Participiul And Constructiile Paricipiale In Literatura

Participiul and construcțiile paricipiale în literatură

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER I. THE SYSTEM OF THE VERBS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

I.1. Finite Verbs

I.2. Non – Finite Verbs ( Verbals )

CHAPTER II. THE PRINCIPLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARTICIPLE IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

II.1. The Verbal and Adjectival Characteristics of the Participle

II.2. The Characteristics of the Present Participle

II.3. The Characteristics of the Past Participle

II.4. The Participle I – Gerund Correlation

CHAPTER III. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTICIPLE AND THE PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTIONS IN THE SENTENCES

III. 1. The Functions of the Participle I in the Sentences

III.2. The Functions of the Participle II in the sentences

III.3. The Participle as Conjunctions and Prepositions

III.4. The Predicative Constructions with the Participle

III.4.1. The Objective Participial Construction

III.4.2. The Subjective Participial Construction

III.4.3. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction.

III.5. The Participial Phrases

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDIX

INTRODUCTION

The topic of our diploma paper is ‘The Participle and the Participial Constructions in Literature’. This topic deals with the study of the English grammar. The study of the English Grammar helps us to build a firm foundation in a language. It adopts a systematic and practical approach.

The words of every language fall into classes which are called Parts of Speech. Each part of speech has characteristics of its own. The parts of speech differ from each other in meaning, in form and in function.

One of the parts of speech is the verb. The verb can be described as word denoting action, process, state, relation and the like. According to a form, it can be described as a word that has certain grammatical features that are not shared by other parts of speech; they have the category of tense, aspect, voice. According to the function, verb can be defined as a word making up the predicate of the sentence.

The English Verbs can be divided into two main groups, according to the function they perform in the sentence – the finite forms and non-finite forms. The finite forms have the function of the predicate in the sentence and may also be called the predicate forms. The non-finite or non-predicative forms can have various other functions. These forms are also called the verbals.

There are three verbals in English: the participle, the gerund, and the infinitive (some grammarians distinguish four forms of verbals, they distinguish between the participle I and the participle II.

The participle is a very interesting and controversial …..part of speech. In the English language a participle is an adjective form of a verb. The present participle is a verb with the suffix –ing, while the past participle is a verb with the suffix –ed. Some verbs may have an odd suffix instead of adding –ed. These are irregular verbs. In Old English the present participle had a suffix – , which merged with the suffix –ing in the dialect and remained this form up to the present time.

The idea of this Research Work is to make profound investigation of the English Verbals and to study the usage of the participles in literature.

The novelty of this work consists in the fact that we study not only the forms of the participle but also its functions in a sentence. Moreover we investigate the forms and the usage of the participial constructions. To show the new and advanced theories on this problem we have investigated work of modern grammarians which are published in Internet.

The aim of this diploma paper is to study the double nature of the gerund and that of the Participle I and make their usage in the sentence less complicated.

The tasks of my diploma paper can be formulated in the following way:

– to study the theoretical material on the topic;

– to define the specificity of detailed treatment of the nature of the present and past participles, their tense and voice distinctions;

– to compare the syntactic functions of the past and the present participle in the sentence;

– to define and state the rules of using either the gerund or the participle I;

– to arrange and classify cases when the participles can be used.

The theoretical and practical importance of the diploma paper is to achieve the set aim. In order to do this we have made a detailed analyses of the chosen examples explaining the functions of the participles in the sentences and paying attention to their specific usage.

Factual material. While working over my diploma paper we used different grammar books, various reference books, dictionaries, language textbooks, British newspapers and different sites of Internet.

The following approaches are used in the given diploma-thesis:

-Diachronic approach, that is the process of the participle I and participle II appearance in the English language is investigated from the historical point of view;

-Synchronous approach, that is we study the use of these two forms in modern grammar.

The methods used in the given diploma-thesis:

Descriptive method. We describe different definitions and opinions of many scientists (grammarians, linguists).

Comparative method (method of contrast).We study and then compare different points of view of scientists in order to find and distinguish the general definitions and to take them as the base of our research.

Method of critical study of scientific literature. Using this method we study many scientific books, dictionaries in order to reveal the main aspects, which we can use in our further research and which will help us to make our own conclusions and find some novelties in the course of our work.

Method of distribution. We distribute the participles into definite groups and subgroups in order to compile our own approximate classification.

Method of observation. We observe the use of the participles in the sentences.

For our practical part we have collected more than 400 examples from fiction.

The structure of the work: My diploma paper consists of Introduction, three chapters, Conclusion, Bibliography and Appendix.

The first chapter is a theoretical one. It is called ’The system of the Verbs in the English Language’ and it includes the definition of the finite verb and non-finite verbs. In this chapter we investigate the theoretical material on the problem of verbals in the English language and present the points of view on this problem of such famous grammarians as M.Blokh, B.Ilyish, V.Kaushanskaya, L.Alexander, L.Bauer, R.Close, R.Quirk, G.Leech and many others.

The second chapter is an analytical one. It is called ‘The Principle Characteristics of the Participle in the English Language’. In this chapter we investigate the notion of the participle, analyze the features of the participle I and participle II separately and speak about the gerund and the participle correlation.

The most important part of my qualification work is the third part. It is a practical one. In this chapter we investigate and make analyses of the participial constructions, analyze their functions in the sentence and describe their forms and functions in a sentence. Then we analyze the functions of the participle I and the participle II in a sentence. In general we have collected about 400 examples from such books as ‘Jane Eyre’ of Ch.Bronte and ‘The Picture of Dorian Gray’ of O.Wilde.

THE SYSTEM OF THE VERBS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

The system of the English verb is rightly considered to be the most complex grammatical structure of the language. The most troublesome problems are, indeed, concentrated in the area of the finite verb, and include, in particular, questions tense, aspect and modal auxiliary usage. This seems to be an area of grammar which has always gained the greatest interest in language learning. We can say with little fear of exaggeration that learning a language is to a very large degree learning how to operate the verbal forms of that language [34, online].

In Modern English, as well as in many other languages, verbal forms imply not only subtle shades of time distinction but serve for other purposes, too; they are also often marked for person and number, for mood, voice and aspect.

The grammatical categories of the English verb find their expression in synthetical and analytical forms. The formative elements expressing these categories are: grammatical affixes, inner inflection and function words. Some categories have only synthetical forms (person, number), others —only analytical (voice distinction) [8, p.159].

Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech. This is due to the central role it performs in the expression of the predicative functions of the sentence, i.e. the functions establishing the connection between the situation (situational event) named in the utterance and reality. The complexity of the verb is inherent not only in the intricate structure of its grammatical categories, but also in its various subclass divisions [8, p.73].

English verbs possess a number of properties that make them somewhat unusual among other Germanic languages. All English verbs can be derived from a maximum of three principal parts. This represents an extensive paring down of the inflectional categories of the more conservative Germanic languages. Because of this, the strict distinction between transitive verbs and intransitive verbs observed in some other languages find no part in English grammar [12, p.51].

The English Verbs can be divided into two main groups, according to the function they perform in the sentence – the finite forms and non-finite forms [11, p. 51].

The finite forms have the function of the predicate in the sentence and may also be called the predicate forms.

The non-finite or non-predicative forms can have various other functions. These forms are also called the verbals.

The non-finite forms or the verbals, unlike the finite forms of the verbs do not express person, number or mood . Therefore, they cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence. Like the finite forms of the verbs the verbals have tense and voice distinctions, but their tense distinctions differ from those of the finite verb [13,p.126].

The difference between a finite verb and a verbal (nonfinite verb form) is that a finite verb is completely inflected.  A nonfinite verb form has not been completely limited by inflection, in the same way that a blank sheet of paper has all sorts of possibilities that a paper with writing or drawing on it no longer has [11, p.161].

I.1. Finite Verbs

A finite verb is a verb that is inflected for person and for tense according to the rules and categories of the languages in which it occurs. Finite verbs can form independent clauses, which can stand on their own as complete sentences [11, p.96].

The reason finite verbs are so important is their unique ability to act as the sentence-root. They can be used as the only verb in the sentence, whereas all the others have to depend on some other word, so finite verbs really stand out [37, online].

Finite verbs can be recognized by their form and their position in the sentence. Here are some of the things to look for when you are trying to identify the finite verbs in a sentence:

Most finite verbs can take an -ed or a -d at the end of the word to indicate time in the past: cough, coughed; celebrate, celebrated. A hundred or so finite verbs do not have these endings.

Nearly all finite verbs take an -s at the end of the word to indicate the present when the subject of the verb is third-person singular: cough, he coughs; celebrate, she celebrates. The exceptions are auxiliary verbs like can and must. Remember that nouns can also end in -s. Thus the dog races can refer to a spectator sport or to a fast-moving third-person singhe reason finite verbs are so important is their unique ability to act as the sentence-root. They can be used as the only verb in the sentence, whereas all the others have to depend on some other word, so finite verbs really stand out [37, online].

Finite verbs can be recognized by their form and their position in the sentence. Here are some of the things to look for when you are trying to identify the finite verbs in a sentence:

Most finite verbs can take an -ed or a -d at the end of the word to indicate time in the past: cough, coughed; celebrate, celebrated. A hundred or so finite verbs do not have these endings.

Nearly all finite verbs take an -s at the end of the word to indicate the present when the subject of the verb is third-person singular: cough, he coughs; celebrate, she celebrates. The exceptions are auxiliary verbs like can and must. Remember that nouns can also end in -s. Thus the dog races can refer to a spectator sport or to a fast-moving third-person singular dog [34, online].

