Noun Gender And Case,limba Engleza
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ARGUMENT
The reason for choosing this topic is related to the frequent occurrence of nouns in almost each language structure and to the fact that the usage of this part of speech involves other grammatical issues. In this respect, dealing with countability/uncountability does not mean only the classification of nouns into two categories. It also involves modalities of making up the plural in English, the usage of determiners, defective forms of some nouns, the concord of subject with the predicate.
Of course, grammarians dedicate a quite vast area of their works to nouns so the theory comprised here does not bring novelty elements, although I have striven to make some comparisons and to illustrate their differences in opinion when there was the case. On the other hand, I have used my experience as a teacher of English to describe examples of activities that can be carried out in the class, at a primary and at a secondary school level mostly. Additionally, the bibliography I have consulted helped me find a more thorough insight into the communicative approach and into the relation between fluency and accuracy. It also offered a large variety of teaching methods that I have adapted for my topic. At the same time, I have tried to discover some causes of pupils errors and modalities of preventing or correcting errors.
Nowadays communication is the main goal for a learner who decides to take up studying a foreign language. Few choose to make this endeavour only for literature s sake, to develop their capability of reading an author in the original or for other reasons, such as to broaden their experience or to expand their view of the world. A modern learner needs to have the ability to encode and decode information in a direct way as one faces a variety of communicative situations. In this context, the role of foreign language education has become extremely important and teachers should be able to instruct students in this respect. This means that the language instructor should know and use the best methods and techniques in order to provide successful training.
It is obvious that at present the general focus is primarily on fluency rather than correctness, especially in every day conversation where little grammar is taken into consideration. Nevertheless, grammar remains central to the teaching and learning of languages as the ideal combination would be both a good flux of communication and accuracy. Up to now, two major tendencies have influenced the practice of teaching foreign languages. The former leads to the view of treating grammar as a set of word forms and rules.
CHAPTER I. THE NOUN
1.1 Capacity, competence and linguistic performance
In order to master a foreign language it is essential that we are familiar with the grammatical terminology in English language, which like all languages, consists of a set of signs that have their own rules.
For Chomsky, any individual endowed with the faculty of speech is able to express in their own language correction and interpret and understand what another individual of their linguistic community can communicate it. That is, as the human being has the right to speak and know the language, meaning knowing the language, not scientific knowledge about it, but the mechanisms necessary to speak their language. It is what Chomsky calls "linguistic competence".
This competition is internalized, but is manifested in every linguistic act, and is what Chomsky calls "linguistic performance" or manifestation of competition. This dichotomy is for Chomsky the first requirement of generative grammar, related language / speaking of Saussur distinction. But not identified, because the "language" as a static view of language, while Chomsky has a dynamic vision.
1.2 Generative grammar
Therefore, the task of the linguist will be to find practical system involving the competition and it will be expressed in the form of rules which together constitute the grammar. Thus, we can say that generative grammar is the set of rules that can generate each and every one of the linguistic manifestations of a language. But to make this linguistic theory could: Discover the grammar of a language based on a representative corpus and guarantor.
Decide whether an existing grammar is adequate or it is not. No premises judgment, it would be a priori inadmissible. Rate a few grammars and try to approach the most perfect description. It should be noted that the ultimate solution involves the second, so it comes to fall in convicted apriorism. In this first selection, Chomsky is far from Hjelmslev and European school regarding logical premises.
Chomsky is correct to say that a theory must be independent of the particular material will be described with it. But a theory demands a number of implicit assumptions that are minimized, and subsequent definitions must always be supported on the above explanations. In practice this amounts to the need to introduce the previous definitions before that presuppose; that is, from the simplest to the most complex reach as required by the second and third Cartesian rules.
However, Chomsky takes the theory of the most successful grammars, it does not stop to define the basic theoretical concepts which will then be used as "verb", "noun" … And, on that theory, deduced from other grammars not scientifically developed organizes its generative grammar rules.
The question is: What if that theory is not scientific judgment of foundations on which it rests logically unproven? Chomsky's answer is simple: it is changed! It is what he has done in his second season. Grammatical theory is subject to ongoing review. And this is precisely necessary by the changing dynamics of the reality of the language. There is another question: if this theory is correct after certain improvements? This is what forms the basis of any invention, discovery all based on the "domain of chance" of something captivating and engaging in the extreme. No wonder that the transformational linguistics has been described as "wonderful adventure"
1.3 Adequacy: grammaticality and acceptability
The language proficiency of a speaker prevents ones generate sentences that do not belong to their language or ungrammatical sentences. Similarly, a generative grammar will satisfy the conditions of adequacy. This adaptation is twofold. Generative grammar must, first, the requirement of grammaticality, which is the adequacy of grammar competition. That is, not generate outlandish or absurd phrases. Grammar here has nothing to do with correction or standard. But it is not enough that the sentences are grammatical. The grammar also generate phrases acceptability, which is the adequacy of grammar to acting. These two concepts of grammaticality and acceptability criteria will be assessed a grammar, the first competition level and the second level of performance. One may observe an ambiguity: First, only a native has the grammaticality and acceptability criteria. Then it becomes rule for one language and not the criterion of generality is given. And secondly, grammar puts the speaker that uses tables and figures seemingly disparate resources, but are valid for expressiveness and poetic or literary language.
1.4 Grammatical components
The domain is genuinely linguistic grammar. If we admit – and it seems undisputed – that language is a phonological level, syntactic level and semantic, grammar consist of the following components and generating primary structures:
a) syntactic component.
b) Semantic Component: assign meaning to these structures.
c) Phonological Component: allows these structures are perceptible made.
The hierarchical arrangement of these three types of grammatical components can expressed as a hierarchy of dependencies:
Syntactic component
Phonological component
Semantic component
In this linguistics, Chomsky separates from the followers of Bloomfield. In addition, a system is an enormously complicated language. But the description joint of these levels, although different, are much simpler than the independent description of the various structures of each.
Anyway, the component is the syntactic generative capacity by: the other two are interpretive components.
The syntactic component appears built by:
a) basis: a set of rules that generate deep structures. Is composed of:
· A categorical rewritings component or set of grammatical rules that define the relationships of the elements of a discursive chain.
· And a lexicon, a type of dictionary in which the terms are defined by a set of selective finishes features that provide a semantic and grammatical information. These traits come into the generative process after developing the rules of the category component, which is given a semantic interpretation.
b) the changes: rules that will convert deep structures into surface structures. We say no discursive structure and chain, as this appears only when acted and the other interpretive component, phonological component.
The instrumental part of grammar implies that the English language does not represent an end in itself but an instrument or means to develop and internalize reading strategies necessary to deepen the knowledge of a specific discipline. In Social Interaccionismo of Vigotski, Klett Fernández, E. R. (2006), one highlights the following regarding reading in a second language:
During the cognitive processes construction, the individual develops his psychological functions through the appropriation and social meanings internalization of a particular, but cultural community essentially using the language as an instrument of mediation.
Understanding a discourse raises the interaction between an active reader and text for the production of a specific significance depending on the context in which the reading activity develops.
Reading is an activity of language that is learned and used socially as an instrument for solving the problems posed by the activities practices in which the individual is introduced.
The individual who is introduced into an educational environment on a "social place" needs to develop the capacity of reading and comprehension in a second language in order to learn more than other particular discipline.
Reading of academic texts in a second language is a process of meaning construction articulated by the reader – within a given field from the discourse analysis of a text, and, through the interaction established with the author.
The access to the specialized literature in English allows individuals to expand their disciplinary knowledge to address research projects, develop monographs, theses, prepare publications that require using different sources and so on. Echo, U. (2011) points out that the development of a thesis represents the chance to start reading in a language that is not known. "Interested in the subject, with a little work begins to understand something. Many times you learn a language well”. Thus, not only the ability to consolidate the analysis takes place and interpretation of discourse that characterizes a particular academic field, but participation also delve into the same from the individual and the social context.
A text can be approached both globally and in detail. A first global approach helps one to address the text as a whole. Thus, there is a start of the search for its essence, its organization, its communicative function, the intent of the author. This first global demand approach focus on the following text:
• Title of the book, chapter, manual, magazine or newspaper.
• Author, date, place of publication.
• Illustrations, charts, pictures, graphs, tables and diagrams.
• Organization: titles, subtitles, format.
• Extension of the text.
• Words are highlighted, abbreviations, numbers, dates, names.
This type of approach allows predictions about text by activating prior knowledge and experience of the reader in relation to the text. A quick perusal identifies certain words or expressions that represent clues to predict the ideas that follow. Thus the student may revise their predictions and decide which is the depth of analysis of reading one need according to his/her interests. Deepen understanding of a text essentially requires embarking on a strategic plan of articulated reading based on three types of text analysis that are in constant interaction.
1.5 Lexical analysis
An analysis of the meaning of a word is not limited to the association of it with a certain object but requires one to get down to structurally transform the meaning; learning a word is not a point, but a starting reached in the development of a concept. The student must be fully aware that the word is an arbitrary sign is used to represent a reference and express an idea or concept. That is, possesses no meaning itself: what meaning is given the context in which it is inserted. There are also changes in meaning of the same word for different reasons to be given:
• The meaning of the word changes from one family to another, from one location to another and within each of these areas, or, over time.
