Migration

Introduction

International labor migration is the movement of persons from one country to another for the purpose of employment. In our days, an estimated 105 million persons are working in another country than their country of birth.

Almost all countries in the world are involved in migrationas as counties of origin, destination or transit- or all three.

International migration can be a positive experience for migrant workers, many suffer poor working and living condition, discrimination and xenophobia

A key feature of globalization in our days is labour mobility. International migration occurs when peoples cross state borders and stay in the host state for working, many persons leave their home countries in order to look for economic opportunities. People also migrate to be with family members who have migrated or because of political conditions in their countries.

.Labour mobility is one of the key features of economic development and its characteristics are closely tied with the nature of this development.Numerous studies prove that the process of migration is influenced by social, economic and cultural factors and outcomes can be different for men and women.

My paper is structured in 2 main chapters. In the first one, “General notiones about migration” I describe the phenomenon of migration, immigration and international labor migration. In the second chapter, “Recent trends and policies in international labor migration” I talk about the recent trend and policies in international migration and about some statistics about migrant integration.

Chapter 1 General notiones about migration

1.1.What is migration?

Migration is the movement made by people from one place to another with the intentions of settling temporarily or permanently in the new location. The movement is often over long distances and from one country to another. International migration is possible, indeed, this is the dominant form globally. Migration may be individuals, family units or in large groups.

Normally, nomadic movements are not regarded as migrations as there is no intention to settle in the new place and because the movement is generally seasonal. A few nomadic peoples have retained this form of lifestyle in modern times. The temporary movement of people for the purpose of travel, tourism, pilgrimages, or the commute is not regarded as migration, in the absence of an intention to live and settle in the visited places.

Substantial internal migration ca take place in a country, either seasonal human migration ( most of migration is related to agriculture and to tourism to urban places), or shifts of population into cities (urbanisation) or out of cities (suburbanization). Studies of worldwide migration patterns, however, tend to limit their scope to international migration.

Types of migration:

-daily human commuting

-seasonal human migration is mainly related to agriculture

-permanent migration, for the purposes of permanent or long-term stays

-local

-religional

-rural to urban, more common in developing countries as industrialization takes effect

-urban to rural, more common in developed countries due to a higher cost of urban living

-international migration

There are a number of reasons why people choose to migrate to another country. Globalisation has increased the demand for workers from other countries in order to sustain national economies. Known as “economic migrants”, these individuals are generally from inproverished developing countries migrating to obtain sufficient income for survival.This income is usually sent home to family members in form of remittances and has become an economic staple in a number of developing countries.

Migration is a selective process. Individual, Family, and community characteristics of migrants are different than those who stay behind. The premise of this chapter is that the selectivity of migration is different for distinct migrant destinations as well as for different sectors of employment as those destinations. For exemple, is often assumed that educated people have a higher prosperity to migrate internationally than less educated persons.

Migration is the result of individual and households weighing the utility that is attainable under different migration regimes with the utility from not migrating. A migrating regime is defined as a combination place (the village of origin in the case of nonmigration, internal migrant destinations, or foreign destinations) and sector of employment. There are five potential regimes in our empirical model: nonmigration, two destination types (internal and international), and two employment sectors in each (farm and nonfarm).Inevitably, international migration is poised to be one of the biggest challenges to, and also opportunities for, world development in the twenty-first century.

The United Nations defines migrants as people who live outside their counties of birth for more than one year. Using this definition, the United Nations estimates that there were about 214 milion migrants in 2010.About half of the world’s migrants are thought to be migrant workers: people born in one country and working for more than one year in another.

People also move or are forced to move as a result of conflict, human rights violations, violence, or to escape persecution. In 2013, it was estimated that around 51.2 milion people fell into this categories.

1.2. What is immigration?

Immigration is the movement of people into a destination country where they are not natives of or whwew they do not possess citizenship in order to settle or reside there, especially as permanent residents or naturalized citizens, or to take-up employment as migrant worker or temporarily as a foreign worker.

People are named migrants or immigrants (from Latin: migrare, wanderer) , from the perspective of the country they enter when they cross national borders during their migration. From the perspective of the country they leave, they are called emigrant or outmigrant.

Immigrants are motivated to leave their former countries of citizenship, or habitual residence, for a variety of reasons, including a lack of local access to resources, a desire for economic prosperity, to find or engage in paid work, to better their standard of living, family reunification, retirement, climate or environmentally induced migration, exile, escape from prejudice, conflict or natural disaster, or simply the wish to change their quality of life.

One theory of immigration distinguishes between push and pull factors.Most migration literature makes a distinction between pull and push factors, which, however, do not operate in insolation of one another.

