Paper 0113063304 [629303]

1 Developing leaders’ self-awareness through mindfulness

1 Abstract Leaders’ self-awareness has raised much interest in academia and organizations during the past few decades. This paper posits that it would be beneficial to explore new ways to enhance leaders’ self-awareness, which has been linked, through extant studies, to many positive outcomes in leadership. In addition, authentic and transformational leadership theories rely heavily on self-awareness. Therefore, this article first explores methods that have been used to develop self-awareness in leadership, then introduces how mindfulness may be used to enhance leaders’ self-awareness. Multi-source feedback assessment is currently the most common tool to enhance leaders’ self-awareness – particularly self-reflection. In contrast, mindfulness takes a less-cognitive approach, aiming to enhance internal awareness. Mindfulness practice can help turn attention toward leaders’ inner states and emotions, which is one aspect of leaders’ self-awareness. In addition, mindfulness may help enhance understanding of others’ perspectives. This article posits that mindfulness practice could be considered a relevant method to complement existing leader-development programs and tools. Keywords: leadership development; self-awareness; mindfulness; inner awareness; multi-source feedback assessment Introduction Self-awareness is a popular theme in organizational and leadership training programs, and it also has attracted much scholarly interest. Self-awareness is the foundation of leadership development and, therefore, is the core of self-management efforts (Rothstein & Burke, 2010). Self-awareness provides a basis for introspection, choice, priority setting, change and development for leaders (Rothstein & Burke, 2010). The critical issue is how to achieve self-awareness, though everyone is self-aware to some extent. Self-awareness is a biological human capacity (Rochat, 2003), but

2 self-awareness also can be taught, enhanced, and deepened (Bishop et al., 2004). Indeed, self-awareness seems to be the result of lifelong habits and practices that include contemplation and reflection on one’s own thinking and behavior. Profound self-awareness is not easy to achieve, and one needs to find ways to implement self-awareness enhancement as a lifelong habit. Multi-source feedback assessment (also called 360-degree assessment) currently is the most common tool to enhance leaders’ self-awareness (Taylor, 2007). Multi-source feedback assessment is based on leaders’ cognitive reflection after receiving information from co-workers, followers, and supervisors about how others view them. Accordingly, self-awareness most often is conceptualized as the degree of similarity between a leader’s self-description and his or her followers’ descriptions of the leader’s behaviors (Van Velsor, Taylor, & Leslie, 1993). This paper’s objective is to introduce and explore another perspective on leaders’ self-awareness development – mindfulness. Introspection and insight about one’s self have been deemed important since Socrates, and now we have a tool that potentially can help with training in awareness and attention, which are needed to observe the self, namely mindfulness. Mindfulness training is based on ancient practices represented in different cultures and religions, particularly Buddhism. Mindfulness, as such, is a state of awareness in which attention is directed on present-moment sensations, nonjudgmentally (Kabat-Zinn, 1994). Mindfulness training can help turn attention and awareness into leaders’ inner states and emotions, which are part of leaders’ self-awareness. In addition, mindfulness may help increase understanding of others’ perspectives through greater inner awareness and insight, which are essential for a leader who wishes to lead others toward common goals. Though known to be important, research on the development of self-awareness in extant management literature seems to be scarce, corresponding with scant leadership-development literature in general, when compared with leadership literature in general (Day et al., 2014). Considering the importance of self-awareness, it would be important to explore new ways to enhance it. This article proposes that mindfulness should be considered as a potential tool to enhance leaders’ inner awareness of thoughts, sensations, and emotions, thereby supplementing self-reflection.

3 Accordingly, this chapter discusses the roles of self-awareness and mindfulness in leadership development and is divided into four sections. First, this paper’s context, leadership development, is introduced briefly. In the second section, the concept of self-awareness in leadership is presented as well. Next, an overview of self-awareness development in leadership is provided. The fourth section introduces the concept of mindfulness and concludes by discussing mindfulness as one possible method to enhance leaders’ self-awareness, both from the perspective of self-resources (inner states) and others’ perspectives. 1 Leadership development Interest in leadership development appears to be high (Day, 2000). The need to broaden, deepen, and accelerate leadership development at all levels is one of the top priorities for many organizations that view leadership as a source of competitive advantage and invest in its development accordingly (McCall, 1998). However, a relatively long history of leadership research exists, spanning more than a century (Avolio et al., 2009). In comparison, a fairly short history of rigorous scholarly research on leadership development exists (Day et al., 2014). In addition, research on leadership-training interventions is surprisingly scarce, in contrast to the sizable body of research on leadership (Avolio et al., 2009). The challenge of leadership development lies in that, over the past decade, organizations have experienced dynamic changes while integrating new technologies during an era of globalization (e.g., O'Toole & Lawler, 2006). Such changes call for leaders to evolve continuously and learn more quickly and more cost-effectively (O'Toole & Lawler, 2006). Leadership training typically involves providing proven approaches to solve known problems, but the challenges facing contemporary leaders tend to be too complex and ill-defined (Day, 2000). Indeed, it is difficult to identify the particular skills that an individual leader needs for present and future success (Hall, 1986). It seems that two types of learning are necessary as an executive develops (Hall, 1976). The first, which is most generally associated with executive development, is task learning, which entails improving knowledge, skills, and abilities that are necessary to perform higher-level jobs effectively. The second is personal learning, i.e., mastery of socio-emotional tasks associated

