland .

1.5.1. Reasons lead to this Act

It is said the real reason be hind making this act is the Irish Rebellion of 1798 which
brought the Irish question forcibly to the attention of the British Crown; and William Pitt8 the
Younger, the British prime minister, decided that the best solution for these struggles and
rebellion s was a union. Moreover, to unify legislatively both the Irish and the British
parliaments, so the Irish Parliament would be abolished, and Ireland was to be represented at
the Parliament in Westminster, London, by 4 spiritual peers, 28 temporal peers, and 100
members of the House of Commons. The British Prime Minister Pitt considered a union
would both strengthen the connection and relationship between the two countries and to give
Ireland big chances of providing it with opportunities for economic develop ments. It would
also be easier to grant concessions to the Roman Catholics, since they would be a minority in
a United Kingdom.
As it was expected, the union met with a strong resistance and rejection in the Irish
Parliament, but as they say the British go vernment knows how to play under tables, it could
purchase the votes that were against this union, either by cash or by bestowal of honors.
Indeed it could secure a majority in both the British and Irish Houses that carried the union on
March 28, 1800. The Act of Union comes into effect on Jan. 1, 1801.

8 British prime minister . (1783 -1801, 1804 -06).

10
1.5.2. Components of Act of Union
The Act of Union brought by the British government only for one main reason which
was to assert the domination of the British on the Ireland not only territorially b ut politically,
socially and economically. British parliament imposed many amendments in order to
assimilate both parliaments; Act of Union suggests that Ireland was to be joined to Great
Britain into a single kingdom, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , there was a
clear intention to abolish the Dublin parliament and Ireland to be represented at Westminster
by 100 MPs, four Lords Spiritual and twenty eight Lords Tem poral (all were Anglicans).
The Act also obliged the Irish to accept the Angli can Church as the official Church of Ireland
and there must be a free trade between Ireland and Britain. Albeit, Ireland could keep its own
courts of Justice and civil service but there were no Catholics allowed to hold public office
also there was to be n o Catholic Emancipation.
Ruling Ireland direct ly from Westminster solved nothing. The union was a political
expedient in wartime, solving none of the grievances in Ireland over land, religion or politics.
It had no social dimension at all. Ireland's econ omic problems were also ignored. The Act did
increase the sense of grievance in Ireland however.
Pitt did not see the Act of Union as a solution to the Irish problem. He knew that social
and economic reforms were essential, as was Catholic Emancipation. Ge orge III refused to
allow full emancipation so Pitt resigned in protest because he had intended to follow the Act
of Union with reforms.
The Act became a liability rather than an asset. Peers holding Irish estates opposed
concessions to Roman Catholics, a s did the King, because of vested interests and religious
bigotry. The threat to the status quo and potential violence together with patriotic zeal against
Catholics stopped full Catholic Emancipation and ended all Pitt's intended reforms.

11
1.6. The Great Irish Potato Famine
The Great Irish Potato Famine or also called the Great Hunger9 was a disaster that hit
Ireland between 1845 and lasted until last 1851, causing the deaths of a one million people
and the emigration of up to 2.5 mi llion.10
1.6.1. The Roots of the Famine
People began growing potatoes in Ireland sometime between 1585 and 1600. Ireland
had excellent potato -growing conditions: moist, cool air and deep soil that crumbled easily.
At first Irish farmers grew potatoes to s upplement their main diet of oats, other grains,
and dairy products. However, potatoes soon proved advantageous over other foods. They had
great nutritional value. Potatoes were also inexpensive, and it was easy to grow them in a
large quantities.
Irelan d. In 1845, the country‘s population was 9 million11. By then, potatoes were a
vital part of the diet —and often were the only food for two -thirds of Ireland‘s population. On
average, adults in Ireland ate 10 pounds of potatoes per day! There was a drawback to
depending on potatoes as the main or only source of food. Now and then the potato crop
spoiled or died. There were several causes for this. Sometimes the ground froze, and the
plants were ruined. Droughts (periods of insufficient rain) sometimes dried o ut the potatoes,
which normally consist of 80 percent water.

1.6.2. Causes of the Famine
The main cause of the Irish great famine was potato blight, a fungus called
(phytophthera infestans )12 attacks the potato corps and cause its failure by making it rot in the
ground and omit an unpleasant stench 2. This catastrophe started in 1845 with the arrival of a
strain of Phytophthora arrived accidentally from North America, and that same year Ireland
had unusually cool and moist weather, in which the blight thriv ed.
The potato was the staple food of one third of the population who are Irish rural poor farmers,
its spreading left millions exposed to starvation and death from illness like typhus and
dysentery (referred to at the time as ‗famine fever‘) and bad nutr ition13, and also to the mass
evictions of the landlords to their tenants. 14

9 Kinealy Christine . This Great Calamity. Gill & Macmillan. ISBN 0-7171 -1881 -9
10 Ed.s John Crowley, William Smith Mike Murphy ,‖ Atlas of the Great Irish Famine,‖ Cork University Press,
2012. p. 13 -17.
11 Fradin Dennis B, and Judy Fradin,‖ The Ir ish Potato Famine. Vol. 13 -18. Marshall Cavendish,‖ 2011.
12 E.M. Crawford, ―Famine: 7he Irish Experience ‖ 1989.
13 For an overview see O Grada, Ireland a New Economic History, p177 -178.
14 Ó Gráda, Cormac, ― Ireland‘s Great Famine: Inter disciplinary Perspect ives,‖ Dublin Press, 2006 ISBN 978-1-
904558 -57-6.

12
Moreover, insect enemies could harm potatoes, as could fungi, viruses, and bacterial
infections. Between 1800 and 1844 alone, the potato crop failed in one part of Ireland or
another in twenty -two different years —half the time. If a country depends heavily on one
crop for food, a poor harvest can lead to widespread hunger. Potato crop failures have caused
many famines in Ireland. But starvation isn‘t the only way famines claim li ves. People who
are deprived of food for long periods become weak and subject to disease. Starvation and
disease have claimed thousands of lives at time — mostly poor Catholic families —during
famines in Ireland. Usually, the failure of the potato crop occu rred in just portions of Ireland.
Most of the country still produced healthy potatoes. Then, in 1845, the potato crop failure was
so huge that it resulted in the disaster known as the Great Famine.
However, the crisis was greatly compounded by the social a nd political structure in
Ireland in the 1840s. It was a watershed in the history of Ireland which was then part of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland1.

1.6.3. The British Response
The response of the British Government, directly responsible for governing Ireland
since 1801, was also unsatisfactory. Especially the British administration in Dublin was
overwhelmed by the famine crisis, seeing five Chief Secretaries and four Lord Lieutenants in
just six years from 1845 -1851 each one had a differe nt relief program and policy to solve the
problem of this crisis.
Their decision to drastically cut relief measures in mid -1847, half way through the
famine, so that Irish tax payers, as opposed to the Imperial Treasury, would foot the bill for
famine reli ef, certainly contributed greatly to the mass death that followed15.
The government‘s efforts to relieve the famine were inadequate although Conservative
Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel continued to allow the export of grain from Ireland to Great
Britain, he did what he could to provide relief in 1845 and early 1846. He authorized the
import of corn from USA, which helped avert some starvation.

15 Lyons, Francis Stewart Leland, ―Ireland since the famine, ―(1973) Fontana.

13

1.6.4. Results of the Great Famine
After a struggle with famine Ireland found itself in a severe trouble —for a much
longer period of time than earlier famines. In 1845, nearly half of Ireland‘s potato crop was
lost to the blight. The situation worsened in 1846, when the blight destroyed nearly 80 percent
of the potato crop. In 1847, Phytophthora infestans ruined one-third of the potato crop. In
1848, the blight killed half the country‘s potatoes16. Farmers who lost their potato crop still
had to pay rent to their landlords. Families who couldn‘t pay their rent were thrown off their
lands. To make sure the poor fam ilies didn‘t come back, landlords often ―tumbled,‖ or
knocked down, their tenants‘ little homes.