Push factors refer primarily to the motive for immigration from the country of origin. In the case of economic migration (labor migration), differentials in wage rates are common. If the value of value wages in the new country surpasses the value of wages in one’s native country surpasses the value of wages in one’s native country, he or she may choose to migrate, as long as the costs are not too high. Particularly in the 19th century, economic expansion of the US increased immigrant flow, and nearly 15% of the population was foreign born, thus making up a significant amount of bthe labor force. Poor individuals from less developed countries than in their originating countrie.

Immigration and emigration are sometimes mandatory in a contract of employment: religious missionaries and employees of transnational corporations, international non-governmental organizations, and the diplomatic service expect, by definition, to work “overseas”.Often, they are referred to as “ expatriates”, and their conditions of employment are not typically equal to or better than those appling in the host country.

For som migrants, educaon is the primary pull factor (although most international students are not classified as immigrants).Retirement migration from rich countries to lower-cost countries with better climate is a new type of international migration. Examples include immigration of retired British citizens to Spain or Italy and of retired Cnadian citizens to the US.

1.3. Economic migrant and economic effects

The term economic migrant refers to someone who has travelled from one region to another region to another region for the purposes of seeking employment and an improvement in quality of life and access to resources. An economic migrant is distinct from someone who is a refugee fleeing persecution.

Many countries have immigration and visa restrictions that prohibit a person entering the country for the purpose og gaining work without a valid work visa. As a violation of a State’s immigration laws a person who is declared to be an economic migrant can be refused entry into a country.

The process of allowing immigrants into a particular country is believed to have effects on wages and employment. In particular lower skilled workers are thought to be directly affected by economic migrants, but evidence suggests that this is due to adjustments within industries.

Treatment of migrants in host countries, both by governments, employers, and original population, is a topic of continual debate and criticism, as many cases of abuse of rights are being reported frequently. Most of the countries have developed a particularly notorious reputation regarding treatment of migrants.

Immigration is a prominent economic and political issue in Europe as well as in most of the developed world.In 2013, about 3,2 percent of the world’s population live outside of their birth country.

The European continent has been shaped by a long history of internal migrantion flows. Such flows often occurred in response to the constant shifts of economic and geopolitical power between Europe’s constituent nation states.

Large scale immigration into Europe from the rest of the world, is a more recent phenomenon. The ensuing immigrant inflows played an important role for the economic expansion in Europe. These migration experiences have raise two fundamental economic questions in all immigrant-receiving countries. First, what has been the economic performance of immigrants in their host countries and in how far have the latter been successful in providing the necessary instruments to ensure the economic assimilation of immigrants and their children. On the other hand, what have been the economic consequences of immigration for the native population in the host countries.

Labor economists have typically assumed thet the main mechanism trough which the host labor market adjusts to immigrant inflows and changes in factor prices, in particular changes in skill-specific wages. In a simple neoclassical economy, the factor proportions approach postulates that as long as immigrants differ in their skill composition from the existing force in the host country, their arrival will lead to changes in the relative supplies of different skill groups.

Early work on the labor market effects of immigration focused on testing these predictions. However, when a large empirical studies failed to find conclusive evidence of a negative effect of immigration on wages and employment, economists were forced to consider potential alternative adjustment channels. One such channel is that changes in factor may be readly absorbed in open economies by changes in the output mix. A second mechanism that has been proposed is that economies may absorb new immigrant inflows by adopting production technologies that are more intensive in the use of the skills brought by immigrants.

1.4 What is international labour migration?

International labour migration is defined as the movement of people from one country to another for the purpose of employment.Today, an estimated 105 milion persons are working in a country other than their contry of birth. Labour mobility has become a key feature of globalization and the global economy with migrant workers.

International labour migration occurs when people cross state boundaries and stay in the host state for some minimum length of time. Migration occurs for many reasons, many people leave from their home countries in order to look for economic opportunities in another country.

The world is being transformed by the globalization process. States, societies, economics and cultures in different regions of the world are becoming increasingly integrated and interdependent.

Migration from one area to another in search of improvement livelihoods us a key fact of human history.While some regions and sectors fall behind in their capacity to support populations, others move ahead and people migrate to access these emerging opportunities. Industrialisation widens the gap between rural and urban areas. There is extensive debate on the factors that cause population to shift, from those that emphasise individual rationality and household behavior to those that cite the structural logic of capitalist development.

Numerous studies show that process of migration is influenced be social, cultural and economic factors and outcomes can be vastly different from men to women, for different groups and locations.

International labour migration has emerged as a major global issue that affects most nations in the world and ranks high on the international, regional and national policy agendas. On the one hand, there are many positive aspects to cross-border migration. Trough their labour, migrant workers contribute to growth and development in their countries of employment. Their counties of origin greatly benefit from these workers remittances and the skills they acquire during their migration experience. Yet the migration process also poses serious challenges. Many migrant workers, especially low-skilled workers, face exploitative working conditions and enjoy only limited human and lour rights.