• Different words may pose the same meaning.
• The same word can have different meanings.
• Some words have broad meanings, very specific others.
• The words used in scientific communities generally have agreed meanings and consistently used.
• Technical and agreed meanings often differ from the daily meanings of the same words.
• The meaning of words can vary due to inadvertent changes or naive; or because of deliberate and intentional changes.
Approaching specific texts of a discipline demands a constant training for the development of vocabulary that takes into account the following factors:
• The meaning of words is essential in the process of reading but not need to know every word of a text to understand the most relevant aspects expressed therein.
• In a situation of reading, the reader uses its own semantic information, for example the prior knowledge and experience, conceptual understanding, attitudes, values, and skills.
• Determine the meaning of words also requires look different contexts: the grammatical, semantic and situational.
• Familiarity with a specific academic subject in the mother tongue increases the possibility of inferring the meaning of language specialized in terminology foreign.
• Recognition of the kinds of words through their training (e.g .: govern, government, governable, ungovernable / real, really / care, careless, careful)
It represents another important aid to arrive at the meaning of the same identifying them as a verb, noun, adjective, adverb.
1.6 Grammatical analysis
The grammar recognizes that the system that organizes the discourse is vital to understand a text. A student should not merely know the rules of the grammar, you should also identify strategies that are used for both understanding and how to produce a text. Strategies action plans represent the effective achievement of an act of communication. In the discursive strategy interact with two types of resources: meaning; learn a word is not a point but a starting reached in the development of a concept.
The student must be fully aware that the word is an arbitrary sign is used to represent a reference and express an idea or concept. That is, possesses no meaning itself: what meaning is given the context in which it is inserted. But also changes in meaning of the same word for different reasons are given:
• The meaning of the word changes from one family to another, from one location to another and within each of these areas, or, over time.
• Different words may have the same meaning.
• The same word can have different meanings.
• Some words have broad meanings, others very specific.
• The words used in scientific communities generally have meanings agreed and used consistently.
• Technical and agreed meanings often differ from the meanings daily of the same words.
• The meaning of words can vary due to inadvertent or naive changes; or because of deliberate and intentional changes.
Strategy action plans represent the effective achievement of an act of communication. Discursive strategy in the two types of resources interact: using to express its purpose, procedures, results, conclusions. The student must recognize the organization of a text, the main and secondary ideas, and rhetorical patterns should be used not only to remember and understand the information but also for text’s efficient reformulation.
Reading to learn in an educational context means developing the ability to understand English texts to reformulate the information in Spanish service research, case studies, synthesis of written documentation on a specific discipline, preparation of literature reviews.
Reformulate means to build, deconstruct and reconstruct knowledge using reading strategies that reduce uncertainty and ambiguity when facing the unknown English language. The approach to similarities and differences between the English and other languages articulated by the lexical, grammatical and communicative contents of a text; and the ability to tailor the message of it through questions, summaries or translations, represent the essence of instrumental learning English in school. Effective learning leads to student-reader of English to achieve understanding and interpretation models that generate the information that improves the academic and professional knowledge.
1.7 Nouns’ definition.
Nouns are the words with which one designate things, individuals, animals and so on. They are names people use to call around them. The words: book, house, table, Pen, conference are nouns. The different parts of speech (noun, verb, adjective, etc.) serve more than one function within the sentence. It is therefore important to recognize the structure and determine the main word and its modifiers.
When adults were babies, the first words they said were probably the names of people and things around them. These words, such as mom and ball are called nouns. A noun is a word that refers to a person, place, animal or thing. For example,
▶ teacher is a noun that designates a person
▶ park is a noun that that designates a place
▶ elephant is a noun that designates an animal
▶ table is a noun that designates one thing
In English, the feminine or masculine nouns refer only to certain people and animals. For example, father is a masculine noun and mother is a feminine noun. Only a few nouns in English are male or female. This is good news if individuals want to learn English, because it means they almost never have to think about whether a noun is masculine or feminine.
1.8 Using “the”
The most common word in the English language is the. A noun can be singular or plural. A singular noun refers to a person, place, animal or thing. A plural noun refers to more than one.
1.9 Generalities
A class of words particularly important in languages vocabulary including English vocabulary is the one of words that define "something" or any "object" that can be perceived by the senses, represented in mind, imagined or thought beings (man man, people, Victor, writer, lamb) and everything related to the world of organic (plant plant, tree, rose), everything related to the world of inorganic (rock rock, coal, water), things (backgammon table, road, train, ink-pot inkpot), abstract (idea idea, college faculty, ownership, kindness goodness) and so on. In any dictionary, exceeding the number of such words with words than that of other classes, normal thing if one thinks of the infinite variety of objects and concepts that man took and learns during its history. Talk about them, one makes various judgments about them, put them in different relationships, we take as reference points, they are listed in dictionaries as nouns (in English dictionaries, n. -noun) and likewise in grammar.
As part of speech, however, so that element grammar, the noun cannot be characterized and defined only on the basis of meaning (a "value of its semantic"). Grammar should take into account the shape of the parts of speech, the way is associated with in other words, parts of speech and grammatical functions that you can perform the sentence (or, more generally, in the context).
1.10 The form of nouns
One may understand the form of nouns as the only way they appear in dictionaries, as their "base". In connection with this form, the "base" must be stressed that the loss terminations from English modern contemporary and nouns are largely lacking formal indicators which show us clearly that it is a noun and not another part of speech. More or less formal specific noun’s indices, one can mention some suffixes.
Noun Suffixes
a) Suffixes of proper nouns:
-son: Richardson, Watson, Jackson, Williamson
-town: Jamestown, Capetown, Johnstown
-burg(h), -borough: Edinburgh, Scarborough, Johannesburg, Gainsborough
-c(h)ester, -caster (from lat. castra): Manchester, Lancaster, Chichester, Rochester, Leicester, Dorchester
-shire: Lancashire, Yorkshire, Warwickshire, Cheshire
-land: England, Scotland, Ireland, Switzerland, Finnland, Cumberland, Westmoreland
b) Suffixes of common nouns:
-acy: democracy, diplomacy, accuracy
-age: passage, marriage, sewerage
-ance, -ancy, -ence, -ency: utterance, appearance, ascendancy, preference, tendency, flippancy;
-ard, -art : sluggard, drunkard, braggart
-ation: examination, translation, identification
-dom: wisdom
-ee: refugee, employee
-eer: mountaineer; engineer, pamphleteer
-er, -or : teacher, dancer, singer, debtor
-ery: bakery, slavery, fishery;
-ess (suffix used to express feminine gender): actress, hostess, tigress
-hood: neighbourhood, childhood
-ism : realism, scepticism, patriotism
-ist: satirist, violinist, romanticist
-ity : adversity, probability
-let (diminutival suffix): hamlet, rivulet, booklet, leaflet
-man: Englishman, Frenchman, fisherman
-ment: improvement, movement, achievement
-ness : greatness, sadness, kindness, uselessness
-ship : friendship, leadership
-ure : agriculture, departure
Not all suffixes mentioned above are exclusive used in nouns’ case; but even those that may give rise to other parts of speech are noun in most cases.
1.11 Conversion of nouns
Conversion of Nouns (Changing grammatical category of nouns)
Researching specific suffixes list of common nouns in the preceding paragraph, one find that most more shows "status", "quality" or "situation" in which the object, in other words, may form unique abstract nouns.
Other classes of nouns have generally suffixes, such as: door, snow, meat, and so on. Due to lack of suffixes, they can easily become other parts of speech (the "Conversion"), so as
Other parts of speech devoid of suffixes may become nouns: Land (noun.) dried, ground to land (verb) to land; sea (noun.) high sea (adj.) high, marine, sea, sea level (compound noun as in sea level); to spring (Verb) to jump, spring (noun.)
Grammatical forms of nouns
A number of nouns, as those that one can count (Countable) have distinct forms for singular
and plural:
table – table tables – tables
novel – novel novels – novels,
country – Countries country – countries.
However, -s and – es are not decisive for recognizing a sign of nouns because the Third person singular at indicative, present time have the same desinence. Also, synthetic genitive (the 's), although constitutes evidence of nouns, can masquerade as Contras's is an interesting example this is Shakespeare's Love's Labour's Lost Love's Labour = is Lost "are labors of love Lost" (translation of the play dedicated to" futile pangs of love ").
1.12 Determinants of nouns
Determinants of nouns follow from the foregoing that both the lexical and the grammatical forms of nouns is relatively rare sign of recognition of their more important to identify the nouns determinants (Determinatives).
Determinants of the noun (Noun Determinatives) as parts of speech are words that accompany nouns in order to determine or clarify their meaning in different directions, as in the illustrations below:
That book Give me, please. Give me that book, please (That shows that it's a book, the book "Therefore", "there" book "that", "I talked about" and so on)
They have two or more copies? (Two copies in the noun’s meaning states a "defined number" and more in the sense of "indefinitely").
Where is my umbrella? Where's my umbrella? (My umbrella states noun, showing who owns).
Leaving aside exceptions, one can say that Determinants of nouns are often seated before them:
The pupil has understood this rule.
A pupil has understood this rule.
One pupil has understood this rule.
No pupil has understood this rule.
