“LUCIAN BLAGA” UNIVERSITY OF SIBIU FACULTY OF LETTERS AND ARTS DEPARTMENT OF ANGLO -AMERICAN AND GERMAN STUDIES On Translating Commercial Texts -… [603593]

“LUCIAN BLAGA” UNIVERSITY OF SIBIU
FACULTY OF LETTERS AND ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF ANGLO -AMERICAN AND
GERMAN STUDIES

On Translating Commercial Texts
– Different Approaches

SCIENTIFIC ADVISOR
Assoc. Prof. DAN -ȘERBAN SAVA

CANDIDATE
ANDRIANA PALAMARCIUC

SIBIU 2018

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ….. 1
1. General Features of Business Texts ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………. 3
1.1. The Main Types of Texts in Translation ………………………….. ………………………….. ……………… 3
1.2. Different Approaches to Translation ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………….. 8
2. Peculiarities of Translating Business Texts ………………………….. ………………………….. ………….. 13
2.1. Classification of Business Terms ………………………….. ………………………….. ……………………… 13
2.2. Comparative Analysis of Machine and Human Translation ………………………….. ……………… 29
Conclusions ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. … 40
Works Cited ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. .. 42
Selected Bibliography ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………. 43
Append ices ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …. 44

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Introduction
During my studies at the “Lucian Blaga ” University of Sibiu , I tried do learn as much
as possible. I have acquired a lot of theoretical knowledge, but as all we know
“practice beats knowledge.” So I tried to find a job as a translator and I did find one in
the online community. Becoming a f reelance translator was one of the best options for
me. While translating comme rcial text from English into Romanian and vice versa , I
started to think about my dissertation project . This freelance website is a professional
language consultancy and it is specializ ed in employing of multilingual professionals,
the provision of efficie nt translation/interpreting services and corporate language
training.
There are a lot of online platform s for translators , who are looking for
multilingual people qualified in fields like sales, marketing, IT, engineering, etc. The y
provide professional s ervices; they also have the ability to select and screen potential
candidat: [anonimizat], both professionally
and personal ly. All of that will help me in my future career. From a professional point
of view, I have learned that a good transla tor needs to be informed and always seek
for knowledge. All different kinds of legal documents or just some news about
business needs tho rough background knowledge. From a personal point of view, I
have learned that to be punctual in this job is a key issue. It does not matter sometimes
how good your translation is , but if you do not present it on time; you cannot be paid.
On the first da y, I was nervous, because I did not know what to expect from
this job opportunity to work from home . I did not have work experience at the time,
but looking back I can say that thanks to my clients and many work projects that I
have been involved in, I got better and better day after day.
My duty was to translate business texts and documents. My working materials
were helpful in doing research for this topic. It gave me a lot of experience how to
translate faster and much more efficient ly.
In my opinion, the job of a translator or an interpreter is very important
nowadays. Being a good translator/interpreter means hard work. A translator works
with written materials to convey their meaning, which requires accurately recording

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the facts while retaining as much of the style and structure as possible. Unlike
translators, i nterpreters work in public places like schools, hospitals, courtrooms and
conference centers etc. Besides that, many companies need specialist s whom they can
entrust all their documents and projects. Thanks to that this job I will have a bright
future. In addition, an interpreter/translator is one of the main persons who can help
the company make great deals and build a powerful business.
The most important thing is that being a translator you must know the cultural
background and be familiar with the subject matter that you want to specialize in. For
example, I can not do my translation on business texts , without reading books and
articles on this subject, in order to be accurat e in my translation s. This practice gave
me a lot of experience from all points of view. I improved my English; I did my
research on commercial texts and t his knowledge I have gained over the past of two
years will help me write this dissertation .

The goal of my project is to identify the ways of translati ng texts in the field of
business from English into Romanian and vice versa.

The objectives of my work are the following:
 to analyze the general features of business terms;
 to name the peculiarities o f translating texts from the field of business;
 to compare the different approaches in translation, in order to make a good
translati on, and
 to compare the computerized and human made translation.
In order to complete this project I a m going to use different materials like: books on
theoretical issues in translation or scientific resources; dictionaries, both electronic
and printed; and, of course, some internet database information about my topic .

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1. General Features of Business Texts
1.1. The Main Types of Texts in Translation
After doing my research on this subject, I have noticed that in the field of business
translation there are many types of texts. There are articles, pamphlets, business
proposals , journals , etc. This made m e think how to classify these papers. Some
theoretic frameworks in the field of Translation Studies base their approach on a
textual analysis. It is worth mentioning that the criteria for establishing these text
types are essentially functional. The classi fication of a text into textual types guides
the methods and strategies of a translator while working with the paper. I have chosen
three main sources to discuss such as British, Australian and German authors.

According to BBC Teaching Resources, the mai n types of texts in translation are as
following (bbc.co.uk) :
 Persuasive texts;
 Instructive texts;
 Descriptive texts;
 Informative texts.

The Persuasive text tries to convince the reader to do something or adopt a personal
point of view , for example advertising a new product , political propaganda, job
applications , etc. These texts may use special features like:
 Use capital letters, exclamation marks in order to catch your attention;
 Use adjectives to make it sound attractive and interestin g;
 Rhetorical questions.

The Instructive text tells you what it made of or how to put it together. For example,
travel guide, manuals , cooking recipes , etc. These texts may use special features like:
 Use modal verbs “must/must not”;
 Use diagrams or pictures for better understanding;
 Use numbered or bulleted points.

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The Informative text gives you facts or information about something. For example,
newspaper article about a new business , books, website s etc. These texts may use
special features like:
 Usually avoid repetition;
 Contain facts;
 Give detailed information.

The Descriptive text tries to help you imagine or picture a person, place and things.
For example, a novel might want you to imagine a person in different situations or
just living their l ife. These texts may use special features like:
 figure of speech, especially comparison, metaphor, hyperbole;
 Employ the reader’s five senses (sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch).

Another professor from Australia established a classification of texts in translation.
He divides texts into three main types :
 Imaginative;
 Informative;
 Persuasive .

The Imaginative texts are works that primary purpose is to entertain with the help of
imaginative elements. It is created by the authors as works of imagination and
normally do not claim to give an accurate representation of real events. It is often
build up on a narrative structure, such as Exposition; Rising action; Conflicts; Falling
action; Denouement. For example imaginative texts are:
 Novels
 Poetry
 Short stories
 Plays
 Traditional tales

The language used in imaginative texts includes a lot of descriptive details, to make
the readers feel they are present in the story , often with the help of figurative
language. It is use d for compar ing something with somet hing else , again to create a

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vivid picture in the reader’s mind. For example, simile s make the comparison explicit;
a metaphor takes the comparison further, by saying that two things are actually the
same; the hyperbole with strong exaggeration creates a v ivid impression.

The Informative texts provide information as primary purpose. They include
explanations and descriptions of natural phenomena; recounts of events; instructions
and directions; rules and laws; news bulletins. They can be found in:
 School textbooks
 Scientific journals
 Newspapers
 Instruction manuals

The language used in imaginative texts typically includes factual or scientific
language. In an informative text, the intention of the writer is to present a set of facts
or explain how things are done. This type of texts have some differences in the
language structure , which depend on such factors like: why the facts are being
presented, topic, target audience. For example, a self -help book uses a different
vocabulary than a scientific book abou t business , even though the subject is
essentially the same.

The Persuasive texts usually put forward a point of view and persu ade the reader or
listener. They may include:
 advertising
 debates
 arguments
 discussions
 essays and articles

The language used in persuasive text often diffe rs from the language used for
presenting a set of facts, but it is not always so. For example, advertising a new job
position can be a factual text, when it is actually aiming to persuade people to apply
for this job . Als o, the language in these types of texts is often highly emotionally
charged. It may use terms aimed at convincing audience of importance of topic such

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as tragedy, disaster, disease. Another feature of these texts is generalizations used to
focus on a parti cular aspect of a situation that the speaker/reader wants to draw
attention to it.
Katharina Reiss, a German linguist, summarized the main charac teristics of
each text type (Reiss , 121). She divided texts into three main types:
 Expressive
 Informative
 Operative
Informative texts use to transmit the information, which is plain communication of
facts. Functional language is the dominant form of expressing thoughts or ideas. The
text is often structured on the semantic -syntactic level. Some examples of the se texts
are:
 News
 Judgements
 Arguments
 Opinions

Expressive texts are creative compositions where the author creates his topic himself
in an artistic way. The text is structured into two levels: firstly on the syntactic –
semantic level and secondly on arti stic organization level. Some examples of these
texts are :
 Novels
 Poetries
 Short stories

Operative texts appeal or persuade the reader to act in a certain way. The text is
structured into two or three levels: semantic -structural, level of persuasion and
sometimes level of artistic organization. Some examples of these texts are :
 Advertising
 Propaganda

These are some of the classification of the main types of texts. It is clear from this
presentation that the study of texts is a complex activity . A crucial point is that we

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cannot determine the full meaning of texts , if we ignore what the writer has in mind.
We have to determine underline purpose of the text and this includes the audience that
is aimed at, the goal that writer is trying to achieve through a text. Without no doubt
there are more classification of text types but these are the main ones and broadly
known.