4 with the person’s stage in life. Hall (1986) states that the latter type rarely is discussed in extant succession and development literature. As a result, more recent leadership-development models are expanding situational and competency-based definitions of leadership, which reduce leadership to a particular set of behaviors and skill sets (Brendel & Bennett, 2016). These contemporary models distinguish leadership as a way of being and focus on interpersonal development of the self as a leader, which includes, e.g., cultivating awareness of mental models (Cairns-Lee, 2015), expanding self-awareness and conscious insights (Polsfuss & Ardichvili, 2008), focusing on the embodiment of authentic leaders (Ladkin & Taylor, 2010), and mind-body awareness (Brendel & Bennett, 2016). Also, scholars (e.g., McCauley, 1998) have made a distinction between developing leaders and developing leadership. Leader development emphasizes individual-based knowledge, skills, and abilities associated with leadership roles and processes (Day, 2000). Self-awareness (e.g., emotional awareness, self-confidence), self-regulation (e.g., self-control, adaptability), and self- motivation (e.g., commitment, optimism) are examples of intrapersonal competencies associated with leader development (Day, 2000). For example, scholars have tested initiatives to increase intrapersonal competence associated with leader development related to self-leadership of thought (Neck & Manz, 1996), conscientiousness and self-leadership training (Stewart et al., 1996), and expanded awareness (Harung et al., 2009). In contrast, leadership development is defined as expanding the collective capacity of organizational members to engage effectively in leadership roles (McCauley et al., 1998). The primary emphasis in leadership development is on building and using interpersonal competence and networked relationships to create organizational value (Day, 2000). Social awareness (e.g., empathy) and social skills (e.g., collaboration, building bonds, and conflict management) are key components of interpersonal competence (Goleman, 1995). 2 Self-awareness in leadership Research in the field of self-awareness began with Duval and Wicklund’s (1972) theory of objective self-awareness (OSA). Their research focused on the differential effects of directing

5 attention, both toward the self and away from the self through various experimental distractions (Creed & Funder, 1998). OSA defines self-awareness as a self-evaluative process in which internal and external standards are used to make assessments about the self and how others perceive the self (Taylor, Wang, & Zhan, 2010). OSA theory suggests that self-awareness comprises two components: an understanding of one’s self-resources and an understanding of how one is seen by others (Taylor, Wang, & Zhan, 2010). More recently, Baumeister (2005) states that self-awareness is “anticipating how others perceive you, evaluating yourself and your actions according to collective beliefs and values, and caring about how others evaluate you” (p. 7). In management literature, Hall (2004) also emphasizes two components, stating that self-awareness comprises “the internal (recognizing one’s own inner state) and the external (recognizing one’s impact on others)” (p. 155). Although definitions vary, self-awareness is an inwardly focused process in which individuals compare the self against standards with the goal of attaining better self-knowledge and improvement (Ashley & Reiter-Palmon, 2012). Fenigstein, Scheier, and Buss (1975) conceptualized three dimensions for measuring self-awareness: private self-consciousness, public self-consciousness, and social anxiety. Private self-consciousness is found in individuals who have a habit of reflecting about themselves and their inner motives (Creed & Funder, 1998). Public self-consciousness is found in individuals who are concerned with aspects of their public image, such as their physical appearance and the impression that they make on others (Creed & Funder, 1998). Finally, social anxiety identifies people who suffer from some apprehension when interacting with others (Creed & Funder, 1998). Later, the private self-consciousness factor is viewed through two dimensions: rumination and reflection (Trapnell & Campbell, 1999). Scholars have noted that individuals may increase levels of self-awareness based either on neurotic-like tendencies (e.g., anxiety, depression) or for purposes of gaining self-knowledge or personal growth (Trapnell & Campbell, 1999). Moreover, Burnkrant and Page (1984) theorized that the private self-consciousness factor was better specified as a two-dimensional construct containing dimensions labeled self-reflection and internal state awareness. The latter includes “awareness of such feelings as tranquility, elation, and depression, as well as such bodily events as heartbeat and breathing” (p. 631).