Finite verbs are often groups of words that include such auxiliary verbs as can, must, have, and be: can be suffering, must eat, will have gone.

Finite verbs usually follow their subjects: He coughs. The documents had compromised him. They will have gone.

Finite verbs surround their subjects when some forms of a question are asked: Is he coughing? Did they celebrate?

From the Bloch’s point of view the finite forms of the verb express the processual relations of substances and phenomena making up the situation reflected in the sentence [34, online]. These forms are associated with one another in an extremely complex and intricate system. The peculiar aspect of the complexity of this system lies in the fact that, as we have stated before, the finite verb is directly connected with the structure of the sentence as a whole. Indeed, the finite verb, through the working of its categories, is immediately related to such sentence-constitutive factors as morphological forms of predication, communication purposes, subjective modality, subject-object relation, gradation of probabilities, and quite a few other factors of no lesser importance.

The grammatical nature of the finite forms may be characterised by the following six oppositions with reference to: person , number , time relations , mood , the aspective character of the finite verbs and voice distinctions: active, passive [34, p.99] .

The categories of person and number are closely connected with each other. Their immediate connection is conditioned by the two factors: first, by their situational semantics, referring the process denoted by the verb to the subject of the situation, i.e. to its central substance (which exists in inseparable unity of "quality" reflected in the personal denotation, and "quantity" reflected in the numerical denotation); second, by their direct and immediate relation to the syntactic unit expressing the subject as the functional part of the sentence [14, p.125].

Both categories are different in principle from the other categories of the finite verb, in so far as they do not convey any inherently "verbal" semantics, any constituents of meaning realised and confined strictly within the boundaries of the verbal lexeme. The nature of both of them is purely "reflective" [14, p.128].

The immediate expression of grammatical time, or "tense”, is one of the typical functions of the finite verb. It is typical because the meaning of process, inherently embedded in the verbal lexeme, finds its complete realisation only if presented in certain time conditions. That is why the expression or non-expression of grammatical time, together with the expression or non-expression of grammatical mood in person-form presentation, constitutes the basis of the verbal category of finitude, i.e. the basis of the division of all the forms of the verb into finite and non-finite.

When speaking of the expression of time by the verb, it is necessary to strictly distinguish between the general notion of time, the lexical denotation of time, and the grammatical time proper or grammatical temporality [14, p.137].

The aspective meaning of the verb, as different from its temporal meaning, reflects the inherent mode of the realisation of the process irrespective of its timing…The aspective meaning can be in-built in the semantic structure of the verb, forming an invariable, derivative category. In English, the various lexical aspective meanings have been generalised by the verb in its subclass division into limitive and unlimitive sets. On the whole, this division is loose, the demarcation line between the sets is easily trespassed both ways. In spite of their want of rigour, however, the aspective verbal subclasses are grammatically relevant in so far as they are not indifferent to the choice of the aspective grammatical forms of the verb. In Russian, the aspective division of verbs into perfective and imperfective is, on the contrary, very strict. Although the Russian category of aspect is derivative, it presents one of the most typical features of the grammatical structure of the verb, governing its tense system both formally and semantically.

On the other hand, the aspective meaning can also be represented in variable grammatical categories. Aspective grammatical change is wholly alien to the Russian language, but it forms one of the basic features of the categorial structure of the English verb [11, p.157].

The verbal category of voice shows the direction of the process as regards the participants of the situation reflected in the syntactic construction.

The voice of the English verb is expressed by the opposition of the passive form of the verb to the active form of the verb. The sign marking the passive form is the combination of the auxiliary be with the past participle of the conjugated verb. The passive form as the strong member of the opposition expresses reception of the action by the subject of the syntactic construction (i.e. the "passive" subject, denoting the object of the action); the active form as the weak member of the opposition leaves this meaning unspecified, i.e. it expresses "non-passivity" [17, p.176].

I.2. Non – Finite Verbs ( Verbals )

In linguistics, a non-finite verb (or a verbal) is a verb form that is not limited by a subject and, more generally, is not fully inflected by categories that are marked inflectionally in language, such as tense, aspect, mood, number, gender, and person. As a result, a non-finite verb cannot serve as a predicate and can be used in an independent clause only when combined with an auxiliary verb . Rather, it can be said to head a non-finite clause [34, online].

By some accounts, a non-finite verb acts simultaneously as a verb and as another part of speech; it can take adverbs and certain kinds of verb arguments, producing a verbal phrase (i.e., non-finite clause), and this phrase then plays a different role—usually noun, adjective, or adverb—in a greater clause. This is the reason for the term verbal; non-finite verbs have traditionally been classified as verbal nouns, verbal adjectives, or verbal adverbs [35, online].

From R.Hudson’s point of view a non-finite verb differs from a finite verb in that it cannot (normally) be used as the main verb of a clause. Typically, the non-finite verb lacks agreement for person, number, and gender with its first argument or Subject, is unmarked or reduced with respect to distinctions of Tense, Aspect, and Mood, and has certain properties in common with adjectival or nominal predicates [13, p.92].

C.Ronald, the professor of Cambridge University wrote : there are three types of nonfinite verb-forms in English: uninflected infinitive forms which comprise simply the base or stem of the verb with no added inflection (such forms are frequently used after the so-called infinitive-particle to;  gerund forms which comprise the base plus the -ing suffix; and (perfect/passive) participle forms which generally comprise the base plus the -(e)n inflection (though there are numerous irregular participle forms in English) [23, p.140]. 

M.Bloch calls non-finite verbs verbids and writes in his book that verbids are the forms of the verb intermediary in many of their lexico-grammatical features between the verb and the non-processual parts of speech. The mixed features of these forms are revealed in the principal spheres of the part-of-speech characterization, i.e. in their meaning, structural marking, combinability, and syntactic functions. The processual meaning is exposed by them in a substantive or adjectival-adverbial interpretation: they render processes as peculiar kinds of substances and properties. They are formed by special morphemic elements which do not express either grammatical time or mood (the most specific finite verb categories). They can be combined with verbs like non-processual lexemes (performing non-verbal functions in the sentence), and they can be combined with non-processual lexemes like verbs (performing verbal functions in the sentence) [34, online].
From these characteristics, one might call in question the very justification of including the verbids in the system of the verb. As a matter of fact, one can ask oneself whether it wouldn't stand to reason to consider the verbids as a special lexemic class, a separate part of speech, rather than an inherent component of the class of verbs [34, online].
On closer consideration, however, we can't but see that such an approach would be utterly ungrounded. The verbids do betray intermediary features. Still, their fundamental grammatical meaning is processual (though modified in accord with the nature of the inter-class reference of each verbid). Their essential syntactic functions, directed by this relational semantics, unquestionably reveal the property which may be called, in a manner of explanation, "verbality", and the statement of which is corroborated by the peculiar combinability character of verbid collocations, namely, by the ability of verbids to take adjuncts expressing the immediate recipients, attendants, and addressees of the process inherently conveyed by each verbid denotation [34, online].
One might likewise ask oneself, granted the verbids are part of the system of the verb, whether they do not constitute within this system a special subsystem of purely lexemic nature, i.e. form some sort of a specific verbal subclass. This counter-approach, though, would evidently be devoid of any substantiality, since a subclass of a lexemic class, by definition, should share the essential categorical structure, as well as primary syntactic functions with other subclasses, and in case of verbids the situation is altogether different [35, online].

In fact, it is every verb stem (except a few defective verbs) that by means of morphemic change takes both finite and non-finite forms, the functions of the two sets being strictly differentiated: while the finite forms serve in the sentence only one syntactic function, namely, that of the finite predicate, the non-finite forms serve various syntactic functions other than that of the finite predicate.
As is known, the verbids, unable to express the predicative meanings of time and mood, still do express the so-called "secondary" or "potential" predication, forming syntactic complexes directly related to certain types of subordinate clauses. They normally exist only as part of sentences built up by genuine, primary predicative constructions that have a finite verb as their core. And it is through the reference to the finite verb-predicate that these complexes set up the situations denoted by them in the corresponding time and mood perspective [11, p.188].
In other words, we may say that the opposition of the finite verbs and the verbids is based on the expression of the functions of full predication and semi-predication. While the finite verbs express predication in its genuine and complete form, the function of the verbids is to express semi-predication, building up semi-predicative complexes within different sentence constructions.
The English verbids [16, p.210] include four forms distinctly differing from one another within the general verbid system: the infinitive, the gerund, the present participle, and the past participle. In compliance with this difference, the verbid semi-predicative complexes are distinguished by the corresponding differential properties both in form and in syntactic-contextual function [18, p.78].

CHAPTER II. THE PRINCIPLE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PARTICIPLE IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

II.1. The Verbal and Adjectival Characteristics of the Participle

The participle differs considerably from the finite forms as well as from the infinitive and the ing-form. On the one hand, its verbal nature is less prominent as compared to the two other verbals and this is the cause of some limitations in its use. On the other hand, it has certain peculiarities of its own which make its application still more restricted [42, online].

The participle is, in the main, formed only from transitive verbs and has passive meaning.

People near him, hypnotized into agreeing, were sagely nodding their heads [29, online].

I had suits and coats and shirts made to order [29, online].

Yet we find also participles with active meaning, formed from intransitive verbs. Although the number of such verbs is limited, these participles present considerable interest. Some of these participles are formed from verbs which have only intransitive meaning.