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1.2. Different Approaches to Translation

The procedure of translating is operational; usually it begins with choosing a method
of approach. They can be both theoretical and practical approaches. They cannot be
separated ; a good translator cannot pick only one aspect of it. In order to make a good
translation, we can choose from two major a pproac hes in translation:
 Machine translation;
 Human translation.

Firstly, I would like to talk about Human Translation . For this reason I will
choose different works of some professors that had written book about this subject.
According to Moldovan prof essor, Tatiana Podoliuc, theories on human translation
fall into three main groups (Podoliuc, 36):
 Transformational Approach;
 Denotative Approach;
 Communicational Approach.

The Transformational Approach deals with changing or transforming an
object of the source language into the target language. Transformation starts at the
syntactic level , when there is a substitution or change in word order. For this
approach, we have to distinguish three levels of su bstitution, which are as follow s:
 morphological equivalents (both word -building and word -changing of the
target language are substituted for those of the source language);
 lexical equivalents (words from the target language are substituted for those
from the source language);
 Syntactical equivalencies (syntactic structures of the target language are
substituted for those of the source language).
The Denotive Approach is not just a simple substitution but has of the
following mental operations: (1) transl ator reads any message in the source language;
(2) translator finds concepts that correspond to a certain message; (3) translator
formulates a message in the target language relevant to the source language. It should
be mention ed that, according to this ap proach during the translation process , we deal
with similar word forms of the target language.

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The Communicational Approach is an act of sending and receiving some
information, which is known as message. This approach of translation was suggested
by O. Kade, mentioned in Valentina Daineko’s Basic Translation Theory (Daineko ,
36). It is based on terms of communication and thesaurus. O. Kade said that the
communicational theory of translation is the process of translation , as an act of special
bilingual communication , in which the translator acts as an intermediary, by making it
easier to understand a message sent in another language.

A different professor , Jeremy Munday , speaks of five main approaches :
 Word -for-word translation;
 Literal translation;
 Free translation;
 Semantic translation;
 Communicative translation (Munday, 72).

The Word -for-word translation tries to match the individual words of the
source language as closely as possible. It is well -known as a bad translation,
especially for language s with different origins like English and Chinese. Word -for-
word translation is not recognized as mature translation practice because it does not
have structural mismatches like word order or modification differences bet ween
languages.
The Literal translation is transparent to the original text, in order to see as
directly as possible the structure and meaning of the original. It is probably the oldest
type of translation approach. It contains the conveyance of denotativ e meaning of
phrases and sentences in a text from one language to another. Literal translation keeps
the original forms as much as possible, even if those forms are not the most natural
ones to preserve. Usually , this approach of translation is unclear, un natural and
sometimes makes little sense in the target language.
The Free translation tries to preserve the meaning of the original but uses
usual forms of the target language, including word order and syntax, in a way that the
translation is easy to unde rstand in the target language. This translation approach is a
kind of idiomatic translation. Texts are translated based on their meaning not on their
structure. Interpretation and paraphrasing are the key to understand and translate it
into the target language. This kind of translation may bring additional information that

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is not included in the source text. Anyway, it is not totally considered accept able and
normal, usually it i s used to bring humor and special response from the target
language.
The Semantic translation is more literal, taking in consideration the meaning
and form of the ori ginal text. It has high status and is used for the translation of legal
documents, religious books, literature , etc. Here no changes of information are
possible. The semantic approach resorts to presumption of different degrees of
equivalence between source text and target text in terms of meaning. The
translator/interpreter tries to give the closest possible equiva lent in the target
language.
The Communicative translation is freer and gives preference to the
effectiveness to tell a message. In general, it focuses on factors such as naturalness
and readability and will be used mainly in the translation of ‘ pragmatic texts .’ These
texts are tourist brochures, advertisement, product descriptions , etc. This translation
approach attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original text in such a
way that both language and content are readily acceptable and com prehensible.
In the paragraph above, I have mentioned the human translation, which
Newmark Peter speaks about in his book (Newmark, 45). Next I would like to talk
about Machine Translation and its different approaches to translation. Before I begin
to en umerate all the types, I may start from its history. Machine translation is a
software that automatically translates texts from one language into another. The idea
for Machine Translation first came in mind during the Second World War when the
American and British cryptographers tried to break the Germans’ Enigma Code.
Another reason to build this machine, came after the war, when the Russians could
not keep up with the latest scientific developments and publications. There were too
many documents to review and to translate. Therefore, a British scientist, Warren
Weaver , decided to find a mechanical solution to decode it. It was not until 1988,
when engineers form the IBM Company presented a more practical way to do it.
With people coming from all corners of the world and speak ing different
languages, there is a great need to overcome language barriers. In our everyday life,
we need quick translations in order to make each and every one understand what the
other person says. Translation machines have been d eveloped especially to translate
and ease the process of communication (dictionarybarn.com).

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Machine translation is a software that automatically translates texts from one
language into another. There are three methods of translation machines, such as:
 Direct approach;
 Transfer approach;
 Interlingual approach.
The most basic versions of these machines simply translate single words from one
language to another. In this direct approach words are translated directly without
passing through an intermediate language that may help a little bit. The direct
translators do not take context, meaning and domain into account, in order to do a
good translation.
In the Transfer -Based Machine Translation, the source language is modified
into a summary, a less language -specific version. This summary is based on the
linguistic rules of both the source and target language. The source language is first
translated into an intermediate summary language version. And from there the
sentences in the target language are shown.
The advanced machines are able to undertake more difficult translations. They
support the use of idioms, and they can easily recognize phrases , as well. With the use
of analytic software , the machine interprets the meaning of the source text, constructs
an intermediate summary language and then re -interprets the meaning in the required
language. It will not only process words from the language of the speaker and convert
those to the language of the listener. Therefore , the translator must have enough
knowled ge of the source language to understand and examine all the features of the
text. And the translator must be fluent in the target language in order to convey the
proper message. On top of that, the translator must also understand the culture and
domain of the people speaking the language.
The third approach is the Interlingual Machine Translation . In this method,
the text in the source language is changed into an Interlingua . This Interlingua is a
summar ized, abstract language edition that is able to descr ibe all the characteristics of
all supported languages, instead of simply translating from one SL into another TL.
There are different approaches with regard to the analytics employed in the process of
chang ing the source language into the intermediate language construct and ,
consequently , into the target language.
There are grammatical and statistical methods . It is very difficult to find
enough data of the right kind to support the particular method. The grammar method

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requires a person who is qualified in the demanded languages to set up the grammar
that the machine will use . For the statistical method, many reference documents in all
languages are required to learn the translation statistics.
Statistics are extremely important when words have more than one meaning.
When dealing with these kind of words, we should select the meaning of the word that
is best suitable in that particular phrase. In the past , the machine could not make a
difference b etween the two meanings of a word, but this has changed with the modern
translation machines. There has been much progress in letting machines guess the best
meaning based on statistics. This guesswork is known as the shallow approach to
translation.
In a deep approach, a human translator would for example place a couple of
phone calls to the writers of the text to make sure he understood exactly what was
meant. In deep transfer machine translation, Artificial Intelligence is used to do this
kind of re search. Deep approaches are currently developed to the same extent what is
being done in the field of Artificial Intelligence and , maybe , in the future we will see
an upgrade of machine translation.
When it has to choose between different possible transla tions, a machine
translator can make guesses at the context. For example, in a sentence that is written
about both meat and spirit, the mac hine might guess that the word spirit s is actually
alcohol. The problem with machine translation is tha t a machine is only a machine. It
matches comp onents and follows some rules. It does not actually know what the talk
is about in the texts. Machine Translation definitely has its uses:
 As tools for reading or general comprehension
 As dictionaries, to look up a specific words.

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2. Peculiarities of Translating Business Texts
2.1. Classification of Business Terms

Classification is a method of organizing or groupi ng concepts in a systematic way,
according to common properties, qualities or attributes. There is usually a system of
classification that can sometimes be used to name objects or places in a very precise
way (britannica.com). There are many ways to classify business terms – for example,
by economic activity, commercial transactions, etc. Classification systems are a very
important tool for indexing, searching and organizing collections, especially for
management and documentation of commercial transactions, for study, research,
commerce , for industry development, and for media engagement (wikipedia.org).
In my project I included two classifications of Business Terms. The first one is
structural classification and the second is thematic classification .

A. Structural Classification of Business Terms
In order to do this classification of terms, we should know what kind of terms take
part in it. My classification includes four groups. In the following , we will discuss
each of them:

 One member terms
This group includes 41 terms. Here are some examples of terms:
 Shares – noun , in Romanian it is Acțiuni , for example:
 Member States shall not take into account voting rights or shares which
investment firms or credit institutions may hold . – Statele membre nu țin
seama de drepturile de vot sau acțiunile pe care le pot deține societăți de
investiții sau de instituții de credit .

 Driver – noun, in Romanian it is Factor cheie , for example:
 My boss believes that the increased tax benefits for rene wable energy is the
main driver for the growth of our division that sells solar panels . – Șeful meu
consideră că avantajele fiscale sporite pentru energia din surse regenerabile
reprezintă factorul cheie al creșterii diviziunii noastre care vinde panouri
solare .