The people whose huts and cabins were tumbled usually had nowhere else to live.
Many of them simply dug a deep hole in the ground and built a roof over it wi th sticks and
patches of turf. This burrow, which was called a scalp, provided little protection against rain
and cold. As thousands of families who grew little or nothing besides potatoes ran out of food,
hunger set in across much of Ireland. The resultin g famine grew worse with time. People
became so desperate that they wandered around the countryside in search of something to eat.
They devoured blackberries and dandelion roots, and when those were gone they ate weeds,
grass, and the leaves and bark of tr ees. As a result about one million people died from
starvation or from typhus.

16Gribben Arthur. ― The Great Famine and the Irish Diaspora in America ,‖ University of Massachusetts Press,
1999.

14

Figure 217

17 . Ireland the Famine years and population percentage.

15
1.7. Diaspora: Irish beyond bounders
In the aftermath of the Great Famine, Ireland was exhausted . The population had
fallen dramatically through death from hunger and disease,18 and from mass emigration. Over
a million people had fled to seek a new life in North America, and possibly the same number
in Great Britain. The history of Irish Immigration to America began with the forced migration
throug h the Irish slave trade during colonial era. The remarkable mass migration of the Irish
was in the 1800‘s during the devastation and destruction that was caused by Irish Potato
Famine. Mainly the Irish immigrants have been primarily Catholics.

1.7.1. Reasons for the Emigration
Many people wonder why would the Irish want to leave Ireland and why moving to
America? The reasons for early Irish Immigration were to escape from political and religious
persecution. Dire poverty , which was caused by Great Famine that forced people of Ireland to
emigrate from Ireland to seek a new life in the United States.

1.7.1.1. Stages of Emigrating beyond boundaries
The Irish Emigration to different parts of the world passed by many stages and in
every stage there was an eff ective reason that forced and pushed the Irish people to leave their
homes, lands behind. The stages below will explain the reasons behind the massive
emigration.

1.7.1.2. Irish Immigration to America in the 1800's: The Voyage to
America – the Emigrant Sh ips
Many of the Anti -Catholic Penal Laws were repealed in the 1790's and Catholic Irish
were able to immigrate to America. Irish Immigration to America significantly increased in
the early 1800's, inspired by the American ideals of "Life, Liberty and the p ursuit of
Happiness". Shipping company agents placed immigration advertisements in Irish newspapers
and journals. Posters were displayed in Irish towns and villages. Irish immigrants in the early
1800's undertook the voyage on sailing ships which took anything up to 3 months. Immigrants
left from ports all over Ireland including Derry, Cork, Limerick and Galway. Many were
offered free passage from Ireland to Liverpool where the majority of ships bound for America
started their voyage.

18 Arthur. ―The Great famine and the Irish Diaspora in America ,‖.199.

16
The Irish emigrants t o America always traveled in the cheap Steerage Class. The
conditions on the emigrant sailing ships were dreadful due to overcrowding and cramped
accommodation – up to 1000 emigrants were crowded into steerage. Steerage contained 2 or 3
tiers of wooden bun ks, 6 ft. long by 6 ft. wide that were shared by 4 emigrants. The
horrendous journeys were made worse by sea sickness and the crowded, unsanitary conditions
also led to outbreaks of cholera and typhus.19

1.7.1. 3. Irish Immigration to America in the 1800's: Canals,
Roads, Railways and Mines
The early 1800's marked the beginning of the Industrialization of America and the age
of steam power and the railways. Irish Immigration to America increased with the rising
numbers of jobs for cheap, unskilled laborers. Anti-Catholic, particularly anti –Irish Catholic,
feelings led to the formation of the American or Know -Nothing Party20. The Irishmen
provided the backbreaking labor to build the canals, roads and railways of America and were
in great demand. American contra ctors placed advertisements in Irish newspapers advertising
vacancies for big construction projects for a dollar -a-day. Other Irish workers went to the coal
mines of Pennsylvania.

1.7.1. 4. Irish Immigration to America in the 1800's: Irish Potato
Famine
Irish Immigration to America in the 1800's rocketed as Ireland was devastated by the
Irish Potato Famine (1845 -1849) and the potatoes in the fields of Ireland turned black and
rotted in the ground. The devastation of the Irish Potato Famine, the 'Great Hunge r' is hard to
imagine. People were faced with death by starvation. Thousands of men, women and children
resembled skeletons with wasted limbs and emaciated faces. Ireland was filled by the endless
crying of malnourished, starving children.
The Irish Potat o Famine led to terrible associated diseases such as typhus and
dysentery. Highly contagious typhus was named the 'Black Fever' as it blackened the skin.
The Irish Potato Famine was made even worse by unusually harsh weather conditions as
Ireland was subje cted to bitter cold gales of snow, sleet and hail. The only escape was to
immigrate to America. During the period of the Irish Potato Famine 1845 -1849 , the
population of Ireland dropped from 8 million to 6 million due to death from starvation or
emigration . The Irish Immigration to America during this terrible period of history was made
on what were called the ―Famine Ships" or the "Coffin Ships".

19 Miller Kerby A. Emigrants and Exiles, ― Ireland and the Irish Exodus to North America‖ Oxford University
Press, 1988.
20Kerby. Emigrants and Exiles .1988.

17

1.7.1.5. Irish Immigration to America in the 1800's: Irish Potato
Famine – Coffin Ships and the American Wake
A massive number of people were forced to join the Immigration to America during
the Irish21 Potato Famine making the vo yage on what were called the ―Famine Ships" or the
"Coffin Ships". Many of the immigrants never reached their destination due to starvati on,
black fever or other diseases – the ships became their coffins. The ritual known as the
'American Wake' was introduced. It was a wake for the living as the departure to America was
seen as a kind of death. In the 1840s, the immigrants from Ireland cons tituted nearly half of
all immigrants to the United States. Most were poor and educated and found work laboring on
the new transportation systems or in the coal mines of Pennsylvania. By 1850 nearly one
million Irish, including a large number of Catholics, immigrated to the United States, nearly
half of all immigrants to the nation. Anti -Irish and Anti -Catholic, feelings led to the formation
of the Know -Nothing Party.

1.7.1. 6. Irish Immigration to America in the 1800's: The Panic of
1873 and the Long Depre ssion
The financial Panic of 1873 led to the period in American history known Long
Depression, which lasted for six years and resulted in economic hardships, protests,
demonstrations and the first nationwide strikes. The Molly Maguires, a militant, secret society
of Irishmen were involved in strike in the coal mines of Pennsylvania.

21 Kerby. Emigrants and Exiles.1988.

18
1.7.2. Irish emigration records
Obviously, the principal reason of this immigration was The Great Famine. Although
the famine itself probably resulted in about 1 milli on deaths, the emigration pushed the
population to drop by a further 3 million. About 1 million of these are estimated to have
emigrated in the immediate famine period, with the depression that followed continuing the
decline until the second half of the 2 0th century. These migrants largely ended up in North
America, with some in Australia and in Britain.
Between 1845 and 1855, 1.5 million people left for good. In 1845, emigration was at
the pre -famine r ate of 50,000 per year. In 1846, 100,000 left. It peak ed in 1847, when 250,000
left. Over the next 5 years it averaged 200,000 per year, before the numbers fell off. By 1855,
the rate was down to 70,000 per year in the period over the famine decade 1841 -1850, 1.3
million people emigrated overseas. Of these, 7 0% went to the USA, 28% to Canada and 2%
to Australia. Most people paid their own fares to make the trip, although perhaps 3% had their
fares paid by their Landlords. The cheapest fares were to Canada, around 55 shillings, while a
fare to the USA cost betw een 70 shillings and £5 (100 shillings) . There were two ways one
could travel; either in a standard class or steerage. Standard passengers had berths and could
walk on the deck. Steerage passengers were crowded together below decks and often could
not use the deck. For many emigrants, steerage was the most they could afford.
In the 17th and 18th centuries many Irish immigrated as indentured servants to the
American colonies together with many Scots -Irish Presbyterian farmers. The rebellions in
Ireland du ring the Napoleonic Wars and the victory of the British led to high numbers of Irish
Protestants being transported to Australia. Australia also became a favored destination for the
transportation of convicts. Emigration continued well into the 19th century with some
200,000 people up to 1840 seeking a better life in America from the poverty and poor potato
crops. The greatest movement of the Irish out of the country occurred during the devastating
Irish potato famine between the years 1845 to 1851. The Grea t Famine resulted in massive
emigration from Ireland with some two million people settling in America by 1854. It was
common for would be emigrants to first sail to Liverpool for their outward bound voyage to
America. However, many stayed in Liverpool or d ispersed to other parts of England