The house was made of unpainted plank gone gray now and had a strange unfinished look [29, online].

Once arrived at the quay alongside which lay the big transatlantic liner, he became brisk and alert [29, online].

Other participles, though formed from verbs which may be either transitive or intransitive, are clearly connected with intransitive meaning as the subject of the participle does not undergo the action but is its agent.

Finished poking around in the various stores, the women-folk assemble on the porch of the old house [29, online].

They came from the streets round about, working people finished for the day [29, online].

In still other cases, it is difficult to decide whether the participle is to be traced back to the transitive or intransitive meaning of the verb. For example, in the sentences below withered and faded may be associated with some agent — by the sun. Then it must be admitted that they have passive meaning.

His face was like a black withered apple [29, online].

The wallpaper had once been blood red, but now was faded [29, online].

The participle, like the infinitive and the ing-form, has some properties that fully correspond to those of the finite forms, and other properties that coincide with them only partly [42, online].

1. Properties of the participle fully corresponding to those of the finite forms.

– The participle has the same lexical meaning as the corresponding verb.

– The participle has the same morphological pattern as the corresponding verb. This holds good for root-verbs (a), derivatives (b), all kinds of compounds (c) and also set phrases that serve as verb equivalents (d).

2. Properties of the participle partly corresponding to those of the finite forms.

The participle has more points of difference with the finite forms than the infinitive or the ing-form.

– The participle has only one form and consequently does not possess any of the grammatical categories inherent in the finite forms. But the participle, nevertheless, has its own grammatical meanings which are closely connected with the lexical character of the verb.

Both participles can be formed from terminative as well as from durative verbs. The participle of a terminative verb serves to denote a state resulting from a previously accomplished action. The resultant state is usually simultaneous with the action of the predicate verb.

Constructed largely of glass and blistered white paint, the cottage faced the sea boldly, as though daring the elements to dash it to bits [29, online].

The participle of a durative verb denotes an action. It is also simultaneous with the action of the predicate verb.

He is the happy husband, adoring and adored [30, online].

Like the finite forms and the two other verbals, the participle is always associated with a subject [43, online]. But while the subject of the infinitive and the ing-form may be expressed in a number of various ways, the means of expressing the subject of the participle are more limited. The subject of the participle may be the person or thing denoted by the subject of the sentence.

Though in the course of years I have learnt to assume an air of heartinesss when forced into contact with a stranger, I have never liked anyone at first sight [29, online].

The subject may also be the same person or thing as denoted by the object of the sentence. He heard his name called.

The subject of the participle may be its head-noun.

A large fat man with an anonymous face shaved as smooth as marble stood at the top of the stairs [30, online].

Finally, the participle, like the other verbals, may have a subject of its own when used in an absolute construction [34, online].

Since the participle is mainly formed from transitive verbs and has passive meaning, it is associated with a passive subject. Only participles of intransitive verbs have active subjects.

Although, in principle, the distribution of the participle is similar to that of the finite forms and the two other verbals, we find at the same time significant points of difference between them.

Like the infinitive and the ing-form, the participle can have complements which are generally placed in postposition. It may be preceded only by certain adverbs, She went over to the dressing table, now cleared but for a framed photograph [30, online].

The negative not is always placed before the participle.

Margaret, not placated, was scolding me for not saying "no" [30, online].

If the verb requires a prepositional complement, the preposition is retained by the participle when the complement happens to be separated from it.

He never uttered a word unless spoken to [30, online].

But the participle does not take as many complements as the infinitive or the ing-form. The complements it can have are usually restricted to the indication of the place or the time or the doer of the action.

The participle functions singly much more often than the infinitive or the ing-form.

Anna, surprised, said:I don't think we ever asked the reason[30, online].

The participle differs considerably not only from the finite forms but also from the infinitive and the ing-form in its functioning in the sentence. Therein lays a very important difference between the participle and the two other verbals [34, online].

In the first place, the participle cannot be used either as a link-verb or as a modal verb or as an auxiliary verb.

Secondly, its syntactical functions in the sentence are more restricted than those of the other verbals. It can serve only as a verb adjunct, close (a) and loose (b), and as a noun adjunct, also close (a) and loose (b).

verb adjuncts: (a) The sunning buzzards sat hunched on what remained of the roof, (b) I was anxious to see how I should feel when exposed to the danger.

noun adjuncts: (a) I thought quite a lot about Jones' promised fortune. (b) It was one of the menservants, bearing an envelope, addressed to me in Collingwood's bold hand.

The participle may have another verbal as its headword.

The play failed to have a long run because the public of that day was uneasy at seeing a clergyman made fun of.

The editor took advantage of my youth, my inexperience and my need to have the book published [30, online].

It should be pointed out, however, that even in these functions which the participle has in common with the infinitive and the ing-form, it is incapable of expressing the great variety of syntactic and semantic relations which are typical of the two other verbals.

There are two participles in English—Participle I and Participle II, traditionally called the Present Participle and the Past participle [34, online].

The verbal characteristics of the participle are as follows:

1. Participle I of a transitive verb can take a direct object.

2. Participle I and Participle II can be modified by an adverb.

3. Participle I has tense distinctions; Participle I of transitive verbs has also voice distinctions. In Modern English Participle I has the following forms:

– Indefinite Active – writing

– Indefinite Passive – being written

– Perfect Active – having written

– Perfect Passive – Having been written

The tense distinctions of the participle

Like the tense distinctions of all the verbals, those of the participle are not absolute but relative.

Participle I Indefinite Active and Passive usually denotes an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb; depending on the tense-form of the finite verb it may refer to the present, past, or future.

He looked at the carpet while waiting for her answer.

Не returned to the hut, bringing in his arms a new-born lamb.

Being left alone, Pauline and I kept silence for some time.

Participle I Indefinite denotes an action referring to no particular time.

The last turning had brought them into the high-road leading to .

Participle I Perfect Active, and Passive denotes an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb.

Mr. Bumble, having spread a handkerchief over his knees began to eat and drink [30, online].

They were, indeed, old friends, having been at school together [30, online].

It should be noted that a prior action is not always expressed by Participle I Perfect: with some verbs of sense perception and motion, such as to see, to hear, to come, to arrive, to seize, to look, to turn and some others, Participle I Indefinite is used even when priority is meant.

Turning down an obscure street and entering an obscurer lane, he went up to a smith's shop [30, online].

Hearing a footstep below he rose and went to the top of the stairs [30, online].

Participle II has no tense distinctions; it has only one form which can express both an action simultaneous with, and prior to, the action expressed by the finite verb; the latter case is more frequent.

He is a man loved and admired by everybody [30, online].

The voice distinctions of the participle

Participle I of transitive verbs has special forms to denote the active and the passive voice.

When writing letters he does not like to be disturbed.

Being written in pencil the letter was difficult to make out.

Having written some letters he went to post them.

Having been written long ago the manuscript – was illegible.

Participle II of transitive verbs has a passive meaning: a broken glass, a caged bird. Participle II of intransitive verbs has no passive meaning; it is used only in compound tense-forms and has no independent function in the sentence unless it belongs to a verb which denotes passing into a new state, e. g. a withered flower, a faded leaf.

II.2. The Characteristics of the Present Participle

The present participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective and adverb, serving as the qualifying-processual name. In its outer form the present participle is wholly homonymous with the gerund, ending in the suffix -ing and distinguishing the same grammatical categories of retrospective coordination and voice [34, online].

Like all the verbids, the present participle has no categorial time distinctions, and the attribute "present" in its conventional name is not immediately explanatory; it is used in this book from force of tradition. Still, both terms "present participle" and "past participle" are not altogether devoid of elucidative signification, if not in the categorial sense, then in the derivational-etymological sense, and are none the worse in their quality than their doublet-substitutes "participle I" and "participle II".

The present participle has its own place in the general paradigm of the verb, different from that of the past participle, being distinguished by the corresponding set of characterisation features [1, p.45].

Since it possesses some traits both of adjective and adverb, the present participle is not only dual, but triple by its lexico-grammatical properties, which is displayed in its combinability, as well as in its syntactic functions.

The verb-type combinability of the present participle is revealed, first, in its being combined, in various uses, with nouns expressing the object of the action; second, with nouns expressing the subject of the action (in semi-predicative complexes); third, with modifying adverbs; fourth, with auxiliary finite verbs (word-morphemes) in the analytical forms of the verb. The adjective-type combinability of the present participle is revealed in its association with the modified nouns, as well as with some modifying adverbs, such as adverbs of degree. The adverb-type combinability of the present participle is revealed in its association with the modified verbs [34, online].

The self-positional present participle, in the proper syntactic arrangements, performs the functions of the predicative (occasional use, and not with the pure link be), the attribute, the adverbial modifier of various types.

The questions became more and more irritating. (Present participle predicative position)

She had thrust the crucifix on to the surviving baby. (Present participle attributive front-position)

stood on the pavement like a man watching his loved one go aboard an ocean liner. (Present participle attributive back-position)

He was no longer the cocky, pugnacious boy, always squaring up for a fight. (Present participle attributive back-position, detached)

She went up the steps, swinging her hips and tossing her fur with bravado. (Present participle manner adverbial back-position)

And having read in the papers about truth drugs, of course Gladys would believe it absolutely. (Present participle cause adverbial front-position)

The present participle, similar to the infinitive, can build up semi-predicative complexes of objective and subjective types.