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 Interim – noun, in Romanian it is temporar/perioadă intermediară , for
example:
 We cannot decide on the contract until we receive the additional documents,
so in the interim we will continue assessing our financial position . – Nu putem
decide asupra contractului până când nu primim documentele suplimentare,
deci temporar vom continua să ne evaluăm poziția financiară.

 Oligopoly – noun, in Romanian it is Oligopol , for example:
 You should try and figure out any way you can to bre ak in to an oligopoly and
become one of the major players. – Ar trebui să încercați și să vă dați seama
cum puteți intra într -un oligopol și să deven ți unul dintre jucătorii principali .

 Greenback – noun, in Romanian it is (bancnota de un) dolar , for example:
 She threw a few greenbacks on the counter to pay for the drinks – Ea a
aruncat câțiva dolari pe tejghea pentru a plăti băuturile

 Two member terms
100%One member terms
Nouns

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This group includes 56 terms, which makes it the biggest one. Here are some
examples of different word combinations:

 Asset stripping – N1 + V2, in Romanian it is Dezmembrarea Activelor – N2' +
N1', for example:
 What is crucial for us once again is the fact that the asset stripping of
companies by private equity funds is not prevented effectively . – Încă o dată,
ceea ce este crucial pentru noi este faptul că dezmembrarea activelor
societăților de către fondurile de capital privat nu este împiedicată în mod
eficace.

 Balance Sheet – N1 + N 2, in Romanian it is Bilanț – N1' for example:
 Taxes payable by beneficiaries are deducted from the gross liability to arrive
at the net liability to be included on the Commission balance sheet with
regards to these future payments . – Impozitele de plătit de către beneficiari
sunt deduse din pasivul brut pentru a ajunge la un pasiv net care să fie inclus
în bilanțul Comisiei cu privire la aceste plăți viitoare .

 Bull Market – N1 + N 2, in Romanian it is Piață (bursieră) Ascendentă – N2' +
Adj 1', for example:
 When we sold shares in our company, I made a lot of money when the stock
went up as part of an overall bull market . – Când am vândut acțiuni în
compania noastră, am făcut o mulțime de bani atunci când bursa de valori a
urcat ca parte a unei pieți ascendente .

 Flexible Mortgage – Adj 1 + N 2, in Romanian it is Credite Ipotecare Flexibile
– N2' + N'3 + Adj 1' , for example:
 Not surprisingly, flexible mortgages come with higher interest rates than
standard home loans – Fără îndoială, creditele ipotecare flexibile au dobanzi
mai mari decat imprumuturile standard pentru locuinte .

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 Three member terms
There are just 45 terms in this group that is classified the third after the second group.
Here you can see a few examples:
 Gross Domestic Product – Adj 1 + Adj 2 + N 3, in Romanian it is Produsul
Intern Brut – N3' + Adj 2' + N 1', for example:
 The Council examined a communication from the Commission assessing
action taken by Latvia and Hungary, and another assessing action taken by
Poland, in order to bring their government deficits below 3% of gross
domestic product (GDP) , the reference value s et by the EU treaty . – Consiliul
a examinat o comunicare din partea Comisiei, care evaluează măsurile luate
de Letonia și Ungaria, și o alta care evaluează măsurile luate de Polonia
pentru a -și aduce deficitele publice sub nivelul de 3% din produsul intern brut
(PIB) , care este valoarea de referință stabilită de Tratatul UE .

 Office for National Statistics – N1 + conj + N 2 + N 3, in Romanian it is
Institutul Național de Statistică – N1' + N 2' + conj + N 3', for example:
 One-off and other temporary measures taken from the Commission services'
autumn 2006 forecast and based on information provided by the Office for
National Statistics (0,3 % of GDP in 2005/06) . – Măsuri de derogare și alte
măsuri temporare preluate din prev iziunile serviciilor Comisiei din toamna 24%
59%1%3% 8%3%2%Two member terms
N+N
Adj+N
N+Adj
N+V
V+N
Adj+V
V+Adj

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anului 2006 și bazate pe informațiile furnizate de Institutul Național de
Statistică (0,3 % din PIB în 2005/2006).

 Value Added Tax – N1 + Adj 2 + N 3, in Romanian it is Taxei pe Valoarea
Adăugată – N3 + prep + N1 + N 2 , for example:
 The Council adopted, in accordance with a political agreement reached at its
meeting on 10 March, a decision extending until 30 April 2011 a derogation
granted to the United Kingdom as regards the payment of value added tax
(VAT) on ce rtain high -value electronic goods. – În conformitate cu un acord
politic realizat în cadrul reuniunii sale din 10 martie, Consiliul a adoptat o
decizie de prelungire până la 30 aprilie 2011 a derogării acordate Regatului
Unit în privința plății taxei pe va loare adăugată (TVA) pentru anumite bunuri
electronice de valoare ridicată. .

 Four member terms
There are just 11 terms in this group that is classified the fourth after the third group.
Here you can see a few examples:
 Organisation for Economic Cooperat ion and Development – N1 +conj + N2 +
N3 +conj + N4, in Romanian it is Organizația pentru Cooperare și Dezvoltare
Economică – N1' + conj + N3' + conj + N 4' + N 2', for example:
 Any document submitted as evidence under point 4 that was issued by a
government outside the European Economic Area or the Organisation for 6%
37%
5%6%15%12%19%Three Member Terms
Adj+V+S
Adj+N+N
Adj+Adj+N
N+V+N
N+N+V
N+N+N
Adj+N+V

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Economic Cooperation and Development must be certified as authentic by a
notary public. – Orice document transmis ca dovadă în temeiul punctului 4
care a fost eliberat de o autoritate din afara Spațiului Economic European sau
a Organizației pentru Cooperare și Dezvoltare Economică trebuie legalizat de
un notar public.

 Final Salary Pension Scheme – Adj 1 + N 2 + N 3 + N 4, in Romanian it is
Sisteme de Pensie Bazate pe Ultimul Salariu – N4' + prep + N3' + V' + prep +
Adj 1' + N 2' , for example:
 They were members of final salary pension schemes funded by ASW . – Aceștia
erau afiliați la sisteme de pensie bazate pe ultimul salariu finanțat de ASW.

 European Bank for Reconstruction and Development – Adj 1 + N 2 + conj + N3
+ conj + N4, in Romanian it is Banca Europeană pentru Reconstrucție și
Dezvoltare – N2' + Adj 1' + conj + N 3' + conj + N 4', for example:
 A recent study carried out for the European Parliament with regard to
instruments cofinanced with the European Investment Bank (EIB) and the
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) confirmed that
there “are in fact few, if any, concerns in a formal sense in terms of budgetary
liability. – Un studiu realizat recent de Parlamentul European cu privire la
instrumentele cofinanțate împreună cu Banca Europeană de Investiții (BEI) ș i
cu Banca Europeană pentru Reconstrucție și Dezvoltare (BERD) a confirmat
că „există puține îngrijorări formale, sau chiar deloc, în ceea ce privește
responsabilitatea bugetară.

19

B. Thematic Classification of Business Terms
Business activities can be classi fied into two categories such as: (a) Industry and
Commerce. Industry involves production of goods and services whereas commerce is
concerned with the distribution of go ods and services to the people. The goods
produced are used by other enterprises as raw materials for further production, so they
are called producers goods . When goods are finally used by consumers they are
known as consumers goods . The examples of such goods are clothes, bread, groceries,
etc.

Table 1: Classification of Business Activities

There are two broad categories of business activities: one called industry that is
concerned with the production of goods and services, and another called commerce ,
dealing with the exchange or distribution of the goods .
 Industry 9%
44%29%18%Four Member Terms
N+N+V+N
Adj+N+N+N
N+Adj+N+N
N+V+N+N
Business
Industry Commerce

20

Industry is a branch of business which deals with the production of goods and services
by using the processes of extraction, conversion, processing, or fabrication of
products for people’s needs.
The goods and services produced by an industry may be used either by fi nal
consumer, which is calle d, consumer goods or by businessmen for further production,
called producers’ goods . In the following section the discussion is divided into two
parts: (a) types of industry and (b) goods and services produced by the industry.

1. Primary Industries
The production of primary industries includes all kinds of work concerned with the
extraction of the fruits of the earth or sea, that is, the extractive occupations. In this
group, we can find different types of farming or similar occ upations: the many
branches of agriculture, all types of mining and quarrying; forestry; fishing, etc.
Primary industries actually refer to the process es of ‘extraction’ for production.
Primary industries may be: (a) wasting process (non -replenishable lik e iron ore
mines), and (b) non -wasting process. Those (like mining, which is non -replenishable)
which use up resources in the c ourse of extraction are called wasting industries . When
minerals are taken from the Earth they are gone forever and can not be rep laced at all.
This is not the case with vegetable and animal resources or energy power, which if
properly used, can produce indefinite amount s of results. Such primary industries are
called non-wasting or replenishable industries .

