Jews In Romania And Their Colonization In Palestinedoc
=== Jews in Romania and their colonization in Palestine ===
Jews in Romania and their colonization in Palestine
Kibbutzurile and their role in colonization
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1. Brief History of the Jews in Romania
1.1. The origin of the Jews in Romania. History Hebrew community until World War II
1.2. The situation of Jews in Romania between the two world wars
1.3. History of the Jews in Romania during the World War II
1.4. History of the Jews in Romania during the communist regime
1.5. The situation of Jews in Romania post-December 1989
Chapter 2. The Jews of Romania and Palestine
2.1. Exodus of Jews from Romania to Palestine
2.2. Setting the Jews in Palestine – integration methods
2. 3. Kibbuțuri Jewish – description, role, objectives, history
Chapter 3. Case Studies
3.1. Hebrew Romanian communities in kibbuțuri
3.2. Training and kibbuțuri
3.3. Current status of Jews in Israel coming from Romania
CONCLUSIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
,, A history that hides the truth, mind. Yet often it should extend the truth several times, otherwise the reader could not see him. "(Mark Twain).
Communism has rewritten the history of Romania and mystified it, adapted it according to the principles and ideas. Generations past no longer know now. And in fact, much more serious, distorted and untrue know the past. Better not to know the truth than to be convinced that they know the lie is the truth!
The true history must be impartial: to present all options and views of those involved to identify the causes of the events, their consequences, but not to take sides.
Only when we know the true history and we accept and understand, we will be able to forgive, to heal our wounds, and we truly live life as a nation to make peace with us and with others, either Romanian or Hebrew, Hungarian , Turks or Germans.
Until then we are like an orphan child who does not know his origins, with desires understood, traumatized and sick way.
In this regard, one of the most eloquent cases of Romanian history is linked to the history of Jews in Romania. After decades of totalitarian communist regime that we recognize as truth ??
What is the history of Jews in Romania? How many have left here seeking a better life in Palestine? At what price? How have adapted?
After changing the communist regime in 1989, we were bombarded with information in this area. Of several parts: supporters, survivors and descendants of Jews on the one hand, their enemies on the other, and besides these, historians have tried to reveal the truth.
It's not easy to distinguish from all this information, historical truth. We intend to do this Lucar as lucid analysis of this information, even on a look at the exodus of Jews from Romania to Palestine and kibuțurilor organization. We want to be like a scientist, a chemist who gathers all the data, and theoretical and experimental reality to demonstrate a chemical reaction. But not to forget that beyond the cold and lucid analysis and interpretation, and the most scientific papers in the privacy of chemistry (or politics and history in our case), there is a universal mystery, a metaphysical shudder that gives life and meaning.
Like in a courtroom ,, we intend to obey "all witnesses and testimonies of those involved, to hear ,," all points of view, using our publications, works, history treated published before the war after the country abroad and then, after 1989, articles, testimonies of witnesses journals, statistical data etc.
We will systematically approach, starting with the analysis of the history of Jews in Romania before World War I, then we will deal, in turn, the interwar period, World War II, the communist era and the post-December 1989. It is important to present the causes that led to the emigration of Jews from Romania to Palestine and then Israel. We will then examine in turn the principles, establishment, role, evolution and transformation kibuțurilor. Data will be gathered from various sources proposed and we will summarize in a logical way, as a scientific presentation, trying to find a middle way, historical truth. Our intervention will be more apparent when considering a particular case and then state the conclusions.
The first chapter discusses briefly the history of the Hebrew community in Romania, since antiquity, continuing with the Middle Ages, the modern period between the wars, World War II, the communist era and then the post-communist current.
The second chapter analyzes the Jews left Romania to Palestine and their evolution in this context how integration organization. The third chapter aims to analyze specific cases kibbuțuri have integrated the Hebrew of Romania.
And finally, based on materials researched historical sources consulted, listened to testimonies ,, "will enunciate some general conclusions about those Jews characteristics and how they have affected the history of Romania and the Hebrew people.