6 Most of the focus on self-awareness in extant leadership and management literature has been on trying to develop leaders’ understanding of the self-resources that they possess (e.g., who they are, what strengths they possess, what they value, etc.) through, for example, assessments, feedback, and exercises designed to promote reflection (Taylor, Wang, & Zhan, 2010). Generally, leaders whose self-reported ratings of their performance are similar to those that others ascribe to them are defined as having high levels of self-awareness (Ashley & Reiter-Palmon, 2012). Accordingly, in previous leadership and management literature, self-awareness often has been defined simply as self/other agreement (e.g., Van Velsor, Taylor, & Leslie, 1993). Using this operational definition, a large body of empirical research has emerged suggesting that managers with high levels of self-awareness tend to have better performance outcomes than those with lower levels of self-awareness (e.g., Atwater et al., 1998; Bass & Yammarino, 1991; Furnham & Stringfield, 1994). London (2003) emphasized such a view, stating, “Self-awareness is having an accurate understanding of one’s strengths and weaknesses, usually measured by agreement between ratings of oneself and ratings made by others” (p. 24). Not surprisingly, many leadership theorists include self-awareness as one of the most important traits needed to be a successful leader (e.g., Church, 1997; Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002; Sosik & Megerian, 1999; Showry & Manasa, 2014; Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Shamir & Eilam, 2005). Self-awareness has been conceptualized as both a trait and a state (Fenigstein et al., 1975), as well as a skill (Church, 1997). The construct of self-awareness also has been included as part of the dimensionality of emotional intelligence (e.g., Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002). In leadership theories, self-awareness seems to be a necessary attribute for authentic leadership (Gardner et al., 2005) and transformational leadership theories (Bass & Riggio, 2006). Authentic leadership in organizations is defined by Luthans and Avolio (2003, p. 243) as “a process that draws from both positive psychological capacities and a highly developed organizational context, which results in both greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors on the part of leaders and associates, fostering positive self-development.” An authentic leader needs to encompass self-awareness, self-acceptance, and authentic actions to achieve personal authenticity – as well as authentic relations with followers and associates (Gardner et al., 2005). Fundamental to the concept of authentic leadership is the notion that authenticity and, hence, authentic leadership require heightened levels of self-awareness (Avolio

7 & Gardner, 2005). Self-awareness is not a destination point, but rather an emerging process in which one continually comes to understand his or her strengths, sense of purpose, values, beliefs and desires (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Transformational leadership is one of the most frequently studied leadership approaches in recent leadership literature (Antonakis, 2012). Transformational leadership emphasizes intrinsic motivation and the positive development of followers, as well as inspiring followers to share and pursue the leader’s vision and work for the good of the group (Bass & Riggio, 2006). Several reviews (e.g., Bass & Avolio, 1993) and meta-analyses (e.g., Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996) have identified transformational leadership as a powerful source of effective leadership. Furthermore, research on leadership has documented a relationship between self-awareness and transformational leadership, operationalized in terms of self-other agreement and leader performance (Sosik & Megerian, 1999). For example, Tekleab et al. (2008) found that self-awareness in transformational leadership is related to leader efficacy and followers’ supervisory satisfaction. 3 Self-awareness development in leadership Based on extant research, it appears that self-awareness is a non-negligible predictor of effective leadership. Thus, research on the association between self-awareness and positive work outcomes demonstrates that training to improve self-awareness has the potential to elicit benefits for individuals and organizations (Sutton et al., 2015). Despite its obvious importance, empirical research about developing leaders’ self-awareness seems to be scarce. Multi-source feedback assessment (MSFA, also called 360-degree assessment) is a common tool to increase self-awareness. It is also currently the most popular practice to measure self-awareness in both organizations and in empirical research papers (Taylor, 2007). In MSFA, a leader’s self-ratings are compared with those of his or her co-workers concerning him or her. The greater the congruence in the ratings, the better a person’s self-awareness is assumed to be (Taylor, 2007). An underlying assumption by many assessment and evaluation systems (e.g.,