In this era of globalization, almost all countries in the world are involved in migration as countries of origin, destination, transit or all types. While international labour migration can be a positive experience for migrant workers, many suffer poor working anf living conditions, including low wages, unsafe work environments, a virtual absence of the social safety net, denial of association and workers rights, discrimination or xenophobia.

Migration is influenced by pattern of development and the social structure.

Mobility occurs when workers in source areas lack suitable options for employement and there is some expectation of improvement in circumstances through migration.Workers could be locked into a migration cycle, where earnings from migration are used to repay debts incurred at home or in the destination areas.

Labour mobility is one of the key features of economic development and its characteristics and closely tied with the nature of this development. Historically, development is associated with structural change, giving an impetus to the movement of workers from one region to another, and from one sector to another.The pattern of migration depends on some factores that are determinate by labour market characteristics, together with individual, household and community level features, and the experience of social networks. These factors cumulatively determinate the causes of migration. Labour migration, plays a key role in influencing the pattern of development through its impact on a host of economic and non-economic variables.

Substantial internal migration take place in a country, either seasonal human migration ( most of migration is related to agriculture and to tourism to urban places), or shifts of population into cities (urbanisation) or out of cities (suburbanization). Studies of worldwide migration patterns, however, tend to limit their scope to international migration.

. On the one hand, there are many positive aspects to cross-border migration. Trough their labour, migrant workers contribute to growth and development in their countries of employment. Their counties of origin greatly benefit from these workers remittances and the skills they acquire during their migration experience. Yet the migration process also poses serious challenges. Many migrant workers, especially low-skilled workers, face exploitative working conditions and enjoy only limited human and lour rights.

In this era of globalization, almost all countries in the world are involved in migration as countries of origin, destination, transit or all types. While international labour migration can be a positive experience for migrant workers, many suffer poor working anf living conditions, including low wages, unsafe work environments, a virtual absence of the social safety net, denial of association and workers rights, discrimination or xenophobia.

There are a number of reasons why people choose to migrate to another country. Globalisation has increased the demand for workers from other countries in order to sustain national economies. Known as “economic migrants”, these individuals are generally from inproverished developing countries migrating to obtain sufficient income for survival.This income is usually sent home to family members in form of remittances and has become an economic staple in a number of developing countries.

Early development literature conceptualized labour migration as occurring from the rural to urban, agricultural to industrial, and informal to formal sectors. However, the workforce pattern has change across the world in favor of the services sector, and the informal sector is more prominent today, both in developing and developed countries than it was twenty or thirty years ago. In developing countries, the informal sector is no longer conceived as a temporary destination for migrants but in most cases, as a final destination.

In recent years, substantial numbers of people have migrated-or sought to migrate-from regions that are afflicted by poverty and insecurity to more prosperous and stable parts of the world.

Approximately 105 million people are international labour migrants (almost 50% of the global migrant stock; ILO, 2014). Immigrants from developing economies contributed an estimated 40% of labour force growth in advanced economies between 1980 and 2010 (McKinsey Global Institute, 2012). By 2020, there will be a 38-40 million potential shortage of workers with tertiary education (13% of demand) , 45 million too few workers with secondary education in developing countries, and 90-95 million more low-skill workers than employers will need (11% oversupply; Ibid.).

Such population flows, involving increasingly tortuous and dangerous log distance journey, have been both prompted and facilitated by a variety of factors associated with process of globalization: a growing disparity in the level of human security to be found in different parts of the world; improved transportation, communications and information technology systems; the expansion of trasnational social networks; and the emergence of a commercial.

Migration triggered by economic motivations, within the European labor market, can be an effective tool in stabilizing the labor market and in balancing the unemployment rate in the eurozone area, but for the other European countries affected. Eurozone and in particular states that are most vocal against immigration and free movement on the labor market, have the most to gain from it after having major economic benefits.

Labour migration in the market economy has become one of the solutions to solve many problems we have in society conditions. Country of origin, migration is driven by internal factor: the desire citizen who is in a downturn, to live better, he had no other choice but to sell their labor for a proper remuneration effort. In fact, the migration processes dictated am guiding the international labor market supply and demand on the labor market.
Labor, usually moving from countries with surplus labor or who are not able to capitalize on existing human resources to states with shortage of manpower. The developed countries are in direct competition to attract qualified human resources (refer to the phenomenon of brain drain), launching several attractive programs and strategies for these categories.

