Just Transition in Coal and Carbon Intensive Regions: the case of Jiu Valley, Romania. [308915]

DISSERTATION

Just Transition in Coal and Carbon Intensive Regions: [anonimizat].

Coordinator

Lect. univ. dr. Arpad TODOR

Student: [anonimizat], 2020

[anonimizat]. Consequently, [anonimizat]-border bodies and actors capable of formulating and implementing just policies and effective strategies. [anonimizat].

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The research question is how have the cumulative effects of mining in a Coal and Carbon Intensive Region such as Jiu Valley contributed to positively reinforcing or transitioning away from Just Transition? [anonimizat]-makers towards decarbonisation will also be highlighted because we can consider as a second research question if there is a significant difference between the norms that must be followed by the Romanian government and what is put into practice in reality

One hypothesis that can be drawn is that the nature of mining activities influence the degree of success or failure of the Just Transition concept in the region. Moreover, another hypothesis that emerges from this is that Romania continues to progress in the right direction in accordance with international agreements on decarbonization. Basically, [anonimizat].

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Methodologically, [anonimizat]-experimental, having a [anonimizat], social, [anonimizat]. Moreover, a thematic analysis in which the mining situation is decomposed in suggestive and relevant parts related to environment will be ensured. [anonimizat], namely that of Decarbonization and the transition from a community/region based primarily on a single industry such as mining, to ”clean” industries that revitalize the community and the region by sustainable means. Thus, throughout the paper, a reccurent theme of mining and its effects will serve as a base of this research.

During the study, a comparative analysis can be noticed, as a continuation of the thematic analysis, which compares information and data obtained from forecasts or practices from certain time intervals. Here we can talk about the intervention of an exploratory approach of "ex post facto" type, through careful research of the facts in retrospect, which affects the present region, the approach being useful precisely because it allows the study of causality and comparison of data, tracking the causes and effects of mining on the local community of Jiu Valley, on their socio-economic conditions, but also on the environment. In explaining the observed phenomena, it will be used the interpretation of data from certain statistics or estimates on the present and future conditions of the climate situation following the emission of greenhouse gas emissions, but also on the underground resources available to Romania.

Discussing about the Jiu Valley with such certainty of events, it can be considered the presentation of a case study, in which the case of the Region is interpreted, findings are made, maintaining a holistic look at the mining phenomenon, and an extensive and in-depth analysis of situations frequently found in the Coal and Carbon Intensive Regions. The findings refer to the micro level, by mentioning the local actors and companies that have a defining role in mining, but also refers to the macro level due to public policies, strategies and legislative regulations on the optimal development of mining careers.

Keywords: coal and carbon, Jiu Valley, Just Transition, sustainable development

The theoretical section

Abstract

In this theoretical part, concepts such as “tipping points”, “climate tipping points”, “social tipping interventions”, “social tipping elements”, “positive tipping points” will be presented and explained, while recalling the negative effects they have at global level if we exceed these thresholds. Going beyond the theoretical framework, the context of mining is brought to the fore, mentioning its beginnings, reaching the Industrial Revolution and including the moment when it was noticed that the Earth's natural resources are finite. We will be able to see how much time humanity has left to continue its coal extraction and processing activities on the "business as usual" principle, bringing into question the vision of the Club of Rome, and continuing with the enumeration of the negative effects that mining has on both locally as well as globally perspective. Moreover, the case of Romania and the main extractive areas is presented and, last but not least, the link between mining and sustainable development is created, noting which sustainable development objectives correspond to mining.

Another subsection of the chapter involves the dimensioning of the European and global level of mining in which the industrial, economic and environmental characteristics of mining quarries and thermal power plants are illustrated. We will be able to better understand if the intensity of mining has increased or decreased in recent years and what is the future of the mines both in the EU and in Romania. The transition from a society based on mono-industry, ie mining, to a society based mainly on renewable energy and how to achieve a green transition is discussed.

Afterwards, we will discuss the concept of Just Transition and clarify the history of this mechanism and its precepts. We will understand what financial and environmental implications it has and we will observe some comparisons with levels specific to the last century regarding the emissions resulting from mining. The next step is to present the case of Romania and the transition of the Jiu Valley, mentioning the context of the mining industry in the region and the specifics of the transition.

First and foremost, it is necessary to understand exactly certain concepts that will be introduced and mentioned during the paper and which are a significant part of the foundation of this study. Therefore, before reviewing the records made by national and international literature and creating an overview of the context of climate change, unsustainable mining involving the depletion of the Earth's natural resources and efforts to find new clean and efficient production alternatives of energy leading to the fulfillment of the principle of JustTransition, we will better understand the following concepts.

The first one refers to climate tipping points. Timothy M. Lenton (2011) provides an accurate definition of the concept: ”A climate tipping point occurs when a small change in forcing triggers a strongly nonlinear response in the internal dynamics of part of the climate system, qualitatively changing its future state.” Therefore, when we talk about phenomena of regime changes in ecological systems, but we can also refer to changes in economies or institutions of resource management. The concept of Tipping Points has its mathematical and chemical origins, describing a qualitative change of a system seen as a bifurcation in mathematics. In the social sciences, however, they refer to the dynamics of racial segregation. At the same time, sociologist Mark Granovetter uses this name to show the differences between individuals who decide to join a collective behavior, as is the case with protests. However, Malcolm Gladwell was the one who gave strength to the term Tipping Point at the beginning of the new millennium, discussing climate issues, describing rapid and nonlinear changes in certain parts of the climate system, practically speaking of a critical point that, if reached a "transition to a new state" will be triggered, certainly an unfavorable one.

In 2001, he Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) introduced the idea of ​​tipping points, but at the time, measurements showed that these ”large-scale discontinuities” in the climate system could only occur if global temperatures exceeded five degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. However, the 2018 and 2019 reports surprised the scientific world with data that contradicted those at the beginning of the new century. They claimed that tipping points could be reached even at increases in global temperature between 1 and 2 degrees Celsius. It is true that the predicted risk would be moderate to the limit of two degrees, and will gradually increase to high risk if the threshold of two degrees Celsius is exceeded. Although Europe is relatively protected from a collapse due to tipping points, with the exception of Russian permafrost, tipping points are interconnected with other areas of the world of particular importance such as Amazon rainforest (frequent droughts), Arctic sea ice (reduction in area), Boreal forest (fires and pests changing), Coral reefs (large-scale die-offs). Another case is the ice sheet in Greenland, which at a rise in temperature to 1.5 degrees Celsius, would disappear permanently around 10,000 years, and 2 degrees Celsius in less than 1000 years. Even if the decisive effects do not take place in the near future, this does not mean that we must completely ignore the urgency of preventing these harmful events to people, but also to the environment.

A distinction must be made between tipping points and (social) tipping interventions. In this sense, we already know that technological progress is accelerating, and the need to implement climate policies to reduce emissions is clear: we must avoid reaching those tipping points that could seriously disrupt human activity, but also the natural processes of Earth. Therefore, in this case we are talking about potential interventions called social tipping interventions (STIs), which can activate or revitalize processes related to technologies, behaviors, social norms and can reorganize structures in different areas where social tipping elements (STEs) are found. These are sub-domains of the global socio-economic system where a change means an improvement, as is the case with the rapid reduction of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions.

”The STIs that could trigger the tipping of STE subsystems include 1) removing fossil-fuel subsidies and incentivizing decentralized energy generation (STE1, energy production and storage systems), 2) building carbon-neutral cities (STE2, human settlements), 3) divesting from assets linked to fossil fuels (STE3, financial markets), 4) revealing the moral implications of fossil fuels (STE4, norms and value systems), 5) strengthening climate education and engagement (STE5, education system), and 6) disclosing information on greenhouse gas emissions (STE6, information feedbacks).”

Positive tipping points imply the need for transformative changes at the socio-climatic level. To define the mentioned concept, we will have to pay attention to the article Positive tipping points in a rapidly warming world (2018): ”A positive tipping point occurs when the original conditions of a system of reference are substantially and irreversibly transformed in a way that matches or exceeds a particular desired (normative), better-off configuration or vision.” An example would be in the energy systems: ”Full switch to renewable energies and a move towards energy self-sufficient Europe in a way that makes full use of its context-dependent potential”.

The context of mining

Mining activities date back to the Neolithic (Chalcolithic) era when the inhabitants of those times obtained their first metals for the manufacture of tools. For example, in Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire, there were mining explorations aimed at the production of iron, lead, copper, gold, and other metals.

For thousands of years, coal was a primary source of fuel, especially with the Industrial Revolution and the steam engine. In the 19th and 20th centuries, it was the main source of energy in the smelting of metals and for the production of electricity, the dominant regions at that time being the United Kingdom, Australia, the USA or Russia. In 1980, Britain made the transition from coal to natural gas and cheaper oil. But even if the proportion of coal extraction and processing is towards the end of its era, today it still represents the production of almost 25% of global energy. It should be noted that by 2050, coal will contribute only a third of this energy.

Since the new century, it has been increasingly documented that mineral resources are depleting, and their drying is increasingly imminent if concrete and strict measures will not be taken in the very near future. If we look closely at a mining operation, we will see that it lasts on average at least a decade, the interruption is either due to the characteristics of mineral deposits, or metal prices or instabilities generated by the government or society through protests.

892 billion tons of coal reserves are still available worldwide. According to the World Coal Association, humanity can continue its coal mining activities for another 110 years if we rely on the "business as usual" principle. On the other hand, oil and gas reserves will be depleted in 52 years, respectively 54 years at current production levels.

The very high level of exploitation in the last century has led decision-makers in governments and institutions to become aware of and adopt the vision of the Clube of Rome, which stated that economic development based on a continuous increase in mineral extraction is not sustainable. Thus, the concept of sustainable development has begun to gain more and more weight in this context, becoming, since the third millennium a desideratum, and in recent years even an emergency, being necessary to speed up the closure of mines and move to activities with limited environmental impact.

Mining activities not only have consequences at the local level, but they also have a global impact in areas such as the economy, the environment, labor, including repercussions in the social sphere. Indeed, the mining sector provides vital raw materials and energy for a considerable number of industries, but also for the communities that rely on these activities. Both from an environmental and societal point of view when we can assert that mining activities pose a threat to the natural environment, finding harmful effects in air, water and soil. We must understand mining as comprising the exploitation of minerals, but also the operations specific to their processing. Historically, exploitation has led to the development of cities and economies, representing the basis of industries such as energy, construction, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, automotive, electronics, aerospace, without neglecting contributions to glass, metals, paints, paper, or even fertilizers.

And in the case of the Romanian mining region, some details will be now introduced in order to have in mind a background information until we will reach the environmental dimension and the study case on Jiu Valley. Therefore, until 1997, the Jiu Valley Basin was the main coal basin in Romania, although mining began in the region as early as 1850 when the Basin belonged administratively to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and twenty years later the region developed and imposed even more strongly its status of center of economic development by building the railway from Simeria to Petroșani. In the first years of the Basin's existence, the activities took place exclusively on the surface, due to the lack of access roads and technologies that would allow the development of underground activities. The first such infrastructure measures were undertaken only when the increase in demand for coal became truly huge, and by the end of the nineteenth century, the region was already enjoying rail links between Petroșani, Vulcan and Lupeni, the main mining towns at the time. When the construction of the railway between Petroșani and Lupeni was completed in 1892, the Jiu Valley experienced an unexpected expansion: production increased 12 times, the number of workers increased from 250 to 1500, facts that led to the development of infrastructure in the area, being built eight water supply dams: Valea de Pești, Braia, Aninoasa, Polatiștea, Izvorul, Stoinicioara, Taia and Jieț.

Mining and Sustainable Development

The higher the level of production, the greater the impact on the environment – this has led to long debates over the last decades on the real potential of mining to be sustainable or not. If we try to make a comparison against other industries with resources such as forestry, aquaculture or agriculture, the mining industry seems to rank last in its capacity to become sustainable. Of course, this illustration can only be worrying, but to the same extent, we must not neglect the fact that the other industries mentioned also have harmful effects. We could mention, for example, about the recent attempts to plant trees in big cities (the Dutch model), in which due to the excessive desire to improve the state of the environment, due to the large number of trees, the air can no longer circulate properly. Or, of course, we can remember the countless cases of deforestation, which are nothing but crimes against nature. For aquaculture, we cannot ignore the exploitation of fish, and in the case of agriculture, we can talk about overgrazing, as an example of its own.

It is already well known that public discussions have brought to the fore the term of sustainable development since the 1970s, but it has been sketched and present since 1798, when Thomas Robert Malthus was the first promoter of sustainability in his work called "Essay on the Principle of Population”, then by Harold Hotelling in a 1931 paper in which he discusses the optimal level of exploitation of non-renewable resources, and in a metaphorical sense we can also include Garrett Hardin, with his ideas from 1968 related to the well-known work "The Tragedy of the Commons".

The United Nations was the main driver in spreading the new paradigm globally, through the Stockholm Conference of 1972, later by creating the Brundtland Commission and promoting the concept of sustainable development which "seeks to meet the needs and aspirations of the present without compromising the ability to meet those of the future. Far from requiring the cessation of economic growth, it recognizes that the problems of poverty and underdevelopment cannot be solved unless we have a new era of growth in which developing countries play a large role and reap large benefits.”

Mining activities are correlated with some of the Sustainable Development Goals, having at the same time an impact on them. Among these, we can note SDG6 – Clean Water and Sanitation and SDG15 – Life on Land. It is obvious that the development and support of mines require access to land and water while having harmful effects on them by affecting people, especially local communities living near the mines (as is the case of Romania about which we will discuss, namely, those communities of people in the Jiu Valley). We can also talk about SDG7 – Energy Access and Sustainability and SDG13 – Climate Action, because mining involves a generous consumption of energy and is a significant emitter of emissions into the atmosphere, but at the same time offers the opportunity for communities to enjoy energy.

By extending these ideas in terms of social inclusion, mining can have many strengths, bringing economic opportunities to local communities. In this sense, SDG1 – End Poverty, SDG5 – Gender Equality, and SDG10 – Reduced Inequalities stand out. From here, we can understand that mining generates certain income by collecting taxes, royalties, and dividends, and from now on it is the duty of governments to invest the amounts collected in sustainable and social development. What mining companies can do to the community in which they operate is to adopt an inclusive strategy, working with the community to better understand the positive and negative effects they generate through exploitation. Companies can also choose to equitably divide their benefits to the community, address public grievances about certain mining operations or dissatisfaction with marginalized groups, and identify opportunities for these disadvantaged groups, including women, to rebalance the gender context.

For SDG16 – Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions, we can expect mining to contribute, contrary to expectations, to the establishment of peaceful societies by preventing and remedying conflicts between companies and communities. It is undeniable that human rights must be respected without any violation, both respecting the rights of local communities to a safe and clean life, but also in terms of financial fairness, as mining companies are required to ensure financial transparency, avoiding illicit transfers of funds to civil servants or other institutions, income and expenditure streams should always be public so as to continue the process of social inclusion in the extractive process.

By changing the direction of the discussion on economic development, it is understood that mining can have a local, regional and national impact on economic development, and a possible growth can be supported through new infrastructures, technologies, or employment opportunities. SDG8 – Decent Work and Economic Development: around a mining career, the local community is attracted to new economic and employment opportunities, providing training so that the unskilled become trained and ready to start working in a new field, acquiring new qualities. SDG9 – Infrastructure, Innovation and Industrialization, and SDG12 – Responsible Consumption and Production: of course, the development of a mining career cannot exist at a level of economic benefits without a serious infrastructure, which means that mining helps to stimulate the construction of new transport infrastructures, communications, water, and energy, while providing the necessary materials for renewable technologies and also offers the possibility to collaborate with those companies that have the task of collecting waste, being possible to communicate and establish a relationship so as to try to substantially reduce waste and its reuse and recycling.