Chapter 1. History of Jews in Romania
1.1. The origin of the Jews in Romania
The beginnings of Jews on the territory of today's Romania is lost in the mists of time, somewhere in antiquity, while Dacia and wars with the Romans. It is difficult to clearly establish the history of Jews in this territory of Romania today, due to reduced information that have been preserved from ancient times on this subject. Most evidence comes from archaeologists and consists of tombstones, coins Hebrew epigraphic inscriptions and later in the Middle Ages various documents, travel diaries, tax documents issued by courts main early Middle Ages.
It is believed that when the Romans invaded Dacia in 101 BC, the Jews came here with the Roman legions. Most dealt with perhaps trade. In support of these allegations as there is archaeological Hebrew gravestones dating from that period. The earliest signs of Jewish presence on this land dates back to the first century before our era, and have been found between the Danube and the Black Sea. It's about the Jews who came from Palestine and settled in these areas to practice Dacian trade, as stated in the Universal Hebrew Encyclopedia, published in 1969.
Access to the Black Sea and the Danube provide favorable conditions for conducting business activities. Hebrew between merchants and the local population have established relationships extremely complex. Jews who arrived were mixed with the locals, continuing their daily lives, in their specific way, including religious concerns, keeping Jewish traditions. The presence of archaeological evidence, such as trade coins, altars and inscriptions (which appear to be stable and permanent places of worship), certifying the establishment of Hebrew community in social and economic life of the Roman Dacia, but also in the religious life of these lands.
With the Roman troops arrived in Dacia, as the Orient – Legion XIII Gemina – arrived here and many traders Hebrew, attracted by the wealth of this country. Signs of their activities and especially their presence in the area are diverse and very important: burial inscriptions, votive plaques, coins Jewish symbols specific place names of local settlements.
Historians have identified the presence of two types of Hebrew, idumeeni and itureeni signaled the tombstones and inscriptions found by archaeologists various early twentieth century.
The most interesting archaeological remains are those that are used Semitic letters. So are the inscriptions discovered at Rum funeral inscriptions or fragments Semitic letters were found at Apullum, Tibiscum and Porolissum, along with other evidence arise Jewish symbols such as the Star of David. The most obvious and conclusive evidence, however, are proving Jewish coins and the high level of economic and trade transactions populations in contact with the Jewish world of Dobrogea and the Orient. Such a coin was discovered in 1971 in Caras-Severin in the west of the village Pojejena. One side has a carved inscription vine ,, In the second year of Israel's freedom "and the other is a palm frond Shimon Bar Kochba's name.
This period can be regarded as a special stage of the Jewish presence here, a precursor period of their formation as a community. The number of Jews arriving here was diminished after the Roman withdrawal from 271-273 BC But after the remains preserved, though small, it can be concluded that there is a stable community that had already formed in the middle Dacian integrate.
Other waves of immigrants arrived in the Land Romanian Hebrew after being expelled from Hungary in 1367. Similarly, after the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492, many of whom came to the Balkans, and settled in the Romanian Country . According endorsements were few Hebrew documentaries that were even doctors and diplomats at the Country Romanian Princely Court. During the Cossack uprising in Poland and Ukraine, in the sixteenth century, the number of immigrants increased again Hebrew.
Hebrew in these communities was developed middle class, prosperous, dealing with many commercial activities. Many of trade routes to Poland-Lithuania and the Ottoman Empire went through Moldova, which led many traders to settle in this Hebrew Romanian principality. And even many of whom were welcomed by the leaders of Moldova who was then an underpopulated area.
After the First World War and the unification of Transylvania with Romania, Hebrew population of the country grew from 240,000 to about 750,000 people. Before World War II the number of Jews in Romania was somewhere between 800,000 and a million people.
Some particular characteristics of this population and the political conditions of the Romanian Principalities of the time, gave a special status Hebrew population. Because of their special character traits as ethnic group, so much different from Romanian local population, evreiii who came and settled here have found a great way to survive. Romanian relations with the local population and the ruling class of the two principalities, clearly shows the role played by them in the royal courts and their evolution in terms of current political issues. Skilled mediators and diplomats from bloodborne, doctors and officials, the Hebrew people managed to shape the geopolitical relations between the Principalities and the Ottoman Empire in a special way.