2. Manufacturing Industries
Etymologically, the word manufacturing means making something by hand. This
original meaning has changed over the years and now it means using mechanical or
technical devices to create something useful for human beings . Manufacturing usually
takes place in factories, plants, or other places designed for this purpose, and involve
division of work into specialized jobs performed by skilled groups of workers.
Manufacturing may include all kinds of work that it have been done in an
organization using land, labor , and capital to make products from raw materials and
semi -manufactured goods. These manufacturing in dustries employ the process of
conversion for productio n.

21

2.1. Types of Manufacturing Industries
Manufacturing industries are classified on the basis of (a) size of the investment ,
which is called: heavy and light industries; (b) scale of operations which is called
small, med ium, and large -scale industries; (c) type of product manufactured which
are textile, steel, oil, sugar i ndustries, (d) nature of operations like: assembly line or
otherwise , etc. Although these classi fication systems are widely used, they
nevertheless do not convey the common characteristics of the basic processes
involved in manufacturing.

Table 2: Human A ctivities and Divisions of Business

It is suggested to follow the classification system that show s the basic
processes of manufacturing. In all the manufacturing industries around the world , one
or a combi nation of the following processes is used: (a) analytic al, (b) synthetic, (c)
conditioning, or (d) assembly.
Depending on the process es used, the industry is given the same name
accordingly , i.e. analytical industry uses analytic al process es and synthetic industry
uses synthetic processes in manufacturing, etc.
These basic manufacturing industries are further explained below:

22

 Anal ytical manufacturing industries
Analytical industries are those which use so-called analytical processes in the
production of different goods. These processes break a primary raw material into two
or more products. In the process of breaking these materials , like oil refining, there
may be one useful product and another one called, waste residue. In others, like
petroleum refining, it can be many useful products, such as high and low test gasoline,
kerosene, diesel oil, fuel oil, grease, medicinal material, insecticides, etc.
a) Synthetic manufacturing i ndustries
Synthetic industries are called those industries which employ synthetic processe s in
the production of goods and materials . A synthetic process combines two or more raw
materials together to form one product that is the finished product . Soap making is a
good example of synthetic process; soap is made by boiling sodium hydroxide with a
fat, oil, and adding perfumes.
b) Condit ioning manufacturing industries
Conditioning industries are those which employ so called conditioning processes in
the production of goods for the people . A conditioning process involves different
procedures, such as rolling, casing, bending, drawing, forging, molding, aging,
seasoning, dying, or smoking.
A few good examples of conditioning manufacturing industries are: rolling
mills, where steel shapes are made ; wire factories, where metal rods are s tretched and
drawn through dies ; pottery and brick yards, where clay is used; and lumber mills,
where logs are sawed.
c) Asse mbling manufacturing industries
Assem bling industries use assembly processes in the production of goods. An
assembly process simply puts together t he various component s or finished products ,
to turn out new useful products , for the clients . A few examples of such industries are:
automobile industr ies, television industr ies, IT industry, etc.

3. Construction Industries
Construction, although resembling manufacturing in some ways, differs sufficiently to
be considered a different separate industry. It include s fabrication on a large scale;
construction is not made in factories, but on the site , where the structure or buil ding
will remain there . People who work in the construction industry are usually called
contractors.

23

Construction includes making new buildings and the demolition of old ones,
as well as the building of bridges, road s, railways, streets, canals, tunnels, sewers and
sewage -disposal plants, water -supply systems , etc. This process does not include
shipbuilding, locomotives, et c. Construction industries employ the process of
fabrication for production of goods .

4. Se rvice Industries
Before talk ing about the service industry, it is worth mentioning that the three type s of
industries described above: primary, manufacturing, and construction; produce
products that are tangible or having a physical form and which can be stored for
future consumption for people .
Nevertheless , a service industry produces goods that are intangible, which do
not have any physical form, and therefore, cannot be stored for future consumption
for people. T hese intangible goods also have a utility for clients; these goods have
“want -satisfying” attributes .
Some e xamples of service industries could be: banking and financial
institutions, advertising and media agencies, transportation and communication
companies, insurance companies, hotels and motel s, dyers and cleaners, etc.

4.1.Production of Goods and Services for People
As we have explained in the above paragraphs, production can be in the form of either
goods or services. When all the goods and services available are considered more
closely, they can fit into certain large class es. It is very important to understand these
large classes in order to evaluate the correct nature of production activities.
Production of Goods for Clients
Goods produced or available by the industries can be broadly divided into three
categories: (a) primary goods, (b) semi -manufactured goods, and (c) manufactured
goods.
a) Primary goods : These kinds of goods are p rovided by the primary industry like,
natural sources and include products such as, wheat, cotton, iron -ore, coal, fish, meat,
wooden etc.

24

b) Semi -manufactured goods : These are processed goods but can not be used by the
ultimate client or industrial user unless they pass through further manufacturing
processes. For example , iron -ore is a primary product. When it passes through some
processes i t gets converted into pig -iron, which is a semi -finished product. Pig -iron
has to go further processes before it can be develope d into usable steel.

c) Manufactured goods : In this category are list ed all those finished products that can
be usefully used b y ultimate c lients and industrial users, for example, cloth, sugar,
machines, shoes etc.
Manufactured goods can be divided into two types: (1) consumer goods and
(2) capital or industrial goods . Also c onsumer and capital goods can be (i) durable
and (ii) non­durable goods. These types are described below:

(1) The consumer goods are those products and services purchased by the ultimate
client for their personal use. Most of the products we buy, such as toothpaste, soaps,
sugar, fans, medicine , refrigerator s, cars, television, shoes and cloth es are consumer
goods.
Some of the consumer goods like cars, refrigerator s, tvs, computers are such
whose benefits can be gained over a long period of time, and although every time they
are used by clients they will come to a little bit nearer to the end of their, useful time,
their existence will continue during many operations. Therefore , they are called
durable consumer goods. Many articles, however, cannot be used over and over again,
and they will be considerably used up in the actual moment of use by the possessor.
Therefore hey are called non-durable consumer goods . Within this category are listed
products like sugar and medicine.
(2) Capital or industrial goods are produ cts purchased to be used, direc tly or
indirectly, in the production of other goods for resale or business . For example ,
machines, tools, oil are capital goods. Some of the capital goods can be durable like
machines and tools, and some non-durable , like the oil that lubricates machines.
4.2. Production of Services
These s ervices can be classified into two kinds of services, which are:
 commercial services ;
 direct services .

25

Commercial services are made to assist the functioning of industrial and commercial
action s for the people . They also include the work of financial and insurance
organizations , transport and advertising agencies. All of these services are very
important .
Direct services , as their name suggest s, are rendered direct ly to the consumer
for the change of a need. For example, the services of decorators, dyers and cleaners,
etc. In this context, it may be obvious that professio nal services like: doctors’,
lawyers’ services do not belong in this ambit of business, that’s why , they are not
included here.

Table 3: Classi fication of Goods and Services

2. Commerce
The business of producing a commodity is not complete until it has reached the
consumer or the client . In order to give these commodities to clients certain services
of a helping nature like payments, transportation, ba nking, insurance, etc. are very
important (yourarticlelibrary.com).
Trade + Aids to Trad e = Commerce
Trade System

26

Trade usually refers to the sale, or exchange of goods, b ut it excludes helping
functions like transportation, banking, insurance, warehousing, payments , etc., which
are all together commerce. There are three main aspects of trade:
 home ;
 foreign ;
 entrepot trade /trading post .
When exchange of items takes place within the country, it is called home trade , but
when it is done outside national boundaries, it is called foreign trade . Entrepot or
trading post involves the import of foreign goods or item with a view to re -exporting
them and making a profi t in the process along the way .
The bases for manag ing the first ones: home and foreign trade are totally
different , home trade can be manag ed on wholesale (sale of goods in larger quantities )
or retail basis (providing goods to the clients in small quantities).
Because home trade is conducted within the bounds of a nation, payments for
such trade are made in national currency directly with cash money or through the
national banking system that is in that country , and the internal transport ation system
is used for the exchange of goods for different clients .
But international trade, on the other side, may be managed in the form of
import, that means, buying goods from abroad for domestic and special use, or export
trade, that means, selling home personal goods for foreign use. Because foreign trade
crosses national boundaries of a country , money for such trade are converted into the
currency of the other country and means of international transportation have to be
used in order to meet the requirements .

Aids to Trade System
The other element of commerce , which is very important, is aids to trade or
auxiliaries help in the ways of trade and include five important sectors . They are as
following:
 banking ;
 communications and transportation ;
 warehousing ;
 insurance ;

27

 advertising.
Banking system provides safe, well-organized, efficient, and convenient
methods of payment for goods ’ of people. It does not matter if it’s home trade or
foreign transactions . Bank services a re also widely used for financing, foreign
exchange, investments, status enquiries, and many other aids to trade.
Communications and transportation of goods are the next auxiliary services.
The purpose of communications is to convey oral and written messages
(information /data ) from one businessman to another in order to facilitate a process .
In current business, the conservation of an efficient flow of information greatly
simplifies the conduct of trade. Of similar significance is the part of transportation
that helps to ease trade by providing the service of movement of goods and people or
clients from one place to another.
A businessman can trust a number of ways of transportation — rail, road,
water, and air transportation. Through a good decision, the many goods of the
contemporary commerce must be made available to the user — an operation
demanding fast, efficient and fairly cheap transport services listed above . Some times,
produces must necessarily be stored for long periods of time, and it is usual to benefit
from warehousing facilities .
Insurance has a permanent and valuable place as an auxiliary of commerce.
Businessmen come across many risks, and while they must tolerate some of them
such as: risks arising out of changes in deman d, technology, outbreak of war, etc. A
huge variety of them can be protected by insurance policies. The growth of the
opportunity of insurance has been a major factor in the development of trade.
Advertising makes its claim to be regarded as an auxiliary of commerce. It
may seem at first that advertising cannot be regarded as essential to trade in the way
the other auxiliary services are, and it is true that we can imagine a considerable huge
amount of trade taking place without advertising. But, in recen t years, advertising has
become a large and flourishing industry.