8 performance-appraisal systems, 360-degree feedback, psychological assessments, mentoring, and executive coaching) is that the data derived from these systems will enhance self-awareness and, thus, provide motivation for leaders to improve in those areas identified as weaknesses (Rothstein & Burke, 2010). Many scholars (e.g., Atwater & Yammarino, 1992; Church & Waclawski, 1999; Fletcher, 1997; London, 2003) have used MSFA as a means to assess and develop participants’ self-awareness levels. Furthermore, more unique leadership-development programs and interventions to increase leaders’ self-awareness have been developed. Scholars have used “The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator” (McCarthy et al., 1999), the Enneagram personality typology (Sutton, Williams, & Allinson, 2015), art-based leadership interventions (Romanowska, Larsson, & Theorell, 2014), the Feldenkrais Method® (Fonow et al., 2016), somatic leadership-development programs (Bennett, 2012), transcendental meditation techniques (Schmidt-Wilk, 2003; Gustavsson & Harung, 1994), Three Principles Psychology (Polsfuss and Ardichvili, 2008), and mindfulness (e.g., Lippincott, 2018). Tentative attempts to use “waking up” moments and awareness through movement practices as leader-development methods also have been made (e.g., Goldman Schuyler et al., 2017; Strozzi-Heckler, 2003). Positive results have been gathered from these studies, including improved mindfulness, body awareness, and empathy (Fonow et al., 2016); more creative thinking and increased ability to take the initiative (Schmidt-Wilk, 2003); and better alignment with individual leadership vision, positive impact on communication skills, and the ability to manage emotions and conflicts (Bennett, 2012). Studies also have found positive associations with job-related well-being, a greater appreciation of diversity, improved communication with colleagues and increased confidence (Sutton et al., 2015), as well as improved self-awareness, humility, and coping with stress (Romanowska et al., 2014). While these studies offer promising directions, self-awareness development research in leadership, overall, remains scarce. Next, a brief overview is presented featuring studies that aim to develop leadership through self-awareness. Fonow et al. (2016) explored the Feldenkrais Method’s potential as a tool for enhancing mindfulness, body awareness, and perceptions of transformational leadership capacities among college students. The Feldenkrais Method comprises slow movements and allegedly can

9 reorganize connections between the brain and body. The intervention comprised 32 group sessions taught by a certified Feldenkrais instructor twice weekly during a semester to 21 undergraduates in the School of Film, Dance and Theatre of a southwestern state university. Students were required to keep a journal in which they reflected on how they felt prior to and after each class, then recorded observations about their experiences with thinking, sensing, feeling, and moving. Repeated-measures analyses of covariance were conducted to assess changes in levels of mindfulness, body awareness, and perceived leadership capacities administered at the start of the academic year, at the midpoint of the term, and at the end of the term. Over the semester, students evidenced significantly greater mindfulness, body awareness, and a domain of transformational leadership-measuring empathy and control over their levels of stress around the time of their final examinations. In a case study by Schmidt-Wilk (2003), members of a top management team in Sweden learned the transcendental meditation technique in the context of a leadership-development program whose articulated goals were to reduce stress, improve relationships, and develop individual consciousness. During the three-year period covered by the study, three courses of instruction for the top management team were held, taught by a management consultant who was a trained TM teacher. Over the period of the study, the Swedish management team reported becoming more open-minded and creative in its thinking, better able to take the initiative, and generally more competent in leadership roles In his thesis, Bennett (2012) used a qualitative research approach to explore the perceptions and experiences of 15 leaders from a variety of industries. Participants completed the Strozzi Institute’s somatic leadership-development program within one year of the study. Somatic learning has been defined simply as “learning through and with the body” – as opposed to the Cartesian discourse, which splits mind and body into separate elements, disengaging the mind from the body in the learning process. The research revealed that leaders perceived that somatic training enhanced their understanding of the body as a source of knowing largely through its capacity to increase self-awareness. In terms of outcomes, this significantly influenced their ability to become better aligned with their individual leadership vision and positively impacted