In the light of the precepts set out in the Brundtland Report, efforts have been made to further adapt strategies for the integration of the mining industry. Such a step was taken by Milos Statement, following the 14th annual general meeting of the Society of Mining Professors and the first International Conference on Indicators of Sustainable Development in the Mineral Industry, both held in May 2003, on the island of Milos in Greece. A very important player was the Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration Inc. (SME) which also adopted the Milos Statement, stating: ”Minerals are essential to meeting the needs of the present while contributing to a sustainable future, and that the minerals community will contribute to a sustainable future through the use of our scientific, technical, educational, and research skills in minerals, metals, and fuels.”

The major principles of Sustainable Development can be grouped into three main pillars, one Economic, one Environmental, and one specific to Governance. Thus, regarding the Economic one, I can explain the fact that it presupposes first of all the well-being, by incorporating the environmental and social expenses and the increase of the business capacities. From a social point of view, benefits must be allocated to all, human rights must be respected, including civil and political autonomy, as well as cultural freedom, monetary independence and individual security. The pillar associated with the Environment assumes that it must develop responsibly, it needs a remedy of everything that has been destroyed or lost so far, it needs concrete and effective measures in reducing and eliminating waste, but also combating desertification. For the Government, the aim is to solve problems in a participatory way, to support companies through legislation and incentives, to avoid the concentration of power as it was especially in the last century, the information must be public and correct available to all, the institutions must respond promptly based on careful examinations, and institutional trust between community members must also be encouraged.

European and Global level

In 2019 there were about 2,425 coal-fired power plants in the world, combining for an operating capacity of about 2,000 GW and about 15 billion tons of CO₂ emissions. Data from February 2020 show that mining involves a workforce of 242,800 people, which means 1.9% of the total workforce. Contrary to mine closure trends, overall employment increased by 10.2% at a global level and the average weekly earnings are about $2,300.

In recent decades, coal production and coal demand across the European Union have declined. As a percentage, production decreased by 31% between 2000-2015, and consumption by 13% for the same period. Many EU coal producers have begun to face financial difficulties due to rising operating costs. The lower price of coal also played a major role. Therefore, in 2016, a decision was announced according to which the mines in Spain, Poland, and Romania will be closed, Spain planning this operation within two years from the date of the decision. On the other hand, Poland decided to close eight hard coal mines out of a total of 22, while Romania announced the closure of four such mines out of a total of six.

What can be understood is that we have reached a phase of accelerating the transition to a low-emission economy. The scenario proposed by the EU in 2016 aims to reduce coal production by another 60% by 2050 and to reduce coal consumption by 70%. About 185,000 people are employed in coal and lignite mining and about 55,000 in coal and lignite power plants. Poland (almost 100,000) has the highest employment rate in the coal segment, followed by Germany (25,000), the Czech Republic (18,000), Romania (15,000), and Bulgaria (12,000).

When we talk about a successful transition we must first consider the negative impacts that mining has on human health, due to the fact that these regions used to develop due to coal mining. So, we must look at the costs to society, such as care or early retirement of miners, or costs for enterprises associated with lost working days. Indeed, a successful transition will reduce all these external costs, especially by reducing air pollution, but as science has shown so far, in the absence of long-term planning, mining regions could suffer decades of structural unemployment, which would further deepen the socio-economic problems of the regions. That is why an alarm must be sounded for the rulers to prepare in advance the most appropriate public policies and laws to meet these challenges, helping both companies and communities to complete the transition following the closure of the mines.

An essential and legitimate question appears when we try to figure out how to combat the negative impacts on the environment and society in the mining context. Well, the surest answer reflects the need for a very well-planned just transition that closely follows social needs, which stand out through opposition, but also the needs of the environment, that follow climate action and climate effects. It has been found that job losses are not an automatic consequence of climate policy. So by mining closure does not mean that such policies should be blamed, but it is a consequence of lack of planning or poor planning when it comes to social, environmental, economic and investment policies in these areas.

Some of the steps to follow can be broken down as follows: the first would be "Targeting, planning and participation". In this regard, those coal and carbon consuming regions at European level should be identified to facilitate the achievement of the target. This could not happen without the emergence of energy and climate action plans with just long-term transition strategies that provide for the necessary policy changes in all these areas. It is also vital that the social partners are closely involved in these actions, but also in the implementation of strategies, so not only at the consultative level. Moreover, the progress of the transition must be constantly monitored and systematically assessed to adjust for any inconsistencies and inconveniences.

A second step is "Public policy and social protection", ie the "green" transition must be accompanied by economic policies on the labor market, so that would mean the creation of jobs either in a new field for former workers or similar. It is important, therefore, to identify diversified local opportunities and for companies to have access to low-carbon technologies. Finally, we can talk about "Investment and financing" in a way that regions should set up transition funds, especially those heavily industrialized regions that should support the green transition through funds directed strictly in this direction. The EU will play a crucial role, as the EU budget from 2020 should provide a dominant funding for a fair transition. A global approach is needed to support the regions and its workers.

Talking about the emergence of a clean and efficient economy that is also prosperous means talking about distributionality. Economic, social and equity issues should also be taken into account when formulating national or multilateral public policies and should not scarify innovative financial, marketing and legal instruments for human and technological development.

If we look at the top of the states we will notice that the leader is China, which in 2013 accounted for more than 50% of global coal consumption, especially for electricity generation. However, it was also one of the countries well ranked in the world's top exporters of renewable technology products, implementing renewable sources in the domestic market at the same time. For the period 2011-2015, investments were made to achieve an energy mix of 15% from renewable sources by 2020, the investment having a budget of 5 trillion RMB, and one of the objectives was the carbon-intensive concept itself, which wanted to regulate reduction in emissions per dollar of economic output by 2020 (somewhere between 40-45%) compared to 2005 levels. Given China's ever-increasing population growth, this target will lead to increased greenhouse gas emissions. What would be recommended in this case would be "a universal target within a national carbon market system". It is documented and justified worldwide that no single jurisdiction or policy approach has developed, implemented or ensured success on climate issues. Experts in the field recognize the need for a combination of legally binding national commitments and a range of local organic solutions, through a top-down approach, which could lead to real progress in reducing GHG emissions.

Just Transition

On 2 May 2018, the European Commission adopted the new multiannual financial framework for the period 2021-2027, with the objectives specifically targeting the climate for which 25% of expenditure is granted, ie 320 billion euros. Also in the same month, on 29 and 30 May, the Commission adopted legislative proposals on the use of cohesion policy funds for the same period, specifying that it will be "a greener, low-carbon Europe through promoting the transition to clean and fair energy, green and blue investment, the circular economy, climate change adaptation and risk prevention and management”, thus implementing the Paris Agreement. On 11 December 2019, the Commission moved forward with the European Green Pact, which aims to grow based on "climate and environmental goals, participatory processes that bring together citizens, cities and regions in the fight against climate change and environmental protection." The pact in question is the one that proposed a Fair Transition Mechanism, including a Fair Transition Fund so that no state or region is ignored. The Investment Plan for a Sustainable Europe discusses the regions and sectors most affected by the transition, given their dependence on fossil fuels, coal, peat and oil shale or other industrial processes with high greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, it is necessary to look closely at those sectors that will decline, with a reduction in economic production and employment levels, especially in sectors where coal, lignite, peat and bituminous shale predominate, for which to find economically and socially sustainable alternatives. Infrastructure, coal is present in 108 European regions, so a mechanism for a fair transition will have to fill the gaps left by the closure of mines or other sectors mentioned.

The mechanism will consist of three pillars: “(1) a Just Transition Fund implemented through shared management, (2) a specific scheme within InvestEU and (3) a public sector loan facility, under which the EIB Group will mobilize additional investment for the regions concerned. The Just Transition Fund will be used mainly for grants, the specific transition scheme within InvestEU will attract private investment, and the partnership with the EIB will mobilize public funds."

Under the Transition Coal Regions project, cohesion policy will support the transition of 21 regions with the most coal-dependent economies from 2020, taking into account the economic, industrial, technological and social dimensions in the transition process. This difficult process will try to establish relationships between industry and research, support SMEs, technological innovation, retraining of workers who once worked in the coal sector and aim to obtain alternative renewable energy sources. But it is particularly important that Member States, local actors, decision-makers and local communities take on these principles of development, and only then will the initiative be a real success.

Initially, the concept of just transition was developed for unions with the idea of reconciling divergent views on climate issues, but the concept has gained new value and spread considerably including in local and federal government statements, in those of civil society, industry, and communities. Thus, in 2016, the International Labor Organization launched Guidelines on a Just Transition towards environmentally-sustainable economies for all. Just transition is the essence of democracy in the end, because we are talking about an integrated and intelligent approach to sustainable development by fully cooperating on social progress, environmental protection and economic success through democratic governance, while having a participatory attitude on the part of communities, with a bottom-up approach, starting at the local level on environmental commitments.

The need to update the EU's strategy to decarbonise the economy by the middle of the century is more than obvious, further strengthening the ambitions of the Paris Agreement to limit global warming to no more than 2 degrees Celsius. Climate policies can be combined with the need for employment, the need for health and carefully planned business opportunities, which will ultimately also contribute to the diversification of the regions' economy. This, of course, also requires professionalization, training in ecological terms and ecological practices of workers so as to meet new needs and challenges.

In the European Union 15% of EU energy generation is due to coal – a major source of carbon dioxide – which together accounts for 18% of EU emissions. Coal burning totals 23,000 premature deaths in the EU every year. Recalling the 2015 Paris Agreement, the IPCC report, or the European Union's decarbonisation strategy until 2050, the vision is clear: coal must be completely eliminated, because only this will lead to zero emissions until the middle of the century. But for this to happen, it is necessary to develop the appropriate technologies so that the existing installations allow the adaptation to the new requirements, the emission of as few emissions as possible.

Compared to 1990 levels, the main desire is to reduce emissions by 80-95%, which will mean a different world than the one we know now, because we will live in a economically transformed society.

Since 100 years ago, when coal began to be a fundamental part of our lives and to shape the way we live and how we live, coal has penetrated in countless aspects from trade, to transport infrastructure, to community life. Closure of mines is a fundamental impact, especially for the communities that relied on its extraction, because the way the community has been operating for so long will change radically. That is why we are talking about financial aid and expertise in order to overcome possible socio-economic impasses. Renewable energy, especially wind, can be an essential aid in this context. Wind energy has been shown to have a positive impact on European regions, and communities benefit from it. As the mines do, wind farms contribute to local economies through the taxes they pay to local governments, covering around 20% of municipal revenues in some cases. There are currently more than 260,000 people working in the wind industry, which is an advantage over the mining industry if we look at the numbers.

Due to technological innovations and environmental policies that have led to the development of new markets and economies, the costs of wind or photovoltaic energy have dropped considerably, gaining an extraordinary advantage over coal energy, which further strengthens the real possibility of deep or even total decarbonisation, as desired by international bodies. If the world we know is currently operating at a capacity of 20-30% of renewable sources, in order to reach an operation based on 100% regenerability, a process of phasing out fossil energy systems is needed, which we can translate as we have well discussed through just transition. At the same time, the decarbonisation of sectors such as transport, agriculture or manufacturing requires the emergence at the same time and with the same speed and conviction of innovations, both in terms of practice, technology and the mentality of people, who think in support of environment, together with their political allies.

Under the Just Transition Mechanism, 100 billion euros are allocated for the development of green economies, at the end of the fossil fuel era, and Romania will receive 10.11 billion euros, plus another 757 million euros from the Fair Transition Fund, being the the third largest beneficiary in the amount allocated, with the plans for a fair transition spanning a period of ten years. Not all areas will receive funding, but only “research and innovation activities that focus on stimulating the transfer of advanced technologies, those that focus on implementing green and accessible energy technologies and infrastructures, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, to energy efficiency and renewable energy; digitization and digital connection; regeneration and decontamination of sites, land reclamation; circular economy that includes waste prevention, consumption reduction, resource efficiency – application of the principle reuses, repairs, recycles; improving the vocational training and retraining of workers for the labor market and SMEs; technical support." The funds will not go to activities related to nuclear energy, the production and sale of tobacco products or fossil fuels.

Romania’s case

Regarding the Jiu Valley transition, carbon capture and storage and use of technologies that are particularly expensive will only make the transition more difficult and jeopardize the achievement of global warming limitation targets. Moreover, investments in sectors other than those agreed will subdue the Jiu Valley to an alternative, secondary transition that is not needed, because there are neither the resources nor the time to test "expensive, uncertain and inefficient technologies that can cause economic, social and environmental inbalances”. Hydrogen networks or the capture, storage and use of carbon dioxide are not serious options for the social and economic development of the Jiu Valley, states Greenpeace Romania.

The funds must be invested strictly in innovation, research, digital infrastructure so as to achieve the smart circular economy, there must be a smart approach to the future, in which to promote the fair and sustainable energy transition. Greenpeace Romania promotes the idea of ​​a scenario in which the Jiu Valley is a generator of innovation in the Romanian energy sector, being considered the most viable and feasible vision for the future of the region in the context of total economic transformation based on energy transition to renewable sources. Jiu Valley is also able to integrate the vision that it can support professional retraining and smart specialization, which can be centered around the energy transition by transforming the economy into a sustainable, circular and green. The environment must also be restored and conserved, it is necessary that “30% of ecosystems be protected by 2030, in order to restore their functioning and ensure that they can continue to support the vital conditions for our existence. The Jiu Valley is surrounded by National Parks and Natura 2000 sites. Protecting them must become a priority at both regional and national/European level.”

The Romanian rulers have always tried to support the coal industry and prolong its life, especially the life of lignite and hard coal. One of the two major parties in Romania, the Social Democrat, (PSD) has always been a vocal supporter of fossil fuels, especially because they had numerous electoral bases in counties that relied heavily on fossil fuels. Both the Ministry and the Minister of Energy have expressed their support for a continuous use of fossil fuels.

The situation is particular in Romania, because the union leaders refuse to accept the collapse of the coal industry, just as they do not accept the massive layoffs in the context of the just transition. Energy efficiency and renewable energy decision-makers have a weak organizational capacity and a poor relationship and communication with NGOs and academic institutions that could serve as generous means to help develop and implement concrete and effective measures. Institutionally, there is a limited role of NGOs in the decision-making process in Romania, having at the same time one of the lowest participation rates of NGOs in the EU. For the period 2014-2020, Romania received as funding for cohesion policy from the EU 22.4 billion euros, but also 30.9 billion euros from total EU funds, of which 1.5 billion euros were invested in sustainable energy and € 3.7 billion in low-carbon transport.

In the fossil fuel sector, the Oltenia Energy Complex (CEO) is the main producer of lignite-based coal in the country, with extractive operations accounting for 80% of coal-based electricity in Romania. At the same time, it is the largest employer in Romania, with over 13,000 employees in 2017, but down from 45,000 employees in 1994 and with losses of 200 million euros in 2015. The Ministry of Energy has a share 77% of the company. It is interesting and important to note that the CEO was under pressure at the time to ask the Government to issue government decisions to expropriate land and housing to allow further expansion of the mines. On the other hand, the Hunedoara Energy Complex (CEH), owned by the state, currently has two power plants and four coal mines in the Jiu Valley, with losses from 2013 and entered insolvency proceedings in 2016, although CEH received around of EUR 60 million in state aid through four publicly financed loans.

In the case of Romania, the contribution to the local budget from the coal industry has now reached 2%, having in mind that had a level of 76% in previous decades. This is caused by declining coal production and use of it. Germany, Romania, Greece have committed themselves to substantially reducing or permanently eliminating the exploitation and use of coal, although these activities will continue for at least two more decades to come. It is true that Germany, Romania and Greece have already taken steps to significantly reduce the volume of coal extracted and processed. Germany targets 2038 as the threshold for eliminating coal from industrial activities. Romania intends to reduce its use by 2030, so that only 20.5% of electricity comes from coal sources. But, Greece is aiming for the year 2035, until then it will make efforts to use as little lignite as possible.