Each pupil has understood this rule.
Every pupil has understood this rule.
The second pupil has understood this rule.
Your pupil has understood this rule.
That pupil has understood this rule.
or:
The pupils have understood this rule.
Three pupils have understood this rule.
No pupils have understood this rule.
All (the) pupils have understood this rule.
Your pupils have understood this rule.
These pupils have understood this rule.
Several pupils have understood this rule.
As can be seen from the examples above, determinants of nouns represent different parts of speech (the – definite article, adjective that- demonstration, three – numeral etc.). On the other hand, states determinants of nouns in ways have very different classification as below is just a simple illustration:
1) defined numerical determinants (numerals, indefinite article by numeral):
one bed and three armchairs
a bed and three armchairs
two books
fifty books
A hundred books
2. undefined numerical determinants (some undefined adjectives):
many children
Several children
any children
more children
most children
various children
few children
Some children
A Few children
3) quantities determinants (some undefined adjective):
little juice
much juice
very much juice
a lot of juice
Some juice
any juice
4) established demonstratives (demonstrative adjectives, the definite article):
That men
this men
the men
the same men
these men
Those men
other men
the same men
5) Possessive determinants (possessive adjectives, nouns and pronouns in genitive case when
it expresses possession):
my sisters
your sisters
my own sisters
Their sisters
George's sisters
the Latter's sisters
somebody's sisters
Another's sisters
Sisters of me
Sisters of yours
Sisters of His Own
Sisters of George
Sisters of George's
Sisters of the Latter
6) General (articles, adjectives depending generic):
The pronoun is a part of speech.
A pronoun is a part of speech.
Any pronoun is a part of speech.
Every pronoun is a part of speech.
(zero article) Pronouns are parts of speech.
All Pronouns are parts of speech.
Also:
(zero article) Copper is a metal.
In addition to the above determinants that specify the nouns in different directions, determining that grammar is fulfilled with, e.g. to transform other parts of speech, especially adjectives in nouns. Thus, the adjective poor turns into a noun (plural) if preceded by the definite article: the poor people, and so on.
There are also cases where the determinants of the role is "insignificant", their presence being required only due to the particularities of historical development of the language, as in The Thames and so on.
1.13 Modifiers of nouns
Noun Modifiers "edit" or "change" up to a certain point meaning noun respectively, showing the quality or lack thereof qualities: a good man , a stone wall and so on. Unlike determining modifiers are not mandatory elements, but as determinants, they help to identify both the noun meaning (show quality, learning) and by settlement, preceding the noun in most cases, when they function attribute syntax (It is qualitative and relative adjectives).
Their presence does not eliminate the presence besides nouns and determinants, on the other hand, does not change the category and their function:
* Determinants
These
Their
The
All the
Other
What
Several
(zero)
* modifiers
(Beautiful)
(Mountain)
(Winter)
(Wild)
* nouns
landscapes
THESE beautiful landscapes,
THESE landscapes,
THESE ARE mountain landscapes,
mountain landscapes, and so on
1.14 The syntactic functions of nouns
Nouns can be identified as part of speech by means of their syntactic knowledge as they are closely related if they are nouns. The syntactic functions of nouns are:
1) Subject:
Shakespeare wrote 154 Sonnets.
2) Part of a subject or "group of the subject"
A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. One nice thing eternal delight. (John Keats, Endymion)
3) Predicative name or part of a predicative name:
Jonson's Volpone is Ben’s comedy. "Volpone" by Ben Jonson is a comedy.
A poet is a man speaking to people. The poet is a man who talks to people.
4) Part of an attribute, apposition or part of an apposition:
A friend in need is a friend Indeed. (Prov.)
John Keats, the great English romantic poet, lived from 1795 to 1821.
John Keats, the great English romantic poet, lived between 1795-1821.
5) Direct Complement or part of a direct object:
Chaucer found brick and left it marble English.
Chaucer found English brick and left it marble.
A beautiful behavior is better than a beautiful form;
It gives a pleasure higher than statues and pictures.
Wearing beautiful appearance is better than fine;
It provides pleasure nobler than statues paintings.
6) Indirect complement or a part of an indirect complement:
A poet is a man speaking to people. The poet is a man who talks to people.
Give days and nights to the study of Addison, if you want to be a good writer.
Devote your days and nights studying Addison if you want to become a good writer.
7) Part of a prepositional complement:
I lisped in numbers cooing in verse numbers for the cam, because the lyrics were coming (single). (Alexander Pope)
8) Circumstantial complement or part of an adverbial:
Tennyson took 17 years to compose "In Memoriam ".
It took 17 years to Tennyson to compose "In Memoriam".
1.15 Classification of nouns
Nouns can be classified in many ways, being a fundamental classification of its form, and from the point of view of the content (and function). From the point of view of nouns, classification may be taking as a basic criterion and composition a derivation criterion.
Simple and compound nouns
A noun is simple (Simple Nouns) when it cannot be decomposed into words, parts of speech: day flight revolution (-tion is not a "word" or "part of speech", but a suffix).
On the contrary, a compound noun (Compound Noun) consists of two or more parts of words speech: short story, draw-back shortage, shortfall, father-in-law, passer-by.
Compound nouns can be formed in different parts of speech. Of all the possible connections, the frequent and highly productive and are currently noun + noun, especially in scientific and technical vocabulary.
It is advisable to seek the meanings of composed nouns in dictionaries (of course, especially in major dictionaries), just as the meanings of nouns look simple when you do not know. Sometimes, compound noun meaning can be inferred from the meanings constitutive elements, for example: flower garden, windmill, bird singing;
But sometimes it does not represent the sum of the meanings constitutive elements, for example butterfly (although fly means "fly" and butter, "butter") or blackboard, („blackboard” a black, ironing board).
There cannot be made precise rules about how to group them constitutive of a compound noun, but it is well to consider the following recommendation: to decipher the meaning of a noun compound must always start from the last element from the base located on the noun. Suppose a noun is also the base of combining flower garden, the joint can "Expand", for example, as follows: Mediterranean flower garden, North Mediterranean flower garden, North Mediterranean summer flower garden, North Mediterranean flower garden that grows (or blooms) summer, Northern Mediterranean flower garden that blooms in early summer, and so on.
It is also very important to note that compound nouns in English can appear written different: in one word, for example seaside, seafront hyphen between constitutive elements of , for example, sea-side or sister-in-law, very often without hyphen between these elements, star stellar evening (evening). In this regard there is no precise rules and one should not be surprise that composed nouns in a dictionary are written in one way and in another dictionary, in other manner.
CHAPTER II. NOUNS’ NUMBER, GENDER AND CASE
2.1 Number of Nouns
Nouns are names of the objects in the broadest sense, that being, things, phenomena (man, chair, snow, walk, wisdom); They have grammatical categories of gender, number and case and can perform functions topic sentence, predicative name, attribute, apposition, complement, additional predicative element, or it can be the equivalent of a sentence or phrase.
In terms of the degree of individualization, nouns in English are divided into two major classes: common nouns and proper nouns.
Common nouns lack the ability to distinguish themselves. They refer to an item in a category of objects of the same kind: backgammon school. Common nouns are subclassified into:
a) nouns such as names, naming an item in a category: backgammon school;
b) collective nouns, naming objects consisting of multiple items of the same kind: family, people;
c) concrete nouns, naming objects or constituents of objects: tables, wood, steel;
d) abstract nouns, naming Abstract difficulty, worry, peace, love, music.
Nouns (names) have their own ability to individualize an object of a category of objects of the same kind, basically calling a single item in a category. In English, nouns call their own:
a) surnames: Churchill;
b) geographical names – names of localities – names of countries and continents – names of rivers and mountains
c) divisions time – the months – weekdays – celebrate
d) name search, newspapers, magazines,
e) name of the institution Spelling nouns own.
In English proper nouns are written in uppercase, as in Romanian: Helen; Roma. But there are some situations where convention in English is different from the Romanian language:
a). the names of the months and days of the week are written in uppercase English language and are considered proper nouns: April, Sunday;
b). all words (except for articles, prepositions and conjunctions) a proper noun expressed by a circumlocution noun are written in uppercase English:
– Bail Bonds: Dombey and Son
– headlines: the Daily Mirror
– titles of magazines: English Language Teaching Journal;
– Titles of chapters, articles, papers, institutions and so on .: The Peace Conference for Security in Europe year
– conferences on peace and security in Europe; the United Nations Organization
– the United Nations,
c). the name of nationality and language are written also capitalized in English: He speaks English. We are Australians. We are Romanians
Nouns in English have grammatical categories of gender, number and case. The number is grammatical category which recognizes the easiest, because desinence „-s” is specific to plural form of nouns. In terms of the idea of number, nouns in English are divided into countable (Count nouns) and uncountable (Mass nouns). Countable nouns are usually variable in shape (Variable Nouns), both singular and plural having, and those are usually uncountable invariable shape (invariable nouns), shaped only singular or plural only.
Countable nouns.
Countable nouns refer to the notion that separate units that can be counted: a boy, two boys, the boys FEW, etc. Countable nouns have the following characteristics:
a) are variable in form, with both the number of singular and plural number: museum – museums, child – children;
b) may be preceded by cardinal numerals or quantifiers: one book, three books, severity apples, a lot of brushes;
c) the number singular verbs in the singular shall be granted: The book is on the table. and the plural number, plural verbs: The apples have in the basket.