Currently all EU Member States are affected by international migration flow. They agreed to develop a common policy on immigration at European level. The Commission has made numerous proposals for developing this policy, many of which have become an integral part of EU legislation. The main objective is better management of migration flows through a coordinated approach that takes into account the economic and demographic situation of the EU.

Effects of labor migration in Europe is very complex, linked to both the economic aspect and the demographics. We believe that the future will bring a new expansion and new Member States will continue to be the main suppliers of labor in the Community. In years to come, migration will have a growing role with effect economic-financial, social, cultural and political positive. For this reason, the acceptance of new workers coming as a means to foster economic growth and social security systems and pension schemes will be a perpetual concern for the European Union. Ensuring freedom of movement of persons, in particular workers, but also maintaining the highest possible good security at borders presents both clear advantages for Member States of the European Union and a constant worry for the purposes of potential risks and threats that they can bring migrants.

These movemements of the population have been a cause for growing concern in the industrialized states. Such states are ready to acknowledge the positive value of international migration when it meets the needs of their labour markets, and when it takes place in a controlled and predictable manner. But when it involves the irregular arrival of migrants from other parts of the world, and when those people apper to bring little financial or social capital with them, the coutries react with alarm. As a result of these huge population flows, the impact of immigration is now heatedly debated globally, in both countries, host or native.

However, the workforce pattern has change across the world in favor of the services sector, and the informal sector is more prominent today, both in developing and developed countries than it was twenty or thirty years ago. In developing countries, the informal sector is no longer conceived as a temporary destination for migrants but in most cases, as a final destination.

Contemporary migration involves a dramatic paradox. Much of what is considered international or trasnational or labor migration today transform people of a widw range of social standings in the countries from which they migrate into laborers at the bottom social standings in the countries from which they migrate.

1.5 Effects of migration

The pattern of migration depends on some factores that are determinate by labour market characteristics, together with individual, household and community level features, and the experience of social networks. These factors cumulatively determinate the causes of migration. Labour migration, plays a key role in influencing the pattern of development through its impact on a host of economic and non-economic variables.

Labour migration has its positive as well negative effects both on native and host countries, we will examine these effects as under:

Positive effects:

Wage rate: Labourers usually migrate from low wage countries to higher wage nation.Unless prevented or guarded by law, wages will change in both countries, home and foreing country.

Supply of labour: Developed countries like Canada, Australia, some European countries and USA have experienced scarcity of skilled as well as unskilled labour.

Unskilled labour migrated from developing countries, provided labour to those areas where the native people would not wish to take up the jobs.

Employment: Migration takes place primarily in search of employment, to earn, more income and to enjoy better quality of life. While enjoying these benefits in the host countries the migrants at the disquised unemployment. In the early stages of large scale migration.

Remittance: Emigrants remit a part of their income bacj to their families in their native country. It helps the home countries to reduce their balance of payment problem or increase investment at home, they import capital goods to help development of rheir economies.

Remittance would reduce over a period of time as the emigrants settle in the host country togheter with their families. The size of the remittance depends on the number of emigrants from a country and the nature and duration of employment.

Negative effects:

Brain drain: emigrants comprise people educated and trained at different levels. Majority of the emigrants are low education and unskilled. Emigrants also include highly educated professionals such as doctors, engineers, professors and other tehnically and professionals trained people. A good number of medical, engineering, management students from poor countries are migrating to richer countries. These students take the advantage of subsidized education financed by tax payer money and leave the country when they become productive agents or labourers.

Problem of social integration: Immigrants in a country belong to different countries, race, religion and culture. They form their own group based on the above factors. In the initial stages these groups live in ghettoes.Religion is another factor which makes immigrants identify with the host country where the majority belong to another religion. Cultural differences also determinate the process of integration specially when each group develops a complex of cultural superiority. At times ethnic and religious differences create a problem for the host country.

Illegal Immigrants: It is a serious problem for many countries. For exemple USA has a large number of illegal immigrants from Mexico. Similar problems are faced by Canada, Australia and Europe.

Cheap labour: Developed countries, specially organize labour through their Trade Union oppose the liberal migration policy. They argue that the migrant labourers who are willing to work at lower prices.

Fiscal imbalance: Immigrants positively contribute to the growth of the host country. When immigrants constitute in large numbers, the host country requires to spend huge anount of capital to provide the required economic and social infrastructure.

Chapter 2 Recent trends and policies in international labor migration

2.1. Global migration trends: an overview

Today’s intra-Europe migration is largely unrestricted, the regulation of immigration flows from outside the Europe Union remains primally the responsibility of the individual national governments.

Approximately one in seven people today are migrants: 232 milion people are international migrants, or 3,2% of world population, and 740 milion are internal migrants.

Since 1990, the number of international migrants increased by 65% (53 million) in the North part, and by 34% in the South part. While the number of international migrants has increased in absolute terms, the share of international migrants in the world population has remained fairly constant in the same period, oscillating around 3%.