10 their leadership practice. More specifically, their communication skills, relationship-building capacity, and ability to manage emotions and conflicts improved. Sutton et al. (2015) wanted to investigate whether self-awareness provides a specific benefit in the workplace. The authors evaluated two interventions designed to improve dispositional self-awareness at work using mixed methods. The first, a generic self-awareness workshop, trained participants directly in the three methods outlined by Wilson and Dunn (2004): introspection; seeing oneself through others’ eyes; and self-observation. It focused on teaching participants skills such as journaling, reflection, self-analysis, and awareness of other people’s perceptions. The second workshop introduced participants to the Enneagram personality typology. Self-awareness was found to be associated positively with job-related well-being and was improved through training. Employees reported gaining a greater appreciation of diversity, improved communication with colleagues, and increased confidence. Romanowska et al. (2014) conducted a year-long art-based leadership intervention that was compared with conventional leadership training using a random allocation design. The study examined whether the art-based intervention exerts a stronger beneficial impact on leaders’ development than the conventional program. A comparison was made utilizing leaders’ self-ratings and subordinates’ ratings of their leaders’ frequency in expressing laissez-faire leadership and capacity to cope with stress. The findings demonstrate improved mental health, enhanced self-esteem, and courage to deal openly with unfair treatment within the art-based group compared with the conventional group. In addition, the leaders in the art intervention appear to have improved their self-awareness, humility, and stress coping, while mixed results were noted in the conventional group. In their qualitative case study, Polsfuss and Ardichvili (2008) studied the effects of Three Principles Psychology (TPP) training on eight participants (TPP practitioners and business executives). TPP is a psycho-educational approach that has been gaining popularity among leadership-development professionals. The opinion that the key to leadership efficacy is self-awareness and a healthy mind was voiced by all participants in this study. The TPP practitioners indicated that in their discussions with their customers, the following benefits are most often

11 mentioned: less stress; a slower work pace accompanied by increased efficiency; improved interpersonal communication and conflict-management ability; increased awareness and feelings of being in the moment; ability to find a common language for communicating with others in organizations; and increased ability to delegate leadership responsibility. In a two-year qualitative action research project, Goldman Schuyler et al. (2017) explored leaders’ first-person experiences “waking up.” Authors use the term waking up to refer to the moments when people notice that they are more aware of and present with what is happening within or around them. Concentrating on these fleeting moments that have happened to people worldwide, across cultures and centuries, the authors found that open awareness practice (the intention to be present) enhanced leaders’ quality of experience in several ways: It heightened experiences of bodily sensations, feelings and thoughts, connectedness, safety, appreciation and gratitude, as well as empathy, meaning, creativity, flow, and effectiveness. Lippincott (2018) collected data from mindfulness practitioners through 42 interviews with senior organizational leaders from 10 countries. Data analysis was performed using qualitative analysis techniques, and the emotional and social competency inventory (ESCI). This study’s purpose was to contribute to a better understanding of why leaders attribute improved efficacy to mindfulness. Practitioners perceived mindfulness as influencing the development of behaviors and changes to awareness, which they linked with improved leadership efficacy. Mindfulness also was thought to enhance interpersonal capabilities and possibly contribute to the development of emotional intelligence competencies – all linked to increased leadership performance. 4 The concept of mindfulness The concept of mindfulness is complex, and even the word mindfulness might be used to describe a psychological trait, a practice of cultivating mindfulness (e.g., mindfulness meditation), a mode or state of awareness, or a psychological process (Keng at al., 2011). Mindfulness cannot be reduced to mindfulness programs as such. Instead, it refers to a state of

12 awareness. Mindfulness is an inherent capacity of the mind and is rooted in the activities of consciousness: attention and awareness (Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007). In other words, mindfulness is a universal human capacity to foster clear thinking and open-heartedness (Ludwig & Kabat-Zinn, 2008). The concept of mindfulness is rooted in Buddhist philosophy. It shares conceptual commonality with ideas advanced by a variety of philosophical and psychological traditions (Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007). Mindfulness is studied scientifically in Western research, appearing particularly in medical and psychological literature since the 1970s. One of the most commonly cited definitions of mindfulness is the one developed by Kabat-Zinn (1994) as the awareness that arises through “paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally” (p. 4). In addition, according to Glomb et al. (2011), mindfulness is the process of paying attention to what is happening in the moment, including both internal (thoughts, bodily sensations) and external (physical and social environment) stimuli, and observing those stimuli without judgment or evaluation, and without assigning meaning to them. Likewise, in Bishop et al. (2004), an operational definition of mindfulness comprises two components: The first is self-regulation of attention, in which it is maintained as an immediate experience, allowing for increased recognition of mental events in the present moment. The second component involves adopting a particular orientation toward one’s experiences in the present moment, an orientation characterized by curiosity, openness, and acceptance. Common to these definitions is that mindfulness means being clearly aware of what is happening in the present moment. Individuals experience mindfulness states with varied frequency, suggesting that people might have trait-like tendencies toward mindfulness (Glomb et al., 2011; Brown et al., 2007; Brown & Ryan, 2003), but mindfulness also can be viewed as a form of mental training (Bishop et al., 2004). Practices and meditation are techniques used to develop mindfulness (Glomb et al., 2011; Brown et al., 2007). In mindfulness training, one is taught to self-regulate the attention to foster awareness of thoughts, feelings, and sensations as they arise, usually by first learning to enhance awareness of breathing (Bishop et al., 2004). Because mindfulness practice involves sustaining attention on the present-moment experience, as well as switching attention back to the present-moment experience whenever it wanders (Bishop et al., 2004), mindfulness training may