In an interview with Euractiv, the former president of Romania, Traian Băsescu – during one of his mandate Romania joined the EU – spoke about the implementation of the Green Deal in Romania. He argues that the new European environmental agreement will not impede development, but will lead to the transformation of development into a new one based on sustainability and strongly anchored in climate issues. It is estimated that two or three Member States will withdraw from the European Union in the future, although the Brexit event is still recent. The former president considers that Romania will not be able to fulfill the ecological transition with much success, because it currently needs the construction of highways, the modernization of railways, a proper financing of the health and education system, the implication being that the Green Deal will lead to failure of large-scale infrastructure projects. Currently, the railway system is severely affected, but could benefit from the Green Deal by promoting sustainable means of transport, but education and health are not taken into account in terms of Green Deal.

He acknowledges that the mining industry in Romania has been dying since the fall of communism, and that it is not economically or ecologically sustainable and has major health problems in the regions where mining is widespread, and the collapse of this industry is expected soon.

Basescu is also the one who highlights how Exxon and Lukoil should exploit the Black Sea gas reserves in 2021-2022 to better help the Black Sea region, but it is known that the two companies in their history have produced serious effects through oil spills and have always denied the importance of climate and ecology. But another viable and healthy recommendation in the Black Sea would be the construction of offshore wind farms, which is a truly sustainable approach. Basescu says the money from the Fair Transition Fund will be accessible only to those with experience in European funds, because the Romanian administration is buried in bureaucracy and lacks essential information about EU funds and how they should be managed. He also argues that the Fund may not be enough for Romania and other Member States to meet the climate targets set for 2050, and the recommendation would be to increase the Fund in the next Multiannual Financial Framework.

In 2019, the Romanian Government approved an Emergency Ordinance by which it was decided to allocate 91.4 million lei to ensure the monthly income (in addition) to the miners who will be fired from the Hunedoara Energy Complex and the National Society of Mine Closures. The income in question is “equal to the difference between the net salary of the miner in the last three months of activity, but not more than the level of the average net salary in the economy in January of the year in which the employee is laid off and the level of unemployment benefit the same year.” Former miners will receive this allowance depending on their seniority, ie either they will receive the money for 12 months for those with a length of service of 3-10 years, or for 20 months for those with a length of service between 10-15 years or for two years for miners aged 15-22. The miners will therefore receive both the full monthly income and unemployment benefits.

Considering that due to the steps taken by the Bankwatch Romania Association – they managed to convince the Bucharest Court of Appeal to annul the Environmental Agreement no. 2/2016 which allowed the extension of the Roșia coal quarry, the largest in Romania, which exploited until 2016 approximately 1500 hectares –, Romania is making progress on sustainable development and largely complies with the provisions of the Just Transition Mechanism.

Presentation of the research methodology

Abstract

This section discusses the climatic characteristics in relation to mining. It presents the evolution of industry in the Jiu Valley after the fall of communism, especially from a socio-economic perspective, translated by the employment indicator in the region, detailing the major risks that miners face in the transition process, but also due to inefficiency and non-existence appropriate measures or policies in the field. Even if the main topic is the Jiu Valley, for a better understanding of local and regional phenomena and conditions, the chapter also introduces the context of other coal and carbon regions in Romania, the most representative being the Oltenia region. The provisions of the Romanian Constitution are also highlighted, highlighting the legal provisions regarding the status of mines. The region also wanted the intensification and expansion of the Roșia mine a few years ago, which would have seriously violated the objectives of a Just Transition and sustainable development.

Another important part of the chapter is climate change, which documents how local governments, agencies, international bodies and decision-makers seek to mitigate the destructive effects of greenhouse gases through policy development and implementation, strategies and laws to protect the environment and climate. Current data are presented at the level of 2020 to understand exactly the current situation of humanity and we go from a macro to a micro perspective, illustrating the measures to combat pollution in the mining regions. Also, a significant role is played by the part related to the mining policies, strategies and laws in which the most representative for the field are stated, both in the case of the European Union and in that of Romania.

The chapter is enriched with the section on energy and all major and relevant data for this sector, on both the international and Romanian agenda, and for the latter several statistical data are presented. Then, we can see what the legislation provides when closing the mines, what documents are required and what are the specific fees. And finally, the central part of the study is dimensioned, ie the environmental dimension in which the most notable effects on the environment that mining has in the Jiu Valley are presented.

Therefore, following the research, it was discovered that Romania suffered a sharp decline in mining industry, faces the highest unemployment rate in the country and is on the list of those countries that respect the European acquis of the European Union, making significant progress especially in terms of policy and legislation. However continues to have shortcomings in certain aspects that are related to the efficient implementation of normative proposals.

Socio-economic context

The unsustainability of European employment, especially in the south-eastern region, has been declared since 2004 by the World Bank, which recommended at the time the need to reduce the workforce by 68-83% for the industry to become viable. During this time, environmental issues have become increasingly agitated, with an estimated 80% of coal reserves remaining underground to avoid truly catastrophic climate change, such as increases above 2 degrees Celsius, which also resulted in the 2015 Paris Agreement in which Member States agreed to halt growth to a maximum of 1.5 degrees Celsius, but in 2016 it was found that constant carbon emissions from oil and gas coal from mining quarries will increase by more than 2 degrees Celsius, and even if no coal is currently mined and used at all, the increase in global average temperature would still exceed 1.5 degrees Celsius. What was wanted a few years ago was that no mining or fossil fuel transport infrastructure be built, and that governments ban such permits. Mining quarries should be closed, especially in highly developed countries, by a gradual, not abrupt, decline that would allow for the reconversion of the economy so that states do not suffer a sudden and violent economic and social shock.

Some of the most appalling examples are those of Great Britain and Romania that have closed many mining careers, but this has happened without a well-developed planning and without being inclusive. Coal is no longer an economic option since new anti-pollution legislation was developed, new carbon price levels were established, and costs for solar and wind energy production began to fall sharply.

If in 1990 there were 15 active mines in the Jiu Valley, by 2018 seven mines were closed between 1994-2015, and these are Câmpul lui Neag, Valea de Brazi, Bărbăteni, Aninoasa, Iscroni, Dâlja, Petrila Sud. Five other mining units were considered unprofitable, namely Uricani, Paroșeni, Petrila, Vulcan and Livezeni, which closed in 2017, and the surviving mines, seen as profitable being Lupeni and Lonea, operating within the CEH that should have been to cease operations in 2024, but the Ministry of Energy and CEH have agreed to extend the partnership until 2027. CEH recorded losses of approximately 17 million euros in 2017 through Paroșeni and Mintia thermal power plants, the company producing only 1% from the country's electricity in 2017. The Oltenia Energy Complex (the third largest Romanian company in terms of number of employees, ie 13,281 in 2017) had a profit of 41 million euros for production electricity and wind power, although a year ago it had lost 31 million euros.

The productivity figure of lignite was 3190 tons/worker in 2017, which meant a significant increase compared to the level of 1778 tons/worker in 2013, but far from the EU average of 6111 tons/worker. The production cost per ton of lignite decreased constantly, from 61.53 RON/ton in 2012 to 52.65 RON/ton in 2016, which means almost 12 Euro/ton. In the case of Romania, there is talk of a restructuring of the mining sector until 2030, but about a reduction of mining equipment by 30%, not about job cuts, yet.

One of the promoters of Bankwatch, Alexandru Mustată stated that

“Romania is one of the seven EU states that have not set a date for the completion of coal, but will not be able to postpone this decision much longer. In this context, giving the green coal mine a green light only means deceiving locals and miners. Bankwatch has been claiming for years that central and local governments are beginning to plan for the future beyond the coals of Romania's main mining areas, Hunedoara and Gorj. Jobs and opportunities must be created with the implementation of the energy transition”.

It should be noted that the unemployment rate in the Jiu Valley had the highest share in the country, reaching values ​​of up to 30%, which do not appear in the declared statistics. Thus, it is clear that there are a large number of qualified people who have a real potential to contribute as a workforce, but who are unable to find a job. The risk of poverty in the region is a worrying statistic, as around 80% of the inhabitants of the Jiu Valley have debts to at least one financial/banking organization. The income level in the area is quite low, the access to education services (except the University of Petroșani) and medical care being also limited. The decline is not very recent, but began after 1995, when the first massive layoffs of the mining industry took place, and local communities such as Petroșani, Petrila, Vulcan, Lupeni, Uricani, and Aninoasa, once economically prosperous, are now struggling to survive.

It would be unfair not to mention that underground mining is associated with work-related accidents, which often had serious consequences. It has to be taken into account that in the coal exploitation there are many natural risks that need to be monitored and managed through very professional management, thus continuous physical and geophysical measurements are required, but experts in mine planning and identification and use of appropriate technologies to cut the risk of fatal accidents are always needed. So, in a mining career there are major responsibilities for the safety and health of miners and all auxiliary staff, but the responsibilities also lie with companies through professional development, job stability, wages corresponding to occupational hazards, the right to form unions, equal opportunities work and pay between women and men.

Civil society also has a vital role to play in the decarbonisation process by stepping up the pressure it can generate in this regard, but we must not forget that governments have the primary responsibility for supporting and making a just transition by launching clear and optimal policy frameworks, and investment on decarbonisation, these policies must be relevant and beneficial to the economy, infrastructure, businesses, workers, human communities.

Other cases of Coal and Carbon Intensive Regions in Romania

To dig even deeper into Romania's mining problems and to see even more clearly the negative impact that the mining industry has on the social and economic life of its inhabitants, we will discover more about the locals from Runcurel, a small village in southwestern Romania in which the mining activity has been the main activity for 40 years. The problem arose when the reserves were exhausted, and the inhabitants were informed that the Oltenia Energy Complex needs the land on which the people's houses are located. Rounds of negotiations followed between the locals and the operator, but they failed miserably because people wanted the appropriate compensation that was not accepted. Thus, the Government adopted an expropriation decision for 1 euro per square meter, and the 400 villagers ended up in an extremely delicate situation, fighting against a giant like OEC, without too many chances to win.

If I refer to the Romanian Constitution, it clearly states that for projects of public interest, the state must provide compensation that "will be agreed with the owner […] for damage to soil, plantations or buildings." We can deduce that the actions of the Government were inconsistent with the Constitution in force. The only solutions are either the annulment in court or the revocation of the decision by the Government, which seems almost impossible. So, here is about the tax money collected from the locals to be used against them, in the expropriation action. Bankwatch and Greenpeace Romania allied and sued the Romanian state on March 24, 2016 for ignoring the laws and violating the Constitution, in Romania's desire to make an entire village disappear from the map.

About the recent events, we can mention a case of a coal mine in Gorj County, the Roșia mine, the extension of which was blocked by a court in Bucharest, in the fall of 2019. A few years ago, the Oltenia Energy Complex, which I also discussed it, being the largest energy company in the country, it tried to expand the lignite-based coal mine of 1457 hectares from Roșia with another 280 hectares, 235 hectares being covered by forests that should have been to disappear from the surface of the earth. In 2017, Bankwatch claimed that the environmental permit for the expansion of the mine was granted to the owner without prior consultation with the local community and that a proper impact assessment had not been carried out. Moreover, the extended mine was only 10 kilometers away from a Natura 2000 site, namely the Jiu Corridor, which could have had devastating consequences for endangered species in the region. Moreover, the groundwater was polluted within a radius of 30 kilometers around the mine, which would have affected the inhabitants even more.

In the case of the Oltenia Energy Complex it is desired to apply some measures to reduce the adverse effects of mining, such as “Reconstruction of land in the forest or agricultural circuit, without technological tasks; Monitoring the stability of landfills and environmental factors; Maintaining the safety zone against inhabited areas; Respecting the drainage technology in order to avoid the phenomena of land degradation." Reconstruction, modeling, greening and landscaping in the economic circuit are planned. So far, about 3,500 hectares have been reintroduced into the agricultural and forestry economic circuit. On June 5, 2015, in Târgu Jiu, 100,000 trees were planted in 24 hours, thanks to World Environment Day, an action led mainly by civil society with the help of the Oltenia Energy Complex and the Gorj Forestry Department.

Fossil fuels played an important role both in the latter part of the twentieth century and today. Romania's energy strategy reconfirms the importance of this sector at least a few decades from now. It is planned for the future to supplement the natural gas capacity with 430 MW in Iernut plus a coal capacity of 600 MW in Rovinari, which normally should be built by 2030. Energy policy in Romania is in fact, it is focused on security of supply, as the Government does not provide more climate policies to the targets set by the European Union, the priority being the growth of the energy sector, reducing electricity prices, but increasing consumption. Indeed, coal and gas consumption is expected to decrease.

Climate change

2019 was an atypical year from a climatic point of view, we can remember the huge, many and deadly fires in California and Australia, as well as the protests and strikes of young people around the globe through the phenomenon known as by Fridays for Future and beyond 2020, humanity is at a crossroads because of the unimaginable crisis caused by Covid-19, a health crisis, a major economic crisis, but which, by isolating people and significantly reducing the activities of work, the pollution has decreased exponentially.

Our attempts to meet and achieve climate goals – to keep the global temperature rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels – are not strong enough. By not strictly adhering to the precepts of climate agreements, we will end up talking seriously about tipping points that could mean melting significant ice sheets in Antarctica or the loss of significant areas of rainforests in the Amazon, which could have unacceptable consequences. But most importantly, this consequences will be irreversible. Yet, there is also progress to be made in 2019. For example, the United States has put climate change issues at the top of the list, becoming an increasingly visible and serious issue, becoming a priority for the authorities on the North American continent.

Yet, we continue to talk about the need to step up efforts to reduce harmful emissions to limit the average rise in temperature to 1,5 degrees Celsius. The 2019 UN emissions report showed that global emissions should fall by 7.6% every year from 2020 in order to have any hope of reaching the target, but in the absence of drastic measures in every country, we will not be able to have success in this regard, because we are currently talking about very slow progress. Many countries not only fail to meet their decarbonisation targets, but do the opposite, continuing to build coal-fired power plants and exploit even more oil. We can recall in this case the public concern about climate policies, the higher fuel costs that erupted mainly in France and Chile in 2019, where in France there were countless protests between civilians and police, often bloody and brutal, due to the unfair impact of carbon taxes on those in poorer social strata. We can also mention the Brazilian situation and President Bolsonaro who wants to intensify the agro-industry in the Amazon and in the indigenous territories that he expels from their territory, things that are particularly serious for the climate and the local community.

When we talk about climate change in the region, compared to the period 1961-1990, in the period 2009-2014 there was an accentuation of extreme phenomena, due to climate change, which have profound effects on the economy (especially tourism), because such climate fluctuations which means an increase in temperature and a decrease in the number of precipitations in December will create a snow shortage in the Parâng resort of Jiu Valley, which means an impossibility of mountain activities, winter sports, and the number of tourists decreases significantly.

At the county level, measures have been taken to combat pollution and to introduce alternative energy sources, and some of these measures include increasing energy efficiency, expanding technical and municipal networks, expanding and modernizing public lighting, introducing alternative energy. Most projects that contain such measures can be found in the cities of Deva (27), Hunedoara (25), Petroșani (15) and Orăștie (11), but can also be added cities such as Aninoasa, Vulcan, Petrila, while in the environment 18 such projects were identified in rural areas. Significant projects are also neglected, such as the construction of a “biomass thermal power plant in Brad, the construction of a photovoltaic park in Simeria, the development of energy sources for urban district heating with thermal agent produced by cogeneration, the implementation of a system for biogas production, the realization an electricity production park using photovoltaic panels and the construction of a technology park for alternative energy in Deva, as well as the construction of a photovoltaic and wind farm in Orăștie.”