The share of international migrants in the total population varies widely across countries: it is above 50% in some Gulf Cooperation Council countries (GCC) such as the United Arab Emirates (84%), Qatar (74%), Kuwait (60%) and Bahrain (55%) and is relatively high in traditional destination countries like Australia (28%) and Canada (21%). In main destination countries in Europe, namely Spain, Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Italy, it usually stands between 10 and 12%, but in Sweden it is 16%.

Women account for 48% of the global migrant stock. Migrants in the North are on average older then migrants in the South and most international migrants are working age.

The number of forcibly displaced people has grown and the reality of global displacement is increasingly complex.The number of people displaced by violence and conflict today is the highest since World War II.

Refugees were estimated at 16,7 million by the end of 2013, up to 15,2 million in 2011 (UNHCR, 2014). People internally displaced by conflict and violence wew estimated at 33,3 milion by the end of 2013, up from 26,4 million in 2011 (IDMC, 2014).

Over 50% of the world’s refugees live scattered in urban areas rural communities, not in refugee camps or “protected refugee situations”. By 2013, an estimated two-thirds of the world’s refugees had been in exile for over 5 years, and half of them were children (UNHCR, 2014).

According to the U.S. State Department’s Trafficking in Persons report, the number of identified victims of trafficking at the global level was over 44,500 in 2015. The lack of uniformity in national reporting structures makes it impossible to collect accrate figures.

The number of identified victims has increased in all regions, and convictions represent only a small proportion of identified cases (Figure 1).

Figure 1- Identified victims of human trafficking and number of convictions by region, 2011 and 2015

Source: US State Department- Trafficking in Persons Report 2016

An estimated 20,9 million people are victims of forced labour globally (ILO, 2014). This is twice the 2004 estimate of 12,3 million people (ILO, 2005). ILO estimates include victims of hman trafficking of labour and sexual exploitation. The actual number of trafficked victims remains unknown. 11,4 million victims of forced labour are woman and girls, 9,5 million men and boys.

Forced labour in the private economy- concerninig 19 million individuals- generates over 150 billions USD in illegal profits annually (ILO estimates).

IOM estimated that between January and early December 2015 over 4,900 migrants died or went missing attempting to reach destinations around the world. In 2014 were recorded an amount of 2400 deaths. Of the total recorded fatalities, over 3200 occurred in the Mediterranean, making this the deadliest route worldwide (66%).

IOM estimated that over 40000 migrants have died in transit since 2000. According to IOM calculations based on The Migrant Files data, over 22,400 of them have lost their lives trying to reach Europe.

2.1.1.Remittances

There has been an exponential growth in remittances but transfer costs remain high. The link between rising remittances and the relatively stock of migrants needs to be explored.

The Word Bank estimated that remittances to developing countries amounted to 404 billion USD in 2013, up by 3,5% relative to the previous year (World Bank).

Growth in remittance flows to developing countries is expected to accelerate at an annual average of 8,4 % per year over the next 3 years. Remittances to developing countries are projected to grow by 5% and reach 435 billion USD in 2014, and increase further by 4,4% to 454 billion in 2015(Ibid.).

However, recent research suggests that much of the record increase in remittances to developing countries is due to better reporting systems and changes in the ways remittances have been measured over time, and might the refore not to be as high as often claimed (McKenzie and Clemens, 2014).

The global average cost of sending remittances fell to 7,9% of the value sent in the third quarter of 2014 from 8,9% in the same period last year. Efforts to reduce the cost of remittances have resulted in estimated savings to migrants and their families of 42,5 billion USD over the period 2009-2013 (World Bank, 2013).

Yet more remains to be done: in 173 corridors (78% of those surveyed), average costs of transmitting remittances are above 5%, while only in 47 corridors remittances costs below 5%.

Figure 2: Remittances to low-, middle- and high-income countries, 2012-2016 (US billion dollars)

Source: World Bank.*Forecast.

2.2. Recent EU policy developments

Despide the economic crisis and the rise in unemployment, there are labour and skill shortages in some European countries and regions. The European Commission, accordingly, has maintainedits focus on increasing geographical mobility as a strategy to reduce discrepancies between supply and demand in European labour markets. This stance is emphasized by the Europe 2020 growth strategy and the 2012 Employment Package, where the efficient allocation of labour within the EU Member States is mentioned asa a key driver for future growth and an important adjustment mechanism for distorted labour markets. Information-sharing abut job vacancies in other countries or regions could enhance mobility. Increased resources for Europe Employment Services, EURES, will make it easier for job-seekers to contact employers looking for particular skills.