13 improve the ability to control attention, which may, in turn, influence other beneficial psychological outcomes (e.g., Keng et al., 2011). Indeed, scholars have found evidence that mindfulness can be cultivated or enhanced through practices and training, such as mindfulness meditation (e.g., Brown & Ryan, 2003), loving-kindness meditation (e.g., Fredrickson et al., 2008), and mindfulness -based stress reduction (Giluk, 2010; Glomb et al., 2011). Mindfulness programs seem to elicit a variety of positive effects on participants and their awareness. Extant research has associated mindfulness training with better life-satisfaction, greater mental and physical well-being, and improved attention, self-awareness, self-regulation and emotional reactivity (e.g., Keng et al., 2011). Recent studies (e.g., Ahlvik et al., 2018; Goldman Schuyler et al., 2017; King & Badham, 2018; Shonin & Van Gordon, 2015) have indicated potential positive connections between mindfulness-based practices and leader development. However, within management science, research on the impact of mindfulness on leadership development remains scarce. Evidence proving a direct relationship between mindfulness and improved leadership efficacy is limited as well (Good et al., 2016 Dane & Brummel, 2013; Reb et al., 2014; Lippincott, 2018). 5 Mindfulness as a tool to develop leaders’ self-awareness As noted above, the most common way to enhance self-awareness is through multi-source feedback assessment (360-degree feedback). This method is based on enhancing leaders’ knowledge about followers, co-workers, and supervisors’ perceptions of them, followed by leaders reflecting on this feedback. This method has been known to increase self-reflection in particular. In contrast, mindfulness training takes a less-cognitive approach, aiming to enhance internal awareness. As mentioned earlier, Burnkrant and Page (1984) suggest that private self-consciousness actually is comprised of two factors, termed internal state awareness (a deeper understanding of one’s current emotional state and physical events) and self-reflectiveness (including reflection on past events, as well as a tendency to spin daydreams and examine one’s reasons for doing things) (p. 631). Internal state awareness has been associated with psychological health, while self-reflectiveness appears to be maladaptive, and in some cases

14 related to overthinking and ruminating (e.g., Creed & Funder, 1998; Trapnell & Campbell, 1999). Internal state awareness shows greater conceptual and empirical overlap with mindfulness than self-reflectiveness (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Trapnell & Campbell, 1999). Indeed, mindfulness concerns the quality of consciousness itself and has been theorized to have little or no inherent relation to reflexive thought (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Rather than generate mental accounts about the self, mindfulness directs attention toward present-moment experiences. Thus, mindfulness might be used as a tool to enhance self-awareness, particularly of internal states and sensations, and, thus, supplement self-reflection. As discussed earlier, several interesting studies on increasing self-awareness using the Feldenkrais Method® (Fonow et al., 2016), as well as meditation and somatic movement practices (Bennett, 2012; Goldman Schuyler, 2010; Strozzi-Heckler, 2003; Schmidt-Wilk, 2003; Gustavsson & Harung, 1994), have been conducted recently, with promising results. These methods are related closely to mindfulness, though they are not mindfulness programs as such. Many meditation and somatic practices aim to enhance participants’ present-focused attention and awareness of their thinking and movement, which is what a mindful state of awareness also does. Meditation and somatic movement-based methods also potentially increase inner-state awareness. Just as mindfulness training brings one into the present moment by sitting still and focusing on the subtle flow of breath, so does awareness through movement train one to slow down and sense small, almost-imperceptible differences in the way one carries out an action (Goldman Schuyler, 2010). Indeed, while meditation is perhaps the most commonly practiced form of mindfulness, it can take other forms, including dance, walking, visualizations, journaling, yoga, tai chi, the Alexander technique, and Feldenkrais (Fonow et al., 2016). A mindful state of awareness might help a leader recognize his or her thoughts, emotions, and sensations, thereby increasing awareness of one’s inner states. This is part of a leader’s self-awareness, the other part being seeing oneself from others’ perspectives. Mindfulness could provide insights and “Eureka!” moments related to one’s own self-image (abilities, motivations, strengths, and weaknesses) through increased inner awareness. Brendel and Bennett (2016, p. 417) note “deeper insights are presented to the individual through sensate awareness, rather than thinking alone.” As a consequence, mindfulness can help turn attention and awareness toward