1.8. Home Rule: an attempt for Self -governance
Home Rule was the demand that the governance of Ireland be returned from
Westminster to a domestic parliament in Ireland. Ireland had had its own parliament up to
1800 when the Act of Union ended Irish representation at the parliament sitting at College
Green in Dublin. Under the Union, MPs elected for Irish constituencies went over to
Westminster and sat alongside English, Scottish, and Welsh MPs in a legisl ature that had
jurisdiction over the whole of both islands as well as the colonies of the British Empir e.22

22 Jackson, Alvin. Home Rule : An Irish History 1800 -2000. Oxford University Press, 2004.

19

1.8.1. Beginnings of the dream
Years before passing of the Act of Union in1800 , Ireland had its own parliament and
ruled its own people. When the Act of Union came into effect in 1801, the Kingdom of
Ireland was merged with Great Britain to form the United Kingdom. Members of Parliament
(MP) that were elected in Ireland from this point on would sit in Westminster, London and
decisions about the runn ing of Ireland would also be made from London. Ireland would
remain under British rule until 1922. In this time, there would be several attempts at
destabilizing and revising the relationship between Ireland and Great Britain, but it wasn‘t
until 1870 that a political movement would gain any serious support for Home Rule.
1.8.2. The beginning of the Home Rule Movement
On 19th May 1870 Isaac Butt founded the ‗Irish Home Government Association‘. The
Association was formed ‗for the purpose of obtaining for Ir eland the right of self -government
by means of a national parliament.‘ Present at the first meeting was a cross section of people
of varying religious and political persuasions as well as landowners, tenant rights activists and
supporters and sympathizers of the failed Fenian rebellion of 1867. Those present believed
that Ireland was suffering as a result of being run from Westminster, as evidenced by
outbreaks of rebellion and the on -going dispute between landlords and tenants over land.

The Association was formed as a pressure group rather than a political party, but over
the next three years, members of the group contested a number of by -elections with mixed
success. In November 1873 the Home Government Association held a National conference
where they reformed into a new organization , the ‗Home Rule Lea gue‘, with the same goal –
self government for Ireland as a part of the United Kingdom. The League contested the 1874
general election winning 60 seats and becoming the third party in Parliament (in each election
since 1852 only two parties had been elected into government). Isaac Butt‘s influence within
the party began to decline as the membership became divided as to what tactics to use in the
pursuit of Home Rule.

Butt preferred to address parliament and follow procedure, whilst more radical
members such as Joseph Gillis Biggar and Charles Stewart Parnell preferred ‗obstructionism‘
in order to force parliament to pay more attention to issues relating to Ireland. Elected as a
Home Rule League MP in a by -election in 1875, Parnell‘s influence within the party grew
rapidly amongst both Fenians and Home Rulers, leading him to being elected chairman of the
party in 1880 after the death of Isaac Butt in 1879 (prior to Parnell‘s nomination to leadership
in May, the League won 63 seats in the general election earlier in the year under the
leadership of William Shaw). In 1882 Parnell changed the name of the ‗Home Rule League‘
to the ‗Irish Parliamentary Party‘.

20

1.8.3. First Home Rule Bill
In April 1886, British Liberal Prime Minister William Gladstone introduced the
Government of Ireland Bill ( or First Home Rule Bill). Gladstone wrote the Bill himself,
without the input of Irish MPs or his own ministers. The Bill was debated for two months and
on the 7th June – the day before the vote for the Bill was due to take place – Gladstone made a
three hour speech to the House of Commons in an attempt to increase support for the Bill. On
the 8th June, the Bill was defeated by 343 votes to 413. Despite Parnell‘s reservation s about
some aspects of the Bill, it had the support of the IPP, but the issue of Home Rule caused a
split in the Liberal Party, leading to 93 Liberals voting aga inst the Bill. Liberals such as
Joseph Chamberlain felt that giving Ireland its own parliament would cause Britain and
Ireland to drift apart. As a result of the Bill being defeated and the Liberal Party being split,
Gladstone resigned and another election was called for July.
The 1886 general election proved to be a reversal of fortunes for the Li berals, as the
Conservatives won the most seats with the Liberal Unionists – formed by those who split from
the Liberals – winning 77 and helping the Conservatives to form a government. The Liberals
took power back again in the general election of 1892, bu t again did not have enough seats to
form a government and again relied on the support of the IPP to form a government (now
under the leadership of John Redmond and John Dillon).
1.8.4. Second Home Rule Bill
Returning as Prime Minister after the 1892 gen eral election, Gladstone attempted for
a second time to enact a Government of Ireland Bill. The Bill was introduced in February
1893. After much debate, the Bill was passed in the House of Commons by 43 votes (347 to
304). Despite going one step further th an the previous Bill by making it to a vote in the House
of Lords, it was rejected after four days of debate by a vote of 419 to 41 (Bills had to be
passed in both the House of Commons and the House of Lords before becoming legislation).23
Gladstone decided against resigning and calling another election, as he believed that Irish
Home Rule could not be passed in the House of Lords.

23 Alvin. “Home Rule”.2004

21

1.9. Conclusion
The relationship between Ireland and England is one of the most c omplicated
relationships all over the world, due to its non unstoppable wars, rebellions, and struggles.
The history of both countries Ireland and England is shaped by tensions, wars, caused by
religious, territorial conflicts, and many indigniti es suffere d by the Irish people.

22
Chap ter Two :

2.1. Introduction
The adventure of the Irish Question had taken different ways and knew great events that
were recorded in the Irish history from the beginning of the 20th Century until the beginning
of the 21st Century. This century was a turning point in the Irish history, starting from the War
of Independence (1912 -1922), and the Rise of Irish Republic, ending the 20th century by
peace negotiations and Friday Agreements1998 aftermaths tha t continued until the beginning
of the 21st Century.

23
2.2. The Road to Independence (1912 -1922)
2.2.1. The Third Home Rule1914
After the two unsuccessful Home Rules 1886 and 1893, the attempts for a third home
rule became a necessity in 1 910. By the beginning of the 20th Century Ireland was divided,
when Irish Nationalists wanted Ireland to be an independent nation from the rule of England,
so they wanted their Home Rule in Dublin, meanwhile the Unionists focused on Ulster and
they wanted to remain a part of the United Kingdom24.
History said that the Irish attempts did not get that much of interest from the British
government, in 1910 the liberal leader and Prime Minister Herbert Asquith after he succeeded
in the general election. Asquith h ad the idea that the Irish would support the liberal reforms to
the House of Lords when he reduced their ability to delay bills and he knew the importance of
John Redmond the leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP) and his party to form a new
governm ent25. In April 1912, a new government of Ireland and a Third Home Rule were
introduced to the British Parliament, but the House of Lords refused (vetoed) and they could
delay the Bill for two years.
In 1914, Home Rule Bill would become law and the official policy governing the
Anglo -Irish relations. When the House of Commons had passed the Home Rule, a great
celebration started in Dublin. However, the Unionists hated the whole idea and they started
different campaigns against Home Rule led by Edward Carson, so they formed Ulster
Volunteer Force (UVF) to defend the Unionists, meanwhile the Nationalists responded by
founding the Irish Volunteers (IV). Unfortunately, the government announced on July 31,
1914 that the third Home Rule Bill would not be introduced to parliament, because of the
possibility of starting a civil war between Nationalists (IV) and Unionists (UVF), and the
outbreak of World War I, so the Home Bill would be delayed.26

24 . Sullivan Tim, ‗‘ Irish Home Rule and Resistance, 1912 -1916‘‘Loyola University History: one, 2 002-2003.
25 .Century Ireland, «Ireland 1912 -1916: An Animated History from Home Rule to Easter Rising‖, YouTube
video, 5:15, mar 26, 2016, http://m.youtube.com/watch?v=722s -m6.
26 .Century Ireland, «Ireland 1912 -1916: An Animated History from Home Rule to E aster Rising‖, YouTube
video, 5:15, mar 26, 2016, http://m.you tube.com/watch? =722s -m6.