The crisis reduced intra-EU mobility, but there has been a rebound since 2011, General and labour mobility across borders within the EU decreased sharply during the immediate crisis period in 2008-2010; there is consistent evidence of a rebound in mobility since 2011, but mobility rates remain lower than befor the crisis.

Migration to EU Member States is accounted for increasingly by internal EU mobility. There are decreasing stocks of working third-country nationals in the EU and increasing stocks of EU migrant workers. In past years, the EU migrant worker population increased by over 800,00 (to 6,6 milion), even though overall employment fell by over 5 milion.

In spite of EU policies facilitating free movement, national data suggest that the level of mobility remains low, especially if compared to that of the US. Cultural barriers and language are the main impediment to cross-border mobility in Europe. The main destination countries are Germany and UK. The labour market situation deteriorated during the crisis for EU migrant workers relative to native-born workers.

Regarding migration drivers and the nature of flows, we can identify the following main findings:

Migration from new member states to certain countries, was far greater than had been forecasted although in most countries the impact of cross-border flows was less important than expected.

The presence of transitional measures almost certainly had a considerable diversion effect on quantitative migration flows.

Labour demand (employment opportunities) played a primary role in determinating migration flows, alongside other factors, and interacts with the existence of transnational measures in a complex way.

Labour mobility continues to be an important issue for EU institutions and policymarkers and is regarded as a potential means of addressing the strong and increasing demand for skilled labour across European countries, especially in a context of widely varying labour market performance. As noted by the European Commission (2010), the efficient allocation of labour within the EU contributes to archieving the objectives of Europe 2020 growth strategy.

More specifically, intra- EU mobility is regardedas a means to “modernize labour markets and empower people by developing their skills troughout the lifecycle with a view to increase labour market participation and better match labour supply and demand.”(European Commission, 2010b, p.6).

Research on the economic impact of immigration shows that while immigrants contribute to public finances and the economy of the host country, they also generate more competition, especially among the low skilled, decreasing wages in lower paid jobs. Much empirical research has, however, failed to find a significant negative impact of immigration on wages in the host country.

Statistics based on population registers are probably one of the most reliable data sources on migration. Although EU citizens have the right to free movement without being subject to any obligationto register in another EU country, they nevertheless have a strong incentive to register with the authorities in the destination countries (to secure access to the health and welfare system, for exemple) if they intend to stay for a long period of time. At the same time, local or national authorities gathering this data have an interest in maintaining and updating the data. Even though data based on residency registrations and cancellations are a useful source of information, there are some limitations to these too. These statistics do not include the share of foreing-born population that does not register. Also, many foreigners leave the country without cancelling their household registration. This means that they appear officially in the statistics as still resident in the country even after depature.

2.3 Recent trends in international migration in 2015-2016

The past 10 years have seen a steady increase in the number of international migrants across the globe, now totaling, 214 million people. Ahead of the upcoming Commission on Population and Development, which is set to focus on new trends in migration, John Wilmoth, Director of DESA’s Population Divison, highlighted the issues at hand as well as other demographic trends affecting development beyond 2015.

There was a large increase in the number of migrants who mive from less to more developed countries, in many of the more developed countries, the per cent of the population that is foreign born has increased very significantly in recent decades.

Effective labour market policies inclusive of labour migration issues are complex and require reliable quantitative and qualitative data. But labour migration statistics are needed, not only for informing policy debates at the national, regional and international levels, but also for formulating, implementing and evaluating labour migration policies which address the real effects of migration on labour markets and national development.

Comprehensive and comparable official nationale statistics as well as reliable estimates at the regional and global levels of the economically active migrant remains difficult to capture. Access to essential age and sex-disaggregated data, data on labour market needs, occupations and skills, working conditions and wages, and the social protection of migrants remain very fragmented and unreliable at national, regional and international levels.

The number of international migrants- persons living in a country other than where they were born- reached 244 million in 2015 for the world as a hole, an increase of 71 million, or 41 per cent, compared to 2000. Nearly two thirds of all international migrants live in Europe (76 million) or Asia (75 million), Latin America and the Caribben (9 million) and Oceania (8 million).

Between 2000 and 2015, Asia added more international migrants than any other major area of the world. Asia gained 26 million international migrants during this period, or 1,7 million additional migrants per annum. Europe added the second largest number of international migrants between 2000 and 2015 (20 million, 1,3 million per year) followed by Northern America and Africa.

Figure 3: International migration 2000 and 2015 (Millions)

Source: www.unpopulation.org

So, as you see in this chart the first region in the world that has the biggest international migration rise in 2015, is Europe with almost 45 million migrants. The smallest international migration in 2015 is Africa, with 27,4 million migrants.