Interrela tionship of Business Activities
Industry, trade, and aids to trade are thoroughly related to each other . As such, they
affect and are affected by each other. Each element of business has to depend upon
the other for the realization of its objectives. Take the example of industry and

28

commerce. The first one, i ndustry is concerned with the production of goods and
services, and the second one, commerce helps in the distributi on of these products.
That means both of them are interdependent.
Besides from providing the service of distribution to industry, commerce also
helps industry in taking decisions on important matters like what to produce, when to
produce, and for whom to produce some goods for its clients .
Commerce is able to provide this service to industry because of its
understandin g of the market si tuation, which it gets through marketing research .
Trade, industry, and commerce are also closely connected to each other. Trade deals
with the buying and selling of goods, offers support to industry and keeps a smooth
flow of commerce work process . It is the basis of commerce as all business activities
circle around transfer or exchange. It provides the good foundation upon which the
structure of commerce has been develop ed. This state of inter relation is shown in the
table below.

Table 4: Interrelationship between industry, commerce and trade

29

2.2. Comparative Analysis of Machine and Human Translation

The procedure of translating is operational; we may choose to translate with the help
of machines or with the help of books. In order to do a good translation we have to
master both options. In making my project, I chose two different machine translations
to compare with human translation. The first machine translation will be written like
MT1 (Microsoft translator) and the second will be MT2 (Google Translator), but the
human translation – HT. Below are a list of translation examples. Each of them will
have a detailed analysis.

1. ORIGINAL: In order to facilitate day -to-day application of the Regulation,
ESMA should be empowered to propose draft technical standards to be
endorsed by the Commission on: (i) the registration process, including on the
information set out in Annex II; (ii) the in formation that the credit rating
agency must provide for the application for certification and for the
assessment of its systemic importance to the financial stability or integrity of
financial markets referred to in Article 5 of the Regulation; and (iii) the
presentation of the information, including structure, format, method and period
of reporting, that credit rating agencies shall disclose in accordance with
Article 11(2) and point 1 of Part II of Section E of Annex I of the Regulation
(linguee.com ).

HT: În scopul facilitării aplicării zilnice a regulamentului, AEVMP ar trebui
să fie împuternicit să propună proiecte de standarde tehnice care urmează să
fie aprobate de Comisie privind: (i) procesul de înregistrare, inclusiv cu privire
la informațiile pr evăzute în Anexa II; (ii) informațiile pe care agențiile de
rating de credit trebuie să le furnizeze pentru cererea de certificare și pentru
evaluarea importanței lor sistemice în ceea ce privește stabilitatea financiară
sau integritatea piețelor financiar e în conformitate cu articolul 5 din
Regulament; și (iii) prezentarea informațiilor pe care agențiile de rating de
credit trebuie să le publice în conformitate cu Articolul 11 Alineatul (2) și
Anexa I Secțiunea E Partea II Punctul 1 din Regulament, inclusi v structura,
formatul, metoda și perioada de raportare.

30

MT1: Pentru a facilita aplicarea Regulamentului de zi cu zi, AEVMP trebuie
să fie abilitat să propună proiectele de standarde tehnice pentru a fi avizat de
Comisia: (i) procesul de rating de credit t rebuie să asigure aplicarea pentru
certificare și pentru evaluarea importanței sale sistemice la stabilitatea
financiară sau integritatea piețelor financiare menționate la articolul 5 din
regulament; și (iii) prezentarea de informații, inclusiv structura, formatul,
metoda și perioada de raportare, că Agențiile de rating de credit se dezvăluie în
conformitate cu articolul 11(2) și punctul 1 din partea II din secțiunea E din
anexa I la regulament.

MT2: În vederea facilitării aplicării curente a regulamentulu i, AEVMP trebuie
să fie abilitată să propună proiecte de standarde tehnice care să fie aprobate de
Comisie cu privire la: (i) procesul de înregistrare, inclusiv cu privire la
informațiile prevăzute în anexa II; (ii) informațiile pe care agenția de rating d e
credit trebuie să le furnizeze pentru cererea de certificare și pentru evaluarea
importanței sale sistemice pentru stabilitatea financiară sau integritatea piețelor
financiare menționate la articolul 5 din regulament; și (iii) prezentarea
informațiilor, inclusiv structura, formatul, metoda și perioada de raportare, pe
care agențiile de rating de credit trebuie să le divulge în conformitate cu
articolul 11 alineatul (2) și cu partea I punctul 2 din secțiunea E din anexa I la
regulament .

Comparing these t hree translations, we can notice that in the beginning there are some
mistakes made by machine translation. For example, in the original text it is written In
order to facilitate day -to-day application of the Regulation” translated in the
following way by MT1 Pentru a facilita aplicarea Regulamentului de zi cu zi and the
second translation in MT2 În vederea facilitării aplicării curente a regulamentului ,
but in the first translation HT it is translated like this În scopul facilitării aplicării
zilnice a reg ulamentului. The grammatical and syntactical correct version is the
human translation HT, because the suitable translation in this context for the
expression day-to-day application of the Regulation is În scopul facilitării aplicării
zilnice a regulamentul ui.

31

Another great example of good and bad translation is the following expression from
the original text ESMA should be empowered to propose draft technical standards to
be endorsed by the Commission on. The first translation given by HT is AEVMP ar
trebu i să fie împuternicit să propună proiecte de standarde tehnice care urmează să
fie aprobate de Comisie privind , the second translation in MT1 is AEVMP trebuie să
fie abilitat să propună proiectele de standarde tehnice pentru a fi avizat de Comisia
and the last translation in MT2 is AEVMP trebuie să fie abilitată să propună proiecte
de standarde tehnice care să fie aprobate de Comisie cu privire la. Both of these
translations have a major grammatical problem: incorrect word order. The first
translation, whic h is the human translation, is done without mistakes. The phrase
should be empowered is translated in MT1 and MT2 as trebuie să fie abilitat but the
correct way is in HT ar trebui să fie împuternicit .

The last segment of machine and human translation from this example is Article 11(2)
and point 1 of Part II of Section E of Annex I of the Regulation . In Human Translation
HT is translated like this Articolul 11 Alineatul (2) și Anexa I Secțiunea E Partea II
Punctul 1 din Regulament and in the MT1 is written articolul 11(2) și punctul 1 din
partea II din secțiunea E din anexa I la regulament and in MT2 is articolul 11
alineatul (2) și cu partea I punctul 2 din secțiunea E din anexa I la regulament. As we
can see in machine translation the legal words are writ ten in lowercase, for example
“Regulation” – is written “regulament”, which is clearly a big mistake in this kind of
documents.

2. ORIGINAL: Declares that, by maintaining in favour of the Portuguese State
and other public bodies special rights in GALP Energi a SGPS SA, such as
those provided for in the present case by Law No 11/90 of 5 April 1990
concerning the Framework Law on Privatisations (Lei no 11/90, Lei Quadro
das Privatizações), by Decree -Law No 261 -A/99 of 7 July 1999 approving the
first phase of the privatisation of the share capital of GALP — Petróleos e Gás
de Portugal SGPS SA (Decreto -Lei no 261 -A/99 aprova a 1.a fase do processo
de privatização do capital social da GALP — Petróleos e Gás de Portugal,
SGPS, SA), and by the articles of association of that company, granted in
connection with the Portuguese State’s golden shares in the share capital of

32

that company, the Portuguese Republic has failed to fulfil its obligations under
Article 56 EC (linguee.com ).

HT: Prin menținerea în cadrul GALP Energia SGPS SA a unor drepturi
speciale precum cele prevăzute în speță de Legea nr. 11/90 din 5 aprilie 1990,
Legea -cadru privind privatizările (Lei no 11/90, Lei Quadro das
Privatizaçoes), de Decretul -lege nr. 261 -A/99 din 7 iulie 1999 de aprobare a
prim ei etape a procesului de privatizare a capitalului social al GALP —
Petróleos e Gás de Portugal SGPS SA (Decreto -Lei no 261 -A/99 aprova a 1.a
fase do processo de privatização do capital social da GALP — Petróleos e Gás
de Portugal, SGPS, SA) și de statutul acestei societăți în favoarea statului
portughez și a altor entități publice, atribuite în legătură cu acțiuni privilegiate
(„golden shares”) deținute de acest stat în capitalul social al respectivei
societăți, Republica Portugheză nu și -a îndeplinit obli gațiile care îi revin în
temeiul articolului 56 CE.