24
2.2.2. Easter Rising 1916
When Germany attacked Belgium Britain fel t danger from the attack, so it entered the
war, the British government promised that if Irish Volunteers would support it, it would
guarantee the achievement of Home Rule. In return, John Redmond responded by
encouraging Irish men to join the British Army and fight against Germany.
Unionists were opposed to the idea of Home Rule, because they wanted to stay with
UK, so the UVF imported guns and they had training. In response to this act, the IV had
unlimited supplies of weapons to fight back. By the 1916, the Irish Republican Brotherhood
(IRB) was not satisfied with Home Rule idea, but they wanted full independence from Britain
the one that is in war, the IRB got the idea of ―England‘s difficulty is Ireland‘s opportunity‖27.
There was a split in the IV, beca use some believed that they should support Britain in the war
to achieve Home Rule idea and to gain some military experience from joining the war against
Germany.
With the spring of 1916, the Irish Nationalism had emerged as a cultural movement in
the isla nd, the IRB declared a new republic with Patrick Pears as president and they believed
that the only solution to fix the past and to create the future was to rebel against Britain. The I
V was planning for a peaceful rising but on Easter Sunday April 23, 19 16, while the IRB had
secret plans to start an armed rebellion against British Rule.
The rebels decided to delay the Rising until April 24, 1916, because of the German
ship that was captured by the British forces, their targets were to seize prominent bui lding
(GPO) in Dublin. Britain saw these actions as treason, so it declared martial law and in less
than a week 28,000 soldiers controlled Dublin and more than 400 civilians were killed in the
Easter Rising that crushed on April 29, 191628. The aftermath of Easter Rising was
catastrophic when in May 1916, about 16 leaders were executed and many people were
suspected.

27. Collins Jude, ―England‘s Difficulty is Ireland‘s Opportunity, ―November 24, 2015,
http://www.judecollins.com/2015/11/englands -difficulty -would -be-irelands -opportuni ty-the-irb-and-the-
planning -of-the-easter -rising -by-ciaran -mc/.
28 . D Roddy John , «Easter Rising in 8minutes,‖You Tube video, 9:46, Jan 19, 2016,

25

Figure 329

29 The Easter Rising and the British Army Troops . 29

26
2.2.3. The War of Independence (1919 -1921)
After the failure to be independent and the Easter Rising 1916, the Irish people started
to question themselves. Why the British government is being cruel about our independence?
What is wanted? Two years later Sinn Fein promised to make Ireland a republic after their
success in the general election of 1918. Sinn Fein won the m ajority of the seats (73 out of
105) where it marked the policy of refusing to sit in Westminster. In 1919, Sinn Fein the first
Dail Eireann as the parliament of independent Irish Republic and Eamon De Valera was its
president; also, the IRA announced that they would defend the republic, while Westminster
stated the Dail was illegal. 30
The War of Independence began in January 1919, when the Irish realized they could
not beat the British army in a direct way, so the IRA attacked a patrol killing 2 police of ficers
to provoke war at Soloheadbeg. From 1919, the IRA focused on the Royal Irish Constabulary
(RIC) and they ambushed them using the tactics of guerilla warfare of Boers. Cathal Brugha
was appointed as the minister of defense in the first Dail and Micha el Collins was the one in
charge to kill British spies and the detectives who used to arrest the republicans.
Moreover, the Irish war of independent emerged allover Ireland including rural areas,
and hunger strikes by the Irish prisoners in Britain (who we re released later in 1920).
Violence intensified in the beginning of 1920 this actions led to arrest many of Sinn Fein
political leaders, the British retaliation started by burning down the building and reinforcing
the RIC with two paramilitary units calle d Black and Tans & Auxiliary division, these two
units used brutal actions in Ireland. Some Sinn Fein figures such as Arthur Griffith hated this
use of violence from both sides.31
When IRA killed the two protestant officers, the authorities in North Irelan d formed
the Ulster Special Constabulary (USC) and more than 100 people were killed, many Catholic
houses were burnt out. On 11 November 1920 the House of Commons passed the
Government of Ireland Act which devided Ireland into North and South and gave both parts
Home Rule.
In Bloody Sunday, the IRA killed14 officers ,as a response to Bloody Sunday a force
of RIC Black and Tans & Auxiliaries killed 15 civilians in a football match in Dublin. The
biginning of 1921, around 1,000 people were killed and these violence acts were harsher in
Dublin, Munster, and Belfast.32

30 .History In Fiv e, ―The Irish War of Independence(1919 -1921),‖ You Tube Video, 5:11,Apr 16, 2015,
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=xBl7f -8hsMc
31 . J. Bowyer Bell, ‗‘ The Irish Troubles since 1916,‖ School of international affairs, Colombia, no. (1993):2 -3.
32 .The Irish histo ry, ―The Irish War of Independence‖ ( by John Dorney), accessed September 18, 2012,
http://www.theirishstory.com/2012/09/18/the -irish-war-of-independence -a-brief -overview/

27
In addition, Martial Laws were declared in the area of Munster, where the British
Army was coming in great numbers to start house burnings and executions to a great number
of prisoners. The IRA as a response to the British violence against the Irish people, they
attacked the loyalist‘s property and burnt it down, shooting police officers, and army officers.
The second half of 1921 was violent than the first one, when the fighting between the
Loya lists (Protestant) and the Republicans (Catholic) were extensive in Belfast.33
On 11 July 1921, a truce was being negotiated by both the Republicans and the British
when the talks on a political settlement could begin; this truce gave time to IRA to recove r
from their lost of ammunition and weapons, to regroup, and recruit.
The IRA responsible thought that the Truce was temporary, but they were wrong when
Michael Collins and Arthur Griffith signed the Anglo -Irish Treaty that gave North Ireland 26
counties and the 6 other counties remained British. Britain disestablished the 1919 Republic,
but announced Ireland as Free State, which became independent more than the Home Rule act
of 1912; this treaty would create a civil war later on34. However, this treaty di d not stop
violence in the South, where British troops remained until December 1922, because of IRA
attacks that were led by Michael Collins who would be killed later and the Loyalists acts
against Catholics in Belfast.

2.3. The Irish Division & the Split between Unionists and
Separatists
2.3.1. The Civil War (1922 -1923)
The main cause of making a conflict between the republicans was the Anglo -Irish
Treaty, while this last did not help those who were with De Valera, the treaty carried the
following terms :
-the partition of North and South Ireland was recognized.
-Ireland would be called Irish Free State.
-The King stayed the Head of State.
-The Dail had to take the Oath of Allegiance.
-British navy kept three Ports in Ireland.
-Irish Free State remained a part of the British Empire.

33 .The Irish history, ―The Irish War of Independence‖ ( by John Dorney), accessed Se ptember 18, 2012,
http://www.theirishstory.com/2012/09/18/the -irish-war-of-independence -a-brief -overview/
34. J. Bowyer Bell, ‗‘ the Irish Troubles since 1916,‖ School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia, no.
(1993):2 -3.