2.3.1. 10 migration trends to look out for 2016

18th December was International Migrants Day, and a good day to reflect on just how dramatic 2015 has been for migration. Historic levels of displacement, thousands of deaths in transit and unfolding European asylum crisis have combined with rising xenophobia, growing concerns about migration and security, and frozen policy-making.

Can things get any worse-or better- next year? Here are 10 predictions on migration in 2016, written by Khalid Koser, Executive Director, Interim Secretariat of the Global Community Engagement and Resillience Fund (GCERF).

Europe’s asylum crisis will get worse. There may not be many people left in Syria who want to escape, but 3 million outside the country will not be going home any time soon, and neither does the majority want to stay in Jordan, Leabanon or Turky. Expect three million asylum seekers to enter Europe next year- double the number this year- and most of theme to head for Germany and Sweden.

The number of refugees worldwide will rise to yet new historiclevels. The Syrian crisis will be compounded by new displacement from Afghanistan, Central African Republic, Libya and Yemen- and these are only the countries that are easy to predict. Climate change won’t yet displace significant numbers. The majority of refugees will continue to live in the world’s poorer countries.

Migrants will send home more money than ever before. The continued growth of international migration, a structural reliance on migrant labour, and the continued recovery of the global economy, will combine to fuel migrant transfers or remittances of a least 500 billion dollars. As a result migration will continue to rise on the development agenda. After significant lobbying, the potential for migration to contribute to poverty reduction has been acknowledged in the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals.

There will be more women migrants than men. Over the last 20 years the number of woman among migrants has increased worldwide, as the global demand for labour has become focused on domestic work, services, hospitality.In 2016, will compromise more than half the world’s 232 million migrants for the first time. A growing proportion of these women will migrate independently and as breadwinners for their families. A growing proportion will also be trafficked, and suffer human rights abuses.

Here are some statistics about how the number of women migrants increased in the last 15 years all over the world.

Figure 4: Percentage female among international migrants by major area, 2000 and 2015

Source: www.unpopulation.org

The global war talent will intensify. Continued retrenchement in Europe will place even greater emphasis on employing the best and brightest, but Europe will face growing completion from new skills magnets like Brazil and China. Expect ageing, conservative, and increasingly xenophobic Europe to lose out in this competition.

Migrants will be a game-charger in the US Presidential election. The extent of popular support for anti-immigration policies will be a determining factor in who wins the Republican nomination for President.

Integration failures will loom large. In particular the one-way traffic into Europe will make European policy makers look downstream to find ways to integrate new migrants more sustainably than has been the case in the past. I predict a retreat from philosophical differences between multiculturalism vs acculturation and growing consensus to focus on practice, and in particular housing, employment and education. It will take a generation before we can assess to what extent integration has succeeded.

Migration policy will continue to flounder. In Europe the EU will get no closer to consensus as member states to national interests on migration. Trapped in election cycle, kowtowed by negative media coverage, and singularly lacking in political leadership, migration policy will continue to be short-term, reactive and ineffective.

A migrant will perpetrate a terrorist attack. This is almost inevitablegiven the current scale of migration from the Middle East and North Africa, and the extending reach of Islamic State. This will be the moment the resolve of states and international community will be tested. Will they perceive the risks of migration to now outweigh its dividends, and if so what will happen: suspend Schengen in Europe? Reduce refugee resettlement quotas? Introduce immigrant profiling?

You will have reasons to thank a migrant. A migrant health worker will care for you and your relatives, a migrant teacher will help educate and care for your children, you will depend on tehnology developed by a migrant entrepreneur, migrants will do jobs that you are unwilling to allowing you to live comfortably; you will continue to enjoy migrant food, culture and music.

2.4. Migrant integration statistics

Migrants play an important role in the labour markets and economies of the countries they settle in. There are presented European Union statistics on the employment of migrants as part of monitoring their integration and assessing their situation in the labour market.

The gap in labor migration market participation at European level between non-european citizen migrants and both the national population and mobile EU citizens has further increased in 2015.

The labor market participation measuredas the activity rate, represrnts economically active people as a percentage of the total population.

The activity rate of European Union population varies significantly according to citizenship.

Figure 5&6 : Evolution of activity rates of the population by groups of country of citizenship in 2008- 2015

Source:Eurostat

In 2015, the activity rate of non-european citizens amounted to 69,8% (a decrease compared with 70,5% in 2014). There is an opposite trend amongst mobile European citizens, and the activity rate increased from 81,3% in 2014 to 81,6 in 2015.

Activity rates for nationals were higher than for foreing citizens in the Netherlands (82,2%) and Denmark (82,1%). In these EU Member Staes, activity rates for non-european citizens ranged from medium to low. On the other hand, in the Czech Republic and Ireland, the activity rate of foreing citizens (80,6% and 73,3% respectively)

Migration has become an increasingly important phenomenon for European societies. Patterns of migration flows can change greatly over time, with the size and composition of migrant populations reflecting patterns of migration flows.