MT1: Declară că, prin menținerea în favoarea statului portughez și alte
organisme publice drepturi speciale în GALP Energia SGPS SA, cum ar fi
cele prevăzute în cazul de față de legea 11/90 din 5 aprilie 1990 cu privire la
legea cadru pe privatizări (Lei nr 11/90 Lei Quadro das Privatizações), de
Decretul -lege nr 261 -A/99 din 7 iulie 1999 pentru aprobarea primei faze a
privatizarii din capitalul social al GALP -Petróleos e Gás de Portugal SGPS SA
(Decreto -Lei no 261 -A/99 aprova un 1.a fase processo de privatização capital
sociale da GALP -Petróleos e Gás de Portugal, SGPS, SA), și de articolele de
asociere ale companiei, acordate în legătură cu statul portughez aur acțiuni în
capitalul social al societății, Republica Portugheză nu a reușit să -și
îndeplinească sale obligațiile în conformitate cu articolul 56 ce.

MT2: Prin menținerea în favoarea statului portughez și a altor organisme
publice a unor drepturi speciale în cadrul GALP Energia SGPS SA, precum
cele prevăzute în prezenta cauză prin Legea nr. 11/90 din 5 aprilie 1990
privind Legea -cadru privind privatizările nr. 11/90, Lei Quadro das
Privatizações), prin Decretul -lege nr. 261 -A / 99 din 7 iulie 1999 de aprobare a
primei faze a privatizării capitalului social al GALP – Petróleos e Gás de

33

Portugal SGPS SA nr. 261 -A / 99, precum și prin actul constitutiv al acestei
societăți, acordat în legătură cu statul portughez, cu privire la o privatizare a
capitalului social al societății GALP – Petróleos e Gás de P ortugal, SGPS,
australian în capitalul social al acestei societăți, Republica Portugheză nu și -a
îndeplinit obligațiile care îi revin în temeiul articolului 56 CE.

Here we are going to analyze another human and machine translation. For the first
example, I have chosen this expression other public bodies special rights in GALP
Energia SGPS SA. In machine translation MT1 is done like this: alte organisme
publice drepturi speciale în GALP Energia SGPS SA and in MT2 is translated like a
altor organisme publice a unor drepturi speciale în cadrul GALP Energia SGPS SA.
But the first translation, which is the humane translation HT is made totally different,
în cadrul GALP Energia SGPS SA a unor drepturi speciale . We can notice that the
word order in machine transla tion is for such wrong, while the human translation
sounds much better in the target language.

Another example of translation this paragraph is concerning the Framework Law on
Privatisation. Both on the machine translation had translated quite the same Legea-
cadru privind privatizările in MT1, and legea cadru pe privatizări in MT2. The
biggest mistake is made by machine translation nr 2, because the word “Law” is
translated “legea” written in lowercase. On the other hand the human translation is
much bette r Legea -cadru privind privatizările .

3. ORIGINAL: The rate referred to an Article 2(1)(d) of Decision 94/728/EC,
Euratom which shall be set within the budgetary procedure, shall be calculated
as a percentage of the sum of the forecast of the gross national p roduct,
(hereinafter referred to as ‘GNP’) of the Member States in such a manner that
if fully covers that part of the budget not financed from customs duties,
agricultural levies, levies, and other charges connected with the common
organisation of the mar ket in the sugar sector, VAT resources, financial
contributions to supplementary research and technological development
programmes, other revenue and, where appropriate, GNP financial
contributions (linguee.com ).

34

HT: Taxa la care se referă Articolul 2 Ali neatul (1) Litera (d) din Decizia
94/728/CE, Euratom stabilită prin procedura bugetară se calculează ca procent
din suma produselor naționale brute (numit PNB în continuare) prevăzute de
statele 34ation în așa fel încât să acopere în întregime partea de buget
nefinanțată din taxele vamale, taxele agricole, alte taxe ș I drepturi prevăzute
în organizarea comună a pieței zahărului, resursele TVA, contribuțiile
financiare la programele complementare de cercetare și dezvoltare
tehnologică, alte venituri ș I, dacă este cazul, contribuții financiare PNB.

MT1: Rata menționată la articolul 2 alineatul (1) litera (d) din decizia 94/728 /
CE, Euratom, stabilită în cadrul procedurii bugetare, se calculează ca procent
din suma prognozată a produsului 34national brut ( denumit în continuare
“PNB”) al statelor 34ation astfel încât, dacă acoperă în totalitate acea parte a
bugetului care nu este finanțată din taxele vamale, taxele agricole, cotizațiile și
alte taxe legate de organizarea comună a pieței în sectorul zahărului sector,
resurse TVA, contribuții financiare la programele suplimentare de cercetare și
dezvoltare tehnologică, alte venituri și, dacă este cazul, contribuții financiare
PNB.

MT2: Rata menționată în articolul 2(1)(d) din decizia 94/728/ce, Euratom,
care s e stabilesc în cadrul procedurii bugetare, se calculează ca procent din
suma de Prognoza a produsului 34ational brut, (denumit în continuare ‘GNP’)
a membrului Statele într -un mod că dacă complet acoperă partea din bugetul
nu finanțate din taxele vamale, ag ricole cotizații, taxe și alte cheltuieli legate
de organizarea comună a piețelor în sectorul zahărului, resursele TVA,
contribuțiile financiare la suplimentare de cercetare și dezvoltare tehnologică
programelor, alte venituri și, dacă este cazul, a contri buțiilor financiare PNB.
In the third paragraph we can analyze this structure of the sentence. In the original
text is The rate referred to an Article 2(1)(d) of Decision 94/728/EC , while the HT is
Taxa la care se referă Articolul 2 Alineatul (1) Litera (d ) din Decizia 94/728/CE and
in machine translation there are like this: Rata menționată la articolul 2 alineatul (1)
litera (d) din Decizia 94/728 / CE, Euratom (MT1) and Rata menționată în articolul
2(1)(d) din Decizia 94/728/ce (MT2). Here we can see tha t the word “Decision” in

35

written in lowercase in both of the machine translation. Even the “Article” has the
same mistakes other on other again.

The different example from this paragraph will be financial contributions to
supplementary research and techno logical development programmes. In both
machine translations there are major word order mistakes such as contribuții
financiare la programele suplimentare de cercetare și dezvoltare tehnologică as in
MT1, and contribuțiile financiare la suplimentare de cer cetare și dezvoltare
tehnologică programelor . The human translation is: contribuțiile financiare la
programele complementare de cercetare și dezvoltare tehnologică.
4. ORIGINAL: This will include a need to examine: measures that mitigate the
ups and downs of the business cycle, including the need for credit institutions
to build counter -cyclical buffers in good times that can be used during a
downturn, which may include the possibility of building up additional
reserves, ‘dynamic provisioning’ and the possibil ity to reduce capital buffers
during difficult times, thus ensuring adequate availability of capital over the
cycle; the rationale underlying the calculation of capital requirements in
Directive 2006/48/EC; supplementary measures to risk -based requirements for
credit institutions to help constrain the build -up of leverage in the banking
system (linguee.com ).

HT: În această privință, este necesar să se examineze: măsurile care atenuează
fluctuațiile ciclului afacerilor, inclusiv necesitatea ca instituțiile de credit să
constituie în perioadele de creștere rezerve de capital anticiclice care să poată
fi utilizate în caz de criză, măsuri care pot include posibilitatea constituirii de
rezerve suplimentare, de provizioane dinamice, precum și posibilitatea de a
reduce rezervele de capital în perioadele dificile, asigurând astfel o
disponibilitate adecvată a capitalului pe tot parcursul ciclului; motivele pe care
se bazează calcularea cerințelor de capital în conformitate cu Directiva
2006/48/CE; măsurile care comp letează cerințele bazate pe riscuri impuse
instituțiilor de credit pentru a facilita limitarea nivelului de îndatorare din
sistemul bancar.

36

MT1: Aceasta va include necesitatea de a examina: măsuri care atenuează
ascensiunea și coborârea ciclului de afaceri, inclusiv necesitatea ca instituțiile
de credit să construiască tampoane anticiclice în vremuri bune, care să poată fi
utilizate în timpul unei recesiuni, care poate include posibilitatea de a construi
crearea rezervelor suplimentare, "furnizarea dinamică" și posibilitatea de a
reduce tampoanele de capital în perioadele dificile, asigurând astfel
disponibilitatea adecvată a capitalului pe parcurs ul ciclului; rațiunea care stă la
baza calculației cerințelor de capital din Directiva 2006/48 / CE; măsuri
suplimentare pentru cerințele bazate pe riscuri pentru instituțiile de credit
pentru a contribui la limitarea acumulării de pârghii în sistemul banc ar.

MT2: Aceasta va include necesitatea de o absolvire: măsuri de îngrijire
atenuează ascensiunea și coborârea ciclului de afaceri, inclusiv necesitatea ca
instituțiile de credit să construiască tampoane anticiclice în pustiite bune, care
să poată fi le î n timpul unei recesiuni, îngrijire poate include posibilitatea de o
construi crearea rezervelor suplimentare, "furnizarea dinamică" și posibilitatea
de o reducere de tampoanele de de capital în perioadele face, asigurând astfel
disponibilitatea adecvată un pe capitalului parcursul ciclului; rațiunea care stă
la baza calculației cerințelor de capital din Directiva 2006/48 / CE; măsuri
suplimentare pentru cerințele bazate pe riscuri pentru instituțiile de credit
pentru o contribui la limitarea acumulării de p ârghii în sistemul bancar.