Classification of countable nouns.
Countable nouns can be:
appellations: garden, pencil;
or collective: committee, audience; concrete: child, school; abstract: difficulty, question. Collective nouns are nouns countable division.
They behave:
the actual count nouns when naming a collectivity considered as a whole: The two football teams in the field have now. In this case their number singular and plural number, though being singular or plural verbs: His family is larger than me. On each floor live two families. Two families live on each floor.
When these nouns refers to the members making up the community, they behave as collective nouns themselves. In this situation, collective nouns as singular use, reference being to a community: family, team, granting the plural verb, referring to members of the community: My family is at home. (= All the members of my family …). Group nouns collective part nouns: army, assembly, audience, class, club, committee, company, crew, crowd, family, government, jury, parties, press, public, regiment, troop, flight (of birds, insects, planes ), flock (of sheep) herd (of cattle), pack (of wolves), poultry, shoal (of fish), swarm (of bees).
Countable nouns plural formation.
Countable nouns have two forms: a form of singular and plural form. The singular is unmarked: book, box, child. Plurals are of two types:
A. regular, the plural is formed by adding -s to the singular desinence: book – books.
B. Irregular, the plural form in other ways.
Regular plural nouns are formed by adding -s desinence the singular of nouns.
Pronouncing the regular plural is:
a) [-s] after unvoiced consonants: books, proofs, lamps, carpets, months;
b) [.com] after consonants sound and voice gloves, tables, boys tree; c) [smack] after sounds: classes, noses, brushes, matches, villages.
Regular plural spelling.
1) Write desinence -s after most nouns, nouns ending in -e including mute book – books, tables – tables.
2) Exceptions There are some situations that are exceptions to this general rule:
a) Nouns ending in -s, -z, -x, CH, -sh add es: bus – buses; glass – glasses; Buzz – buzzes; Boxing – boxes; watch – watches; brush – brushes;
b) In some of the nouns in this group doubles final consonant: Fez – fezzes, quiz – Quizzes.
c) Nouns ending in -o: desinence add -s -: When -o is preceded by a vowel: Cuckoo; kangaroos; radiant; scenarios; studios, zoos; – The proper nouns: neros, Romeos; – The abbreviations kilos (kilogrammes), photos (Photographs), pros (profesionals); – Some foreign nouns: concerts, Dynamic, piano solos, Sopranos, tangible Tabacci;
– Add -es to nouns that: echoes, heroes, mosquitoes, Negroes, potatoes, tomatoes;
– have two plurals: banjos – banjoes; buffalos – Buffaloes; cargos – cargoes; Mementos – mementoes; Motte – mottoes; volcanos – volcanoes;
d) Nouns ending in -y preceded by a consonant turns y i and add -es: city – cities; factory – factories. The transformation takes place – after voice: boy – boys play – plays; – The proper nouns: the Kennedys; – In compound nouns: stand-bys;
e) letters, numerals and abbreviations form the plural by adding an apostrophe and -s: the 1920's; There is a tendency in contemporary English numerals and abbreviations to form the plural and adding just a singular -s: in the 1930s; MP (Member of Parliament) – Mps; Mt (Mountain) – Mts.
Plural offsetting apostrophe is used more frequently than the apostrophe.
composed of plural nouns: Most composite nouns add -s to the last item: classroom – Classrooms; forget-menot – forget-me-nots; race horse (horse racing) – race horses;
-some compound nouns, usually those made up of a noun and a prepositional builder, add -s to the first element: looker-on – lookers-on; mother-in-low – Mothers-in-low;
-compound nouns in which the first man or woman is transformed from plural both elements: man singer – men singers; woman doctor – women doctors.
B. irregular plural nouns are formed in several ways:
a) deaf consonant [q], [f] or [s] the noun ends in pair turns them sound [v], [z] (voicing ) some nouns:
-th->ths: bath – baths; mouth – mouths; path – paths;
-f (e) [f] -> ves [vz] calf – calves; elf – elves; half – halves; knife – knives; leaf – leaves; life – Lives; loaf – loaves; self – selves; shelf – shelves;
-it [s] -> ses [ziz] house – houses.
This phenomenon sound of the final consonant does not occur at all nouns ending in [q], [f] or [s]. Is in place and regular plurals oscillation between the two forms:
-Regular plural (1): double Forms (1): consonant + -th: Voice + -th: berth – berths, cloth – cloths, earth –earts, death – Deaths, oath – oaths, lengh – lengths, faith – faiths, truth – Truths,
-Regular plural (2): double Forms (2): belief – beliefs, dwarf – dwarfs – dwarves, chief – Chiefs, handkerchief – handkerchiefs – handkerchieves, cliff – cliffs, hoof – hoofs – hooves, proofs – proofs, scarf – scarfs – scarves, roof – roofs, wharf – wharfs – wharves, safe – safes, (the sound of [s] only occurs in the noun house).
b) vowel or diphthong final changes to another vowel or diphthong (mutation): man – men; woman – women; foot – feet; goose – geese; tooth – teeth; mouse – mice; louse – lice.
c) the desinence add -en nouns (or offsetting moved vowel): Ox – oxen; child – children; brother – Brethren.
d) some countable have the same form in the singular and plural (the desinence receives zero – zero plural).
Zero plural is used with:
– some nouns in -s: barracks – the barracks; headquarters – headquarters; Means – means; series – series.
This is year army barracks.
The bus, trolley and the modern of means of transport is underground.
Bus, trolley and subway are modern means of transport;
– Completed nationalities named in -ese: the Chinese, the Japanese, the Portuquese, the Vietnamese: He is speaking to the Portuquese. He speaks with a Portuguese. The Portuquese lives in Europe. Portuguese is living in Europe;
– With nouns naming the animals. They may have:
1) only zero plural: carp; deer; game; grouse; sheep; pike.
2) plural zero (used mostly in hunting language) and plural -s regularly used for indication of variety: antelope – antelopes; code – cods; duck – ducks;
3) only regular plural: cow – cows; dog – dogs; hen – hens; horse – horses;
e) Foreign plural (Foreign Plurals). There are several plural desinences of foreign origin that are used in English, especially in scientific language:
Some of these desinence are better represented in English:
-us -i: stimulus stimuli; bacillus bacilli.
-a -um: addendum addenda; datum date; agendum agenda; erratum errata; bacterium bacteria; stratum strata.
-is -es: analysis analyzes; Ellipses ellipsis: axis axes; Hypotheses hypothesis; basis bases; crisis Crises; paralyses paralysis; diagnosis diagnoses; parentheses parenthesis; Syntheses synthesis; thesis Theses
Regarding foreign plurals there are several situations:
1. Some nouns of foreign origin have retained the plural form of the language from which they were borrowed.
2. Some substations have only the plural -s:
-us – -uses: bonus bonuses; campus Campuses; chorus choruses; circus circuses;
-a -as: arena arenas; drama dramas; dilemma dillemas; encyclopedia encyclopedias; diploma diplomas.
-um -ums: album albums; gymnasium Gymnasiums; geranium geraniums;
-on – ons: demon demons; electron electrons; lexicon lexicons.
-o -os: soprano Sopranos
3. Other nouns of foreign origin have two forms plural: plural –s: regular plural of foreign origin: -us -uses: Cactuses cactus; genius geniuses; syllabus syllabuses; terminus terminuses;
-as -ae: formula formulas formulae; antenna antennas antennae; vertebra vertebrae vertebras
-um -ums: aquaria aquarium aquariums ;
-a: curriculum curricula curriculums; medium media mediums; sanatorium sanatoria sanatoriums; symposium symposiums symposia
-ix -ixes -ices: appendix appendixes Appendices, indexes indices
-on -one -ons : automaton automatons automata
-eau –eaus -eaux: bureau bureaus bureaux; plateau plateaus plateaux;
-o –os -i: libretto librettos libretti;
-o –so -i: virtuoso virtuoso virtuosi
In the plural, forms are rare. The two nouns with plural, the plural forms of foreign are commonly used in technical language, and in the plural and is found in speech.
Uncountable nouns (Mass Nouns). Uncountable nouns refer to the notion seen as a whole. Uncountable nouns are concrete: sugar, coal, steel or abstract: beauty, kindness. Uncountable nouns have the following characteristics:
a) have invariant shape: tea, information, cattle.
b) have contrast singular – plural, they can not be counted using numerals or other quantifiers: I need (Some) tea. I need (Some) information. I need (Some) scissors.
c) verb agreement in singular: Chinese tea is very good
or plural:The toy is on the table.
d) Some part of English countable nouns are both in class and there is an uncountable difference of meaning:
She is a beauty.
(She) is a beauty.
Beauty is to be admired.
Beauty must be admired.
The main character of the story is on old fisherman.
The hero / main character of the novel is an old fisherman.
He is a man of character.
(He) is a man of character.
I had experience an interesting year when traveling in the North of country.
Something interesting happened to me when I travelled in the north.
This teacher has a great deal of experience.
This teacher has a lot of experience.
Give me an ice, please.
Give me an ice cream please.