II.3. The Characteristics of the Past Participle

The past participle is the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective, serving as the qualifying-processual name. The past participle is a single form, having no paradigm of its own. By way of the paradigmatic correlation with the present participle, it conveys implicitly the categorial meaning of the perfect and the passive. As different from the present participle, it has no distinct combinability features or syntactic function features specially characteristic of the adverb. Thus, the main self-positional functions of the past participle in the sentence are those of the attribute and the predicative.

Moyra's softened look gave him a new hope. (Past participle attributive front-position)

The cleverly chosen timing of the attack determined the outcome of the battle. (Past participle attributive front-position)

It is a face devastated by passion. (Past participle attributive back-position)

His was a victory gained against all rules and predictions. (Past participle attributive back-position)

Looked upon in this light, the wording of the will didn't appear so odious. (Past participle attributive detached position)

The light is bright and inconveniently placed for reading. (Past participle predicative position)

The past participle is included in the structural formation of the present participle (perfect, passive), which, together with the other differential properties, vindicates the treatment of this form as a separate verbid.

In the attributive use, the past participial meanings of the perfect and the passive are expressed in dynamic correlation with the aspective lexico-grammatical character of the verb. As a result of this correlation, the attributive past participle of limitive verbs in a neutral context expresses priority, while the past participle of unlimitive verbs expresses simultaneity.

A tree broken by the storm blocked the narrow passage between the cliffs and the water. (Priority in the passive; the implication is "a tree that had been broken by the storm")

I saw that the picture admired by the general public hardly had a fair chance with the judges. (Simultaneity in the passive; the implication is "the picture which was being admired by the public")

Like the present participle, the past participle is capable of making up semi-predicative constructions of complex object, complex subject, as well as of absolute complex.

The past participial complex object is specifically characteristic with verbs of wish and oblique causality (have, get). :

I want the document prepared for signing by 4 p.m. Will you have my coat brushed up, please?

Compare the use of the past; participial complex object and the complex subject as its passive transform with a perception verb:

We could hear a shot or two fired from a field mortar. → A shot or two could be heard fired from a field mortar.

The complex subject of this type, whose participle is included in the double predicate of the sentence, is used but occasionally. A more common type of the participial complex subject can be seen with notional links of motion and position. We sank down and for a while lay there stretched out and exhausted.

The absolute past participial complex as a rule expresses priority in the correlation of two events. The preliminary talks completed, it became possible to concentrate on the central point of the agenda.

The past participles of non-objective verbs are rarely used in independent sentence-part positions; they are mostly included in phraseological or cliché combinations like faded photographs, fallen leaves, a retired officer, a withered flower, dream come true, etc. In these and similar cases the idea of pure quality rather than that of processual quality is expressed, the modifying participles showing the features of adjectivisation.

As is known, the past participle is traditionally interpreted as being capable of adverbial-related use (like the present participle), notably in detached syntactical positions, after the introductory subordinate conjunctions.

II.4. The Participle I – Gerund Correlation

Within the gerund-participle correlation, the central point of our analysis will be the lexico-grammatical identification of the two verbid forms in -ing in their reference to each other.

History of Differences between the Gerund and the Participle I

It would be both interesting and instructive now to inquire into the factors that had brought about the phonological and morphological confusion between -end and -ing. There are three factors to be considered.

Special significance should be attached to the fact that the confusion first took place in the Southern dialect, where the old traditional form of the present participle was -inde, a form weakened from OE -ende. As the ending of the gerund, on the other hand, -ing had been retained in the Southwestern dialect till about 1250, but after that the form was scarcely found, the ending -ing having been generally established . Moreover there was a growing tendency to confuse -inde, as the ending of the present participle, with -inge in the Southern (except Kentish) dialect about that time.

Now it is inferred that the Southern participial form -inde had the least resistance to be superseded by -inge; the other forms -ende and -and(e) were retained much longer, in clear contrast with the gerundial form -yng or -ing. The reason may be easily ascribed to the phonetic contiguity between the two forms -inde and -inge. The process from -nd [nd] to -ng, which supposed to represent the sound [r)g], is merely the result of the simple substitution in the points of articulation, that is, the shifting from alveolar to velar. Furthermore we may assume that the substitution had been greatly prompted by the presence of the preceding vowel i, for in the points of articulation [i] is much closer to the velar [g] than to the alveolar [n]. In short, it was phonetically easier to pass from – to -ing than to pass from -end or -and to -ing.

Besides the articulatory assimilation of [] to [igg], there is another phonetical process to be assumed. The pronunciation of both -{e) and -ing(e) had already become indistinct in the thirteenth century, and it is probable that both the endings were soon pronounced [ing] with the palatalized n. The morphological confusion can be attributed to this phonological leveling.

The two phonetical factors mentioned above must not be considered separately. They probably acted simultaneously, reciprocally influencing each other, to bring about the confusion.

The next to be considered is an external factor. From the geographical situation, we can judge that the effect of the scribal influence was most apparent in the literature of .

These are the factors that were considered to cause the confusion of -inde and -inge in the Southern dialect.

Now it would be convenient to classify the introductory verbs into three groups from the semantic point of view, so that we may be able to arrange the examples more systematically. Those groups are:

a. Verbs of sensuous or mental perception, such as see, hear, find, feel, observe, watch, perceive, notice, catch, etc.

b. Verbs that imply or involve a durative state, such as leave, keep, have, get, send, etc.

c. Verbs of psychological state or activity, such as understand, remember, recollect, imagine, fancy, like, hate, want, etc.

Of these groups of verbs, we can first notice that only a few belonging to groups a and b are in the same use as in OE and ME, but all the others have come to be newly used with the construction in the ModE period. It is true that many of them introduce the “accusative with infinitive” construction as well, but we must also observe that some belonging to groups b and c, such as keep, remember, recollect, etc., can only be used with the “accusative with participle” construction. The outer structure of the two elements of the verbal system is absolutely identical.

CHAPTER III. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTICIPLE AND THE PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTIONS IN THE SENTENCE

III. 1. The Functions of the Participle I in the Sentence

Participle I may have different syntactic functions.

1) Participle I as an attribute

Participle I Indefinite Active can be used as an attribute.

The fence surrounding the garden is newly painted [30, online].

We admired the stars twinkling in the sky [30, online].

He came back and stood irresolute on the steps leading down to the street [30, online].

I bated the hollow sound of the rain pattering on the roof [30, online].

….. The fence surrounding the garden is newly painted [30, online].

He looked at the carpet while waiting for her answer[30, online].

He returned to the hut, bringing in his arms new-born lamb [30, online].

In the function of an attribute Participle I can be in preposition and in post-position, i. e. it can precede the noun it modifies and follow it. Participle I in рге-position hardly ever has accompanying words.

The gate-keeper surveyed the retreating vehicle [30, online].

Participle I in postposition as a rule has one or several accompanying words.

They dined outside upon the terrace facing Vesuvius [30, online].

Through the massive sunlight illuminating the hall at Robin Hill, the July sunlight at five o'clock fell just where the broad staircase turned [30, online].

Participle I Indefinite Passive is very seldom used as an attribute.

There was one line being laid out to within a few blocks of his new home… which interested him greatly [30, online].

Participle I Perfect Active and Passive is not used attributively. Attention should be paid to the fact that Participle I in the function of an attribute cannot express priority.

In many cases an attribute expressed by Participle I is detached, i. e. it acquires a certain independence in the sentence; the connection between the attribute and the word it modifies is loose. A detached attribute is usually separated by a comma.

It was the entrance to a large family vault, extending under the north aisle [30, online].

2) Participle I as an adverbial modifier

All forms of the Participle I may be used as an adverbial modifier. Participle I Indefinite expresses an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb and corresponds to the Russian деепричастие несовершенного вида; Participle I Perfect expresses an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb and corresponds to the Russian деепричастие совершенного вида. In some cases Participle I in the function of an adverbial modifier is rendered in Russian by an adverbial clause.

Participle I can be an adverbial modifier:

(a) of time.

Approaching Malta Street, Soho, Soames thought with wonder of those years in Brighton [30, online].

Having closed the drawing-room door on him, Isabel awaited a little, absorbed in her own thoughts [30, online].

As has already been stated, with some verbs of sense perception and motion, such as to see, to hear, to come, to arrive, to enter, to seize, to look out, to turn and some others, Participle I Indefinite is used even when priority is meant.

Anna hearing his step ran to the foot of the stairs to meet him [30, online].

Arriving there the visitor found everything that should be found at old manors [30, online].

Entering her room that evening, Elfride found a packet for herself on the dressing-table [30, online].

Seizing ink and writing paper, she began to write [30, online].

If the action expressed by Participle I Indefinite Active is simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb, the conjunction when or while is often used.

While waiting for the water to boil, he held his face over the stove [30, online].

Participle I Indefinite of the verb to be is not used as an adverbial modifier of time.

(b) of cause.

Being of a more slender figure than Mr. Jarndyce, and having a richer complexion, Mr. Skimpote looked younger [30, online].

of manner and attendant circumstances.

In this function Participle I Indefinite is mostly used.

She balanced herself on the curbstone and began to walk carefully, setting heel to toe, heel to toe, and counting her steps [30, online].

It is not always easy to discriminate between an adverbial modifier of manner and an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances.

He has been in three revolutions fighting on the barricades [30, online].

of comparison.

In this function Participle I is introduced by the conjunction as if or as though.

This was said as if thinking aloud [30, online].

He was still on his guard, as though waiting for a further question from me [30, online].

3) Participle I as a predicative

In this function Participle I is used but seldom,

The effect of her words was terrifying [30, online].