28
The president of the Dail Republic Eamon De Valera opposed this treaty, because it
did not serve the full independence from Britain and he started negotiations with the prime
minister directly after the truce, while Griffith a nd Collins argued that it was all that was on
offer for both sides. On 7 January 1922, De Valera resigned from Sinn Fein to be replaced by
Arthur Griffith as President, because the Dail voted against him and his supporters -64 voted
for it while 57 voted a gainst it35. This act would made a civil war later on and created a split
between IRA and Sinn Fein members, those who supported Griffith were called (regulars),
whereas those who supported De Valera and opposed the Anglo -Irish Treaty were called
(Irregular s).
Several months later, the British troops prepared to leave Ireland ending by this the
war of independence and controlling the Dail, but they leaved a civil war between the
Republicans of Ireland. Violence spread across the Free State Ireland when the I rregulars
started to lock out for weapons, plans to stop the treaty the public supported the treaty and
Griffith supporters won the majority of votes in the elections. De Valera challenged the treaty
supporters directly when his group (Irregulars) occupied the justice center and its massive
four courts buildings in Dublin on 13 April 1922.
After the election, Collins ordered the building to be bombed and by July, the Free
State was in control of the Capital. As the summer progressed, the better -equipped Re gulars
pushed the Irregulars out of the towns and cities toward countryside far away from urban
places.
In August, the new state suffered two major loses when on the 12, the President Arthur
Griffith died from exhaustion. 10 days later Michael Collins was ambushed at Béal Na
mBláth in Cork and killed. The new leaders of the Free State, W.T. Cosgrave and Kevin O
Higgins adopted a much tougher attitude. Military Tribunals were set up and leading about 77
anti-treaty figures who were executed without trial36. In April1923 the leader of the Irregulars,
Liam Lynch was killed and his successor Frank Aiken called on his troops to surrender. On
May 24, 1923, the Civil War ended.

35 . The Irish history, ―Th e Irish War of Independence‖ ( by John Dorney), accessed September 18, 2012,
http://www.theirishstory.com/2012/09/18/the -irish-war-of-independence -a-brief -overview/

36 . J. Bowyer Bell, ‗‘ the Irish Troubles since 1916,‖ School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia, no.
(1993):6 -7.

29
The results of the Civil War were too heavy, about 4,000 people were killed (more
than the victims in the War of Independence were), and Ireland was ruined37. The enormously
bitter civil war would divide families and friends for generations. The conflict that would
build another Ireland would not be economic, social, religious, regional, or any other factor,
but the position been taken on the treaty of making Ireland as a Free State would shape the
relations of country for the next fifty years to a different type of struggle, split, and conflict.

Figure 4 38

37 . Colaiste Eanna, ‖Political Development in 20th Century,‖ history revision, January, 2011,
http://colaisteeanna.ie/wp -content/uploads/2011/01/History -Revision -Political -Developments -in-20th-century –
Ireland.pdf
38 Civil War in Ireland.

30
2.3.2. The Split between U nionists and Separatists & the Rise of
Republic Eire (1923 -1937)
The Civil War ended with the fail of rejecting the Anglo -Irish Treaty, the anty -Treaty
members had no part in the political side of the Free State, and the main opposition was
rejected and e xcluded from the Dail, because of refusing to take the oath of allegiance to the
king George V. Over 11,000 Republicans were in prison, among them the president of the
Dail Eamon De Valera who was in prison about 11 months. Hundred of Republicans went
hung er strike, and the IRA regrouped looking for the unification of Ireland and the total
freedom from Britain.39
W. T. Cosgrave the leader of Cumann Na nGaedheal party was elected as the president
of executive council, when De Valera refused the act of Free S tate. The ways to partition
appeared, when Cosgrave had two meetings with Northern Ireland‘s Prime Minister James
Craig to discuss the territorial division between the two states. Cosgrave and Craig had two
meeting later, but they fail to have an agreement , Cosgrave asked to set a commission to deal
with the problem of the borders and to avoid another conflict that would happen. The British
Government appointed J.R Fisher as a representative, whereas the Free State appointed Eoin
Mac Neil to find a solution about the territories with the Free State.
On December 25, 1925, the commission set a meeting to put a final point for the
discussions about the territories. Northern Ireland putted hands on: parts of east Donegal and
North Monaghan, while the Free State took pats of Tyron and Fermanagh. As a result, the
existing border between the separated states remained and the commission ended the conflict
of the Irish territories, when Cosgrave said:‖ today we have sown the seeds of peace…‖40
The Irish people did no t let the issue of partition go away, even though the period of
stability witnessed that time. Kevin O‘Higgins send a historical speech on January 1, 1926 on
the 2RN Radio (known as Radio Eireann later), where he talked about the effects of the Civil
War o n Northern Ireland and the protestants there calling for unity.
O‘Higgins said:‖we had an opportunity of building up a worthy state that would attract
and, in time, absorb and assimilate those elements. We preferred to burn out our houses, blow
up our own bridges, rob our own banks, and saddle ourselves with millions of debt for the
maintenance of an army. Generally we preferred to practice upon ourselves worse indignities
than the British practiced on us since Cromwell …And now we wonder why the Orangeme n
are not hopping like so many fleas across the border in their anxiety to come within our fold
and jurisdiction…‖41

39 See: ://www.irishidentity.com/stories/growingup.htm
40 See: ://www.irishidentity.com/stories/growingup.htm
41 See: ://www.irishidentity.com/stories/growingup.htm

31
In March 1926, Sinn Fein witnessed the resign of Eamon De Valera and formed his
own party Fianna Fail. The Nationalists and even the Repub licans believed that the time of
using force had passed; Fianna Fail and the anti -treaty side went further in the Irish politics.
In 1927, Eamon De Valera and his party won 44 seats in the General Elections, and the new
Dail met De Valera and his party mem bers to gain admittance, but they left the room when
asked to take the oath of allegiance. However, three of IRA members assassinated Kevin
O‘Higgins, which led indirectly to be replaced by Fianna Fail leader De Valera on 10 July
1927.
Furthermore, a seco nd General Election in the same year of making the first one,
Fianna Fail Party saw an increase in its seats to become 57 seats. The economic depression
and the crash of Wall Street 1929 affected the British government imposed additional taxes on
the goods that come to the Free State, so the government failed in making a good economic
policies that might lead the west to get out from the depression. However, politics in Ireland
was working slowly, and the majority of the treaty rules came to end, when Dubli n returned
the treaty ports and the British privileges were negotiated away.
Another General Election was made in February 1932 the results of 1thid elections
went to De Valera party Fianna Fail that got 72 seats defeating Cosgrave. The Prime Minister
De Valera formed the new Dail within a short time, he guaranteed to release political
prisoners, stop paying taxation of landowners (farmers) to the British Government, and he
formed an alliance with the liberal party to become the head of Fianna fail Govern ment. 42
De Valera started to break the terms of the treaty and to remove the Oath of Allegiance
De Valera said:‖the program of Flanna Fail has not been definitely adopted as the national
policy of the Irish people. That program aims to reunify Ireland and securing independence,
Ireland United, Ireland free, Ireland self supporting and self reliance showing the world the
Christian Gaelic culture, these are the aspects of youth Ireland‖43
Cumann Na nGaedheal the National Party and the Blueshirts formed the Un ited
Ireland Party (known later as Fine Gael) appointing Eoin O‘Duffy as its leader. IRA was
declared as illegal organization and De Valera abolished it in 1936 after the murder of three
civilians. The Irish Prime Minister succeeded in removing the king fr om the Free State
constitution and abolishing the post Governor -General, where De Valera‘s constitution was
passed by the Dail to make Fianna Fail as the largest party again.