That block of ice is very dangerous.
This block of ice is very dangerous.
She has got a new iron.
It has a new iron.
This tool is made of iron.
This tool is iron.
e) Sometimes differences of meaning between countable and uncountable nouns are expressed in different words.
I've bought the two loaves.
I bought two loaves.
I'll buy bread at the supermarket.
I have to buy bread from the cafeteria.
There are two sheep in the field.
There are two sheep on the plains.
This is very fat pig.
It is a very fat pig.
I've bought some pork the dinner for.
I bought some pork.
f) In English, there are class invariable singular nouns that are countable nouns or have invariable plural in Romanian: advice, business, furniture, homework, income, information, knowledge, luggage, merchandise, money, etc.
Further information I need.
I need more information.
His knowledge of English is poor. His knowledge of English is weak.
Number of invariable nouns.
Invariable singular nouns have no opposition – plural. They only have singular: gold or plural only the police, cattle etc.
Invariable singular nouns represent a number of invariable nouns have only the singular form: infant, wisdom, news, measles, the good. Wales. They are granted singular verb:
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics.
Using their plural form and / or a plural verb is only in special circumstances. Invariable nouns of singular class are:
a) concrete uncountable nouns: bread, butter, chalk, food, fruit. Fruit is good to eat. It is good to eat fruit.
b) uncountable abstract nouns: advice, cleanliness, homework, information.
c) Some nouns ending in -s, expressing the following notions:
1) noun news: Here is the nine o'clock news. These are the nine o'clock news.
2) names of diseases: measles; mumps ; rickets: Measles is a contagious disease.
3) name of science and subjects completed in -ics: acoustics, cybernetics, economics. Acoustics is the scince of sound. Acoustics is the science of sound. Also: athletics, ethics, gymnastics.
4) Some names of games: billiards, bowls, cards, darts. Dominoes is a game for children. But: a billiard-table, a bowling alley, a dart-board.
5) Some proper nouns: Athens, Brussels, Naples, Wales, the Thames: Wales is in the south-west of Great Britain. Wales train station is in the south-east of England.
d) a noun abstract adjectives: the beautiful, the sublime, the good, the evil: In fairy-stories the good always wins. In fairy tales good always wins.
Quantification of invariable singular nouns can be achieved by using such words as: a piece of, item of year, of the bar, a bag of and so on.
Concrete nouns: a piece of bacon; a slice of cake; to pice of bread; a loaf of bread ; a pice of land; a strip of land; a piece of furniture; an article of furniture; a bit of grass; a blade of grass; a piece of paper; a sheet of paper.
Abstract nouns: a piece of advice; a word of advice; a pice of information; an item of news; an item of business to business; a bit of a piece of work; a bit of work;
B. Invariable plural nouns plural have only a plural form is usually granted with a plural verb:
The binoculars are on the table. Binoculars are on the table.
Class invariable plural nouns are:
nouns that refer to objects made up of two equal parts. These nouns are called summnation plurals in English. They refer to:
-tools: binoculars, Compasses, glasses, pincers, pliers. Where are the scissors? Where is the scissors?
-dressing articles : braces, flannels, clothes, jeans, overalls, pants, pajamas, shorts, trousers: These pants are too long for you.
c)Some plural nouns are in tantum Class only in English: archives archive; contains contents; ashes ash; freight goods; holiday holydays; minutes minutes; pains painstaking; beach sands; salary wages; Tantum plural nouns and plurals summation sometimes may be confused with the plural of countable: color – pl. colors
compass -pl. Compasses
damage failure- pl. damages
glass – pl. glasses
ground – glasses
letter – pl. Letters
minutes – pl. Minutes
pain – pl. pains
quarter- quarters
scale- Scales
spectacle- spectacles
term- pl. terms
unmarked plural nouns. Invariable plural nouns in class intrasite some nouns used only in the plural but unmarked formal for this number. These nouns are: cattle, Clergy, gentry, people, police.
The cattle is in the field.
Cattle are in the field.
There is a lot of people in the street.
There are many people on the street.
personal adjectives or participles a noun: the Handicapped, the Injured, the poor, the rich, the sick, the Wounded:
The Injured Were Taken to hospital.
The wounded were taken to hospital.
Some proper nouns: the Alps, the East / West Indies, the Hebrides, the Highlands:
The Highlands region is mountainous.
Highlands is a mountainous region.
2.2 Gender of Nouns
Grammatical category of gender is characteristic primarily for nouns, for words that indicate the name of the objects. Grammatical category content genre highlights objects in the world around them, whether they are being some of the male and feminine and whether neutral. In English, the final assembly line mark of nouns’ grammatical category gender is rarely formally marked. Unless the formal genre is marked: boy – girl, lion – lioness, nouns in English are typified by using pronouns that refer to nouns which have different forms by gender:
The librarian is at his desk.
He writes something.
The librarian is at her desk.
She is writting something.
Classification of nouns on the idea of gender. In terms of membership in the masculine, feminine or neuter nouns in the English language are divided into three main groups:
A. nouns defining name people;
B. nouns defining animal names and
C. nouns defining names of objects.
Gender of nouns defining names of people (Gender of Personal Nouns).
In English, nouns naming the male gender are male: man, brother and nouns naming gender the feminin gender are feminine: woman, sister.
At nouns personal names, grammatical gender category may be marked:
1) lexical;
2) morphological;
3) identified by words marking and unmarking for gender nouns (common type).
1) the nouns deifning names of people mark lexically different words: brother, sister, father, earl, mother, Countess, lord, king, queen, man, woman, lady, aunt, uncle.
2) the other nouns defining names of people, whose gender is morphological marked, by adding a suffix to the masculine form:
a) -ess: actor – actress; count – Countess; god-goddess; mistress-master; waiter-waitress
b) -ine: hero- heroine or by adding a suffix to the feminine form:
a) -er: window-widower
b) -groom: bride- bridegroom
3) other nouns defining names of people, with one form for both masculine and feminine. They belong to the common genus. artist, chairman, cook, cousin, doctor, foreiner, friend, quest, musician, parent, teacher, writer. Memberships masculine or feminine stated in context of:
-using pronouns:
-using words with the gender lexical marked, that boy, male, female: boy-friend, girl-friend male-student, female student, chairman , chairwoman
-using adjectives used for only one gender: My neighbor is pregnant.
Gender of animated nouns
Animal nouns are names subcalssified into:
1) name of large animals and
2) small animal names.
1) Nouns name large animals are usually considered masculine, replaced by the pronoun „he”: The horse was rather restive at first, but soon he became more manageable.
Some of these animals, in case of male-female distinction formally marked, in which nouns are replaced by the pronoun „he”or „she”: The large master whinnied when she saw her.
Brand genre can be realized:
a) lexical: horse: big ox, stallion, bull, cow ,sheep, ram, ewe, pig, sow, boar, deer, stag hind
b) morphological: lion, lioness, tiger, tigress.
2) Nouns name of small animals are usually considered neutral pronouns being replaced by it:
I saw a frog in the lake. It was big and ugly.
But in some cases it may indicate sex differences:
a) lexical: hen, dog, drake, duck
b) words mark the genre: hen, sparrow, the goat
Gender of inanimate nouns
In this situation, names of object nouns are neuter:
Where's your umbrella? It is in my bag.
Using stylistic grammar of the genre category.
A. Some nouns name objects that are usually neutral in everyday speech and they are sometimes personified in literature, where they can be treated as masculine or feminine nouns. Masculine nouns refer to:
a) intense passions and violent actions: anger, fear, murder.
b) strong natural phenomenon: ocean, river, sun.
c) names of rivers: the Danube, the Thames.
d) name of mountains: the Carpathians, the Alps .
Feminine nouns refer to:
a) nouns suggesting a characteristic of gentle female character, affectionate, indicating the fertility: affection, devotion, faith, hope, justice;
b) nouns naming negative character features: ambition, folly, Jealousy, revenge, vanity;
c) abstract nouns such as: fortune, liberty, mercy, nature, peace, science.
B. Nouns that name objects, animals or people can be removed from their habitual use, to neuter male or female, in the speech. There are two trends:
1) inanimate nouns are personified, SHE or HE became a loving expression and animated nouns commonly used assigned to neuter male or female. This category includes:
-names of vehicles, cars, boats: boat, bus, car, engine, locomotive, engine, ship. Persons handling such vehicles deemed feminine in an affectionate expression:
-name countries, territories, municipalities, when viewed as a united economic policy: Romania has developed gratly her tourism.
-pets are generally neuter, but, on emotional considerations, they are assigned to be male or female: Where is the cat? She is on the bed.
Have you seen the dog? I do not know where he is.
-nouns such as baby, infant, child, which are usually neutral and can be used in the masculine or feminine, in an affectionate expression:
The child has not eaten his breakfast.
She is crying.
2) Another situation is in place, opposite to the above, on nouns name people. When a person is treated with contempt, it can be considered an inanimate object reference to it with the pronoun „it”:
So you've found the girl at last. Where did you find it?