When we are talking about climate change and our global efforts to limit global average temperature rise, we are doing it through harsh environmental policies and very ambitious local and national strategies, under a continental and ultimately global umbrella, but efforts do not seem to bear fruit momentarily or are manifested in a slow rhythm. For example, in the first three months of 2020, they represented the second warmest period, a record held before the relentless El Niño in 2016. In any case, 2019 was also a tumultuous heat, which led to a whitening of corals in the summer of 2019. The water level continues to rise due to melting glaciers and due to the thermal expansion of the water as it warms. Temperatures in the first three months of 2020 were much warmer than they would have been, and if this is maintained until the end of the year, then 2020 will be the year that breaks records, but due to global temperature fluctuations in October -March compared to April-September can give us a reason to hope that we will not get that far.

Mining policies, strategies and Laws

Historically, we are talking about 2004 when the Romanian Government adopted the Mining Industry Strategy for the period 2004-2010 which aimed at "optimizing the economic performance of the industry, supporting the local economy in mining areas and meeting the criteria for accession to the European Union." Furthermore, in 2012 there was an attempt to reduce production costs in the mining sector, which led to new staff restructuring, anticipating the decrease in production at the national level in 2018. Subsequently, Romania's Mining Strategy 2017-2035 was developed with the vision that Romania to become a “country with sustainable, transparent and clean mining, as a factor of economic progress”, among the objectives being to be observed “repositioning the mining field in the perspective of ensuring the mineral resources necessary for the sustainable development of the country, with priority from domestic production”.

In December 2017, the European Commission launched the Platform for Transitional Coal Regions initiative, which brings together four times a year 300 representatives of coal regions, cities, trade unions, industry, NGOs, and government officials to identify the most ideal actions on the just transition. Since 2012, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro has raised the issue of the need to integrate environmental issues with society and the economic agenda so as to address issues related to the impact of economic activities on biodiversity, social inclusion, quality of life and natural resources. In 2015, 193 UN member states met at the Paris Summit on Sustainable Development, thus adopting the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development that promotes sustainable development between the economic, social and, environmental pillars, Romania being one of the signatory countries of the Agenda.

It is recommended in the particular case of Romania regarding the Just Transition that for a 2040/2050 horizon to abandon the stages of economic development based on the use of fossil fuels as has happened in other heavily industrialized regions in this field, which would determine an extraordinary growth of the industry based on renewable sources.

The strategy for the transition from coal of the Jiu Valley is a strategy aimed at supporting the Romanian region of the Jiu Valley in economic diversification and economic development during its transition from a region based primarly on the mining industry. In retrospect, in the early 1990s, so after the fall of communism, there were 140,000 inhabitants in the Jiu Valley, over 45,000 employees, and 15 mines and mining quarries. Today, however, there are four operational mines, two of which are expected to cease operations in 2020. Another intriguing fact is that over 65% of the coal needed for the Mintia power plant is now imported. Despite the fact that mining activity has dropped dramatically, a third of families in the region still depend on and rely on mining as their main source of income. In 2002, the Romanian Government approved GD 646/2002 on the Strategy for the socio-economic development of the Jiu Valley coal basin. At the same time, a loan was created from the World Bank to close the mines and mitigate the social impact.

Romania’s new national energy and climate plan (NECP) is sending incoherent signals regarding the country’s commitment for a just transition away from fossil fuels, finds an analysis by Bankwatch Romania. The Romanian economy is dependent on industries with high greenhouse gas emissions, but the NECP does not detail measures to support a just transition away from fossil fuels. Jiu Valley is already part of the Platform for Coal Regions in Transition and is currently receiving technical assistance to identify the most suitable projects and funding sources for the area. But for Gorj County, where over 10 000 people are directly employed in quarries and power plants, the next steps for decarbonisation are not addressed in the Plan. The NECP also proposes a decrease of 43.9 per cent of greenhouse gases emissions until 2030, compared to 2005, a 30.7 per cent share of renewable energy in the gross final consumption (in contrast to the European Commission’s recommended share of 34 per cent), and a drop in final energy consumption of 40.4 per cent. Yet the specific measures proposed in the NECP to reach these targets are not detailed enough nor adequately funded.

The EU's precepts are found in the Clean Energy for All Europeans package, which addresses five dimensions such as energy security, solidarity and trust; a fully integrated internal energy market; energetic efficiency; climate action and the decarbonisation of the economy and research, innovation and competitiveness. The NECP I talked about earlier is a strategy for the period 2021-2030. I mentioned that the objectives are not detailed and this is because the ways in which these objectives will contribute to the achievement of the targets are ambiguous and lack the strength to support financial plans, which are also very poorly formulated, being presented only the existing financial instruments.

Moreover, Romania is in line with the seven EU member states that do not yet have a concrete date for a just transition, a date when coal will be abandoned. The installed capacity in 2030 is almost 2 GW, although it has not been profitable for some time. Consideration should be given to excluding a possible plan to build a new unit at the Rovinari plant as proposed in 2012 and postponed, and most likely the project will never be put into action again. Law 278/2013 on the implementation of best available techniques (BAT) in the industrial sector is a relevant example, because in Romania these provisions are not observed, being often violated, especially in 2017 due to the operation of coal-fired power plants without integrated environmental permits.

For 2020, the installed capacity of coal units is estimated to be 3,752 MW, although as of October 1, 2018, the installed capacity was 5,915 MW. There are several inconsistencies between the data entered in the NECP and between the real data, because the document presents a different situation, ie shows an installed coal capacity of 3,240 MW, while the Romanian transmission and system operator, Transelectrica indicates a net power of 3,960 MW and an installed capacity of 3,212 MW in 2030, with no changes until 2030, although many units will exceed their period of economic operation, and emission limits will become even stricter given BAT. Considering the characteristic of old-fashioned and often unsustainable equipment in Romania, given the expropriations that are being made, Romania should give up burning coal for electricity by 2030. Most likely this will not happen.

The scientific community has agreed that natural gas cannot be considered a transitional fuel, and some of the reasons are that investments in renewable energy or energy efficiency are more profitable, as natural gas transmission and storage infrastructure releases methane which has an impact 23 times greater than carbon dioxide. The Romanian energy system has been found to need fossil fuels in the near future because so far it has been poorly managed, and to ensure security in this regard there are no immediate solutions, so Romania must invest as soon as possible in this area. So, the construction of plants based on natural gas, so almost 3 GW new by 2030 is risky, given the high cost of production involved. Such units are only profitable if they can operate for at least 30 years, but the EU wants to decarbonise by 2050, which means that the units should be closed by then. It is also important to note that the mayors of the Jiu Valley recently understood the real opportunities and benefits for the environment and started collaborations with Bankwatch or Greenpeace Romania, which prepared the visit of the European Commission and signed a Memorandum of Cooperation for the implementation of the transition. fair between six mayors in July 2019.

The Mining Law no. 85 of 2003 (“Mining Law”) regulates the development of mining activities in Romania by stimulating the capitalization of state-owned mineral resources. The status of activities involving the recognition, operation, development, preparation and concentration of mines, trade in mining products and the conservation and closure of mines, including environmental rehabilitation works, must be made explicit. Mining law also ensures fair competition between operators regardless of whether the form of ownership is public or private, regardless of the origin of the capital and the nationalization of the operators. The main institution with supervisory and regulatory authority in the mining sector is the National Agency for Mineral Resources (ANRM).

Another policy that stands out is the Employment and Training Incentives Scheme (ETIS). ETIS support in job creation is important, especially in local development, which is trying to provide incentives of $1,200 per job, with a view to paying labor incentives for eligible employers in mining regions to hire new workers for a specified period of one year. The Ministry of Economy handles designing the policy, and ANMR is responsible for implementing the policy.

The strategy of the mineral industry 2012-2020 is another step taken in support of the sustainable development of the mining sector in Romania. The Ministry of Economy published in 2012 a report called Mining Industry Strategy 2012-2035 which presented a series of targets such as "Ensuring the sustainable development of Romania's mineral resources", "Harmonization of national interest and investment capital, respecting sustainability requirements" or "Reducing dependence on imported primary energy resources and raw minerals and improving the transparency of the mineral industry."

Government Resolution on waste management in the extractive industries, no. 856/2008 explains how the extractive industries treat waste directly from "Prospecting, extraction, treatment and storage of mineral resources" and "Exploitation of mining quarries". The document stated that waste must be managed in accordance with the waste management plan approved by ANRM and the Ministry of Environment.

The most powerful sector from an economic, social and environmental point of view to ensure the transition from a mono-industrial region is seen as specific to tourism in Dorina Niță's vision (2014), because tourism is a suitable solution to maintain economic balance in the region and can alleviate existing interregional disparities. The resources of the Jiu Valley, both natural and anthropic, can be a concrete source of profit generation.

This potential is explained by the desire of tourists to visit natural monuments of boundless beauty, which can be seen for the first time, especially if they are foreign tourists, and the fact that we are talking about a mountainous area with many spectacular mountain ranges it gives them a real chance to recreate and enjoy the passions they have. Of course, these desires need to be strengthened by the will of local authorities to support tourists with effective and well-thought-out policies and measures for sustainable development, based on an analysis of the local government, which knows the region best, and will seek expertise from international bodies that have successfully implemented measures in other similar regions that needed an action plan to restructure the economy, the environment and the community. Following the partnership of local administrations with local communities and the private environment, but also with those who have expertise in the field of tourism and sustainable development in which NGOs can be found, we must find the best practices and measures to generate a transformation of the anemic region at present, in one that is profitable and that protects the environment at the same time.

The Romanian Biomass Master Plan (2010) provided an important opportunity for Romania to move towards biomass efficiency, in line with Directive 2009/28/EC on the use of renewable sources, while aiming to reduce CO2 emissions and increase efficiency of industries, which also create new opportunities for national and international private companies to invest in Romania. In another note, the National Renewable Energy Action Plan (2010) set as national and sectoral targets for energy efficiency the increase of biomass availability taking into account sectors such as agriculture and forestry. The legal aspects related to the production of electricity for renewable sources are represented by the Government Decision no. 443/2003 on the promotion of electricity from renewable sources and by Government Decision no. 1535/2003 regarding the approval of the capitalization of renewable energy sources. Romania's national strategy for energy efficiency was approved by Government Decision no. 163/2004 and established the types of objectives that would lead to the increase of energy efficiency in various sectors. One of the main objectives is to identify those alternatives to increase energy efficiency alongside the energy cycle, so through a measure to promote energy efficiency that ultimately leads to reduced energy consumption to the final consumer.

Policy and Strategy for the development of the forestry sector in Romania (2001 – 2010) aimed to increase the contribution of the forestry sector to increasing the quality of life based on sustainable forest management, but also dimensioned the importance of creating an improved institutional framework to achieve efficient and effective implementation. uniform policy of sustainable development of forestry areas. The National Plan to Combat Illegal Exploitation aims to combat illegal forestry and wildlife activities. The National Action Plan for Environmental Public Procurement (2008-2013) presents the legislative framework that establishes the criteria for all ecological procurement for certain categories of products and services and brings to the fore the need to develop extra ecological criteria for an efficient and sustainable public procurement in Romania.

Another aspect to be taken into account when discussing the mining sector is the vocational training of potential workers, which must also have a geological training, which should be started from the middle and high school education, which should be continued in the vocational school for training of technicians, then developed in the university environment, for the training of specialists, such as geologists, geological engineers, geophysicists, mining engineers, engineers in technological equipment. It is vital that highly skilled and trained workers are able to identify and develop the best technologies and working methods appropriate to sustainability. This includes certain costs related to staff training, which imposes some specialization costs, costs for conducting research in the field of development and innovation, costs for implementing industrial, economic and social policies, costs for some measures in the field of education and educational programs, but also standards specific to the creation of new standards for the environment and the extractive industry.

The closure of the mines has already led to a decrease in the income of the population in the respective regions, as expected, where of course the local economy has also suffered losses, and local budgets have been reduced. It is more difficult for people to find a job according to their professional training, as they may have to go to another country where they can do what they know best. That is why a well-thought-out social protection action plan must enter into force, at least in the short term, when redundant staff face a drastic drop in living standards due to the loss of their source of income. Through the gradual reduction or total closure of mines, human resources are also lost, such as teachers, medical and education staff, which affects the community to a certain extent.

Even if the mining activities will continue, and the final completion of these activities cannot be done suddenly, it is necessary that throughout the life cycle of a mine to be manifested a continuous concern towards the development of new optimal technologies to ensure better extraction and use of resources with minimal impact on the environment, and thus the human community.

Romania's mining strategy 2017-2035 explains the reasons behind the decision to close the mines, which in fact did not represent an objective in itself, but a normal consequence of the evolution of the Romanian economy after the fall of communism, when they were reduced investments in the national economy which led to a large decrease in the need for raw materials such as mineral resources, but also in mining production – the amount of useful mineral substances extracted. Also, another reason was the unprofitability of the exploitation of mineral resources, so their economic inefficiency, due to poor extraction technologies. This Strategy seeks to continue the activities of exploitation, even the opening of new careers, but in conditions where economic efficiency can be guaranteed.

It is possible to proceed with the closure of mines and their greening because there are already 11 regulations that can create a favorable framework for the closure and restoration of 556 mining objectives, there is a specialized operator set up specifically for the process of ecological closure and revitalization of mining quarries. Regarding the risks when starting to close the mines, there may be events such as accidental irradiation, accumulation of gases with potential for explosion that may cause fires or underground explosions, the possibility of entering an underground quarry of untrained persons who may suffocate or intoxicate, certain surfaces can collapse, the deposit can degrade, and the national reserve can suffer huge losses through chemical and physical alteration, but also private properties can be destroyed or social and economic objectives, certain road and rail access routes or watercourses may be blocked.

Energy

The total global primary energy need in 2018 was 19.8 billion tonnes of coal equivalent (Gtce) of which 27.2% came from coal, which once again attests, if necessary, the importance of coal for energy generation. In the case of the European Union, 38% of global electricity generation and 20% of EU energy generation in 2018 was based on coal.

Romania has significant energy resources such as coal, fossil fuels and oil, in addition to significant gold deposits. More than three quarters of the country's total primary energy supply comes from domestic sources, well above the EU average of 45%. Coal and lignite account for 16.2% of energy supply, just above the EU average. Hard coal remnants number 2446 million tons, of which 11 million tons can be recovered economically. Lignite reserves amount to 280 million tons, of which 95% are in the mining basin of Oltenia, but in Romania, lignite deposits have a fairly low economic potential, which is why most mines have been closed. The total net energy generation capacity in Romania was 19,766 MW in 2018, ie coal 4,373 MW, which amounts to 22.1%, fossil gases 3,404 MW, ie 17.2%, hydro 6,329 MW, which means 32%, nuclear 1,300 MW, so that would be 6.6% and renewable 4,360 MW, translated by 22.1%, mostly wind turbines and solar energy.

It should also be noted that the coal industry has even so made some investments in environmental technologies, such as technologies specific for flue gas desulphurisation for SO2, but also in the case of catalytic reduction for NOx. It should also be remembered that the successes have been impressive, as pollutant emissions have decreased since 1900 by up to 90%, the highest level reached. At EU level, CO2 emissions in this coal sector decreased by almost 50% compared to 1990 to 2016. Methods are currently being developed to capture carbon dioxide and convert it into renewable energy into useful products such as chemicals and basic plastics or as substitutes for oil-based fuels.

Energy security is a key element on the international agenda, but also in Romania's energy policy, which wants to provide efficient primary resources, namely fossil and renewable energy resources. Romania still has lignite reserves for another 40 years, with a production level of approximately 30 million tons per year.

The total geological reserves for the coal complexes at Livezeni and Lupeni are estimated at 154,377 million tons. Romania has proposed a 3% reduction in the energy intensity of the national economy by 2020. Compared to the period 2010-2020, the coal supply of Romanian producers decreased by 5 million tons (from 33 million tons), and the level of insurance production is 38.6 years for coal and maximum 14 years for lignite. The coal reserves in the Petroșani Basin are 56 million tons, and the average production capacity is almost 1.5 million tons per year. The strategy of the Petroșani Basin regarding the closure of the mines took into account the requalification of the unemployed. The mountain neighborhood was taken into account, which has a real tourist potential, so the possibility of integrating the tourist potential in the economy and the professional field was considered, even if this will take a relatively long time because it requires a whole educational process that to allow these integrations. Otherwise, in the absence of experience and professional training, we will end up where we left off, ie inefficient measures and policies due to poor professional training, so lack of expertise.