42 Jean Mercereau,‖ From ―Criminal Adventurer‖ to ―the Most Important Irishman of Our Time‖: the Irish Times
and Eamon de Valera, 1916 -1973,‖ Instituto Politécnico de Leiria & Universidade do Minho, Portugal, no.
(2011):75.
43. P Mulholland, ―A State Apart 1 Separate government Ireland 1920s -60s,‖ YouTube Video, 29:13, Mar 5,
2017,

32
The Eire came to existence in 1937. The constitution consisted of three main articles
appointed to Northern Ireland speaking about the full unification of Ireland. The national
territory of Ireland consisted of the whole island and had the 32 counties, but the Unionists
who were majority of Protestants disliked the idea of De Valer a about the unification of
Ireland, because the wanted to maintain a part of UK.44

2.3.3. The Republic of Ireland (1949)
Ireland neutrality in WW II and the contribution of North Ireland to serve Britain
against the German Nazi led to a meeting, when the B ritish representatives and the Eire
representatives decided to discuss the term used in international occasions. UK delegates
insisted on the full name ―United Kingdom of Great Britain and North Ireland‖ in every
international occasion, while Eire made its own later. In 1948, the Republic of Ireland act was
introduced and signed by President T. O‘Kelly in 1948 and took effects on the 33 anniversary
of the Easter Rising.45
The 1948 Republic of Ireland Act made confusion about the name used for the state,
also gave the president of the Republic the authority to deal with external affairs (Executive
Authority). Costello the leader of Fine Gael wanted Ireland out of the Common Wealth and
countered De Valera‘s worldwide campaign, the declaration of a republic by Fine Gael
Taoiseach, in order to steal Fianna Fail republicanism. The Eire became known as the
Republic of Ireland in 1949, while the Republic membership in the Commonwealth ended,
because Ireland did not participate in Commonwealth affaires for many years .
Prime Minister of North Ireland Brook asked for and received guarantees from the
British government about the constitutional position of Northern Ireland, Brook called for a
general election, which became an effect part in partition. The Nationalists ma de the
opposition in Northern Ireland for the first time since 1925 when they defeated the Labor
party in the general election 1949.46
The early 1950s witnessed a state of violence between the Unionists and the
Nationalists. The IRA bombed a station in the border in 1956; this act made a threat on
Northern Ireland security for more than 30 years later and cut all roads for unification of the
two states to remind the existence of North Ireland. The accident of bombing (1957 -1962) the
station considered as a d isaster from IRA‘s Point of view and divided the IRA members.47

44 P Mulholland, ―A State Apart 1 Separate government Ireland 1920s -60s,‖ YouTube Video, 29:13, Mar 5,
2017,
45. Mary E. Daly, ―The Irish Free State/E ´ire/Republic of Ireland/ Ireland: ―A Country by Any Other Name‖?‖
May 14, 2018, https://www.cambridge.org/ core/
46 Encyclopedia, ―Declaration of A Republic and the 1949 Ireland act‖ ( by Gael Group), accessed 2004,
https://www.encyclopedia.com/international/encyclopedias -almanacs -transcripts -and-maps/declaration -republic –
and-1949 -ireland -act
47 Bright Steven , ―Fighting for peace in Northern Ireland,‖ around the world, no. (1994):27.

33

Figure 548

48 . Republic of Ireland & Northern Ireland map after the partition

34
2.4. The Beginning of the Troubles, Bloody Sunday, and the
Anglo -Irish Agreement
2.4.1. The Troubles in Northern Ireland
The Irish nationalism that shaped Ireland in the 1960s &1970s was different from
the previous one in the beginning of the 20th Century. First, the IRA campaigns on the border
of Northern Ireland, these last were an embarrassment to the Republican Army against the
Catholics of that area. Th e post war era witnessed prosperity in industry, economic, and
employment in Northern Ireland, but these privileges were given only to the Protestant, while
the British government persecuted the Catholic minorities who wanted the unification with
the Repub lic and the Protestants themselves.
The early 1960s Northern Ireland became a subject of Civil Right Movement; civil
rights protest began to lead to riots and to the foundation of the Northern Ireland Civil Rights
Association (NICRA). The idea of this mov ement was inspired from the Black Civil Right
movement in USA, which started protests in1968 from Derry to Lurgan, ended in Belfast.
Many people were killed in the Civil Right movement and the Royal Ulster Constabulary
(RUC) injured over 700, while the Nor thern Ireland government called the British forces
(Army) to keep peace in the area.49
The Civil Rights Movement resulted violence and rejection from the Protestant side
by bombing, and killing the Catholics, this was followed by hunger strikes from by Cat holic
prisoners. The actions of the Protestants made a reaction from the IRA, which made a daily
struggle between the two sides in Northern Ireland. Most of the Northern Ireland political
parties had its own military troops such as Ulster Defense Associati on (UDA), and the Ulster
Freedom Fighters (UFF), these two forces practiced brutal action against IRA members,
Catholic politicians, and even Catholic civilians which was made later in 1977. Much use of
British Army brutality was made and tactics to justif y that there was ―no other way‖ but
armed resistance and ―just retaliation‖ (Republican News, 1, 9 march 1971: 12; 1, 11, May
1971: 5).50

49 .James Hughes, ―State Violence in the Origins of Nationalism: The British Reinvention of Irish Nationalism
1969 -1972,‖ the Nationalism and War Workshop McGill University, Montreal, March 24 -26, (2011):3 -4-5.
50 James Hughes, ―State Violence in the Origins of Nationalism: The British Reinvention of Irish Nationalism
1969 -1972,‖ the Nationalism and War Workshop McGil l University, Montreal, March 24 -26, (2011):19.

35
2.4.2. Bloody Sunday 1972 and Violence Acts

The Civil Right Movement ended and many volunteers joined IRA. The year 1972
was the bloodiest one in the Irish history; violence kept its brutality on both sides that
reflected Northern Ireland politics, and the worst for the British Army. The IRA made a series
of bombings in Belfast killing police officers, soldiers, an d civilians.
On Sunday, January 30, 1972, British troops opened fire on the protesters in Derry
where they killed 13 of the protesters. The army declared that they had shot the armed
members in the Civil Right protest, but some witnesses who lived the eve nt said the reverse of
what the British army had said, they said that they had shot unarmed protesters for no reason.
The IRA as response to this action bombed 22 cars in different places in Belfast.51
Loyalists‘ paramilitaries started to follow the path o f IRA members in order to
catch them. The British Government increased its military presence in the Northern Ireland
and took the power from Northern Ireland Government when it started to rule directly from
London, this last tried to defuse the Nationalist ‘s militancy with some reforms.
In response to the British army and the Loyalists actions against the Catholic
minorities and Bloody Sunday incident, the Provisional IRA made a huge series of campaigns
by killing over 100 British soldiers. As revenge to B loody Sunday acts, IRA concentrated its
bomb attacks in the center of Belfast and Derry, which was known as Bloody Friday on July
21, 1972, killing 9 people and 130 were injured near to car bombs.52
The summer of 1972 witnessed a ceasefire, when the Britis h Government opened
direct talks with PIRA leaders, in order to stop the brutal violence that may lead to a bloody
war that would never end. The IRA called for a united Ireland, but these talks had reached no
political agreement from both sides when they c alled the ceasefire to end.
IRA bombing campaign was heavy, killing thousands of innocent people. In 1974,
Loyalists brought the ―Troubles‖ into the South when they bombed Dublin and Monaghan,
killing 33 people. Cosgrave signed The Sunningdale Agreement, which allowed Catholics
(Nationalists) and Protestants (Loyalists) to share power. However, extreme Protestants led by
Ian Paisley organized a general strike and the Agreement failed. In 1977, Cosgrave called an
election, which returned Fianna Fail to powe r, but the promises made by the leader of the
party and the small amount of money would not give the party that popularity later on in the
next General Elections.53

51 .Feature History, ―feature history -The Troubles 2/2,‖ You Tube Video, 8:22, Oct 10, 2017,

52 . BERNADETTE C. HAYES, ―Public Support for Political Violence and Paramil itarism in Northern Ireland
and the Republic of Ireland,‖ Terrorism and Political Violence, (2005):614.
53 BERNADETTE C. HAYES, ―Public Support for Political Violence and Paramilitarism in Northern Ireland
and the Republic of Ireland,‖ Terrorism and Politic al Violence, (2005):608.