2.3 Case of Nouns
The case is a grammatical category indicating relationships between objects or between objects and actions. The case is used to mark syntactic functions of nouns. Thus, in English, the relationships established between objects and between objects and actions can be highlighted in five cases, each of which is used mostly for an expression of a particular report. Especially if the subject is nominative, the accusative case is that of the direct object, in dative it is an indirect complement, in genitive case it is an attribute, while the vocative is out syntactic functions. In English, grammatical category of case is marked by:
desinence: the child's
topic: The man (N) opened the window (Ac).
prepositions: I bought it for Mary.
Nominative (The Nominative Case).
Nouns in Nominative case function as subject, predicate name and apposition. A noun in the nominative case in English can be identified using word order.
Observers examples:
The audience liked the play.
These women are nurses.
My neighbor, a very experienced engineer, helped me to mend the car.
The syntactic functions of the nominative case are:
a) subject sentences: The boy is waiting for his tag friend.
b) predicative name: He is a teacher.
c) apposition, or part of a sentence: Charles, a friend of me, will help you to do it.
Accusative (The Acusative Case).
Accusative case of the direct object:
I ate icecream year year hour ago.
Accusative case is not marked by desinence in modern English. It is therefore identified by words order:
a) If only one complement in the sentence, it is in most cases a direct object in the accusative case and is located immediately after the verb transitive: Shut the window, please.
b) If there are two supplements sentence, one is in the accusative case, and the other is still in the accusative case, or if dativ, depending on verbs followed: I Asked Him (Ac) a question (Ac). I slowly her (D) my umbrella (Ac).
The following verbs are followed by second charge: ask, envy, excuse, forgive, save, strike:
The teacher asked several questiones the pupils.
I envy you in my garden.
That saved us a lot of trouble.
while verbs like: deny, give, hand, lend, pay, followed by a read if in dative, indirect object and direct object in the accusative case:
Can you lend me this book?
She told an interesting story to the children.
I wish you a good journey.
Accusative is used with:
a) transitive verbs to name subject suffering verbal action: drink, eat, meet.
b) after some intransitive verb, transitive verbs tranformându them: weep, tears, look compassion.
c) after some intransitive verbs that have the same root as the noun in accusative, forming the so-called internal accusative: terrible fight, sing a song.
d) after prepositions. Most prepositions in English are followed by nouns / pronouns in the accusative:
I'm looking at John. I'm looking at him.
Functions in the sentence of a noun in the accusative case are:
a) direct object: She met my brother in the street.
b) part of a prepositional object: The boys were talking about the match.
c) part of an attribute: I know him to be a man of honor.
d) part of an adverbial: They arrived in the evening.
The dative Case.
A noun in dative case acts as indirect object and show by whom or by what is brought out verbs. In English, the dative case is marked by the preposition to or for or through topic:
She gave some sweets to the children.
I Bought a present for my mother.
I slowly her (D) book (Ac).
If dativ is used:
-after some intransitive verbs, followed by an indirect object of person: come, happen, occure, propose:
He came to me.
It Happened to my mother.
He proposed to her.
-after transitive verbs followed by direct object and indirect object preceded by presposition to: deny, give, sale, offer, read, tell:
I paid the money to the cashier.
I'm wiriting a postcard to my friends.
But there are a number of verbs followed necessarily the case dativ + preposition to: address, announce, communicate:
I Introduced Him to my friends.
-after transitive verbs followed by direct object and indirect object preceded by the preposition for: buy, choose, do, leave, make, order, save:
She made a new dress for HER daughter.
-after some nouns:
Her attitude to animals surprised us.
Her cruelty to animals surprised us.
Her kindess to animals surprised us.
-after some adjectives:
Don not be cruel to animals.
She advised me to be kind to the little boy.
-after the comparative adjectives as: adequate, corresponding, equal, equivalent, similar, lower:
The result was not an equal effort to his tag.
Man is superior to animals.
The genitive Case.
The noun in the genitive case expresses primarily the idea of tenure and performs attribute the sentence:
Ann's bag is new.
In English, the genitive case is marked by -s desinence rule, preceded by an apostrophe. Therefore genitive with 's is called genitive in' s synthetic or genitive. Spelling genitive desinence
desinence -s preceded by an apostrophe is added:
– the singular form of the noun: the girl's dress; the pupil's question
-few irregular nouns with plural form: Men's clothes is more expensive than women's. We keep the children's toys here.
-a few nouns ending in -s and followed by the word sound sake: for goodness' sake; for convenience 'sake.
The apostrophe is not binding in this case, construction above and using the form: for goodness sake; for convenience sake.
b) The apostrophe alone without citing desinence add -s:
– the plural form of nouns regular: the boys' bicycles; the drivers' attention.
– with the nouns ending in -s , personal names: Dickens' life; Charles' books.
The proper names ending in -s and the genitive may meet with 's: Dickens's novels. Trends in contemporary English -s but favors the writing offsetting rule, as if writing with 's: Burns' poems.
At some proper names not ending in -s there was observed a tendancy to resolve the apostrophe and sometimes the determined noun: Earls Court; Harrods; St. Davids; St. Albans. (Earl's Court, St. David's, etc.)
Special cases may be considered:
a) groups of words and composed the titles were added to the genitive mark last word: a year and a half's delay; my sister-in-law's job.
b) two nouns connected by and the man who represents the owners [i genitive object adding ` mark the last word: Mr and Mrs Brown are Tom and Mary's parents (Tom and Mary are brothers).
c) If the object does not belong to them both, each brand receives genitive noun in part: Tom's and Mary's friends.
d) apposition usually gets the last word sign genitive; Have you met my brother’s son, Jimmy? Pronouncing desinence genitive synthetic rules are made by ruling desinence plural nouns
One may place the noun in the genitive case:
a) The noun being in the genitive case and the determinant precedes determined when used attributive noun: This is my sister's schoolbag.
b) the genitive noun may occur alone and determined noun is omitted. Such situations occur:
-determined when the noun mentioned above: This is Tom's book. Mary's is in her bag.
-determined when the noun is the word shop, house, love, museum: I was at the Browns' (house) yesterday.
c)The noun in the genitive case may follow the separated noun and it may be determined when the preposition of (double genitive): a book of the teacher's; Those skates of Peter's.
Genitive synthetic is used to:
a) proper names: Tom's car
b) nouns defining names of people: the boy's new shirt
c) collective noun: the nation's security
d) nouns that refer to large animals: the lion's mane
e) geographical names and institutions: Europe's future; Romania's foreign policy; the school's programs
f) nouns naming units of time, space, measure: today's work; a moment's talk; a day's journey
g) a few nouns followed by the word sake: for pity's sake; for mercy's sake;
h) nouns name objects that can become the personification of male or female, in literature: truth's victory, Love's Labour's Lost; the ocean's roar;
i) that some indefinite pronoun: another, either, neither, one and its compounds some, any, no, every and adverb else; somebody's advice; nobody's fault,
j) in some expressions: a needle's eye; her heart's desire; a hair's breadth to;
k) determined when the noun is omitted: St Paul's (Cathedral) is one of Tussaud's (museum). with the preposition of is sometimes used as a synthetic equivalent of the genitive: Shakespeare's plays – the plays of Shakespeare. The construction of the place is determined by the noun: the life of the great writer; the roof of the house.
The construction of uses:
a) with nouns name objects: the title of the book;
b) the geographic names followed by a proper name: the City of London the Gulf of Mexico.
c) proper names, instead genitive synthetic:
-when proper names are expressed by nouns coordinates: the teacher of Peter and Mary
-when the proper name is a noun in apposition: the reign of Queen Elisabeth
-when we stress a name: the Sonnets of William Shakespeare
Genitive Default
Genitive default constructor is a genitive noun determined by the lacks of desinence genitive: audience participation, student hostel, afternoon tea.
Double genitive
Double genitive differ with respect to construction of used alone. A description of Galsworthy's = description made by Galsworthy; (done by someone else)
CHAPTER III NOUNS AND NOUN GROUPS
3.1 General considerations about noun groups
A noun group is a linguistic sequence which may function as subject, object, subject complement, complement of a preposition or in a PossG structure, or as dependent element of another noun head.
The Nouns are the heads in the structure of a NG. They have the following properties:
a) Typical nouns refer semantically to those aspects of our experience which we perceive as “things” or “entities”: concrete entities, names of actions, relationships, emotions, qualities, phenomena and many other classes of entities.
b) The categories of number, gender and case are generically applied to nouns.
c) The distinctive dependents are: determinatives, Adjective Groups, Nount Groups, Pronoun Groups, Possesive Groups and clauses.
Pronouns are also nouns, sometimes even being used to stand in place of a whole NP. Sometimes no noun is present in the NG and the head element is realised by a word expressing one of its attributes as in “the poor” or an –ing form Non-elliptical noun groups, then, have a noun as a headword and may optionally have other elements dependently related to it and placed before and/or after it: pre-head and post-head dependent elements.
In fact, we describe the structure of the English NG in terms of four basic elements: Head, determiner, modifier (epithet and classifier) and complement.
NP
Not all the elements occur in every NP. These functions must be realised by particular linguistic forms, such as the ones in the diagram:
NP
If we combine these choices, the structure of a NP is describable, in abstract, on two separate levels of analysis, though in communication they are realised simultaneously and in combination.
The correct expression and understanding of a NP depends not only on the semantic information conveyed by its elements, but on the syntactic relations between the elements.