15 mental biases, limiting personal attachments, anxieties, and assumptions (Brendel & Bennett, 2016) that distort leaders’ self-awareness and ability to see their inner states and self-resources clearly. In learning to observe the self (as in mindfulness practices), leaders become capable of accessing largely unconscious patterns of thought, emotion, and automatic reactions to the world (Levine, 2012; Siegel, 2012). Indeed, increased awareness and insights on largely unconscious patterns of thought, emotion, and automatic reactions potentially could enhance, or even transform, leaders’ self-awareness. Enhanced sensitivity to emotions can be an example of the benefits of increased inner awareness through mindfulness. A leader can understand his or her emotional states better by becoming more aware of personal sensations and perceptions at the present moment. Emotional awareness involves attending to internal bodily sensations and learning how to interpret the meaning of these sensations (Fonow et al., 2016). For example, leaders can notice themselves holding their breaths and contracting their muscles during meetings. One can say to oneself that “I notice that I am angry right now. I notice that I always get irritated when my employee suggests that.” Then a leader can choose his or her response with enhanced self-awareness, instead of acting according to the feeling (i.e., retorting something uncontrollably). Mindfulness promotes an ability to witness thoughts and emotions, but not to react impulsively to them (Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007). Thus, one can look more deeply into an issue and be more creative in finding a solution when one is not overcome by one’s emotions and drawn into automatic response mode. In other words, while interacting with other people, mindfulness can enable one to notice bodily cues and emotional sensations in oneself, which usually stay away from awareness. These “Eureka!” moments can enhance leaders’ self-awareness about their reactions and emotions while interacting with employees, colleagues, and customers. Over time, through such moments and insights, a leader can enhance his or her self-awareness about values, motives, and perceptions that affect one’s own thinking and behavior. A leader then can become more aware of his or her strengths and weaknesses related to interacting with other people. Leaders also can decide to react from a neutral and empathetic state, instead of reacting emotionally. These can be considered essential qualities in a contemporary leader, set amid a continuously changing, if not turbulent, work environment.

16 Moreover, mindfulness might have the potential to enhance self-awareness by helping a leader become more aware of others’ perspectives. Understanding others’ perspectives, and how others perceive a leader, is an important part of leaders’ self-awareness: This possibly can increase compassion and empathy (Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007). Mindfulness supports this by enhancing awareness of one’s own self, sensations, and insights. Indeed, scholars have long suggested that greater insights into self and human nature encourage a more compassionate concern for others (Davidson & Harrington, 2002, Brown, Ryan, & Creswell, 2007). Indeed, initial evidence supports this notion (e.g., Beitel et al., 2005; Valk et al., 2017). Valk et al. (2017) conducted a nine-month mental training intervention entailing various daily mental exercises and weekly instructed group sessions for a large sample of adults. One of the training sessions was called “Affect,” which sought to influence socio-emotional processing. Participants learned “loving kindness” meditation and worked with training partners, the goal of which was to enhance one’s compassion and empathy. Another session was called the “Perspective” module, akin to mindfulness or open-monitoring meditation. Here, the focus was on observing one’s own thoughts nonjudgmentally and enhancing socio-cognitive skills. Affect training was linked to increased thickness in regions known to be involved in socially driven emotions, e.g., empathy. Perspective training is associated with changes in areas involved in understanding others’ mental states. Overall, mindfulness training focuses on how leaders direct their attention. It can be a systematic method that helps leaders better understand and transform their own minds (Hunter & Chaskalson, 2013). Indeed, mindfulness can open up new possibilities and understandings to help leaders become more self-aware and understand themselves better, and, in doing so, make wiser decisions when interacting with other people. Moreover, enhanced self-awareness has the potential to support leadership by positively affecting leaders’ behavior, e.g., via increased authentic behavior, emotional intelligence, or empathetic attitudes toward colleagues, employees, and customers. Thus, mindfulness practice has the potential to open up new possibilities to leadership and self-awareness development.