In the four paragraph we are going to analyze this sentence: This will include a need
to examine: measures that mitigate the ups and downs of the business cycle. Here we
have a really bad word -for-word translation, because in MT 1 is translated as Aceasta
va include necesitatea de a examina: măsuri care atenuează ascensiunea și
coborârea ciclului de afaceri and MT2 as Aceasta va include necesitatea de o
absolvire: măsuri de îngrijire atenuează ascensiunea și coborârea ciclului de afaceri.
The word expression the ups and downs of the business cycle is the both machine
translation is translated as ascensiunea și coborârea ciclului de afaceri . The best
option for this expression would be fluctuațiile ciclului afacerilor .

Another exam ple that shows the misunderstanding of the word that can lead to a
totally different word meaning. The original text writes: the need for credit

37

institutions to build counter -cyclical buffers in good times that can be used during a
downturn ; in HT it is translated as necesitatea ca instituțiile de credit să constituie în
perioadele de creștere rezerve de capital anticiclice, care să poată fi utilizate în caz
de criză. The machine translation got it all wrong, for example MT1 necesitatea ca
instituțiile de credit să construiască tampoane anticiclice în vremuri bune or MT2
necesitatea ca instituțiile de credit să construiască tampoane anticiclice în pustiite
bune. The expression counter -cyclical buffers is translated as tampoane anticiclice,
but the right meaning is rezerve de capital anticiclice.

5. ORIGINAL: If there is objection to the delegated act referred to in the first
subparagraph in accordance with Article 58, the Commission shall re -adopt
the delegated act pursuant to which the national r egimes set out in Articles 36
and 42 are to be terminated and the passport regime provided for in Article 35
and Articles 37 to 41 shall become the sole and mandatory regime applicable
in all Member States, in accordance with Article 56 and subject to the
conditions of Articles 57 and 58, at a later stage which seems appropriate to it,
taking into account the criteria listed in paragraph 2 and the objectives of this
Directive, such as those relating to the internal market, investor protection and
the effect ive monitoring of systemic risk (linguee.com ).

HT: Dacă se ridică obiecțiuni în conformitate cu Articolul 58 la actul delegat
menționat in primul paragraf, Comisia adoptă din nou actul delegat în temeiul
căruia regimurile naționale prevăzute la articolele 36 și 42 își încetează
existența, iar regimul pașapoartelor europene prevăzut la Articolul 35 și la
Articolele 3741 devine regimul unic și obligatoriu aplicabil în toate Statele
Membre, în conformitate cu Articolul 56 și în condițiile prevăzute la
Articol ele 57 și 58, la o dată ulterioară pe care Comisia o consideră adecvată
în acest sens, ținând seama de criteriile enumerate la Alineatul (2) și de
obiectivele prezentei directive, cum ar fi cele privind piața internă, protecția
investitorilor și monitoriza rea eficace a riscului sistemic.

MT1: În cazul în care există obiecții la actul delegat menționat la primul
paragraf, în conformitate cu Articolul 58, Comisia reia actul delegat în temeiul
căruia trebuie să se rezilieze regimurile naționale prevăzute la a rticolele 36 și

38

42 și regimul pașapoartelor prevăzută la articolul 35 și la articolele 37 -41,
devine regimul unic și obligatoriu aplicabil în toate statele membre, în
conformitate cu articolul 56 și sub rezerva condițiilor prevăzute la articolele
57 și 58, într-o etapă ulterioară care pare a fi ținând seama de criteriile
enumerate la alineatul (2) și de obiectivele prezentei directive, cum ar fi cele
referitoare la piața internă, protecția investitorilor și monitorizarea eficace a
riscului sistemic.

MT2: În cazul în care există obiecții la actul delegat menționat la primul
paragraf, în conformitate cu Articolul 58, parteneriatul reia actul delegat în
temeiul căruia trebuie să se rezilieze regimurile naționale prevăzute la
articolele 36 și 42 și regimul pașa poartelor prevăzută la articolul 35 și la
articolele 37 -41, devine regimul unic și obligatoriu aplicabil în toate Unite
membre, în conformitate cu articolul 56 și sub rezerva condițiilor prevăzute la
articolele 57 și 58, într -o etapă ulterioară îngrijire p are o fi ținând seama de
criteriile de la alineatul (2) și de obiectivele prezentei directive, cum ar fi cele
referitoare la piața internă, protecția investitorilor și monitorizarea eficace o
normative riscului enumerat.

In the last paragraph we are going to show a good version of both human and machine
translation. For instance, If there is objection to the delegated act referred to in the
first subparagraph in accordance with Article 58 in the HT it appears as Dacă se
ridică obiecțiuni în conformitate cu Articolul 58 la actul delegat menționat in primul
paragraf and in machine translations: MT1 În cazul în care există obiecții la actul
delegat menționat la primul paragraf, în conformitate cu Articolul 58 and MT2 În
cazul în care există obiecții la actul d elegat menționat la primul paragraf, în
conformitate cu Articolul 58. All three of them display almost the same translation,
but we have to point out that the word order in the MT is not right. What we want to
emphasize is the expression If there is object ion to the delegated act , that is translated
correctly in all three of them: Dacă se ridică obiecțiuni în conformitate cu Articolul/
În cazul în care există obiecții la actul delegate .

Another example from the paragraph above is shall become the sole and mandatory
regime applicable in all Member States. In the Human Translation it becomes devine

39

regimul unic și obligatoriu aplicabil în toate statele membre, but for Machine
Translation 1 and 2 it is devine regimul unic și obligatoriu aplicabil în toate stat ele
member/ devine regimul unic și obligatoriu aplicabil în toate Unite member. The
expression “ Member States ” is translated as “ statele member ” in MT1 and “ Unite
member ” in MT2, because it does not understand the meaning of the word, the
machine translati on tries to keep the original text as much as possible.

In conclusion, machine translations are good only for translating individual words, but
not for entire texts or sentences, because they perform word -for-word translation, no
links and agreement betw een the subject and predicate or groups of words, or they are
not able to translate the legal expressions properly.

40

Conclusions
Every M.A. student who is going to finish his/her degree must work on their
dissertation project. This project will give them the opportunity to prove their
knowledge about Translation Studies. The main goal is to check the ability of the
young specialists to work in this field.
In order to write this project we have to do our translation practice in various
jobs. For example, I chose to work as a freelance translator. At first, it was very hard,
because I did not have any work experience at all. After a while, I managed to get
better and better by translating various documents.
Generally speaking, it is a very i mportant period to develop and establish
professional values and to know how the future job is like. During the two years of
theoretical studies, we learned everything about our job as a translator or interpreter.
Besides, many companies need a specialist who they can trust all of their documents
and projects. Thanks to that, this job will have a bright future. In addition, an
interpreter/translator is one of the main persons who can help the company sign great
deals and build a powerful business.
After w eeks of preparation and reviewing, I have started my dissertation
project. The main goal was to focus on ways of translating texts from the field of
business from English into Romanian and vice versa. I chose this topic because it was
really interesting to me to analyze and classify different kinds of business documents.
During this period of time I had to overcome lots of difficulties in dealing with some
terminology. I have used dictionaries, specialized material, online resources, because
every day I wan ted to learn more and more about this topic.
My objectives were accomplished completely in the following way: to analyze
the general features of business terms, to name the peculiarities of translating texts
from the field of business, to compare differen t approaches in their translation, to
differentiate computerized translation from human translation. I would like to mention
here that the human translation was the best one, because it did not mix up the
different meanings of one word or make grammar mist akes. It was the slowest in
comparison to machine translation, but it was worth taking the effort. The machine
translation is just the product of an equipment, a machine, an artificial mind that
cannot understand or feel the language properly. It translate s very well words without
properly grasping or taking into consideration agreement or other types of relations
between the components of very complex structures or units of translation. The results

41

showed that 153 terms that I chose have the following stru cture: 41 terms have one
member term structure; 56 terms have two member term structure; 45 terms have
three member term structure; 11 terms have four member term structure.
In conclusion, I would like to say that this project helped me enrich my
knowledg e about translation, not only from a theoretical point of view, but from a
practical one, as well. Now, I understand that a good translator or interpreter should
always look for more and more resources or studies that may help him/her in the
future interpr etation of the text or speech. The knowledge that I have gained from this
practice is very important as a specialist for my future job.