Between the head of a NP and the other elements there is one basic logical relationship: that of subordination.
Pre-head dependents
Determiners
They are used to identify a headword functioning deictically or simply as quantifiers, that is, they serve as definite or indefinite reference or to give information about quantity and proportion. There are five main kinds of determiners:
1. the articles a (an) and the;
2. the demonstratives;
3. the possessives and PossG;
4. the numerals and
5. the indefinite determiners.
Many of these determiners can be pronouns. A NG may have none, one, two or up to three determiners.
Scheme of the English Noun Group
Many of the determiners are mutually exclusive as only one of them can appear in a noun group. Thus, definite and indefinite articles are mutually exclusive. Pre-determiners cannot appear together either, nor can ordinals and quantifiers.
1.2. Modifiers
The main function of a modifier is to describe a headword. So a modifier is an element that depends on the head. It is a “one-way dependency”.
Adjectives are the most common modifiers in English. However, adjectives may have their own modifiers as in “ a definitely necessary person”.
Determiners precede modifiers except when the modifier is preceded by how, so, too as in “ so fine a story!”
It is also frequent in English the modification of a noun by another noun, as in the brick wall.
The possessive determiner can also be realised as a possessive group (PossG) as in “ the boy’s parents are in Canada ”.
This PossG or genitive takes the sentence position normally occupied by determiners. However, a PossG may also function as a modifier: Contrast these two examples: “ the young Mozart’s symphony ” and “ a disabled children’s hospital ”
About the analysis of the PossG, if we consider that possessive ‘s is similar to of in “ the house of Peter”, then the ‘s must be treated as a head.
3.3. Complements
Complements are also dependent elements of a head. A complement expands the semantic contents of the noun. In English adjectives are not so common in post-head complementation as in pre-head modification.
However, the indefinite pronouns (somebody, everybody…) accept post-complementation. Present, proper and some adjectives ending in –able and -ible have different connotations when used predicatively, as in “ the present members” and “ the members present”. In the same way, a few a-adjectives ( available, ablaze, afloat, absent, etc.) and concerned and involved do not strictly occur attributively (pre-head modification).
In broad terms, complementation may be realised by an adjective or AdjG, a noun or NG, a PG and a finite or non-finite subordinate clause.
There is another question: the relative order of the elements of a NP. Why is the canonical order as follows?
(Determiner) + (epithet) + (classifier) + HEAD + (complement)
The reason is that the closest intrinsic relationship is that between the head and the classifier, that is why this is placed immediately before the head as in Persian rugs or radio programme.
The next degree of permanence is that of the inherent modifier, the epithet, as in beautiful Persian rugs.
If the NG also contains a determiner this is placed before the epithet. Such is the unmarked order from right to left, from most permanent to least permanent features, which yields:
A large oil tanker not *an oil large tanker
A wonderful patriotic speech not *a patriotic wonderful speech.
In everyday forms of social communication people tend to use uncomplicated NGs, whose logical order of elements cannot be changed:
I've just had a dental operation and am trying to catch up with my Christmas cards. Hard, since we're frantically busy with work at the office.
In contrast to these examples of simple structures, any element of a NG can be realised recursively, and generate expressions such as:
Recursive determiner: all those six other animals
The logical order of determiners is that of pre-central (partitive) determiners +
central determiners (articles, possessives, demonstratives) + post-central determiners (numerals)
Recursive epithet: long, uninteresting and very difficult texts
The normal sequence contains no more than two epithets, though a longer sequence is possible. They can be coordinated asyndetically or syndetically with and, or, but or yet. There is a tendency for subjective, attitudinal adjectives to precede objective, qualitative ones. Some other sequences have been mentioned:
Deverbal before denominal: an attractive, ambitious woman
Size, age, shape and colour: a large, modern, rectangular, black box.
Short before long adjectives: a small, pretty, well-kept garden.
Well-known before less common adjectives: a peculiar antediluvian monster.
Dynamic adjectives at the end: a sudden, loud, ear-splitting crash.
This preferred orders are motivated by the end-weight principle and by the speaker's desire to emphasise his attitude to the quality rather than the quality itself.
Recursive classifier: an east European trade department official
Classification proceeds leftwards from general to specific. Sometimes there is left-branching subordination, as in newspaper advertisement agency employees.
Recursive complement: nothing very interesting to report
In general, more information is expressed by the complement of a NG than by the pre-head elements. This is due to its realisation by groups and clauses more than by words and by its greater facility for expansion by different units. The relationship between these units can be coordinated or subordinated.
There is also a preferred order for complements:
Appositions immediately after the head.
The longer units are placed last.
The emphasised units are placed last.
Functions of the Nominal Group
In clauses, NGs can realise any structural element except the Predicator. They can be inserted in PrepGs as complements of the preposition and in NGs as modifiers or complements of the head element.
NGs as clause elements
The best player available was a Spaniard
Od: The committee engaged the best player available.
Oi: They offered the best player available a high salary.
Cs: Tom Smith seemed to be the best player available.
Co: Everybody considered him the best player available.
He signed the contract last week.
NGs as group elements
Complements of a preposition:They paid a high price for the best player available.
Modifier of a noun: The best-player topic was not present at the meeting.
Complement of a noun: Jack Wilkins, the golf player, earns a high salary.
The potential complexity of the NG structure, combined with its functional flexibility and frequency of occurrence, makes this class of unit the most important class of structure at phrase level.
3.5 The ideas of mass, countable, indefinite and definite nouns
In English, when we use a NG, the language obliges us to make it clear whether the referent is perceived as a discrete, countable entity, either one or more than one, or as an indivisible, non-countable, mass entity.
The count/mass distinction is expressed in English by morphological and syntactic means.
First method: denoting a mass entity by a given word such as travel or rain or food, and an associated count entity or phenomenon by a different word, such as journey, shower or meal respectively. The mass or count feature is at the same time reinforced by the fact that each of the two classes of noun in used in different sets of syntactic or morphological patterns, which are mutually exclusive:
We made a journey vs. *We made a travel.
Travel broadens the mind vs. *Journey broadens the mind.
A second way of marking the mass/count contrast is purely grammatical. By definition, the semantic notion of countability correlates with the grammatical category of number. Count nouns refer to things which are perceived as “one” or “more than one”, and are represented linguistically by the formal singular/plural contrast.
Grammatical markers of uncountable NGs:
The singular form of the noun with zero determiner: I always take coffee with milk.
The singular form of the noun preceded by all: I say this in all sincerity.
The singular form of the noun quantified by much, little, a little: There isn’t much room in our apartment.
Grammatical markers of count NGs:
The singular form of the noun preceded by a(n): I’m looking for a new job.
The singular form of the noun determined by each or every: Each day is different.
With number contrast marked on the noun: lion/lions.
Invariable or plural form of the noun preceded by a plural determiner: few opportunities, these aircraft, those sheep, several series.
Plural number concord with the verb or pronoun: People like to be happy, don’t they?
The system of definiteness
In English, the grammar obliges the NGs to be presented as indefinite, definite or generic.
An entity is considered as “indefinite” if there is nothing in the discourse or the situation or our general knowledge of the world which identifies it for us. If an entity is “definite”, this entity can be identified within the text (endophorically) or outside the text, in the situation of from general knowledge (exophorically).
Definite nouns = given information.
Indefinite nouns = new information (not known to the addressee).
The system of definiteness is expressed syntactically by the use of specific and non-specific determiners, in particular, by the definite, indefinite and zero articles.
Generic NGs refer to entities as representatives of their whole class, in abstract statements about their typical characteristics or habitual activities.
Each of the articles can also be used when we wish to make a generic statement about a whole class of entities, but they express genericity from different points of view:
a(n) + singular count noun: They say an elephant never forgets.
Any individual member of a class of entity as typical of the whole class.
The + singular count noun: They say the elephant never forgets.
The referent of a noun as a single undifferentiated whole class of entities.
Zero + plural count/mass noun: They say elephants never forget / charity begins at home.
All or most members of the class of entity possess the characteristic that is predicated of it.
These structures are not freely interchangeable in all generic statements. For instance, the generic use of “the” and “a” is formal in style. Th e loosest and therefore most frequent type of genericity is that expressed by the zero article with plural nouns.
Singular count nouns are not normally presented as generic with the zero article. The following, however, are sometimes used with zero to denote common activities or phenomena associated with the count noun:
Places: He’s in hospital. Times: I like driving at night.
Meals: Breakfast is my favourite meal. Transport: Let’s go by plane
Set phrases: arm-in-am, side-by-side, face-to-face.
Determiners
Common nouns in the dictionary refer to classes of things, but when used in discourse they need to be particularised. This is done by the first element of the NG, called the determiner. The basic function of this element is to particularise and so help to identify the noun referent in the context of the speech situation.
Determiners are an element of the clause structure; determinatives are the class of units that realise that element.
Determiners identify a nominal entity by telling us which or what or whose it is, how much, how many, what part or degree of it we are referring to, how big or frequent it is, how it is distributed in space or time.
The following table summarises the three broad types of determination by which referent things can be particularised in English.
Specific deictic determinatives
Demonstratives: this, that, these, those.
These items particularise the noun referent by indicating whether it is near or not near the speaker, in space or time or psychologically.