The whole damned day had been humiliating [29, online].

I saw that young man and his wife were talking to you on the stairs [29, online].

4) Participle I as part of a complex object

I saw that young man and his wife talking to you on the stairs.

5) Participle I as part of a compound verbal predicate

Presently other footsteps were heard crossing the room below [29, online].

6) Participial phrase as parenthesis

Here we always find a participial phrase; a single participle is not used in this function.

Generally speaking, I don't like boys.

Judging by appearances, Mr. Bowmore looked like a man prematurely wasted and worn by the cares of a troubled life [29, online].

III.2. The Functions of the Participle II in the sentence

1) Participle II as an attribute

In this function Participle II, as well as Participle I, can be used in preposition (without any accompanying words) and in postposition (with one or more accompanying words).

He answered through the locked door [29, online].

They turned into the large conservatory beautifully lit up with Chinese lamps [29, online].

Only in a few cases Participle II of an intransitive verb may be used attributively, mostly Participle II of the verbs to fade, to wither, to retire, to fall, to vanish, e. g. faded leaves , a withered flower , a retired colonel ,a fallen star, the vanished jewels .

An attribute expressed by Participle II may be detached; in this case it often has an additional meaning of an adverbial modifier:

The housekeeper "had come out of her room, attracted by the violent ringing of the bell.

Accompanied by his father and Steger, he ascended to his new room [29, online].

Crushed at first by his imprisonment, he had soon found a dull relief in it [29, online].

2) Participle II as an adverbial modifier

In this function Participle II is preceded by the conjunctions when, while, if, as if, as though, though, etc.

Participle II can be an adverbial modifier:

(a) of time

When questioned Annie had implied vaguely that she was anxious about her brother-in-law [29, online].

(b) of condition

It was a dreadful thing that be now proposed, a breach of the law which if discovered, would bring them into the police court [29, online].

(c) of comparison

As if torn with inner conflict and indecision, he cried [29, online].

Mr. Kantwise shook his head as though lost in wonder and admiration[29, online].

(d) of concession

Her spirit, though crushed, was not broken [29, online].

Other grammarians' view of the analysis of such word-groups as when questioned…, if discovered…, as if torn…, though crashed… is different. They consider such word-groups to be elliptical clauses and not participial phrases.

3) Participle II as a predicative

In spite of himself, Val was impressed [29, online].

The inner gate was locked, and the lodge closed [29, online].

4) Participle II as part of a complex object

She has found, me unaltered; but I have found her changed [29, online].

III.3. The Participle as Conjunctions and Prepositions

As conjunctions the participles (provided/providing; granted/ granting; supposing; assuming; seeing) introduce the subordinate clauses of condition, cause and concession.

A wider association of this kind would be feasible, provided (providing) the methods adopted are in line with those proposed at the conference [31, online].

Objections to this plan, supposing there are any, should be reported to the committee at once [31, online].

Prepositions (given, failing, regarding, considering, respecting, pending, following, barring) are always used before a noun.

Given good will on the part of other states, this proposal of could be carried into effect without any further delay [31, online].

This was what the Tories want. They are against the Bill, but failing its complete defeat they are aiming to get it amended into uselessness [31, online].

At this point the lenders are in a non-interest bearing account, so time is of the essence regarding the closing of the loan [31, online].

The 31 were charged with criminal association and jailed pending interrogation [32, online].

It is argued that the risk that runs in exposing her hand, though not to be discounted, is well worth taking, considering the importance to British industry of the negotiations as a whole [32, online].

Pending the reopening of negotiations and fearing the abrogation of some privileges the State Council adopted certain measures [32, online].

Given the growing availability of pornographic material by mail order and through Internet, it must be better to attempt to police this market in a more sophisticated way rather than taking refuge in old rules [32, online].

The idea of waging a nuclear war appears inconceivable, and winning one, meaningless, given the scale of destruction on all sides [32, online].

III.4. The Predicative Constructions with the Participle

In Modern English we find the following predicative constructions with the participle:

– the Objective Participial Construction;

– the Subjective Participial Construction;

– the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction:

– the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction.

III.4.1. The Objective Participial Construction

The Objective Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case [ 38, online].

In the next berth she could hear her stepmother breathing heavily [29, online].

The participle breathing is in predicate relation to the noun stepmother, which denotes the doer of the action expressed by the participle.

In the Objective Participial Construction Participle I Indefinite Active or Participle II is used. In the sentence this construction has the function of a complex object. The Objective Participial Construction may be found: (a) after verbs denoting sense perception, such as to see, to hear, to feel, to find, etc.

Then he looked out of the window and saw clouds gathering [29, online].

I heard my wife coming [29, online].

She could feel her hands trembling exceedingly [29, online].

She found him waiting for her at her journey's end [29, online].

I saw the pony harnessed myself [29, online].

The dog heard his name pronounced through the open door [29, online].

He felt himself clutched by the collar [29, online].

You will probably find your sister grown, Bella [29, online].

(b) after some verbs of mental activity, such as to consider, to understand.

I consider myself engaged to Herr Kjesmer [29, online].

(c) after verbs denoting wish, such as to want, to wish, to de sire. In this case only Participle II is used.

The governor wants it done quickly [29, online].

(d) after the verbs to have and to get; after these verbs only Participle II is used.

In this case the Objective Participial Construction shows that the action expressed by the participle is performed at the request of the person denoted by the subject of the sentence. Thus / had the piano tuned means 'I made someone tune the piano.

I had my coat altered.

Не had several bottles of wine brought .

You can get your clothes made in .

In interrogative and negative sentences the auxiliary verb to do is used:

Why don't you have your hair waved?

Occasionally the meaning of the construction is different: it may show that the person denoted by the subject of the sentence experiences the action expressed by the participle.

The wounded man had his leg amputated [29, online].

The Development of the Objective Participial (Accusative with Participle) Construction

As in ModE the pattern “I saw him coming” is parallel with the pattern “I saw him come/’ so in OE the participle-construction seems to have been used on the analogy of infinitive construction. Having developed much more verbal force and syntactic capacity, the infinitive was used in this construction more usually than the participle [33, online].

In OE such an expression was fairly common, apparently through the influence of the Latin construction "accusativus cum infinitivo.” Now the similar function could also be performed by the present participle.

English is equipped, with a concise and convenient means of expression and the English expression with the participle is more precise and expressive in conveying the delicate shade of meaning, and is so much the greater in linguistic value. At the same time it must not be overlooked that such syntactic and stylistic potentiality exhibited by the present participle in this construction can be traced back to the earliest stage in the history of the English language.

The “Accusative with Participle” in OE

The use of a present participle in OE could be distinctly discerned by its representative ending -ende the form in West Saxon, in which dialect the best part of the OE literature was written and has been preserved.

The construction “verb+object+participle” was found in the earliest period. Only, while in ModE the introductory verbs are of several kinds , in OE the construction was more limited and chiefly introduced by verbs of sensuous or perception [33,online].

The Morphological Change of the Present Participle in ME

Before entering into the observation of the construction in ME we should like to survey how the form of the present participle got confused with that of the gerund in -ing in the course of the ME period. Generally speaking, the variant forms of the present participle in ME properly inherited from OE were -inde in the Southern dialect, -ende in the dialect, and -and(e) in the Northern dialect. Already in the early part of the thirteenth century the old form of the present participle began to be supplanted by the new form -ing(e), which had been the original ending of the verbal substantive or gerund. This supersession first took place in the Southern dialect (except the Kentish), then in the , and finally in the Northern [33, online].

“Preposition+Object+Participle” in ModE

The use of the construction governed by the preposition has been remarkably expanded in the ModE period. First after with the construction has grown more and more popular.

I stood like a man at a mark, with a whole army shooting at me.

…Old English the present participle had a distinct form of its own, ending in -ende, as against -ung or -ing, the form of the verbal substantive or gerund. The former had its syntactically verbal capacity developed much earlier than the latter. The participle was already able to function as predicative adjunct of the object after some verbs of perception. With this verbal capacity the participle had a particular stylistic value that has helped to keep the “accusative with participle” construction growing steadily ever since the earliest period. It has made the construction fit for concrete and expressive description as an essential factor for the formation of cumulative style—the style so characteristic of English syntax.

The morphological transition in later periods, however, was against the participle, whose proper form came to be absorbed by that of the gerund in -ing in the course of the ME period. In this respect the participle, at the cost of its own form, contributed to have the gerund develop its verbal force.

After the time of Shakespeare, the use of the “accusative with participle” construction, "whether introduced by a verb or a preposition, became suddenly more frequent than ever before. Somewhat later than that the gerund- construction began to make no less remarkable progress. It even grew so overwhelming that some earlier participial expressions have resulted in getting absorbed in the gerundial pattern. There are of course instances where the transition in the opposite direction has taken place. But we should like to add the two more examples, which show how naturally participles may come to appear gerundial in some particular contexts.

On a broad survey we should be allowed to conclude that the two constructions have been developed spontaneously in the native syntax [33, online].

III.4.2. The Subjective Participial Construction

The Subjective Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle (mostly Participle I) is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case, which is the subject of the sentence [38, online].

The peculiarity of this construction is that it does not serve as one part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the function of the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate.

They were heard talking together.

This construction is chiefly used after verbs of sense perception.

The horse was seen descending the hill [29, online].

Then Peter’s footsteps were heard crossing the room.

III.4.3. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction.

The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is a construction in which the participle stands in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case; the noun: or pronoun is not the subject of the sentence [38, online].