As long as there is economic growth, there will be an increase in energy demand, until resources are depleted in this century. In 2013, 92% of carbon dioxide emissions came from burning fossil fuels, which produced 85% of the world's energy. It is clear that in order to avoid global warming, our energy system must be restructured based on technologies with a limited impact on the environment, ie those technologies that do not emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Solving carbon dioxide issues can be addressed by withdrawing or retrofitting capital before the end of its expected life cycle and replacing it with lower-emission technologies. But the early withdrawal would undermine short-term economic growth in many cases, the blocked assets would in fact become a loss of assets concentrated in some interests whose owners could oppose climate policies, notes the article Climate constraints on the carbon intensity of economic growth.

Moreover, a new, cleaner capital reduction would limit the availability of capital and labor to learning processes and institutions, thus the lack of skilled labor, lack of funding and anemic economic stimulus. It makes it significantly more difficult to adapt existing capital, especially in developing countries, which have an infrastructure deficit, especially in terms of financing. The same article shows that the intensity of production that generates carbon globally decreased from 480 to 400 gCo2/$ between 1990-2000, registering a slight increase in the period 2000-2005, followed by a further decrease to 380 in 2010. will continue to decline at the same rate, by 2050 it will be between 280-170g CO2/$. Thus, an average carbon intensity of global production for the target of 2 degrees Celsius corresponds to an intensity between 110-200g CO2/$ if effective measures are taken now, urgently.

Gas and electricity prices in Romania are relatively low, but it is known that Romania is the second poorest country in terms of energy 42% of households can not afford their energy utilities. Romania's energy intensity is 172% higher than the EU average, due to lack of investment. Except for wind and solar energy, all units in the energy system are relatively old, leading to large inefficiencies in energy production and transmission. By 2030, the government wants to invest between 7-14 billion euros in the renewal of power generation units.

Romania's National Strategy for Sustainable Development Horizons 2013-2020-2030 launched in 2008 had a fairly ideal vision of climate change and clean energy targets. The authorities were apparently aware of the need to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 20% at EU level by 2020 and to increase the share of energy from renewable sources by up to 20% and to increase energy efficiency by 20%. For the near future of those times, by 2013 it was wanted to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 10% compared to 1989, and the intensity of primary energy was to decrease to 0.34 tons of oil equivalent per 1000 euro-2005, compared to the reference 0.511 toe/1000 euros in 2006. Basically, energy intensity was to be reduced by the end of 2015 by 30-50% compared to 2005 figures.

Horizon 2020 has as national goal “Ensuring the efficient and safe functioning of the national energy system, reaching the average level of the EU-27 in 2006 in terms of energy intensity and efficiency, fulfilling Romania's obligations according to EU targets to limit the effects of climate change." So, this meant greenhouse gas emissions reduction by 20% compared to 1990 levels. Solar, wind, hydro geothermal and biogas had to increase in final consumption by 24% compared to 17.8% in 2005, although the EU target for 2020 was 20%. The share of electricity from renewable sources, according to the Strategy, had to be 38%.

Due to this increased energy efficiency, primary energy consumption were supposed to be reduced by 20% and final energy consumption by 18% compared to 2001-2005. At the same time, the intensity of primary energy had to shrink to 0.26 toe/1000 euro-2005, very close to the EU average. And for 2030, the national target is stated: "Alignment with the EU's average performance on energy and climate change indicators." Thus, Romania was in line with the possibility to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by up to 40% compared to the level of 1989, following that the primary energy consumption will be reduced by 30%, and the final energy consumption by 26% compared to 2001-2005, while also expanding the lighting network with efficient lamps and the use of clean technologies for the production of electricity and heat based on energy sources and power plants with very low carbon emissions. It was planned to build 3-4 high-capacity nuclear power plants to ensure the demand for consumption with technologies that do not produce carbon dioxide emissions.

Mining closure

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is regulated by Law 292/2018 on environmental impact assessment on public and private projects, and as provided in Annex I of the said Law, the EIA procedure is mandatory. The authorities should determine on the basis of the information provided by the concessionaire whether another EIA procedure is needed for mining-specific activities. Because we have not completely addressed the specificity of taxes, we must return to this area, specifying that there are several categories of taxes that a mining license holder must pay in order to initiate and continue his exploitation. First of all, the mining rights that must be paid to the state budget are noted and are established from the very beginning with the granting of the exploitation license, and the value varies depending on the resources exploited by the holder. In addition to this tax, there are the annual taxes, where it matters again what is the type of activity carried out, which can be prospecting, exploration or exploitation. There are also various fees charged by ANRM for the registration of deposits, for the cessation of mining activity, for the transfer of licenses, for various approvals and obtaining permits. Factually, a prospecting permit is 981 RON, an exploration license is 2,942 RON, and a production license 2,452 RON, while the production permit amounts to RON 2,942, ie the equivalent of approximately 605 euros.

Regarding the annual tax, it fluctuates depending on what happens with inflation, but for prospecting, the annual tax is 358 RON/km2, for exploration it is 1,437 RON/km2, in this case the tax doubles in the first two years and it multiplies by five after four years, and the production tax is 35,923 RON/k2. The mining royalty is calculated according to the percentage of the value of the result for ferrous and non-ferrous ores, aluminum, radioactive, rare earths, precious and semi-precious stones and thermo-mineral waters in 5%, coal 4% and precious metals 6%.

We cannot fully talk about the mining industry if we do not take into account the legal framework that allows its development. As mentioned, mining activity in Romania is mainly regulated by the Mining Law (Law no. 85/2003), being the one that regulates the way mining licenses are granted, royalties, the way mining taxes and obligations are collected and administered. The mining licenses are granted exclusively by ANRM and are practically some concession agreements (with rights and obligations of the parties) between ANRM and the mining operator. It must be said that the Romanian state does not have a monopoly on mining activities, because on the territory of the country there are private companies that are allowed to carry out mining activities under the same mining licenses, which can be transferred from one company to another with the institution's consent.

Moreover, the operating license is granted to a winner following a public competition. Applicants for the competition are graded on the basis of scorecards established by ANRM, which score in particular the technical and financial capacity of the applicant, the proposed operating program, the environmental restoration project and prospecting reports lasts about six months until their completion. After winning the competition, the holder of the new license must ensure a certain volume of work that will have to be completed by the end of the license, being a condition for regular reporting to ANRM on the work and expenses incurred. It is also possible to apply for an extension of the license for the same mining perimeter without the need for a new competition.

Once the closure of the mine is approved, the licensee must make all agreed efforts to ensure the closure of the mine and the restoration of the environment, fully respecting the plan to close the mine, and then ANRM to issue the final decision to close it. Romanian law obliges mining companies to create certain financial guarantees to ensure the full execution of mine closure works, although there is no unitary approach, as I have previously mentioned.

In addition to the harmful activities that have created and continue to cause groundwater pollution that also affects the surface, air pollution that has degraded its quality, occupational diseases and negative effects on land, another major problem resulting from these extractive practices is illustrated by the pile of debris and ash covering the surfaces of the Basin of the Jiu Valley, 4,665,200 m2 being covered by piles of debris.

The post-mining landscape must be a satisfactory one for the local communities, which means eliminating all dangers and thus ensuring public safety. The region and the community must also be sustainable, by strengthening efforts to protect and restore areas such as tourism, recreation, nature, landscape, forests, the economy in sustainable terms. If between 1997-2017 about 40,000 people lost their jobs in the coal sector, only a small percentage of them retired, because most became unemployed, even if the dismissal process involved a compensatory payment, alternative jobs were never been created at that time. First of all, some discrepancies appeared alongside with some shortcomings, which generated even more serious problems, because the amount of money that the newly unemployed received was not enough to ensure a decent living, and most of them invested the money in the purchase of goods or for the opening of some businesses, which in the absence of some proffesional qualities in this sense went bankrupt quickly.

Under Directive 2004/34/EC on environmental liability, the prevention and remedying of environmental damage, measures in accordance with the "polluter pays" principle should be implemented in support of sustainable development. The Extractive Waste Management Directive obliges operators to provide a financial guarantee for the maintenance of waste facilities and post-closure restoration, including land rehabilitation. At the same time, according to the Romanian mining law, the licensee has obligations regarding the use and protection of land, ie he/she must have certain environmental agreements to receive the building permit, must regularly update the mine closure plan, must create and maintain that financial guarantee for environmental rehabilitation and put in place a financing program to track the areas exploited when the mine was closed. However, there are some institutional shortcomings when it comes to financial guarantees for the maintenance of waste facilities and the restoration of the environment in the event of pollution, because due to lack of expertise in financial and economic issues, problems arise when trying to calculate the guarantee.

Dumitru Fodor (2006) raises the issue of the subsidence phenomenon, which appear after the closure of the gaps left from the underground exploitation of mineral resources, the hydrogeological conditions being altered due to a forced drying of high intensity of the aquifer system in the area. Thus, when underground excavations exceed the critical dimensions in terms of the stability of the surrounding rocks and no measures have been taken to support and liquidate the gaps formed, the collapse of the covering rocks occurs, creating this subsidence femonem that can extend to surface. Factors to be considered in this regard are the dimensions of the gap created by exploitation, the depth of exploitation, the thickness and inclination of the deposit, the method and technology of exploitation, how to direct rock pressure, geomechanical characteristics of rocks, tectonic characteristic and duration of exploitation.

When we talk about the dynamic effects that occur during operation, the damage to surface structures such as highways, railways, bridges, industrial and civil constructions is caused by large-scale horizontal and vertical deformations of the land surface, due to traction or compression that can cause great damage. However, certain preventive measures can be taken, as in the case of coal mining, where a harmonious mining approach can be used to compensate for surface effects. Fractured underground land amounts to over 20 hectares and can no longer be used for other types of construction or agricultural or ecological activities, because the collapse of the surface has lowered the hydrostatic level of the groundwater, which gave rise to the phenomenon of desertification by disappearing. flora and fauna in the area, which affected 70 households, and in some cases it was necessary to evacuate or demolish some houses in the city of Petrila or even demolish an entire neighborhood of houses in the city of Lupeni.

EM Vulcan, but also EM Livezeni will continue the support and work operations at the two thermal power plants, Mintia and Paroșeni until 2024. In Romania, depending on the intensity of production, the pace of operation, coal reserves will be sufficient between 50 and 70 years, but if coal mining operations would be ceased by 2024, that would mean the abandonment of about 90 million tonnes of coal and about 4,500 jobs would be lost.

For each component part of a region, the closure of mines and the greening of exploited areas have a number of implications, for example, for mining companies, they must permanently reduce environmental and social risks and restore the safety of the area, in particular by providing financial funds for the rehabilitation of the area. As for the authorities and the government, they have the role of solving vital environmental problems and the social and economic revitalization of the regions, and the communities must be resilient and avoid economic and social collapse.

Most surface mining quarries are closed by methods known as blasting or imploding. The explosion operations of industrial buildings involve some of short-term environmental pollution risks, including for people in nearby neighborhoods. Waste from mining units results in air, and they must be very well controlled and monitored in order to take appropriate measures to restore the environment. The mine closure operation itself is in fact the most complex step to be done in the life cycle of a mine, because the actual exploitation means the temporary exploitation of a plot of land, but the final stage, so closure brings into question the need particularly important to restore degraded surfaces to a state that would allow them to be reused in the future.

Therefore, the decision to close a mine requires detailed analysis in advance, taking into account several factors such as documentation and creation of revitalization projects in the area and must take into account the temporary operating framework, ie if mining ceases for a largest period of three months or more, and the latter case implies the need for a technical rehabilitation plan.

All administrative and technological buildings associated with mining are demolished, the superstructure being demolished and the foundation of the constructions and equipment used removed, not before the site is cleaned by removing hazardous materials. Another option is to fill the gaps resulting from removing the foundations with optimal materials and compacting them at ground level, followed by a process that involves leveling the ground to allow easier restoration of the environment. Demolition activities are set out in the EC Directive on safety and health requirements for mobile construction sites (Directive 92/57/EEC), and the accompanying measures are aimed at protecting health, safety and well-being when a construction site is built. a certain perimeter. An explosion demolition cannot and should not be done in the absence of people with expertise in areas such as explosion physics, shock wave material behavior, seismic engineering precisely because of the generation of particles from the explosion of concrete, brick and wooden structures.

We should not be surprised that the closure of the Lupeni and Lonea mines was supposed to take place at the end of 2018, but CEH did not do this, so that the Decision 787/2010 of the European Union assumed by Romania was not respected. The two mines are still operating, and the CEH management claims that a possible closure would create security problems. So the coal extracted from the two mines continues to be transported to the Mintia and Paroșeni thermal power plants, the present desire is the depletion of the open reserve in order to be able to secure the deposits. "In the closure activity, premises have appeared that call into question a possible insecurity of the deposit, so that preliminary researches have been carried out and measures have been implemented to prevent any categories of risks. In this regard, studies were developed by INSEMEX Petroșani specialists and preliminary studies by Glowny Instytut Gornitctwa Poland which confirms the need to extract coal reserves to ensure the deposit to properly implement the closure program at the two mining operations Lonea and Lupeni and avoid any potential risks ” , is the statement made by the CEH management.

According to studies conducted by INSEMEX (National Research and Development Institute for Mining Safety and Explosion Protection) coal in the exploitable layers seems to be flammable and has high chances of self-ignition, which makes the CEH management to consume all open reserves to prevent a possible catastrophe. Another thing worth mentioning is that more than 500 employees wanted to be included in the list of dismissals in the Jiu Valley (Lupeni and Lonea), in the collective redundancies program of CEH.

The Ministry of Economy declared on January 30, 2020 that the Paroșeni power plant in the Jiu Valley will be switched to gas with money from the European Commission, claiming that “We will be able to save the two thermal power plants, the one in Paroșeni with four mines. When the creditors' table is established, we will extract these assets. We move it into a new company. The remaining company will invest, we have at our disposal the funds related to just transition, which will probably reach one billion euros, 30% of the money can be used for modernization. We also have the 10d mechanism, the modernization fund, which would be of 7 billion euros, for the modernization of the production units, allows the transition of coal-fired power plants to gas”. Thus, the reorganization of CEH would take place by taking over the Mintia Thermal Power Plant by Hunedoara County Council or Deva City Hall, and in the Jiu Valley to appear the Valea Jiului Energy Complex consisting of Paroșeni Thermal Power Plant and four mining operations. CEH is currently in insolvency proceedings after the Hunedoara Court admitted at the end of 2019 the request in this regard, after the debts accumulated by CEH in 2019 reached RON 5 billion.

Environmental dimension

In this section the focus will be on the environmental dimension and the main implications of mining in the Jiu Valley region. It has to be mentioned that this section will be extended in the next chapter in which the data that will be analyzed based on the evidence from the last years will be presented and interpreted, respecting the permanent correlation with the environmental pillar.

During the exploration of a mine, atmospheric emissions are emitted being harmful to air quality, and among them can be listed SOx, NOx, CO and other gases associated with the use of fuels. Since the early stages of the exploitation process, such as drilling, blasting, storage and cutting, harmful particles are emitted, especially where there is a low humidity level. Greenhouse gas emissions are also associated with mining through fossil fuel consumption and electricity generation, both through explosion with explosives and in the case of methane emissions in coal extraction, taking into account, of course, the type of exploitation, the depth of the mine, the gas content in the mineral deposit, but also the characteristics of the ores.