42

Works Cited

Daineko, Valentina. Basic Translation Theory . Kiev: Nika Center, 2001. Print.
Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies . London: Routledge Press,
2001. Print.
Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation . Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign
Language Press, 1988. Print.
Podoliuc, Tatiana. Bases of Translation Science . Chișinău: ULIM, 2010. Print.
Reiss, Katharina. Types, Kinds and Individuality of Text . Durham: Duke
University Press, 1981. Print.
BBC Skillswise, bbc.co.uk ,Types of texts, November 1922, Web (15.03.2018).
Claudia Coja, Mihai Badea, proz.com , English to Romanian Business/Commerce
(general) Translation Glossary, November 1999, Web, (20.03.2018).
Linguistics UoN, youtube.com , Text types, February 2005, Web, (21.05.2018).
Business to business, theguardian.com , Glossary of business terms – A to Z, May
1821, Web, (22.05.2018).
Rushdi Shams, slideshare.net , Types of machine translation, October 2006, Web,
(12.04.2018).
Smriti Chand, yourarticlelibrary.com , The Scope of Business Activities in
Industry and Commerce, May 2007, Web, (10.05.2018).
European Union, linguee.com , Credit reference agency, April 2006, Web,
(18.05.2018).
European Union, linguee.com , Golden share, April 2006, Web, (18.05.2018).
European Union, linguee.com , Gross national product, April 2006, Web,
(18.05.2018).
European Union, linguee.co m, Business cycle, April 2006, Web, (18.05.2018).
European Union, linguee.com , Institutional investor, April 2006, Web,
(18.05.2018).

43

Selected Bibliography

Primary Sources
George Merriam, Charles Merriam, merriam -webster.com , 1831, Web, (20.03.2018).
European Union, linguee.com , Credit reference agency, April 2006, Web,
(18.05.2018).

Secondary Sources
Daineko, Valentina. Basic Translation Theory . Kiev: Nika Center, 2001. Print.
Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies . London: Rou tledge Press, 2001.
Print.
Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation . Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language
Press, 1988. Print.
Podoliuc, Tatiana. Bases of Translation Science . Chișinău: ULIM, 2010. Print.
Reiss, Katharina. Types, Kinds and Individuality o f Text . Durham: Duke University
Press, 1981. Print.
BBC Skillswise, bbc.co.uk ,Types of texts, November 1922, Web (15.03.2018).
Claudia Coja, Mihai Badea, proz.com , English to Romanian Business/Commerce
(general) Translation Glossary, November 1999, Web, (20.03.2018).
Linguistics UoN, youtube.com , Text types, February 2005, Web, (21.05.2018).
Business to business, theguardian.com , Glossary of business terms – A to Z, May
1821, Web, (22.05.2018).
Rushdi Shams, slideshare.net , Types of machine translation, October 2006, Web,
(12.04.2018).
Smriti Chand, yourarticlelibrary.com , The Scope of Business Activities in Industry
and Commerce, May 2007, Web, (10.05.2018).
European Union, linguee.com , Credit reference agency, April 2006, Web,
(18.05.2018).
European U nion, linguee.com , Golden share, April 2006, Web, (18.05.2018).
European Union, linguee.com , Gross national product, April 2006, Web,
(18.05.2018).
European Union, linguee.com , Business cycle, April 2006, Web, (18.05.2018).
European Union, linguee.com , Institutional investor, April 2006, Web, (18.05.2018).

44

Appendices

1. Types of Texts According to Katharina Reiss

2. Examples of Translation Methods
Translation Types Translation methods
Simultaneous Transformational;
Communicational
Consecutive Denotative;
Communicational
Written (general/techinal) Transformational
Written (fiction/poetry) Denotative

45

3. Classification of Goods and Services

4. Human Activities and Divisions of Business

46

5. Classification of Goods and Services

6. Structural Classification: List of Terms
One Member
Term s Two Member
Term s Three Member Term s Four Member Term s
Accounts ;
Actuary ;
Administration ;
Annuity ;
Arbitrage ;
Auditors ;
Bond ;
Broker ;
Budget ;
Chartists ;
Collateral ;
Commodity ;
Deflation ;
Externalities ;
Equity ; Allocation rate ;
Annual bonus ;
Asset stripping ;
Balance sheet ;
Balance of payments ;
Bank of England ;
Banker's draft ;
Base rate ;
Bear market ;
Blue chip ;
Bridging loan ;
Buildings insurance ;
Bull market ;
Business cycle ;
Carry trade ; Actively managed funds ;
Alternative investment
market ;
Annual equi valent rate (AER) ;
Annual general meeting
(AGM) ;
Annual percentage rate
(APR) ;
Average earnings growth ;
British Retail Consortium ;
Capital gains tax ;
Cost-push inflation ;
Credit default swaps ;
Credit reference agency ;
Dead cat bounce ; Bank of England's
inflation report ;
Chartered Institute of
Purchasing and Supply ;
European Bank for
Reconstruction and
Developm ent;
Final salary pension
scheme ;
New York Stock
Exchange ;
Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and
Development ;
Organisation of petroleum

47

Elasticity ;
Ebit;
Ebitda ;
Dividend ;
Demutualisation ;
Depression ;
Derivatives ;
Freehold ;
Gazumping ;
Gazundering ;
Gearing ;
Gilts ;
Gold ;
Greenback ;
Hyperinflation ;
Inflation ;
Interim ;
Leasehold ;
Margin ;
Median ;
Merger ;
Monetarism ;
Monopoly ;
Mutu al;
Nasdaq ;
Macroeconomics ;
Microeconomics ;
Oligopoly ;
Option ;
Overdraft ;
Portfolio ;
Pound ;
Privatisation ;
Profits ;
Quota ;
Rally ;
Recession ;
Security ;
Stagflation ;
Stock ;
Swaps ;
Shareh older ;
Treasury ;
Unemployment .

Capital account ;
Capital gain ;
Central bank ;
Chinese walls ;
Commercial paper ;
Competition
Commission ;
Consumer
confidence ;
Contents insurance ;
Corporate raiders ;
Corporation tax ;
Council tax ;
Credit crunch ;
Current account ;
Day trading ;
Diminishing returns ;
Discount mortgage ;
Dividend yield ;
Economic growth ;
Economies of scale ;
Endowment policy ;
Enterprise value ;
Equity derivatives ;
Ethical investment ;
Financial year ;
Fiscal policy ;
Fiscal year ;
Fixed costs ;
Flexible mortgage ;
Foreign exchange
(Forex) ;
Golden handcuffs ;
Golden handshake ;
Golden hello ;
Golden parachute ;
Golden rule ;
Golden share ;
Ground rent ;
Half year ;
Hang Seng ;
Hedge funds ;
Horizo ntal merger ;
Hostile takeover ;
Income statement ;
Income tax ;
Industrial output ;
Inflation measu res;
Inheritance tax ;
Insider trading ;
Institutional investor ;
Investment trust ;
Invisible hand ;
Irrational exuberance ;
Joint account ;
Leveraged buyout ;
Libor rate ; Defined benefit pension ;
Defined contribution pension ;
Demand -pull inflation ;
Earnings per share;
European Central Bank ;
Financial Services Authority ;
Glass -Steagall Act ;
Gross domestic product
(GDP) ;
Gross national product (GNP) ;
Guaranteed annuity rate ;
Home reversion plan ;
House price surveys ;
Income protection insurance ;
Independent financial adviser
(IFA) ;
Individual savings account
(Isa);
London Stock Exchange ;
Monetary policy committee ;
Naked short -selling ;
National Economic Council ;
Nominal interest rate ;
Non-executive director ;
Net asset value ;
Occupational pension scheme ;
Office for National Statistics
(ONS) ;
Office of Fair Trading (OFT) ;
Open -market operations ;
Price to earnings ratio;
Primary discount rate ;
Producer price index ;
Profit and loss account ;
Purchasing Managers' Index
(PMI) ;
Purchasing power parity ;
Quanti ty theory of money ;
Real interest rate ;
Regulatory News Service
(RNS) ;
Retail Prices Index (RPI) ;
Securities and Exchange
Commission ;
Serious Fraud Office (SFO) ;
Special liquidity scheme ;
Spot market price ;
Value added tax (VAT) ;
Varia ble rate mortgage ;
Without -profits policy ;
Yen carry trade ;
Zero interest rates ;

exporting countries
(Opec) ;
Profit Participating
Deferred Shares ;
Real estate investment
trusts ;
Split capital investment
trusts ;
Tangible Common E quity
Ratio ;

48

Liquid asset ;
Managed fund ;
Manufacturing
output ;
Minimum wage ;
Money supply ;
Mortgage broker ;
Mortgage term ;
Mutual fund ;
Nominal values ;
National debt ;
National insurance ;
Negative equity ;
Offshore account ;
Ordinary residence ;
Ordinary share ;
Percentage change ;
Personal loan ;
Poison pill ;
Ponzi scheme ;
Poverty trap ;
Precipice bonds ;
Preference shares ;
Premium bonds ;
Public company ;
Quantitative easing ;
Quarterly report ;
Rate of return ;
Ratings agencies ;
Real values ;
Regressive tax ;
Repayment
mortgage ;
Retirement age ;
Reverse takeover ;
Rights issue ;
Savings account .

49

100%One member terms
Nouns
24%
59%1%3% 8%3%2%Two member terms
N+N
Adj+N
N+Adj
N+V
V+N
Adj+V
V+Adj

50

6%
37%
5%6%15%12%19%Three Member Terms
Adj+V+S
Adj+N+N
Adj+Adj+N
N+V+N
N+N+V
N+N+N
Adj+N+V
9%
44%29%18%Four Member Terms
N+N+V+N
Adj+N+N+N
N+Adj+N+N
N+V+N+N