The door and window of the vacant room being open, we looked in [29, online].

In the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction Participle I (in all its forms) or Participle II is used. This construction is generally used in the function of an adverbial modifier. It can be an adverbial modifier:

(a) of time.

The lamp having been lit, Mrs. Macallan produced her son's letter [29, online].

This duty completed, he had three months' leave[32, online].

(b) of cause.

It being now pretty late, we took our candles and went upstairs [29, online].

A knock had come to the door, and there being nobody else to answer it, Clare went out [29, online].

We were walking by ourselves for an hour, George having remained behind in the hotel to write a letter to his aunt [29, online].

c) of an attendant circumstances. In this function the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is mostly placed at the end of the sentence.

He turned and went, we, as before, following him [29, online].

One morning he stood in front of the tank, his nose almost pressed to the glass [29, online].

(d) of condition. In this function the Nominative Absolute
Participial Construction occurs but seldom and is almost exclusively
used with the participles permitting and failing.

Weather (time, circumstances) permitting, we shall start tomorrow.

Conciliation failing, force remains; but force failing, no further hope of conciliation is left [29, online].

The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction very often occurs in fiction and scientific literature; the use of this construction in colloquial English is rare.

This syntactical complex can have different structures. It can consist of a noun in a common case, it may have a pronoun in the common case, sometimes the noun is premodified by a possessive pronoun. According to the parts of this construction it may include only a noun and a participle, but very often it is extended by objects.

While doing our investigation we have found out that the Absolute Nominative Participle Construction can have different positions in a sentence. It can be in the pre-position, in the middle position, in the post-position. Very often this construction is used with the preposition “with”. The identification problem is particularly complicated in she case of the with- structures which may coincide in form with the simple prepositional groups. The phrase "How can you play with your brother lying sick in bed" can be understood in two different ways: as an Absolute construction or as a prepositional group.

The Nominative Absolute Participle Construction in Preposition

In this position the participle can have different forms (present, past, perfect). It is often used with the preposition “with”.

With the impeachment trial over, the President found himself more easily able to involve himself in foreign policy [32, online].

According to the structure this absolute nominative participle construction is a simple one. It consists of a subject which is premodified by the noun “impeachment” in the function of an attribute and the second part of the participle “over”. We can see that the first part, i.e. the form “being” is omitted. But it can be reconstructed from the context.

The following sentences can be analyzed in the same way.

With the Conservative Party as deeply divided as ever on Europe, its young leader can stamp his little foot as much as he likes and still not end the debate [32, online].

With the tricky enlargement negotiations ahead, the last thing the EU needs is a prolonged bout of budget bickering [32, online].

With everyone asking ‘ What sort of European Commission do we want?’ it was hard not to ask simultaneously ‘ What sort of do we want?’ [32, online].

This is a simple sentence but it is complicated by a direct speech. The sentence begins with the absolute nominative participle construction. The structure of the construction is an unexpended one because it contains only participle I and indefinite pronoun “everyone” which is the subject of this semi-predicative construction.

With the economy booming and incomes finally beginning to climb for those on the middle and lower rungs of the ladder, a ‘national culture of upscale spending’ has emerged [32, online].

With state pension systems being stretched by the ageing of 's population and with returns on traditional savings instruments shrinking, investors are turning increasingly to mutual funds [32, online].

‘ With many bonds trading above par, any uncertainty about the implications of the European tax on savings will have an impact on the trading of these securities’ said Managing director and Head of European debt capital markets [32, online].

With the Conservative Party as deeply divided as ever on , its young leader can stamp his little foot as much as he likes and still not end the debate [32, online].

With the tricky enlargement negotiations ahead, the last thing the EU needs is a prolonged bout of budget bickering [32, online].

In the last two sentences we see that Participles I in these constructions are not full. They lack the form “being”. “Being divided”, “being ahead”. Nevertheless, from the context we can foresee this form and translate it.

With sales of automobiles on the domestic market sagging, and many dealers in deficit, the pressure to export autos last year was acute [32, online].

With $40 billion of Brazilian dollar reserves having evaporated since ’s debt default last summer, the move to a floating currency was increasingly favoured by officials at the International Monetary Fund and the US Treasury [32, online].

With German industry pressing for lower interest rates to stimulate investment, the Bundesbank's capacity to defend the mark by hiking rates is extremely limited [32, online].

With old-age pensions starting at 60 for both men and women, French workers already down tools several years before their counterparts in other rich countries [32, online].

With the Government doing its utmost to keep wages down, and with price increases due to the EU membership coming on top of price increases arising from the Government policy, the standard of living in this country would be given an extremely serious setback [32, online].

Sometimes the form of the Participle in such constructions can be “Past Participle”. These cases are rare but nerveless they are used.

With 70 per cent of 's land area mountainous and a small percentage devoted to farmland, two-thirds of 's urban population resides and works in less than 5 per cent of the total land area [32, online].

With their profits siphoned off by the central government bonds, some production units will undoubtedly have to curtail expansion plans, profit-sharing and other incentives to workers [32, online].

From all these examples we can see that the structure of the absolute nominative participle construction used in preposition can be extended and unextended.

The Nominative Absolute Participle Construction in the Middle Position

Sometimes such complexes can be used in the middle position. In this case they stand between the subject of the sentence and its predicate, but very often they divide the principle and subordinate parts of the sentence.

The European Parliament is coming under sharp criticism with allegations made by members of inflated expenses — too much money spent on overseas trips, expensive quarters, and office cleaners [32, online].

Absorbed by Africa, tried by immigration, with the imperial feeling ebbing, and no longer hold the place in the British imagination that they once had [32, online].

The rapidly expanding Israeli arms industry now ranks seventh among the world's exporters of weapons and defense-related equipment, with sales for the year ending April 1 amounting to about $1.3 billion, a 40 per cent increase over those of the previous year, according to a British military publication [32, online].

In 1980s with their profits falling as viewers turned increasingly to the choice offered by cable TV and VCRs, the networks (ABC, CBS and NBC) were taken over by Wall street deal makers, who thought they could be run more efficiently [32, online].

Stupendous storms of terrifying proportions can rage in these unreported areas, with no one knowing of them until the effects of the atmospheric disturbances they cause are felt in local weather days later [32, online].

Thus, we see that the absolute nominative participle constructions can be used in the middle position of the sentence. In this case it defines and extends the preceding part of the sentence. The forms of the predicates in the whole sentence coincide and sometimes these sentences require explanations.

The Nominative Absolute Participle Construction in Postposition

Japanese diplomats said their government's approach is that the lead in opening up new markets should come from industry and commerce, with banks following.

A second round of wage talks for insurance and metal workers broke off Wednesday, with employers and unions still far apart on pay increases [31, online].

The 's leading maker of tires for trucks and buses, has embraced globalization, with factories and dealers stretching from to Europe to [31, online]. The Italian media have carried reports of tragedy as makeshift boats capsize, with many would-be immigrants from North Africa, Asia and drowning before they can reach shore [31, online].

He is likely, though not yet certain, to continue as prime minister, with Finland continuing on its course of gradual liberalization on the economic front and faster integration into the rest of Europe in foreign affairs [31, online].

The annual US report on human rights frequently provokes an angry reaction from targeted countries. They accuse the sole superpower of lecturing the world to adopt its own standards and of hypocrisy, with critics pointing to the use of death penalty and reports of police brutality [31, online].

Rescue helicopters evacuated thousands of shocked tourists from an Austrian valley Friday as the death toll from a double avalanche rose to 37, with only one victim still buried [31, online].

Almost all councils are putting up their rents, the reason being the heavy burden of interest for housing [31, online].

Yet never were the problems confronting the country so acute, with the electorate in fact divided on policy issues to a greater degree than for years past [31, online].

The Nominative Absolute Participle Construction without Prepositions

Its economy crumbling, struggled to escape the global Depression and find its place in a violently changing world [31, online].

Their worst fears about the national election realized, leaders of the trade union movement now expect an assault against many of organized labor's most cherished programs and interests [31, online].

He declared that at the next sitting of the peace conference the proposal should be made to conclude peace, all theoretical questions being excluded [31, online].

emerged from the war only a formal 'victor', its economy shaken and entering a period of permanent stagnation and decline [31, online].

Almost all councils are putting up their rents, the reason being the heavy burden of interest for housing [31, online].

As there is a natural limit to the capacity of consumption of necessities of life (food, etc.), particular attention must be paid to industrialization, consumption prospects in this sphere being particularly unlimited for a long time to come [31, online].

Government can be understood to include any mechanism through which ordered rule is maintained, its central features being the ability to make collective decisions and the capacity to enforce them [31, online].

Thus we see that if the absolute nominative participle construction is used without preposition it can also be at the beginning and the end of the sentence. According to their structure sentences can also be extended and unextended, different forms of participles are used in such constructions.

III.5. The Participial Phrases

Participial phrases are short phrases that appear at the beginning of a sentence or the end of the sentence [39,online). These participial phrases should always be set off from the main clause with a comma. The action that is occurring in these participial phrases should relate back to the subject. That is, the subject of the sentence should be doing the action. If this is not the case, the result is a dangling modifier.

There are two basic types of participial phrases.

There is the present participial phrase which usually employs an "-ing" form of a verb (like the gerund) within it.

Beginning: Looking at the recent issue of Cosmo, the man who always sits in the back of the bus began to hum to himself a song from a strip tease act.

End: Dogs lick themselves all over, thinking they are superior to men.