If we take coal combustion (which involves the emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere) with greenhouse gases such as nitrous oxide (N20) and methane (CH4), we can very easily understand why global warming has become a hot topic and represents a priority on the environmental agenda. As an explanation, the combustion of fossil fuels emits radionuclides, ie atoms that have an excess of nuclear energy, such as uranium, thorium and actinium radioactive series, all which include alpha, beta and gamma-emitting radionuclides, constituents of greenhouse gases and particles of emissions into the atmosphere. Among these radionuclides are also found 226Ra, 210Pb and 210Po, reported in aerosols from coal plants. Several energy agencies have made measurements and made comparisons with CO2 and radioactive emissions from coal and nuclear power plants, concluding that coal-fired power plants have higher CO2 emissions and higher radioactivity. From this perspective, they are more harmful to the climate.

The exploitation of minerals is such a great contradiction. On the one hand, minerals are vital for human well-being, for their optimal and natural functioning due to the fact that they are fundamental to the global economy, but at the same time, mining presents critical challenges and huge risks to sustainability. We know all too well that mineral resources are finite, so they cannot be renewed, at least not naturally and not soon. Yet, as the quality of ores decreases, both the intensity of exploitation and the amount of waste resulting, expressed by water, energy, chemicals, greenhouse gases, waste, per unit of resource produced will most likely increase, which will involve an equally high environmental cost, and the environmental problems that will arise will be increasingly difficult to combat.

It is worth mentioning that the transition to a low-carbon society involves a potential increase for some metals, such as the demand for metals needed for electric storage batteries (aluminum, cobalt, iron, lead, lithium, manganese, and nickel). In this sense, can we really talk about of a total abandonment of the exploitation of the Earth's resources? What is certain at the moment is that the precepts of the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change must be respected, and it is imperative that cooperation and communication between extractive industries and those specific to "clean" energy be settled to establish a common path for sustainable development and protection of human communities, both present and future.

Adopting the "carbon price" is a good idea for making a political, social and individual commitment to reducing GHG emissions. Such prices include taxes on energy and carbon consumption and carbon emissions. Carbon taxes and carbon emissions prices are often called explicit carbon prices because they are directed directly at influencing carbon-based decisions, and energy consumption taxes are called default carbon prices. The price of carbon encourages energy users to reduce their own consumption of energy from carbon sources, leading them to alternative, environmentally friendly sources. Such prices can be set to show the marginal external costs of carbon emissions and to achieve specific GHG reduction targets, or they can be the reason for purely political decisions, but with the same goals, especially climate and economic ones. Taxes of this kind are also "cost-effective policy instruments" for reducing emissions primarily because manufacturers have an incentive to reduce emissions as long as it is cheaper than paying the asked price, thus creating an equalization of marginal energy costs, ensuring cost efficiency. Then, carbon prices are the ones that create a decentralization of the decisions of the authorities and governments, because they no longer have to mention what emissions should be reduced using a certain type of technology and, finally, they provide a perpetual incentive to reduce emissions, being also stimulated technological innovation.

Some governments have introduced fixed tariff contracts, ie electricity purchase agreements that provide income security for investors, because government resources, which are often insufficient, could finance unprofitable rents if financial incentives are not met would adapt to lower technology costs. Therefore, many governments are adopting new types of policies, such as lowering tariffs or trying to create tenders to control the costs of support incentives, and other countries have wanted to create market-based mechanisms, such as renewable and certified portfolio obligations for renewable energy. Other methods are tax incentives, through tax cuts and subsidies aimed at encouraging lucid and fair behavior towards the environment.

Thus, mining activities produce various effects on the environment, such as changes in relief, represented by the degradation of the natural landscape, displacement of households, land areas are occupied for mining, dumps, storage of useful minerals, industrial facilities, areas that become unusable in other goals for a considerable period of time. We should also notice the degradation of the land by vertical and horizontal movements of surfaces and landslides of dumps and tailings ponds that can cause serious accidents, contamination of surface runoff and groundwater, hydrodynamic imbalance of groundwater, negative influences on the atmosphere, wildlife in the area, chemical pollution of the soil that may affect its fertile properties in the future, noise pollution and widespread radiation in the environment – very harmful to people, animals and vegetation in the area. It is not at all wrong to talk about a crisis of the present, but also of the future, especially because the volumes of extracted rock are constantly increasing, this is due to the increasing needs of mineral raw materials that society needs.

It should be noted that the precipitation that falls on the tailings deposits gives rise to the phenomenon of chemical-bacterial solubilization of the metal sulfides they contain, producing some solutions containing certain amounts of copper and other heavy metals, which are lost in the field or in groundwater.

An intriguing fact is that the Jiu River has only one monitoring point, but for a precise monitoring of the development of industrial and domestic activities a single monitoring center is insufficient, because there are no comparative data, and if it is a desire to reduce pollution, local authorities must accurately identify where contaminations occur and pollutant discharges.

Continuing to talk about negative effects, the region has a peculiarity of cambic soils, ie acidic brown soils, to some extent podzolite. This type of acid brown soils grows under spruces, but also under the bushes on the subalpine floor, having on the surface a litter a few centimeters thick which, under the action of microorganisms, undergoes a slow decomposition.

Due to underground mining, several factors are taken into account that lead to deformation of the surface of the exploited land, ie “physical-mechanical properties of rocks, depth of mining works, method of exploitation, thickness and exploitation of the layer, dimensions of exploited space, inclination angles of layers and the time factor”. Hypothetically, as a result of landslides, “rainwater accumulations can occur when the vegetal layer becomes waterproof and no longer allows water to enter the soil, the appearance of rugged relief forms, with cracks and unevenness, the impossibility of building, the impossibility of cultivating land of this kind as well as their use in any way or the loosening of the rocks from the roof of the mining works, which can lead to the infiltration of surface waters as well as to the desertification of the land.”

The East part of the Jiu river, which is the main watercourse of Petroșani, is polluted due to the upstream households and due to the course it has through areas with mining activity (Lonea and Petrila). Therefore, the major polluting sources are caused by “wastewater discharged from the groundwater, chemically impure wastewater discharged as a result of technological processes from plants (chromic, acid-alkaline, cyanuric wastewater), wastewater discharged from the hospital, service- and domestic wastewater. The culmination of the Jiu pollution is at the confluence of the Eastern Jiu and the Western Jiu which cross the Jiu Valley depression. Especially the Eastern Jiu is polluted with clay-coal suspensions that make the water to have a brown color, which also led to the decrease or even extinction of the fauna and flora specific to mountain rivers.

Therefore, the primary sources of pollution or soil degradation are land use with buildings and access roads that create soil impermeability, industrial, toxic, hazardous and household waste, land degradation due to underground exploitation, and gas emissions, states Angelica-Nicoleta Drăghici (2006). In Petroșani, there are many types of waste. The first type is the industrial one, with technological processes such as tailings, slag, scrap metal, sludge, waste oils, fuels, wood waste. The tailings dumps are the result of coal sorting and come from E.M. Dâlja, E.M. Livezeni, U.P. Livezeni and E.M. Petrila Sud, all tailings dumps and access roads being arranged on expropriated lands. The second type of waste is the hazardous one and comes from hospitals in the municipality (waste from patients with infectious diseases, specific utensils, biological waste from operating areas) that can lead to an outbreak of infection if not treated and collected properly.

To summarize the undesirable effects of mining, we can recall the loading of surface water with impurities, changes in hydrology and groundwater pollution, destruction of land from underground excavations, the appearance of tailings in outdoor dumps, the generation of pollutants in the atmosphere (emissions of gases at mine fan stations, pollutants emitted by coal processing plants or power plants, dust resulting from the formation of tailings dumps and produced by technological transport).

Camelia Bădulescu and Romulus Sârbu (2006) propose several measures to reduce environmental pollution caused by dust due to the technological flow inside the power plants:

”evacuation, correct operation and maintenance of existing dust removal installations, removal of dust formed in work rooms, by natural ventilation or general mechanical ventilation, asphalting and permanent cleaning of motorways around the plant, water spraying of circulatory systems from the enclosure or the spaces without vegetation, planting with trees and shrubs for the preserved dump sections, silicate the surface with a sodium silicate solution for the active dump parts and which present a danger of self-ignition.” And to reduce noise pollution, they propose solutions such as: "equipping noise-generating equipment (crushers, screens, fans, compressors, turbochargers) with sound-absorbing housings, using sound-absorbing screens, equipping staff with soundproof headphones."

Discussing further about the tailings dumps and waste management generated by the mines, the mining operation in Lupeni takes place in a hilly area, where coal is extracted, processed, and stored in tailings dumps about 2 kilometers from Lupeni. The total area occupied by the tailings dumps is 34 hectares, and over the years, several instability events have been noted. These dumps create an unpleasant aspect of the landscape, being visible both from the city and from the opposite slope to the one on which they are located; because of them, lakes were created by damming watercourses or by accumulating rainwater, while changing the state of ecosystems through the emergence of new but poorly developed ecosystems.

In the study conducted by Raluca-Alexandra Costin (2012), The impact of mining activity on natural environment and its consequences on planning of Petroșani Depression territory. Case study: the impact on soil, she noted that in the Petroșani Depression, most tailings dumps are uncontrolled, which means they do not have an arrangement for environmental protection and are improperly located. When tailings dumps are located in valley areas as in this case, this means that the perennial watercourses and the formation of lakes will be hit, which is unfavorable in the presence of deposits because the water enters and changes the physical properties of the rocks in the deposit, eventually leading to erosion, so landslides or leaks of plastic and mud, which is very dangerous for human settlements, says the author. There is also a risk caused by volumes of coal and coal shale between the tailings storage material: the possibility of self-ignition.

In 2009, for example, in Petroșani there was a landslide phenomenon, close to the town of Lupeni, with a diameter of the landslide of 20 meters and a depth of 15 meters. Admittedly, the buildings were not affected, but a year later, in 2010, it was found that the size and depth of the holes in the ground had increased.

It is worth mentioning for the environmental dimension that within the coal processing in the Jiu Valley, an ecology department was set up that deals with the arrangement of spaces, landfills, waste collection, deals with cleaning channels, and since 2006 has been established the Laboratory for monitoring environmental factors. Among the measures that can be listed in reducing the impact on the soil are:

“Planting and burying dumps and tailings ponds after their removal from the technological circuit of mining units; silicaization of surfaces (with sodium silicate solution) for operating pits and where ignition conditions exist; achieving the stabilization of inactive tailings dumps that present a high risk of loss of stability; for the reuse of the lands occupied by the former quarry, account is taken of filling the gap with sterile material of the former quarries, leveling their areas and granting an area of ​​50 hectares for forestry or agricultural production, but also the lining of some of them (approximately 34 ha), filling them with the transformation of water and lakes (creation of spaces for the development of tourism and fishing activities); planning and systematization of landfills, covering them with soil and rainwater drainage for an area of ​​110 hectares and replanting vegetation; permanent monitoring of terrestrial dependence phenomena by topographic measurements."

Data analysis and interpretation

Abstract

In this last part of the analysis, the Jiu Valley is more carefully described from a geographical point of view, of the mining industry and of the environmental situations through concrete data. Tables are used in particular to highlight the most relevant data for the proposed topic, so that we can better understand and visualize the differences in values ​​recorded in certain periods of years. These show comparisons both by year and on different indicators such as "agriculture", "industry", "hard coal and lignite mining", or "gross production and net production in coal mines production". The main negative effects on soil, surface water, groundwater, atmosphere, biodiversity and mining in the region are stated.

The next phase of data analysis and interpretation corresponds to the potential for sustainable development of the Jiu Valley in which a number of proposals can be found identified as viable to this principle, especially due to its tourist character. We will then see how much mining pollutes, moving to a new step, that of clean energy technologies in which several countries are analyzed, including Spain, Poland and Romania on their real potential, illustrated by suggestive maps. The potential of the regional employment level over an estimated period between 2020-2050 is also reviewed. Finally, we see through the analysis of some maps what is the forecast of sustainable development for the present and the near future, finding how many mines will be closed and how many will be built at locally, European and global scale.

Jiu Valley

The Jiu Valley, from a geographical point of view, has a latitude of 45025′ N, and its longitude is 23022′. Morphologically it presents itself as a narrow and deep depression in the Southern Carpathians, with an asymmetrical triangular shape, oriented ESE-WSW, with the peak oriented towards the western part, and the base oriented towards the eastern part. The total length is 46 km, and the width varies between 2-9 km, covering an area of 137.6 km2. The base of the depression is 556 m in the area where the East Jiu joins the West Jiu and 800 m towards the eastern borders. Three mountains surround the Jiu Valley: the Retezat Mountains to the northwest and west and the Vâlcan and Parâng Mountains to the south, the mountains being endowed with mountain gorges, coniferous forests, creating a road to facilitate the transition from Transylvania to Oltenia, another region of Romania.

Industrial activities date back to the nineteenth century. If we look back a long way in history, we will see that the mining industry did not begin so long ago in Romania, because hard coal began to be mined in Europe as early as 1113 at Kerkrade, on the border between the Netherlands and Germany, where some monks at the Klosterrede monastery also became miners.

About the environmental situation in the Western Region of Romania, many ecosystems and their specific services are threatened when land use increases, unsustainably, of course, through degradation and fragmentation, making the region prone to climate change. Among the identified problems are soil contamination, especially due to its erosion, but also soil waterproofing. As it was presented, the surface of the Jiu Valley is 1,033 km2, and more than half of the surface (51.83%) is represented by forests, 39.75% of agricultural lands, 0.82 of lands covered with waters and ponds, 2.33% is covered by construction, 1.33% by communications and railways, and 3.93% is covered by degraded land.

Therefore, both surface and groundwater are present in the Jiu Valley. On a positive note, it can be stated that the water quality is good due to the existing mining water treatment plant and the Coroiești Coal Preparation Station which has been modernized.

Due to the change in atmospheric composition through human activities, there has been significant air pollution due to pollutant emissions that affect the production of tropospheric ozone, produce atmospheric acidification, increase the concentration of particles in the atmosphere, such as heavy metals and greenhouse gases. In this regard, in the Jiu Valley Region were identified an increased frequency of high-intensity rains that generated faster floods that affected local neighboring communities, the flow of the Jiu River decreased due to droughts, the temperature became more and more fluctuating in summer and winter, generating higher energy consumption compared to other years, due to the use of air conditioners or heating.

The Jiu Valley National Mines Closure Society (SNIMVJ) will produce hard coal until stocks are depleted, while starting and maintaining a quarry closure and restoration plan in parallel. In 2013, Hard Coal National Company was taken over by Hunedoara Energy Holding (CEH) as a future mining chain that will have the task of managing the four mining quarries. Starting with 2019, CEH has become the only producer of hard coal in Romania, and in terms of CEH's fields of activity can be highlighted the activities of generating electricity and heat based on coal, with 1,225 MW installed in subsidiaries: CHPP Paroșeni Branch (1 x 150 MW), TPP Deva Subsidiary (4 x 210 MW + 1 x 235 MW). Hard coal mining exploration in the mining branches of Lonea, Lupeni, Vulcan and Livezeni, which total 2,230 ha of mining perimeters. The PrestServ Petroșani Branch deals with the coal mining operation in the Jiu Valley, and the CHPP Branch in Paroșeni has a power unit with an installed capacity of 150 MWe of steam extraction turbine type with 150 Gcal/ht, modernized in 2007, being an efficient cogeneration unit.

There is also a hot water boiler (HWB) with an installed capacity of 103.2 Gcal/h that supplies 4 DHS (Lupeni, Vulcan, Aninoasa and Petroșani) of which only the last one is still functional. The Deva TPP branch operates: 1 x power unit with an installed capacity of 235 Mwe – steam turbine extraction with 120 Gcal/ht of hot water, steam boiler (660 t/h, 140 bar, 540 degrees Celsius), being also modernized. There are four more power units each with a power capacity of 210 Mwe – steam turbine extraction with 50 Gcal/h of hot water and a double module of the steam boiler that has 660 t/h, 140 bar, 540 degrees Celsius. The CEH mining subsidiaries are the Vulcan and Livezeni underground mines which hold the operating license until 2024.