36

The beginning of the 1980s witnessed the death of Bobby Sands one of the IRA‘s
members who was in jail and conducted a highly publicized Hunger Strike.54 The Hunger
Strike drew a good vision in the media; they did nothing but brought victory to Sinn Fein and
IRA, so PIRA bombed a patrol of the British Army killing five soldiers. In 1982, PIRA
detonated two bombs in London.
The 1980s was not different from the previous decade; this decade curried the action
by PIRA and The same responses from RUC, UVF, and the British Army. The years from
1980 -1985 witnessed the use of heavy armament from both si des of the Irish conflict such as
land mines, car bombings, and machine guns. PIRA tried to kill the Prime Minister Margaret
Thatcher and this was a clear message to make a move, while Gerry Adams was elected as the
leader of Sinn Fein.55

Figur e 656

54 Steven Bright, ―Fighting for peace in Northern Ireland,‖ around the world, no. (1994):28.
55 Feature History, ―feature history -The Troubles 2/2,‖ You Tube Video, 8:22, Oct 10, 2017,

56 Deaths during the Troubles in Ireland 1969 -1972.

37

2.4.3. The Anglo -Irish Agreement 1985
By the year 1985, violence forced Margaret Thatcher to take a decision about it, so
she met the Irish Prime Minister (Taoiseach) Garret Fitzgerald and signed the Hillsborough
Agreement or as it was called the A nglo-Irish Agreement, which gave the government of
Ireland an official jurisdiction on the affairs of Northern Ireland. The Anglo -Irish Treaty was
considered a turning point in the Anglo -Irish political relations and it was the most significant
step since the foundation of the Free State.57
Moreover, the Agreement aimed to stop the bloody action and the brutal violence,
the Unionists opposed the idea of being a part of the Republic to give the chance for
neighbors to have a word in their subject matters. Th e majority of political leader saw that the
only chance to find a solution for years of brutality and to achieve peace was by all -Ireland
arrangement.
Many political parties opposed against each other, because of the idea of the
unification (political coo peration), De Valera founded Fianna Fail the party that called for the
unification from the moment it, whereas Fine Gael and the Labor Party preferred the federal
option. Northern Ireland parties specially the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) members who
could not accept the idea of unification had resigned their seats because of the issue.58
The Anglo -Irish Treaty could not undermine the power of the IRA, which
continued the campaign of terror against the British Army, this last ambushed IRA members
killing eig ht of them in 1987, seeing them responsible for the terror campaigns against army
soldiers and police officers. IRA sought revenge when they killed 12 people (Protestants),
which was known by Enniskillen bomb in a war memorial. 59
Sinn Fein lost its popula rity throughout the conflict and the traditional nationalism
failed against the Social Democratic Labour Party, which was the most popular party in
Northern Ireland (Nationalist). In 1991, the IRA continued its bombings, however this time
IRA attempted to kill the Prime Minister John Major, but they failed. In 1993, IRA members
bombed Shankill Road killing one loyalist; the failure of the attack caused the death of many
Catholics by the Loyalists paramilitary.60

57 Northern Ireland, ―Agreement Between the united Kingdom and the republic of Ireland,‖ reference services of
central office of information, London, Decem ber (1985): two.
58 . Cain Web Service, ―Anglo -Irish Agreement -Reaction to Agreement‖ by(Alan Morton), accessed Jan 2, 2018,
http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/aia/reaction.htm
59 . Feature History, ―feature history -The Troubles 2/2,‖ You Tube Video, 8:22, Oct 10 , 2017,

60 . Feature History, ―feature history -The Troubles 2/2,‖ You Tube Video, 8:22, Oct 10, 2017,
http://m.youtube.com/watch?v=fKneNsy8aF8.Pail

38

2.5.The Good Friday Agreement 1998
After 25 years of conflict and troubles, Ireland moved toward settlement and peace.
Friday Agreement or Belfast Agreement was a treaty for peace process between Northern
Ireland‘s Nationalists and Republic of Ireland Unionists, which was signed on April 10, 1998.
The Friday Agreement was the end to the troubles that began with the Civil Right movement
in 1969.
Furthermore, the terms of Friday Agreement were three terms that created a new
administrative relationships between the two parts of conflict. The first ter m was to create an
elected Assembly for Northern Ireland that would be responsible for the local matters. The
second term was dealing with the cross -border cooperation and the issues between the
Republic and Northern Ireland governments. The third term sou ght for the continuation of
consultation between both the Irish and the British governments.61
On May 22, 1998, both Irish people voted together for the first time since 1918.
The approval of the agreement in Ireland resulted 94%, meanwhile in the northern neighbors
resulted 71% of voters. However, the signs of the division appeared after four month from
signing the agreement, a group from IRA killed 29 people in a bombing in Omagh, as a
response to the three Catholic children who were assassinated by UVF i n July 1998, which
supposed to be on ceasefire.62
In addition, the Agreement sought first for equality and human rights, so the
government made a commission (NIHRC) to deal with equality in everything including
education, health care, rights of working, an d to enforce their convention rights before using
violence and rioting. The Good Friday Agreement emphasized on the idea that equality is the
essential ingredient of making peace processes and it is the only way to create development.
After the Agreement, the ethnic issues become invisible such as Irish and English
languages, Catholicism and Protestantism, and all the matters of identity. The conflict
between the north and the south was not religious in the first place; the conflict was about two
different communities and two ethno – national identities.

61 . John Walsh, ―15 Years After Good Friday Agreement , an Imperfect Peace in Northern Ireland,‖ Global
News Blog, April 10, 2013, ttps://www.csmonitor.com/layout/set/amphtml/World/Global -News/2013/0410/15 –
years -after-Good -Friday -Agreement -an-imperfect -peace -in-Northern -Ireland

62 . John Walsh, ―15 Years After Good Friday Agreement , an Imperfect Peace in Northern Ireland,‖ Global
News Blog, April 10, 2013, ttps://www.csmonitor.com/layout/set/amphtml/World/Global -News/2013/0410/15 –
years -after-Good -Friday -Agreement -an-imperfect -peace -in-Northern -Ireland

39

2.5.1. Ireland in th e Beginning of the 21st Century

Ireland had a period of extraordinary growth from the late 1990‘s until the
beginning of the 2000‘s to become one of the most dynamic, innovative and globalized
economies in the world, with an extensive external trade. The liberal reforms of the Friday
Agreement continued to make Ireland one of the best countries in Europe. The EU sought for
peace since 1990s, since Ireland is part of EU, it would affec t the European economy at the
first level.
Friday Agreement impact on the 21st Ireland seemed to be clear; the liberal purpose
of the agreement had legislative power, in which section 75 came into force on 1 Jan 2000,
and this last dealt with equality of opportunity in Northern Ireland such as equality between
persons from different race, men women, age, and political opinion.63
The Irish Assembly sought to contain all the reasons that may make the ethno –
nationalistic conflict between the two neighbors. As result, the assembly sought to organize
the usual ceremonies that used to have clash between the Catholic and Protestants in the
streets far from the Catholic places in order to avoid chaos. In addition, the Northern Ireland
Assembly worked on opening tal ks with IRA and other Protestant paramilitaries to discuss the
process of peace and the violation that took thousands of innocent lives in the last three
decades.
The attempts to find the solution for the Irish ethno -nationalistic conflict had found
its road to successes in Northern Ireland, but these attempts would decline sooner when the
IRA delayed the process of its disarmament, which supposed to start in 2001, this action led
Britain to rule Ireland again, which made the road to authority arriving to a dead -end. In 2005,
the peace process continued when IRA agreed on the disarmament and to leave the use of
violence.
The political parties were stable in this period and no conflict had been seen. The
European Council continued to support and to protect the achievements, and commitments of
the Peace Process. In 2002, the Fianna Fail party was elected again, when Bertie Ahren
continued the process of coalition with the Progressive democrats until 2007. Fine Gael lost
over a third of its seats in parliament .
The Irish economy reached its highest, in which Ireland was known by the ―Celtic
Tiger‖. Between 1997 and 2007 Ireland shifted from one of the poorest countries in Europe to
one of the richest countries in the world, when the Irish market grew up to bec ome an
international economic force covering both national and international level.