Usage: This form is usually used when the action within the participial phrase is still ongoing.

There is the past participial phrase which usually employs an "-ed" form of a verb (similar to the participle) within it.

Beginning: Attached to a mother that only a son could love, Jerry, the newborn, suckling pig, felt a profound attraction to ugliness come over him.

End: The lonely caddy became flustered, scared that his affections for the old man's daughter would be noticed.

Usage: This form is usually used when the action within the participial phrase is completed.

Dangling modifiers

There are instances when the participial phrase seems to make sense although the participial phrase does not specifically name an action that the subject of the sentence is performing. This is called a dangling modifier. These dangling modifires occur most frequently when the participial phrase is at the beginning of the sentence.

Incorrect: Helping himself to the buffet, the things that Todd quietly thought about food were never to be discussed with anyone.

Here the participial phrase Helping himself to the buffet is not something that the things (the subject of the sentence) is doing.

Correct: Helping himself to the buffet, Todd quietly thought things about food that were never to be discussed with anyone.

Incorrect: Carried on the shoulders of all the players' wives, his foot dangled precariously for all his fans to grab.

Again: Here the participial phrase is in the past form, but Carried on the shoulders of all the players is not something that his foot was doing.

Correct: Carried on the shoulders of all the players' wives, John Dingle dangled his foot precariously for all his fans to grab.

  The participial phrase at the end of the sentence can also be considered a dangling modifier if it does not refer back to the subject of the sentence.

Incorrect: A large twig floated over and jabbed him, swimming against the tide.

Here swimming against the tide is not something that the twig is doing. Twigs don't swim. They float. However, it appears as if swimming against the tide is modifying him (the final pronoun in the main clause). While some grammarians might not find anything objectionable about this practice, generally speaking, participial phrases (both at the end of and in front of the main clause) should refer back to the subject.

Correct: Ricky Wrigley was jabbed by a floating twig, swimming against the tide.

Better: Ricky Wrigley, swimming against the tide, was jabbed by a floating twig.

It is best if the modifying phrase is placed as close as possible to the noun it is modifying. For this reason, the phrase is moved up here next to Ricky Wrigley. Also, this suggests that the participial phrase should be included after the main clause only if absolutely necessary. When a participial phrase is attached to the end of a sentence and it is modifying the last word of the sentence (a noun), it may be acting like a reduced relative clause as well [39, online].

Harold invented his own god, laughing maniacally at the sight of a face in a cloud.

The question here is who is laughing maniacally. Punctuated as it is now, laughing maniacally at the sight of a face in a cloud is a participial phrase that modifies Harold. However, it could be seen as a reduced relative clause that is modifying god. This relative clause is restrictive because …..laughing maniacally would specify what kind of god Harold had invented. Therefore, use no comma.

Harold invented his own god which was laughing maniacally at the sight of a face in a cloud.

Harold invented his own god laughing maniacally at the sight of a face in a cloud.

Why use the particpial phrase?

The participial phrase is just another way to write sentences with compound verbs in them. It provides a variety of sentence style.

Compound verb: Cecil claims he lost his ticket for the doggie erotica show and insists the ticket taker let him in.

Participial phrase: Claiming he lost his ticket for the doggie erotica show, Cecil insists the ticket taker let him in.

Compound verb: He dragged the basket out of the fire, lifted the Pekingese by the scruff of its neck and kissed it full on its tiny, pink lips.

Participial phrase: Dragging the basket out of the fire, he lifted the Pekingese by the scruff of its neck and kissed it full on its tiny, pink lips.

Participial phrase (compound): Dragging the basket out of the fire and lifting the Pekingese by the scruff of its neck, he kissed it full on its tiny, pink lips.

Thus we see that the use of the participial phrases makes the sentence more precise, correct and true from the grammatical point of view.

CONCLUSION

The topic of this research is the study of the participle and the participial constructions in the English language.

The system of the English verb is rightly considered to be the most complex grammatical structure of the language. The most troublesome problems are, indeed, concentrated in the area of the finite verb, and include, in particular, questions tense, aspect and modal auxiliary usage. This seems to be an area of grammar which has always gained the greatest interest in the language learning. The English Verbs can be divided into two main groups, according to the function they perform in the sentence – the finite forms and non-finite forms.

The finite forms have the function of the predicate in the sentence and may also be called the predicate forms.

The non-finite or non-predicative forms can have various other functions. These forms are also called the verbals.

The non-finite forms or the verbals, unlike the finite forms of the verbs do not express person, number, or mood. Therefore, they cannot be used as the predicate of a sentence. Like the finite forms of the verbs the verbals have tense and voice distinctions, but their tense distinctions differ from those of the finite verb.

The difference between a finite verb and a verbal (nonfinite verb form) is that a finite verb is completely inflected.  A nonfinite verb form has not been completely limited by inflection, in the same way that a blank sheet of paper has all sorts of possibilities that a paper with writing or drawing on it no longer has.

Our diploma paper consists of three chapters.

The first chapter is a theoretical one. …….It is called ’The system of the Verbs in the English Language’ and it includes the definition of the finite verb and non-finite verbs. In this chapter we investigate the theoretical material on the problem of verbals in the English language and present the points of view on this problem of such famous grammarians as M.Blokh, B.Ilyish, V.Kaushanskaya, L.Alexander, L.Bauer, R.Close, R.Quirk, G.Leech and many others.

The second chapter is an analytical one. And as the topic of our research is concerned with the participle in this chapter we analyze the forms and the usage of the participle in the English language.

The participle differs considerably from the finite forms as well as from the infinitive and the ing-form. The participle is, in the main, formed only from transitive verbs and has passive meaning. But, according to our investigation we have found out that there are also participles with active meaning, formed from intransitive verbs but their number is limited. The participle, like the infinitive and the ing-form, has some properties that fully correspond to those of the finite forms, and other properties that coincide with them only partly.

Both participles can be formed from terminative as well as from durative verbs. The participle of a terminative verb serves to denote a state resulting from a previously accomplished action. The resultant state is usually simultaneous with the action of the predicate verb.

Like the finite forms and the two other verbals, the participle is always associated with a subject. The subject of the participle may be the person or thing denoted by the subject of the sentence. The subject may also be the same person or thing as denoted by the object of the sentence. Finally, the participle, like the other verbals, may have a subject of its own when used in an absolute construction.

Like the infinitive and the ing-form, the participle can have complements which are generally placed in postposition. The complements it can have are usually restricted to the indication of the place or the time or the doer of the action.

The participle functions singly much more often than the infinitive or the ing-form.

The participle differs considerably not only from the finite forms but also from the infinitive and the ing-form in its functioning in the sentence. Therein lays a very important difference between the participle and the two other verbals.

In the first place, the participle cannot be used either as a link-verb or as a modal verb or as an auxiliary verb.

Secondly, its syntactical functions in the sentence are more restricted than those of the other verbals. It can serve only as a verb adjunct, close (a) and loose (b), and as a noun adjunct, also close (a) and loose (b).

It should be pointed out, however, that even in these functions which the participle has in common with the infinitive and the ing-form, it is capable of expressing the great variety of syntactic and semantic relations which are typical of the two other verbals.

There are two participles in English—Participle I and Participle II, traditionally called the Present Participle and the Past Participle.

The verbal characteristics of the participle are as follows:

1. Participle I of a transitive verb can take a direct object.

2. Participle I and Participle II can be modified by an adverb.

3. Participle I has tense distinctions.

Participle I Indefinite Active and Passive usually denotes an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb; depending on the tense-form of the finite verb it may refer to the present, past, or future.

Participle I Perfect Active, and Passive denotes an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb.

Participle II has no tense distinctions; it has only one form which can express both an action simultaneous with, and prior to, the action expressed by the finite verb.

Participle I of transitive verbs has special forms to denote the active and the passive voice.

Participle II of transitive verbs has a passive meaning: a broken glass, a caged bird. Participle II of intransitive verbs has no passive meaning; it is used only in compound tense-forms and has no independent function in the sentence unless it belongs to a verb which denotes passing into a new state, e. g. a withered flower, a faded leaf.

Participle I and II can also be used as prepositions and conjunctions.

The most important part of my qualification work is the third part. It is a practical one. In this chapter we investigate and make analyses of the participial constructions, analyze their functions in the sentence and describe their forms and functions in a sentence. Then we analyze the functions of the participle I and the participle II in a sentence. In general we have collected about 400 examples from such books as ‘Jane Eyre’ of Ch.Bronte and ‘The Picture of Dorian Gray’ of O.Wilde. All our results are shown in diagrams.

According to our investigation we can say that:

The participle I can function as an attribute in a sentence; as an adverbial modifier; as a predicative and as a parenthesis. The most often it is used as an attribute. All these results we present in diagram 1.

The participle II can function as an attribute, adverbial modifier and as a predicative. The results are presented in diagram 2.

The present participle and the past participle can be used in the participial constructions. According to our investigation the Nominative Absolute Participial construction is used more often than other participial constructions.

The results of the frequency of the use of the participial constructions are given in diagram 3.

The Nominative Absolute Participial construction is interesting from the point of view of its place in a sentence. It can be used in preposition, middle position and in the postposition. This construction is always marked by the punctuation marks. The results of the use of the Nominative Absolute Participial construction are given in diagram 4. According to our investigation this construction is mostly used in postposition.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Aarts B. English Syntax and Argumentation. : Macmillan, 1997.122p.