In the next figure is the percentage of the number of immigrants in 2015, as you see the biggest percentage is in Bulgaria, followed by Hungary and Italy.

Figure 7: Percentage of the number of immigrants in 2015

Source:Eurostat

A total of 3,4 million people immigrated to one of the EU Member States during 2015, while at least 2,8 million emigrants were reported to have left an EU Member State.

Among these 3,4 million immigrants during 2015 there were an estimated 1,4 million citizens of non-member countries, 1,2 million people with citizenship of a different EU States Member from the one to which they immigrated, around 830 thoushand people who migrated to an European State of which they had the citizenship (for exemple returning nationals or nationals born abroad), and around 6,1 thousand stateless people.

There were 33,5 million people born outside of Europe , while there were 17,9 million persons who had born in a different in a different European State from the one where they were resident.

As you can see in the figure 8, only in Ireland, Hungary, Slovakia, Luxembourg and Cyprus was the number of persons born in another EU Member States higher than the number born outside of Europe.

Figure 8: Immigration by country of birth in 2015

Source: Eurostat

Figure 9: Foreign born population by countries in 2015

Source: Eurostat

The highest number of born persons in another European State is registreted in Germany, 3838 thousands or 4,8 % of the population; followed by United Kigdom (2806 thousands), France (2167 thousands) and Spain (2027 thousands).

Figure 10: Immigrants by sex in the main countries of Europe by percentange in 2015

Source: Eurostat

Emigration is particularly difficult to measure, it is harder to count people leaving a country than thouse arriving.

In figure 10, there are showed the percentange of immigrants by sex in 2015. In United Kingdom, the percentange in 50% male, 50% female; in Spain and France the percentage of female immigrant is bigger than the male immigrant.

Figure 11: Persons having acquired the citizenshipof the reporting countries in 2015

Source: Eurostat

The number of people acquiring the citizenship of an EU member State in 2015 was 984,8 thousand, corresponding to a 20% increased by 2014.

Spain had the highest number of persons acquiring citizenship in 2015, at 225,8 thousand. The next highest levels of acquisition of citizenship were in the United Kigdom (207,5 thousand), Germany (115,1 thousand), Italy (100,7 thousand) and France (97,3 thousand).

Citizens of Europe have freedom to travel and freedom of movement within Europe’s internal borders.Migration policies within the EU in relation to citizens of non-member countries are increasingly concerned with attracting a particular migrant profile, often in an attempt to alleviate specific skills shortages.

Alternatively, employers can make the selection so that migrants already have a job at their arrival.

Besides policies to encourage labour recruitment, immigration policy is often focused on two areas: preventing unauthorized migration and illegal employment of migrants who aren’t permitted to work, and promoting the integration of immigrants into society.

Conclusions

Migration is a global phenomenon. As discussed earlier people migrate to another country for a number of reasons of which the most important of them are the economic and political ones.

From the earlier explanation it is evident that migration has positive and negative effects, both on the host, native or transit counties. In a globalised world, the number of migrants is increasing.

Bibliography

International Migration, Remittances, and Brain Drain (Trade and Development), World Bank Publications (2006), pages 21, 22

The Price of Rights-Regulating International Labor Migration, Martin Ruhs, Princeton University Press (February 22, 2015), page 5

Lewis, 2011

Eurofound(2014), Labour migration in the EU: Recent trends and policies, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, page 10

Intra-EU labour migration: flows, effects and policy responses, Béla Galgóczi, Janine Leschke, Andrew Watt, 2011, page 17

International Labour Office, Geneva, 2010

Proverty, International Migration and Asylum (Studies in Development Economics and Policy), G. Borjas, J.Crisp, Palgrave Macmillan (March 1, 2005), pages 5-7

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_migration

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration

http://www.slideshare.net/priyesh_karne/international-labour-migration

http://www.slideshare.net/priyesh_karne/international-labour-migration

http://www.ioanenciu.ro/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=69:migratia-in-uniunea-europeana-si-libera-circulatie-a-fortei-de-munca

http://www.sferapoliticii.ro/sfera/166/art15-Saran.php

http://www.slideshare.net/priyesh_karne/international-labour-migration

http://missingmigrants.iom.int/sites/default/files/documents/Global_Migration_Trends_PDF_FinalVH_with%20References.pdf

http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/publications/populationfacts/docs/MigrationPopFacts20154.pdf

www.unpopulation.org

https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/12/10-migration-trends-to-look-out-for-in-2016/

www.eurostat.com

http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statisticsexplained/index.php/Migration_and_migrant_population_statistics