63 .Paul Nolan, ―Northern Ireland Peace Monitoring Report,‖6 Murry Street, Belfast: the community relations
council, February 2012.

40

From 1999 to 2011, about 105 bills were made and received royal assent. In 2006,
the government started a strategy to create a bilingual society that speaks both Irish a nd
English languages to fight ethnicity . However, the beginning of 2009 was cruel on the Irish
society because of the global financial crisis of 2008; Unemployment rate reaches its highest
since 1996.64
In May 2011, Queen Elizabeth went to Ireland in an of ficial visit, which was t he
first by British authorities for almost hundred years, when Queen Elizabeth II visited Croke
Park in Dublin. This trip that was made by Queen Elizabeth was the first since King George
V. Moreover, Ireland declared officially its egression from EU & IMF in 2013, when its crisis
was described as the worst since the potato famine.65
However, the beginning of 2014 witnessed the first visit ever by an Irish President
to Britain, when Michael D Higgins made an official visit to Britain , when Queen Elizabeth
and O‘Higgins exchanged a war complements about the relations between the two countries
and visiting some places in Britain.

64 Paul Nolan, ―Northern Ireland Peace Monitoring Report,‖6 Murry Street, Belfast: the community relations
council, February 2012.
65 Paul Nolan, ―Northern Ireland Peace Monitoring Report,‖6 Murry Street, Belfast: the community relations
council, February 2012.

41

2.6.Conclusion

The Irish history during the 20th century was different from the previous cent uries,
Ireland sought for independence from England in the beginning of the century, in which the
Irish parties attempted for a Home Rule. A Home Rule that was different and successful, but
it was delayed because of WW I break out. While England was busy w ith war and worried
about its borders, the Irish people came with Easter Rising, which was preferred to be
peaceful, be Sinn Fein leaders, but the IRB had different point of view, which was ―full
independence‖.
Although, the Easter Rising failed, but the attempts for full independence kept its
way to start a war of independence between 1919 -1922, this last was the main cause of the
Irish segregation. The Anglo -Irish Treaty that was made in the middle of the war of
independence in Ireland, it had created a brutal civil war between Pro -Treaty and Anti -Treaty
parties; meanwhile the British intention was clear to take Northern Ireland and to support the
Protestants for partition.
The rise of Eire sought for unification, but time was not enough to do so, becaus e of
WW II. Ireland neutrality in WW II and the policy used by Churchill did not serve the Irish
people; this made a kind of self -reliance to the Irish government, when it announced the
republic of Ireland in 1949. The 1960s were symbolic in the Irish hist ory, these years
including the 1970 were too harsh for the Irish people, and I was bloody than the other
previous years
Both Ireland and the British governments sought for peace to put an end to the
brutality of both sides, so they made the Anglo -Irish Ag reement, which was not effective to
stop blood. IRA kept its series of bombings until the historic ceasefire 199 4; this last could
not stay too long, because of the bombing of 1996.
The Good Friday Agreement was the turning point in the Irish history, thi s
agreement prepared Ireland to enter the 21st Century in peace. The role of the Northern
Ireland Assembly helped to end the ethno -nationalistic conflict that affected Ireland in the
previous century. Ireland of the 21st Century was so different, when it b ecame one of the most
powerful countries in the EU and it was known as the Celtic Tiger. The relations between
Ireland and Britain developed, when the chairmen of the two countries visited the countries of
each other‘s since long time of conflict.

42

3.Conclusion

This thesis is concerned with the Irish issue and the rise of Nationalism throughout the
long Angl o-Irish history, that is to say the conflict between them is not new, but it is dated
back to the beginning of the 12th century, which is lasted fo r more than 900 years. The present
study has showed how the conflict started, aggravated, and gradually solved. The Anglo –
Irish conflict was different from any other conflict, because of the varied problems that could
not bind the two countries for centu ries, such as religious, cultural, social, and economic
problems.
The first chapter demonstrated the reason behind this struggle that was not only
religious, but the conflict was primarily a social and cultural one. Religious teachings were
not an issue between the Catholics and Protestants, because t hey d id not believe in different
gods. Historically, the Catholics ha d been poor, oppressed and often unemployed. On the
other hand the Protestants ha d represented the oppressive British side consisting of t he
privileged classes in society with better jobs, brighter opportunities, and better wages. So the
conflict was cultural, social and historical rather than religious .
However , the second chapter focused on the British imperialism and figured out its
attempts to divide Ireland, when it created the Free State. Also, to highlight the different
shapes of Nationalism that segregated the country and created the bloody troubles, in order to
restore the lost Irish identity that was stolen by the British and the I rish themselves. While
studying the Irish history, it is clear to see that the conflict in Northern Ireland resulted no
single winner or loser. Both sides can legitimately claim to have won or to have lost. No one,
other than few exterminates on the fringe s of unionism and republicanism, wants to see the
return to violence in North Ireland, and so the founders of the Good Friday Agreement can
rightfully claim a victory on that front. A permanent peace remained to create the powerful
united Ireland.
We face d many problems that made our path more difficult due to the lack of sources
like books and articles that needed e -payment especially in the first chapter. When studying
the events and the facts about the two nations we found different points of view from both
sides that complicated our mission of collecting data. Therefore, this struggle between
Ireland and England should be studied in further studies to highlight other problems and facts
behind this long period of wars and conflicts and to find solutions and recommendation in
order to get a better understanding the situation of the neighbors in the field of history.

43
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45
الملخص

انبحذ انحبنً هى يحبونت السخكشبف انقضٍت االٌشنُذٌت يٍ خالل انذساست انخبسٌخٍت إلٌشنُذا واَجهخشا، وأٌضب
نىصف األحذاد انشئٍسٍت انخً شكهج حبسٌخ انقىيٍت فً اٌشنُذا يب بٍٍ انفخشة انًًخذة يٍ انقشٌ انثبًَ ػشش حخى
انقشٌ انىاحذ وانؼششٌٍ. إضبفت إنى رنك، هزا انؼًم ٌششح انخؼقٍذاث انًخخهفت بٍٍ انبهذٌٍ ورنك ببسخؼًبل انطشٌقت
انىصفٍت وانُىػٍت. حطشق انفصم األول إنى بذاٌت انقضٍت االٌشنُذٌت، انًُهج انزي احخزحه، وانخبسٌخ االٌشنُذي
انطىٌم يٍ انًقبويت ضذ اَجهخشا. فًٍب ٌشكز انفصم انثبًَ األحذاد انشئٍسٍت انخً جشث فً انقشٌ ا نؼششٌٍ
وانصشاع انزي أػبد طشح انُقبشبث حىل دو انىطٍُت فً انسٍبسبث االٌشنُذٌت، خصىصب انُزاع انقبئى فً اٌشنُذا
انشًبنٍت، وانزي اظهش احذ أهى يىاضٍغ انًؼبَبة فً انسٍبست ودساست انقىيٍت االٌشنُذٌت. كًب حطشق انفصم أٌضب
إنى وصف اٌشنُذا بؼذ ػًهٍبث انسالو واحفبق انجً ؼت انؼظًٍت انهزاٌ اَشئب اٌشنُذا انًسبنًت فً انقشٌ انىاحذ
وانؼششٌٍ.