2. Alexander L. Longman English Grammar. – : Longman, 1988.546p.

3. Alexander L. Right Word Wrong Word. Words and Structures Confused and Misused by Learners of English. Second Edition. : Longman, 1994. 244p.

4. Bauer L. Language Myths. : Penguin Books, 1998.298p.

5. Camenev Z.; Stoian O.; Tulei A. Difficulties in Teaching/Learning English Grammar. Chișinău: USM, 2006.214p.

6. Close R. A Reference Grammar for Students of English. L.: Press, 1977.398p.

7. Cotton D. Market Leader. : Longman, 2000.176p.

8. Galasso J. Analyzing English Grammar. An Introduction to Feature Theory. : McMillan, 2007.241p.

9. Ganshina M.; Vasilevskaya N. English Grammar. M.: High School, 1973. 214p.

10. Gordon E.; English Verbals. M: International Relations, 1973. 214 p.

11. Huddleston R.; Pullum K. A Student's Introduction to English Grammar. : Press, 2005.199p.

12. Hudford J. Grammar: A Student's Guide. : Press, 1994.244p.

13. R. An Introduction to Word Grammar. : Williams, 2010. 245p.

14. Iofic L.; Chakhoyan C.; Pospelova A. Readings in the Theory of English Grammar. : MGU, 1987. 295 p.

15. Kachialova K.; Izrailevici E. Practical Grammar of English Language. M.: A.S.K., 1997. 487 p.

16. Kaushanskaya V. A Grammar of the English Language. : Strat, 2000. 320p.

17. Klammer T. Analyzing English Grammar. US: , 2001. 344p.

18. Leech G. Guide to Patterns and Usage in English. London: University Press, 1969. 450 p.

19. Millington-Ward J. Peculiarities in English. : Reload, 1987.250 p.

20. Palmer F. The English Verb. : Press,1976. 132 p.

21. Podoliuc T. Essential English Grammar. Part II. Chisinau: ULIM, 2002.102p

22. Quirk R. A University Grammar of English. Visshaia Shcola, 1982. 398 p.

23. Ronald C.; Cedric Gale; Benjamin B.; Griffith W. Essentials of English. N.Y.: Barron’s Educational Series, 2000, 236 p.

24. Simon C.; Hengeveld K. The Theory of Functional Grammar. Britain: Penguin,1997. 365 p.

25. Бархударов Л. Verbals in English. : Visshaia Shcola, 1975. 222 стр.

26. Богуславская Г. К вопросу о функции неличных форм глагола в структуре предложения английского языка. Москва: Высшая школа, 1987. 212 стр.

Dictionaries

27. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Fourth Edition. NewYork: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000. 1211p.

28. Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language. : Grammarcy Books, 1996. 766p.

Fiction

29. Bronte Jane Eyre. București. www.4shared.com/search. html ( vizitat 02.09.2011).

30. Wilde O. The Picture of Dorian Gray. www.brainyquote.com.oscarwilde.html (vizitat 12.08.2011).

Newspapers

31. The Times. www.thetimes.com ( vizitat 01.10.2011).

32. The Times. www.thewashingtontimes.com ( vizitat 12. 02.2012).

Internet

33. Anderesen B. A Course of English Grammar, .

http://edu.eng_grammar.com/verbs/nonfinite.htm ( vizitat 04.03.2011).

34. Blokh M. A Course in Theoretical English Grammar. . www.bitkent.edu.tr/gr.htm (vizitat 10.02.2012).

35. Ilyish B. The Structure of Modern English. . 5ka.su/ref/languages.html (vizitat 12.02.2012).

36. Fries The Language Structure of English. En.wikipedia.org/wiki.htlm (vizitat 10.12.2011).

37. Langendoen D. Essentials of English Grammar. dingo.sbs.arizona.edu/langendoen/vita.htm (vizitat 14.12.2011).

38. Murphy R. Essential Grammar in Use. www.facebook.com/pages.org ( vizitat 16.01.2012).

39. Pinker S. The Language Instinct. :Penguin, 1994.

http://www.englishbiz.co.uk/grammar/main_files/definitionsn-z.htm (vizitat 29.09.2011).

40. Praninnskas J. rapid Review of English Grammar. www.downturk.net/j/jean+praminskas+eng.+grammar ( vizitat 03.03.2012).

41. Sweet H. A New English Grammar .www.hcsweet, com (vizitat 23.10.2011).

42. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.2001:

http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-finite verb (vizitat 09.05.2011).

43. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.2001:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Search?search=finite+verbs&go=Go (vizitat 07.04.2011).

APPENDIX

Diagram 1. The Functions of the Participle I in the Sentence

Diagram 2. The Functions of the Participle II in the Sentence

Diagram 3. The Use of the Participial Constructions

Diagram 4. The Position of the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction in the Sentence

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Aarts B. English Syntax and Argumentation. : Macmillan, 1997.122p.

2. Alexander L. Longman English Grammar. – : Longman, 1988.546p.

3. Alexander L. Right Word Wrong Word. Words and Structures Confused and Misused by Learners of English. Second Edition. : Longman, 1994. 244p.

4. Bauer L. Language Myths. : Penguin Books, 1998.298p.

5. Camenev Z.; Stoian O.; Tulei A. Difficulties in Teaching/Learning English Grammar. Chișinău: USM, 2006.214p.

6. Close R. A Reference Grammar for Students of English. L.: Press, 1977.398p.

7. Cotton D. Market Leader. : Longman, 2000.176p.

8. Galasso J. Analyzing English Grammar. An Introduction to Feature Theory. : McMillan, 2007.241p.

9. Ganshina M.; Vasilevskaya N. English Grammar. M.: High School, 1973. 214p.

10. Gordon E.; English Verbals. M: International Relations, 1973. 214 p.

11. Huddleston R.; Pullum K. A Student's Introduction to English Grammar. : Press, 2005.199p.

12. Hudford J. Grammar: A Student's Guide. : Press, 1994.244p.

13. R. An Introduction to Word Grammar. : Williams, 2010. 245p.

14. Iofic L.; Chakhoyan C.; Pospelova A. Readings in the Theory of English Grammar. : MGU, 1987. 295 p.

15. Kachialova K.; Izrailevici E. Practical Grammar of English Language. M.: A.S.K., 1997. 487 p.

16. Kaushanskaya V. A Grammar of the English Language. : Strat, 2000. 320p.

17. Klammer T. Analyzing English Grammar. US: , 2001. 344p.

18. Leech G. Guide to Patterns and Usage in English. London: University Press, 1969. 450 p.

19. Millington-Ward J. Peculiarities in English. : Reload, 1987.250 p.

20. Palmer F. The English Verb. : Press,1976. 132 p.

21. Podoliuc T. Essential English Grammar. Part II. Chisinau: ULIM, 2002.102p

22. Quirk R. A University Grammar of English. Visshaia Shcola, 1982. 398 p.

23. Ronald C.; Cedric Gale; Benjamin B.; Griffith W. Essentials of English. N.Y.: Barron’s Educational Series, 2000, 236 p.

24. Simon C.; Hengeveld K. The Theory of Functional Grammar. Britain: Penguin,1997. 365 p.

25. Бархударов Л. Verbals in English. : Visshaia Shcola, 1975. 222 стр.

26. Богуславская Г. К вопросу о функции неличных форм глагола в структуре предложения английского языка. Москва: Высшая школа, 1987. 212 стр.

Dictionaries

27. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Fourth Edition. NewYork: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000. 1211p.

28. Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language. : Grammarcy Books, 1996. 766p.

Fiction

29. Bronte Jane Eyre. București. www.4shared.com/search. html ( vizitat 02.09.2011).

30. Wilde O. The Picture of Dorian Gray. www.brainyquote.com.oscarwilde.html (vizitat 12.08.2011).

Newspapers

31. The Times. www.thetimes.com ( vizitat 01.10.2011).

32. The Times. www.thewashingtontimes.com ( vizitat 12. 02.2012).

Internet

33. Anderesen B. A Course of English Grammar, .

http://edu.eng_grammar.com/verbs/nonfinite.htm ( vizitat 04.03.2011).

34. Blokh M. A Course in Theoretical English Grammar. . www.bitkent.edu.tr/gr.htm (vizitat 10.02.2012).

35. Ilyish B. The Structure of Modern English. . 5ka.su/ref/languages.html (vizitat 12.02.2012).

36. Fries The Language Structure of English. En.wikipedia.org/wiki.htlm (vizitat 10.12.2011).

37. Langendoen D. Essentials of English Grammar. dingo.sbs.arizona.edu/langendoen/vita.htm (vizitat 14.12.2011).

38. Murphy R. Essential Grammar in Use. www.facebook.com/pages.org ( vizitat 16.01.2012).

39. Pinker S. The Language Instinct. :Penguin, 1994.

http://www.englishbiz.co.uk/grammar/main_files/definitionsn-z.htm (vizitat 29.09.2011).

40. Praninnskas J. rapid Review of English Grammar. www.downturk.net/j/jean+praminskas+eng.+grammar ( vizitat 03.03.2012).

41. Sweet H. A New English Grammar .www.hcsweet, com (vizitat 23.10.2011).

42. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.2001:

http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-finite verb (vizitat 09.05.2011).

43. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.2001:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Search?search=finite+verbs&go=Go (vizitat 07.04.2011).

APPENDIX

Diagram 1. The Functions of the Participle I in the Sentence

Diagram 2. The Functions of the Participle II in the Sentence

Diagram 3. The Use of the Participial Constructions

Diagram 4. The Position of the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction in the Sentence