Genitive determinatives
PossP: In fact, it must be understood in a broader sense than that of the traditional term “possessive” as it can indicate a subjective relation (Napoleon’s army ), an objective relation (Napoleon’s defeat ), a locative relation (Europe’s chief cities), an extent relation (A month’s holiday ), a source relation (the sun’s rays) and, finally, a possessive relation (the dog’s tail).
Possessive determinatives: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their.
Non-specific deictic determiners
These select entities by referring to
Their indefiniteness: a(n), some, any, no.
Their distribution: all, both, either, neither, each, every, another, other.
Wh-deictic determinatives
Which and whose express specific selection. What, whatever, whichever and whoever’s express non-specific selection.
They are used in three types of structures:
Interrogative: Which play would you like to see?
Relative: You’ll find plenty of traffic whichever road you take.
Exclamatory: What a pity! What nonsense!
The word such identifies an entity by relating it or comparing it to another entity of a similar kind or a similar degree. Like exclamatory What, such also requires a(n) before a singular noun: I’ve never heard of such an animal.
Selection by quantity
A speaker may select or particularise an entity by referring to its quantity, which may be exact (three friends), non-exact (many friends) or ordinal (the first friend).
Selection by partition
A speaker may select or particularise an entity by referring to a fraction (a quarter pound) or a multiple (twice a day) of that entity.
Modifiers
After the defining, determining and quantifying items of information which particularise or select the noun referent from others in the surrounding context, we find items that describe and classify its more permanent characteristics.
At a general level of analysis we will consider these items under the broad function of "modification", just as determinatives were under the general function of "determination".
There are two types of modifications:
Epithets, realised mostly by AdjGs whose reference may be
Objective: epithets expressing objective qualities may "describe" an entity (I bought a small bottle) or "define" it (I want the blue car).
Subjective: epithets which express the speaker's or writer'ssubjective experience or attitude to the referent of the head noun. They can be appreciative (Thank you for that lovely meal) or pejorative (I didn't like that horrible colour).
Many adjectives can be used subjectively or objectively: a provincial city / a provincial attitude or even mixing up both uses in an Impressionistic reference: epithets which are objectively inherent in the entity but to which the speaker may attach a certain emotive or descriptive value: the cold little town.
Non-inherent reference: to refer to the manner of performing an action associated with the entity: a light eater (person who doesn't eat much), a sound sleeper (who has sound sleep), a dying wish (the wish of a dying person).
Classifiers limit the entity to a subclass by referring to:
Another entity: army officers, a football club.
A quality: a poisonous snake, electric light.
A process: the rising tide, a growing population.
A circumstance: a round-the-world trip.
A situation: a devil-may-care attitude.
Types of classification according to the classifier:
Classification by nouns:
They may be simple (orange blossom), PossGs (a girl's school), de-verbal (fishing rod), compound (farmyard animals) or short NGs (Social Security contributions, an end-of-course party ).
Nominal classifiers are not normally pluralised: trouser belt; but plural forms are used when the referent of the classifier has come to be regarded as a collective noun as in Olympic Games medal. Present-day English shows a tendency towards such a pluralisation.
When the semantic relation between a classifier and a noun is very cohesive, they are sometimes fused as a compound: head waiter, record-player, software.
Classification by adjectives and participles:
Especially denominal adjectives and the present and past participle expressing process: African politics, prehistoric remains, classical music, municipal authorities, medical students, fallen leaves, atomic energy, main road, social worker, heavy water, software.
AdjGs: a bored-with-life attitude.
Classification by other classes of units:
Adverbs: an away match, a home match.
PreGs: a round-the-town trip.
VGs: a live-and-let-live philosophy.
Clauses: a couldn't-care-less attitude.
The differences between the functions of determination, description and classification are not absolute. All the pre-head elements of a NG contribute to the identification of the head in different ways: The determiner is mainly selective, the epithet qualitative and often gradable, while the classifier is taxonomic and normally non-gradable.
Here are some examples of AdjGs which may function as epithets or classifiers: a criminal act / the criminal court; a cutting remark / a cutting instrument; a sleeping child / a sleeping compartment; a plastic smile/ plastic bombs.
Finally, the epithet and classifier elements can sometimes assume the role of the head noun when this is not expounded. The NG is then described as elliptical and can always be filled out if necessary by the presupposed noun.
With epithets, the commonest are adjectives of colour and superlatives preceded by "the": Which shoes shall I wear: the black or the brown?; He writes good novels, and this is the best so far.
When the head noun is not expounded in a NG, the epithet is usually followed by the pro-form one/ones: Some of our lectures are interesting, but I go to sleep in the boring ones.
Certain adjectives are used elliptically to refer to entities outside the text which are not expounded because they are self-understood: The future is in the hands of the young; The French and the English have not always been good friends.
Not all abstract adjectives can function as elliptical NG heads, as some need the addition of the word thing: The strange thing was that they never answered our letter.
Adjectival classifiers can be used elliptically, though there is a general preference for the addition of substitute one/ones: Gas cookers are cheaper than electric (ones).
3.6 Complements
Extrinsic features, realised by the complement, identify an entity by something outside it, or add supplementary information not essential for identifying it. It must be noted that English prefers to lace the shorter, intrinsic features before the noun, and the longer units of extrinsic features after it
The complement has two basic communicative functions:
to supply information enabling the hearer/reader to identify the entity in question: "restrictive" or "defining" function: That's the house where the President lives.
To add supplementary information about the referent when it has already been identified: "non-restrictive" or "non-defining" function: That's the White House, where the President lives.
To show the difference, non-restrictive units are usually written between commas, dashes or brackets and pronounced between short pause as separate information units.
Restrictive complement is similar in function to classifiers, particularly when this one refers to extrinsic features such as place, profession, material or process: the corner house / the house in the corner; my doctor friend / my friend the doctor; a brick house / a house made of brick; a growing child / a child that is growing up.
3.7 Qualifiers
In English, there are different types of qualifiers, as following:
Nominal qualifiers
They can be realised by three classes of appositive units:
Nominal Groups: My niece, a very pretty girl; the explorer Marco Polo; Chivalry, the dominant idea of the medieval ruling class; a cowshed or cowhouse; We Americans.
Nominal that-clauses: The fact that inflation is going down is a sign…; His suggestion that the meeting be postponed was accepted; there is no evidence that he committed the crime.
Nominal (interrogative-value) WH-clauses: The question / problem of who we have to vote for…; I have strong doubts about whether I ought to sign a contract…
Circumstantial qualifiers:
They can be realised by three classes of units:
AdvGs: This is the way out; The food there is good; A holiday abroad will make a nice change; One of my days off.
Relative adverbial clauses: She took her degree at the university where she was studying; The week when the exams took place…; The reason why I ask is very simple.
PreGs: The concert on Monday / by the municipal orchestra; The discussion about what we should do; My apologies for not writing to you before…
Attributive qualifiers:
They can be realised by three classes of units:
AdjGs: The body politic; the devil incarnate; from time immemorial; those present; the worst time possible; the other candidates, confident and well-prepared, all passed the test.
Qualifiers may express attributive meanings similar to those of the epithets: a very beautiful woman / a woman of great beauty. In the first case the communicative focus is the noun woman, in the second one the noun beauty.
Relative clause: The news that you gave me cheered me up.
Non-tensed clauses: He wrote a book containing his memories of that period of his life; They travelled in canoes preserved for generations by a hard, shell-like water-proof plaster; the next train to arrive at platform 3 is…; We have no time to lose; The boss gave permission for the staff/us to take the day off.; Her greatest wish, to own a pony, was never fulfilled.
CONCLUSION
Grammar remains central to the teaching and learning of languages as the ideal combination would be both a good flux of communication and accuracy. Up to now, two major tendencies have influenced the practice of teaching foreign languages. The former leads to the view of treating grammar as a set of word forms and rules.
Grammatical category of gender is characteristic primarily for nouns, for words that indicate the name of the objects. Grammatical category content genre highlights objects in the world around them, whether they are being some of the male and feminine and whether neutral. In English, the final assembly line mark of nouns’ grammatical category gender is rarely formally marked. In linguistics, grammatical gender is a specific form of noun-class system in which the division of noun classes forms an agreement system with another aspect of the language, such as adjectives, articles, pronouns, or verbs. This system is used in approximately one quarter of the world's languages. In these languages, most or all nouns inherently carry one value of the grammatical category called gender; the values present in a given language (of which there are usually two or three) are called the genders of that language. According to one definition: "Genders are classes of nouns reflected in the behaviour of associated words."
The case is a grammatical category indicating relationships between objects or between objects and actions. The case is used to mark syntactic functions of nouns. Thus, in English, the relationships established between objects and between objects and actions can be highlighted in five cases, each of which is used mostly for an expression of a particular report. Especially if the subject is nominative, the accusative case is that of the direct object, in dative it is an indirect complement, in genitive case it is an attribute, while the vocative is out syntactic functions.
Grammar is a very old field of study. Did you know that the sentence was first divided into subject and verb by Plato, the famed philosopher from ancient Greece? That was about 2,400 years ago! Ever since then, students all over the world have found it worthwhile to study the structure of words and sentences. Why? Because skill in speaking and writing is the hallmark of all educated people.
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