I will continue to define the term coal seams, which I will discuss in detail below: ”A coal seam is a dark brown or black banded deposit of coal that is visible within layers of rock. These seams are located underground and can be mined using either deep mining or strip mining techniques depending on their proximity to the surface. As well, these seams can act as an unconventional source of natural gas. When natural gas is obtained from a coal seam, it is known as coal seam gas or coal bed methane.”

As a result of the exploitation of coal seams in the Jiu Valley basin, deformations of the soil surface have appeared throughout the mining history. In some cases we could even talk about the destruction of buildings on the surface, but even of some underground mines. As we have already mentioned, activities of this type seriously affect surface lands, because they often become impassable and can no longer be reused so as to build civil buildings or practice agriculture, because it is and about a disturbance of groundwater flow regimes and hydrostatic levels, of emissions into the atmosphere through cracks of methane gas, not to mention the spontaneous burning of coal.

It has been assessed and observed that in the main safety pillars of buildings, roads, railways and watercourses that cross the Basin from east to west and in some pillars of some underground mining quarries there are coal reserves of about one billion tons. If we are talking about the biggest shortcoming or damage to the soil surface, then we will talk about the exploitation of coal seams in horizontal slices, which involved the total collapse of the surrounding rocks. The authors of the article discuss the post-mining moment, in which they mention that the area after the closure of activities can be filled either hydraulically, dry or paste, and the choice to be made depends largely on the filling time, equipment, costs and limiting the impact of mining on the surface.

An illustrative example of the deformations of the terrestrial surface is the marked route along the road accessible to the tourist areas of the Parâng Mountains, there is currently a monitoring made of 50 repetitions spread over a length of 1489 meters, and topographic observations are made once every three Monday, starting with 2001. Coal seam of coal number 3 ”related to panels P (3-4), P5 and P6 was mined in inclined slices with a thickness of 2.5 m, and the average height of the overloaded rocks in the panels mined is 336 m”.

It was observed the occurrence of the phenomenon of subsidence, horizontal displacement, slope of the land surface, the subsidence having an emergence in the form of a composite trough that appeared as a result of overlapping exploitation of said panels, and the maximum measured subsidence reached about 1000 mm in November 2016, but a gradual reduction of the deformation rate was found, reaching approximately 2 mm/month, from 20 mm/month.

The Romanian Association for Wind Energy (RWEA) together with the Ministry of Energy, the University of Petroșani, and companies such as Monsson – RESS and CEZ Romania intend to lay the foundations of an Academy for renewable sources and distribution of electricity in the Jiu Valley. In a first phase, the Academy will try to access funds through the Transboundary Coal Platform for a period of 10 years, as long as the project is implemented, which would result in about 5000 specialists trained in wind energy and around 3000 specialists in electricity, mechanical and hydraulic energy per year, a number that could reach 8000.

Potential development of Jiu Valley

Given the nature of the region, being a depression surrounded by three massive mountains, the facilities for winter sports, leisure and recreation need to be improved and expanded to better the leisure and tourist potential of the area. A strategy can be created for the development of the water tourism sector combined with recreation in the area of ​​Câmpu lui Neag Lake together with the mountain hikes in the western part of the Jiu Valley, for example. Of course, these aspects require special attention to the conservation of biodiversity and the protection of the natural area of ​​the Parâng and Retezat Mountains, but also attention to water surfaces, soil protection and waste disposal, remediation and landscaping, protection against floods, noise and dust must also be taken into account, as well as measures for fisheries, agriculture, forest protection and local and transregional traffic and transport infrastructure.

As presented, the Jiu Valley has a huge potential in tourism, having in mind that is a mountain area. Tourism, in order to be sustainable for the future, must comply with the principles of sustainable development. Therefore, we can emphasize the importance of recognizing the value of heritage sites, to extend their existence. Tourists must take care of natural goods and protect them against any kind of impact. Moreover, there have to be partnerships at a local and central level, but also to ensure associations involved in conservation (environmental NGOs), private sector, and community, that should be consulted in the conservation and the management of historical goods that have significance for the region. The tourist options are numerous, besides Parâng, Retezat and Câmpu lui Neagu there are also tourist points such as Straja, Sureanu, Pasul Vâlcan or Drăgoiu.

Other advantages that the Jiu Valley enjoys are its rural character, although it is an urban area, but also the enchanting landscape. Compared to other mountain resorts in Romania, such as Poiana Brașov, Bușteni, Sinaia or Predeal, the cities in the Jiu Valley have a lower degree of urbanization, hence this rural character, which can determine urban regeneration, which would need uniformity of the rules on building permits, strategic planning of urban development, promotion of local identity through sustainable marketing. In the Jiu Valley, agrotourism must be encouraged and practiced (due to its rural character, as mentioned), equestrian tourism, speleological, or even mountain biking.

Moreover, the region has an impressive number of caves, namely 662, of which 630 of them are at least 10 meters long, which can always represent local and international tourist attractions. To support the idea of ​​mountain biking, it should be mentioned that the Jiu Valley has 700 kilometers of mountain trails, being one of the leaders in Europe in this regard. Taking all these aspects into account, we understand that there is a huge and real employment potential in the listed sports and activities that are not yet exploited. The practices illustrated above are subsumed in the vision of the European Green Pact, which focuses primarily on reducing carbon emissions, providing affordable energy and developing circular economies so that the development of tourism I have talked about does not have a negative impact on the environment. The European Commission has proposed to the Member States to start massive renovations of private and public buildings. That is why, in 2020, an innovative financing program will start, called InvestEU, which will target renovation works that will also involve energy performance. At the same time, this Pact refers to agriculture without chemical pesticides, fertilizers or antibiotics.

On the other hand, increasing the competitiveness of tourism at the European level is a desideratum of the Europe 2020 Strategy which aims to create an enabling environment for an industrial policy that supports entrepreneurship, the economy and promotes competitiveness by seizing opportunities. Therefore, the Jiu Valley must have experts who can ensure that the region will have competitive services at the highest standards, so as to attract international and local visitors, but also local workers. The Integrated National Plan in the field of Energy and Climate Change 2021-2030 (PNIESC) is underway in Romania, which provides for measures to decarbonize the national economy through “strategic planning of the development of tourist destinations less dependent on climate change”, “planning of education policies and long-term development so that tourism is aligned with the provisions of climate change”, “protection, development and promotion of natural heritage, and ecological tourism”.

Tourism has an important weight in national strategies, as it occupies a central place in the Regional Development Plan prepared by the Agency for Regional Development West, RDP 2014-2020, which has a strong emphasis on active tourism, urban tourism, health, and ecotourism.

About the fruit bush plantations, according to the fruit potential in the Jiu Valley area, the crops of fruit bushes of blueberry, raspberry, currant or blackberry type are noticeable. From an ecological point of view, the activity in this sector can be intensified, by setting up several plantations of such shrubs that will bring a surplus of jobs. According to the document, for a currant plantation, for example, on an area of ​​10 hectares with a lifespan of up to 15 years, an investment of approximately 1.1 million Lei is required, an amount that includes land preparation, services soil design and analysis, plant deforestation, commissioning of irrigation systems, soil fertilization, agricultural equipment necessary for plantation maintenance, but also the purchase of materials for planting and planting itself. Such a plantation could generate income from the sale of fresh fruit (at least 50,000 kilograms sold at a price of 8 lei per kilogram) and from fruit processing. The associated costs would then be those of maintenance and related to the remuneration of the employees, but if we take into account the life period of the plantation we will see that it is about profitability from the financial point of view.

We are talking here about an opportunity in developing the business of small local producers, who can earn money either from the sale of fresh fruit or from processing them. Taking into account the real impact that a new economy would generate, the impact would involve supporting at least 500 jobs that would benefit both local businesses and the local community.

It was found and documented that the upper part of the Parâng massif could have wind installations, because there are strong winds almost all year round, being an area with alpine relief. From a climatic point of view, the region is characterized by a mountain climate with relatively humid winters and sunny summers, but with a balanced rainfall regime. Also, pico hydropower plants can be installed due to the conditions of the tributary rivers. Moreover, wind turbines, hydro turbines, solar panels can be installed to produce electricity in different areas of Mount Parâng. So, there is the possibility of developing and implementing an integrated and sustainable energy system.

First of all, the intensity of the wind throughout the year, the solar intensity and the hydrological potential must be measured to be able to check the real energy potential of the Jiu Valley. The average air temperature is about 8-9 degrees Celsius in the valley, maximum 6 degrees Celsius at temperatures of 1000 m and 0 degrees Celsius at altitudes above 2000 meters. In summer the average temperature can reach up to 16 degrees Celsius, and in winter it can reach -4 degrees Celsius in the valley. Hydrologically, the Jiu Valley benefits from the presence of two rivers, namely the East and the West of the Jiu, enjoying the presence of several tributaries such as Jieț, Taia, Bănița, Maleia, Slătioara, Sălătruc, Buta, Valea de Pești, Pilugul, Braia, Morișoara, Aninoasa.

Mihai-Ionuț Danciu and Sabina Irimie (2017) propose a development concept that consists in creating an integrated administrative unit along the Jiu Valley, developed around the centers of new and old cities that appear after urban regeneration, because the new clusters will focus efforts on development economic. The Jiu Valley would become a linear city with modern ski resorts, which would streamline public investment in the revitalization of the mining region, allowing it to adapt to a new industrial revolution. A unique railway would be created that would transport passengers from Uricani to Petrila in just 30 minutes, a project resulting in close collaboration between the local administration, the railway company and potential local investors.

Petroșani should be the center of gravity, so the main transport hub of the Jiu Valley, and the station in Petroșani, as well as other stations in related cities should become local development hubs to host events and become real "nucleus of productivity based on the proximity of the transit system and the existence of former renovated industrial and administrative buildings”.

Hou much does mining pollute?

Another equally important aspect is the categorization and quantification of waste resulting from demolition activities, because the main categories of waste that can result from the decommissioning and demolition of mining constructions are reinforced concrete, brick, prefabricated BCA, wood scrap, electrical conductors, resulting oil from the decommissioning of transformer stations, lubricants, household waste, tires, plastic masses. An estimate must be made of the amount of materials used in the initial construction to be able to estimate and evaluate the approximate amount of waste that will be introduced into the natural environment following decommissioning or demolition. For example, it is a good idea for concrete resulting from the demolition of a surface mining objective to be used as backfill to fill the remaining gaps in the underground of mining units or to be purchased by certain commercial actors who would need concrete for mining activities. construction. Iron can be 100% recycled in steel as in the case of wood that could be resold to other commercial woodworking agents. Brick and prefabricated BCA can also be reused in other industrial or civil construction if it is proven that they have not been chemically contaminated. Metal can also be recovered from electrical conductors, and plastics can be recycled for reuse.

Most of the surface buildings belonging to the Petrila Mine were demolished in 2017, and although the National Mine Closure Company received approval to demolish 25 units belonging to the mine, it demolished only four, the rest being part of a conservation program. The waste resulting from the demolition was used to cover the mining pits, and the iron was recovered and further sold. After demolition, the vacant land entered, as was natural, a stage of redevelopment that includes stages such as “recovery and conservation of topsoil, landscaping, leveling, deposition of topsoil on level surfaces and land improvements.” It is mandatory that the topsoil be recovered and preserved in a mining unit, because only such can restore the thickness of the soil layer. Restoring the thickness of the vegetal soil is done by performing manual drilling, ditches, pits located at distances of 100 meters, and the results must be marked on topographic maps, but not in the absence of pedological and agrochemical mapping of affected areas, and mapping geological layers to the soil fertility potential is observed.

Speaking of areas of the Jiu Valley that should be protected as much as possible from the effects of pollution, I must remind you of Jiu and Retezat Gorge National Parks, Grădiștea Muncelului-Ciclovina Natural Park, Piatra Crinului Protected Natural Area and Momârlani that can also be added to the list of natural areas to be protected. On the other hand, the Jieț Gorges and the Parâng and Straja Massifs have an ecological value and a very high tourist potential, but they have not received a recognition in this respect, not being declared areas with special protection regime. Cheile Jiețului has few camping areas, a route difficult to access, but the Parâng and Straja Massif face the effects of chaotic tourism, there is no concrete program for waste and wastewater management, although tourist complexes have been set up for sports winter, which also implies the existence of cottages or guesthouses in the area.

The author states regarding the air pollution in the Jiu Valley the fact that it is favored by the high frequency of occurrence of the inversion phenomenon ends especially in the cold season, an important factor being the nebulosity, because in winter, for example, the cloud layers descend towards low depression. allowing the establishment of a layer of clouds at 800 meters altitude from the cloudy ceiling that allows the formation of a layer with reverse temperature, which retains pollutants near the ground, thus allowing the loading of breathable air with pollutants from thermal power plants burning fossil fuels and gases exhaust. Atmospheric pollution in the Jiu Valley is favored by the high frequency of thermal inversion (especially in the cold period of the year). One aspect that influences the phenomenon of thermal inversion is the nebulosity. In winter, the cloud layers invade the low depression forms allowing the establishment of a normal gradient at 800 m altitude from the cloudy ceiling that favors the formation of a layer with reverse temperature.

The formation of this layer of thermal inversion leads to the retention of pollutants near the ground, which is the loading of breathable air with pollutants from thermal power plants, the burning of fossil fuels in individual households and exhaust fumes. As I have already presented, the main energy sources are coal, oil and its derivatives, but also natural gas. Coal and oil remove large amounts of pollutants when burned, and the amount depends on the quality of the combustion process and the purity of the fuel. Florin Faur points out that a perfectly pure fuel and a complete combustion should theoretically result only in carbon dioxide and water, with small traces of nitrogen oxides following the reaction with atmospheric nitrogen, but in reality these conditions are not met. Besides to the three pollutants mentioned, there is also a mixture of gases in different concentrations which are part of the smoke and exhaust gases, which include carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons or aldehydes.

The Paroșeni thermal power plant is one of the most polluting because it involves the combustion of coal, it involves the evacuation of considerable amounts of suspensions and noxious substances in the air, among which I can mention carbon monoxide and dioxide (CO and CO2), dust, fly ash, unburned coal particles, slag, soil), sulfur oxides (SO2 and SO3), nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2), but also small amounts of tar, hydrocarbons, soot, sulfates and organic acids. Following the analyzes performed in the Jiu Valley, it was found that the coals in the area have a large amount of sulfur, which means a significant elimination of SO2 in the air.

Mining also involves the use of huge amounts of water in the preparation process. Until the first part of the 2000s, the discharge of wastewater from mining operations from coal preparations went to the Jiu River, loading it with large amounts of mineral suspensions, organic substances and other pollutants such as NH4 and phenols.

Mining therefore consumes water from the soil, which then becomes contaminated and harms the flora and fauna of rivers and lakes, reducing their quality in domestic, agricultural and industrial consumption. Among the risks that the Jiu Valley region may face, I can note the outbreak of epidemics, a phenomenon that depends primarily on the way waste is stored. Following their decomposition and infiltration of leachate into the soil, it can then reach the groundwater and contaminate water from people's wells. Waste can also contain viruses and bacteria, species of insects, birds and rodents that are vectors of disease transmission to humans. Another identified risk is that of floods, because there are certain low areas such as the Petroșani Airport neighborhood that have a high risk of floods, because there is a clogging of the riverbed in the area, but also problems with the sewerage network (clogging of gutters and exceeding the capacity to take up significant water flows during periods of heavy rainfall). From the point of view of the intensity of the earthquakes, the Jiu Valley is not a very safe place, belonging to the area of ​​seismic intensity 6 with an average period of occurrence of about 100 years.