17 6 Conclusion In extant organizational and leadership literature, self-awareness is most commonly developed through multi-source feedback (360-degree) assessment (MSFA), which is based on leaders’ self-reflection on feedback gained from colleagues, employees, and supervisors. In MSFA, a leader’s self-ratings are compared with those of others concerning him or her. The greater the congruence in the ratings, the better a person’s self-awareness is assumed to be. On the contrary, mindfulness refers to a state of awareness. Mindfulness is an inherent capacity of the mind to focus on internal and external sensations at the present moment. Mindfulness takes another approach to self-awareness development, aiming to develop one’s ability to concentrate on present-moment sensations, thoughts, and emotions, thereby increasing inner awareness. This can lead to enhanced, or even transformed, self-awareness and self-knowledge. When aiming to develop leaders’ self-awareness, mindfulness and multi-source feedback assessment methods potentially could complement each other. Self-awareness is known to be important, and mindfulness offers a tool to increase self-knowledge through enhanced inner awareness that is nonjudgmental and free from personal biases. Considering what is known about the benefits of self-awareness, leaders could be encouraged to search for self-awareness that arises from increased attention on sensate and emotional experiences and insights. Enhanced self-awareness and nonjudgmental attention potentially could lead to accepting one’s values, perceptions, and reactions nonjudgmentally; being more creative in finding solutions; and becoming more compassionate toward others. 5 summary key ideas 1. Recent leadership-development models are expanding situational and competency-based definitions of leadership, which reduce leadership to a particular set of behaviors and skill sets. These contemporary models distinguish leadership as a way of being and focus on interpersonal development of the self as a leader.

18 2. Self-awareness is having an accurate understanding of one's strengths and weaknesses. In general, self-awareness is seen as an inwardly focused process in which individuals compare the self against standards with the goal of attaining better self-knowledge and improvement. In leadership literature, self-awareness comprises "the internal" (recognizing one's own inner state) and "the external" (recognizing one's impact on others). 3. The most common way to enhance leaders' self-awareness is through multi-source feedback assessment (e.g. 360-degree feedback). This method is based on enhancing leaders' knowledge about followers, co-workers, and supervisors' perceptions of them, followed by leaders reflecting on this feedback. 4. Mindfulness, as such, is a state of awareness in which attention is directed on present-moment sensations, nonjudgmentally. Mindfulness training can help turn attention and awareness into leaders' inner states and emotions, which are part of leaders' self-awareness. Mindfulness might be used as a tool to enhance self-awareness, particularly of internal states and sensations, and, thus, supplement self-reflection. 5. Mindfulness may help increase understanding of others' perspectives through greater inner awareness and insight, which are essential for a leader who wishes to lead others toward common goals. Over time, through insights, a leader can enhance his or her self-awareness about values, motives, and perceptions that affect one's own thinking and behavior. A leader then can become more aware of his or her strengths and weaknesses related to interacting with other people. 5 chapter lessons (takeaways) 1. Self-awareness is trainable and an essential skill for a leader. A large body of empirical research has emerged suggesting that managers with high levels of self-awareness tend to have better performance outcomes than those with lower levels of self-awareness.

19 2. Leaders whose self-reported ratings of their performance are similar to those that others ascribe to them are defined as having high levels of self-awareness. Most of the focus on self-awareness in leadership literature has been on trying to develop leaders' understanding of the self-resources that they possess (e.g., what strengths they possess, what they value) through assessments, feedback, and exercises designed to promote reflection. 3. Mindfulness could increase leaders' self-awareness through providing insights related to one's own self-image (abilities, motivations, strengths, and weaknesses) through increased inner attention and awareness. As a consequence, mindfulness can help turn attention and awareness toward mental biases, limiting personal attachments, anxieties, and assumptions that distort leaders' self-awareness and ability to see their inner states and self-resources clearly. 4. Mindfulness is the process of paying attention to what is happening in the moment, including both internal (thoughts, bodily sensations) and external (physical and social environment) stimuli, and observing those stimuli without judgment or evaluation. Mindfulness promotes an ability to witness thoughts and emotions, but not to react impulsively to them. Thus, one can look more deeply into an issue and be more creative in finding a solution when one is not overcome by one's emotions and drawn into automatic response mode. 5. Mindfulness might have the potential to enhance self-awareness by helping a leader become more aware of others' perspectives. Understanding others' perspectives, and how others perceive a leader, is an important part of leaders' self-awareness. This awareness possibly can increase compassion and empathy. Thus, mindfulness practice has the potential to open up new possibilities to leadership and self-awareness development.

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