Clean energy technologies

About wind, the authors of Clean energy technologies in coal regions: Opportunities for jobs and growth (2015) say that for wind technologies the intensity of emissions is mainly related to indirect emissions, produced mainly upstream during the extraction of raw materials and the construction of the wind farm. We see in the case of Romania what is the technical potential for onshore wind energy in the coal regions. Especially for the Jiu Valley region, the potential is between 10-25%, with averages also presented by Poland, Germany, or northern Spain.

Taking into account solar photovoltaic panels, GHG emissions depend on the energy mixture in the production process of photovoltaic cells, the geographical specification, the efficiency of the system, but also the life of the system. For ground-mounted solar photovoltaic systems, the technical potential in coal regions varies from 0.85 GW as in the case of South West Scotland to a whopping 80 GW in the case of Castiila y Leon. However, the regions with the highest potential are in Spain, Poland and Romania, more specific in Castilla y León, Castilla-La Mancha, Wielkopolskie, South-West Oltenia and West Oltenia.

For geothermal energy we can note the three most common types of geothermal power plants, namely flash power plants, organic binary hydrothermal power plants with classical cycles (ORC) and improved geothermal systems. GHG emissions from geothermal power plants are predominantly carbon dioxide emissions, but there may be other gases in geothermal liquids depending on the geological specificity, the range of GHG emissions can be between 6 and 79 tCO2-eq/GWh, but it can also happen to reach values ​​of over 700t CO2/GWh. The top of such important regions with great potential are in Spain, Romania and Germany, having again in the center the region of Castilla y León, Castilla-La Mancha, Aragon, West Oltenia and Brandenburg. The real potential has not been well exploited so far in these countries, and although Germany has a geothermal energy capacity of 0.03 GW in 2018, Spain and Romania have insignificant geothermal power capacity. We see, therefore, in the case of Jiu Valley a potential capacity somewhere between 0.12-0.16, weaker than Western Oltenia by 0.16-0.51.

The picture shows a prediction of the total evolution of employment for countries engaged in coal mining activities. It seems that agriculture and biogas production will provide the amount needed to increase bioenergy. In the case of employment, Germany will increase by about 85,000 jobs, to 195,000, the United Kingdom, Italy, Spain and Poland will reach the threshold of 50,000 jobs by 2050, while Slovakia, the Czech Republic and Romania will reach 10,000 jobs by 2050.

The transition will certainly affect many regions, such as Poland, the Czech Republic, Romania and Bulgaria in terms of the number of jobs in Greece, for example, 1/3 of the active population is already unemployed in this context. The cessation of coal mining will also affect other sectors of the economy, such as the steel industry, which relies on domestic coking coal, which currently meets 37% of the needs of the European economy, and hard coal mines capable of producing this type of coal could still continue. to operate thanks to this sector if the prices of coking coal will be able to sustain the mining operations. Manufacturers of mining equipment will also be affected, as innovation and manufacturing have been shown to be directly linked to mining activities, and the number of those involved in the manufacture of such equipment exceeds 100,000.

A sustainable mineral policy must meet certain conditions:

“to facilitate the transformation of natural mineral capital into constructed physical, economic, environmental or social capital, with equal or greater value; ensure that the negative social impact on the environment and the negative impact of mining and their costs are included in production functions; this requires transparency and exchange of information; must reconsider the allocation of rights and the availability of resources over generations; address benefit/risk trade-offs from a multi-stakeholder perspective and create contingency plans to mitigate the effects of mineral market booms and busts; and be correlated with other government policies."

Land use in mining perimeters must also be included in the formulated policies, which ensure a fair and impartial analysis of the land used or which has the potential to be used, including a possible extraction of raw materials.

Analyzing the existing data from these records of global coal energy, Romania continues to have among the strongest plants in 2019, namely Rovinari and Turceni, with a capacity of 1320 MW each. Both are lignite-based, and their characteristic technology is in a "subcritical" state, according to carbonbrief.org. Carbon dioxide emissions are higher in the case of the Turceni plant (8.05 Mt/year) than in the Rovinari plant (7.86 Mt/year). The power plant in Turceni is younger, being 39 years old, while the one in Rovinari has exceeded its normal life cycle, being already 44 years old at present. The Mintia-Deva power plant is the next in terms of installed capacity, with 1075 MW, based on bituminous coal, in a subcritical state, also emitting 6.59 Mt/year, being 45 years old. Isalnița power plant is next on the list, with an installed capacity of 630 MW, based on lignite, also in a subcritical state, emitting 3.84 Mt/year, and being 33 years old. Also, the Craiova II Power Plant stands out, with a capacity of 300 MW, the main resource extracted being all lignite, also in a subcritical situation, generating 1.96 Mt/year, with an age of 33 years. We cannot neglect the Govora Power Plant, with an installed capacity of 100 MW, based on lignite, in a subcritical state, generating 0.65 Mt/year, with an age of 34 years. There is also the Iași II power plant, with an installed capacity of 60 MW, based on bituminous coal, and, last but not least, the Arad power plant, with an installed capacity of 50 MW, based on lignite, in a subcritical state, generating 0.32 Mt/year, with an age of "only" 27 years.

For the near future, it should be noted that a new plant in Rovinari is in the phase of granting the building permit for several years. It is very likely that the plant will never see the light of day, but if it happens, according to plans, it would have an installed capacity of 600 MW, lignite would be the main source extracted, and emissions would rise to values of 2.68 Mt/year.

Altough Romania proposed in the National Strategy of Romania 2013-2020-2030 to reduce by 2020 by 20% the levels of carbon dioxide emissions, it managed by 2015 to decrease by 50%, compared to 1990 levels. This shows that Romania has the ability to achieve its objectives, but these efforts must be strengthened and must not be compromised from their observance in the future regardless of the governments that will take place.

To conclude the section of this chapter, more can be said about renewable energy and energy efficiency in the case of Romania if we analyze the existing data. We will find out that the targets set at EU level for 2020 on the contribution of energy policies to reducing the impact of climate change have been met much faster by Romania, especially the commitment to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20% compared to the reference year 1990. In 2012, Romania registered a decrease of 47.96% compared to the EU level of 82.14%, according to the data provided in the National Strategy for Sustainable Development of Romania 2030. In 2016, Romania amounted to an increase by 25% of the share of energy from renewable sources in gross consumption and a reduction in energy consumption by 41.6% compared to the assumed 20% threshold. In order to further support progress in this context, legislative measures have been taken at national level, through amendments to Law no. 220/2008 to establish the system for promoting the production of energy from renewable energy sources that also refers to the integration of producers. small in the national energy system. Romania had the lowest value of primary energy consumption per capita among all 28 EU states, ie 1,582 tep 50/inhabitant, which was almost twice less than the EU-28 average which was 2,997 tep/inhabitant.

Conclusions

Before presenting the conclusions, we should point out some important aspects for the study. As announced in the Introduction, the purpose of the study was to show which mining activities in the Coal and Carbon Intensive Regions are polluting, with negative effects on local communities and the environment. The importance of the paper lies in the very dimensioning of the aspect of climate change seen as a "tipping point" which once reached, will produce significant changes in the global environmental system, but which will also have implications in the economic, social and community system.

That is why we need social tipping interventions, to avoid reaching unwanted tipping points. New clean technologies must be developed so that they are viable and efficient for each industrial region, so that they respect and impose new social norms and reorganize economic and social systems, being correlated with a series of “positive tipping points” to achieve transformative changes at the socio-climatic level, so that these regions, especially the Jiu Valley, benefit from the most appropriate policies, strategies and laws to be able to continue their development, but this time must be a sustainable and inclusive development, so that former miners are not abandoned and can continue their activity on the labor market, but in another sustainable form.

From these points of view, the purpose of the work was achieved. In this sense, the purpose of the paper was from the beginning to present the size of mining in the Jiu Valley and its historical evolution, so as to reveal the level of harmful effects on the environment and the local community. We observed how many ways mining can have an impact, but also what are the possibilities to restore the environment and the economic situation of former miners. As can be seen, the environmental component predominated in this paper, but a link with the social and economic dimensions was constantly considered, through the aspects related to employment, layoffs, the energy sector, the effects of pollution on the inhabitants, all of which are ultimately reduced to the measure of the environment.

Regarding the research question, we can thus conclude that human health and the level of greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere are in a cause-and-effect relationship. Therefore, the cause is the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere such as SOx, NOx, CO, and the effect is on the degraded health of residents in the vicinity, because they have to inhale the polluted air. Another type of relationship of this type is seen through the dependent variable, ie the reduction of pollution in the region (the effect) due to the cause related to the increase of the proportion of renewable energy in the Jiu Valley. Therefore, the higher the percentage of use of alternative sources of clean energy, the lower the percentage of mining use, which translates into a decrease in the level of air pollution, but also an improvement in human health.

Presenting and analyzing all the data, we can conclude that Romania is satisfactorily positioned in a ranking of countries that continue to progress when we talk about decarbonization processes, using the mechanisms of Just Transition. It is a gradual progress, started earlier than many European countries, as Romania has reduced its emission reduction rate more than the EU average since 2015. However, given that another plant is expected to open in the future, the closure of some mining has been postponed several times, and most of the plants are old, with unsustainable technologies, it cannot be categorically concluded that Romania is a champion country in terms of Just Transition, but both practical and legislative efforts can be noted in this regard.

In 2019, every second industrial activities released 2.57 million kilograms of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, which would be the equivalent of the largest passenger plane in the world, actually two Airbus A380s, which enters the air every second. In 2020, it has been observed that human activities emit more than 40 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide. The UN's desire is for carbon emissions to be reduced to 22 gigatonnes globally by 2050, and to avoid a catastrophic scenario in which emissions would exceed unimaginable levels, this transition must be made in steps so that emissions reach a maximum. of 44 gigatons of carbon dioxide by 2020, falling to 40 gigatons by 2025 and eventually reaching a value of 22 gigatons by 2050. Statistics show that the US is in first place from 2000 to present in this chapter of declining emissions, followed by Ukraine. Romania ranks 10th in the world in reducing carbon emissions. The benefits of such a massive reduction would have the benefit of avoiding almost 2.4 million premature deaths caused by air pollution by 2030, preventing the loss of more than 50 million tonnes of crops per year and curbing growth. short-term global warming by up to 0.6 degrees Celsius by 2050.

Decarbonisation is a complex process that brings together policies in the fields of energy, environment, social and economic, and its beneficial effects, if successfully applied, are transmitted in several areas, such as social cohesion, health, transport, educational policy, economy or the environment. Decarbonisation also has implications for multinational industries, as they have to pay extra for greenhouse gas emission schemes and commercial schemes, but the same applies to citizens in public spaces such as the use of green public transport or the case of private goods such as home heating which involves a significantly high cost to support green infrastructure and services. It is about a massive reduction in carbon dioxide emissions that seriously affects our health now and in the future, but also our resources while maintaining the same vision. First and foremost, there must be a clear reduction in emissions from the generation units that need to plan and put in place decommissioning measures for coal mining and processing facilities.

Falling energy prices in the EU are hampered by outdated energy infrastructure and poor coordination of national energy policies, especially in Central and Eastern Europe, as the EU is the world's largest importer of energy, importing 53% of its annual energy needs at an annual cost of about 400 billion euros. If each state, especially in the disadvantaged areas in this respect, were to invest in the modernization of energy infrastructure, this would help to reduce energy disruptions and dependence on external suppliers.

What we can understand from all these facts is the immediate need for new credible, viable policies that guarantee efficiency through their implementation, it takes political ingenuity and pragmatism, long-term commitment of politicians, local, national and international bodies, but also of civil societies everywhere in order to implement sustainable development, so that the stage of low-carbon economic development can be reached. Political leaders have a mission to further encourage business creation in sectors that can support this clean and energy-efficient growth.

Although the European Union and other local, national and transnational authorities and organizations have developed and implemented policies and strategies to mitigate the destructive effects of GHG emissions, they are currently growing at a rate of 0 -2% per year. Social Tipping Points are defined by Milkoreit et al. (2020) as points “in a SES (Social ecological systems) where a small quantitative change inevitably triggers a nonlinear change in the social component of the SES, determined by positive feedback mechanisms of self-consolidation, this inevitably and often irreversibly leads to a different state quality of the social system." Here, the authors provide several examples to more easily illustrate the concept as was the case with Martin Luther who, through his writings, triggered the worldwide unity of Protestant churches. From a climate policy perspective, they cite the example of the introduction of tariffs and subsidies that stimulate the growth of renewable energy production, which has led to the consolidation and growth of the market and the improvement of technological costs. Basically, once such processes are triggered, they can become irreversible.

To achieve zero net emissions by 2050, global anthropogenic carbon emissions should be halved every decade. Thus, Rockström et. Al, in the same cited work, states a series of filtering criteria for social tipping points, such as: “The time required to start the tipping should not exceed 15 y, and the time required to observe a qualitative change in the overall system level should not exceed 30 y. As abrupt social change has often been associated with social unrest, war or even collapse, human intervention and its foreseeable effects should here be explicitly compatible with the Sustainable Development Goals, in the sense of positive social dynamics.”

We cannot talk about successes in the cases of Rio, Kyoto and Copenhagen, because an insignificant reduction in emission reductions can no longer be considered a victory against the great problems we face or could face in the future. Rising global temperature by over 2 degrees Celsius is a tipping point that would mark the beginning of a global imbalance in social, ecological and economic terms. We must also take into account the predictions of the IPCC in 2013 which announced a possible increase in global temperature even by 4.8 degrees Celsius if effective and concrete measures are not taken in time worldwide. One issue is capitalism itself, which generates wealth, but at the same time is the main enemy of ecological sustainability, the two fighting head to head, which is why environmentalists demand a massive restructuring of capitalism, especially by providing additional powers to impose sustainable practices and actions. Investments in renewable energy sources are insufficient and unsatisfactory at present, but their potential is huge, especially if we talk about the use of highly efficient wind turbines. Solar cell-based solar power plants are also becoming more widespread, and China or Abu Dhabi are currently building zero-emission eco-cities, so it is important to capitalize on and develop neutral neutral businesses, industries and societies. view of carbon.

Some types of technologies that can be developed or improved in the decarbonization process can be clean electricity which is beneficial to many forms of transport and industrial processes, energy storage, which is required when there is a higher and more widespread consumption of electricity, in especially when it comes to intermittent renewable energy production. Hydrogen is another important factor, as it can be a clean energy alternative, as it is lighter, easier to store and dry with the fuels we currently use. To reduce costs, electrolysis needs to be improved. Sustainable bioenergy must also be included, which has applicability especially in aviation and plastics, but has huge potential in other sectors as well. In the decarbonisation process, of course, more and more solutions need to be found for carbon capture and storage, including for the manufacture of hydrogen or for the identification and creation of industrial plants that remove carbon dioxide directly from the atmosphere.

It must be taken into account that soil pollution and degradation have mainly factors such as mining activities, the presence of tailings ponds, tailings dumps, improper landfilling which of course involves the emergence of toxic residues and waste. We must not forget noise or hydrological pollution. We need to reach a national consensus on promoting clean energy and energy efficiency in order to reach a high stage of decarbonisation, so to successfully meet the Just Transition, but this cannot be done if we do not really try to create a trend of high efficiency cogeneration and to re-technologize/modernize the big mining factories in Romania, at the moment very old.

We are talking about the importance of mine management that must be improved so as to prevent accidents and pollution, which is why the environmental cost must be taken into account for all stages of a mining career, from obtaining the operating license to closing the mine, when the area needs to be rehabilitated. As we have seen, the capacity to monitor and collect data on pollution levels in Romania is quite weak (the example with the Jiu River mentioned in the paper). Thus, concrete monitoring measures need to be implemented to increase efficiency in this regard. Also, most mining quarries are located in mountainous areas, which has a major impact on landscapes, surface water and soil, and the mere fact that these mines are located in mountainous areas means that biodiversity is endangered. Greater attention must be paid to these situations.

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