Intelligence, ability, logic, spirit diplomatic led the Hebrew play an important role in shaping relations geopolitical weather, as were those of Romanian leaders and the countries of Western Christian, especially during the crisis Constantinople when formed coalition of Venice .
In 1473 the coalition sought the support of Stephen the Great Principality of Moldavia to use in the fight against Ottoman expansion. This diplomatic effort was made in secret by the mediator Jew Isaac Beg, who held a large role in the Hebrew community movement from Spain to the Romanian Principalities and the Ottoman Empire in order to protect them from the Spanish Inquisition.
Ottoman Empire proved to be very hospitable to the Jews from Spain, not only because the situation could be used as propaganda ,, "the sultan, but also because it could help the Ottoman Jews to expand their political influence, spiritual, economic and diplomatic Balkans. The Ottoman Empire became aware that the use of this group of people as diplomats could help, and that they will expand cultural and economic presence of the Turks in Europe in situations where the army could not do.
Political and economic role played by the Hebrew people will be recognized by the leaders of the two Romanian principalities, they saw the Hebrew as a population which offered plenty of opportunities. Country Romanian and Moldovan leaders have supported the XV and XVI Hebrew because their trade has helped to pay tribute to the Turks, and also their trade exchanges were an important source of income for the throne. Part of the money that came from trade was used by mountaineers leaders to pay their debt to reach the throne. This source of income will be widely used by Wallachian rulers. Jews have provided financial support for rulers, not only for financial gain by the high rate of interest but also for the entire community Hebrew protection offered in the country by themselves.
Petru Rares was one of the leaders who borrowed money from evreiii Moldovan and evreiii from other parts of the Ottoman Empire, in order to come to the throne. So did Iancu Sasu, who paid 4,970 gold thalers to become ruler. Some of the personalities of the time Hebrew backed by influencing the appointment of various Ottoman rulers in exchange for protection provided Hebrew community. It is the case of Josef Nassi, an important figure at the court of Sultan Selim, who helped him to obtain the throne Prince Despot. Thus the Jews had a powerful influence over succession to the thrones of Moldavia and the Romanian Country.
This privileged Jews did jealous local nobility. They were born and confrontations between Hebrew and non-Hebrew regarding commercial transactions, Greek and Armenian merchants were dissatisfied with the protection they had from the leaders of the Jews.
In 1492, Vladislav II of Hungary, sent two letters to city council Sibiu and Brasov, in which it claimed because Hebrew. In this way, the competition was lost for Greek and Armenian merchants towards the Jews, not only in the Romanian Country, but also in Moldova. The only area where Greeks and Armenians have managed to maintain the supremacy of trade, although they have not reached the same level as the Jews, was Wallachia region, close to the Danube.
In 1476 the ruler Stephen the Great used the pretext of Hebrew arrested in Country Romanian traders to justify the campaign against Sultan Mehmet II (1451-1481). Any repression against the Jews was seen as a form of rebellion against the Turkish state in a time when Jews were regarded as representatives of the Ottoman Empire.
Greek and Armenian merchants, the local nobility and some leaders began the persecution of Jews on religious grounds, masking the commercial interests. However, ordinary people did not share these views, being more tolerant.
A turning point in the existence of communities in the territories Hebrew Romanian Principalities was the year 1495. Jews who escaped the Inquisition in Spain and Portugal were welcomed in Constantinople arsenal helping to build local industry very appreciated by the sultan. Jews are thus in high positions in the Ottoman administration and were involved in relations between the Principalities and Ottoman. Mircea Shepherd (1545-1554; 1558- 1559), Patrascu cel Bun (1554-1557), Peter Younger (1559-1568), Petru Cercel (1583-1585) and Michael the Brave (1593-1601) is among the rulers who came to the throne with financial help from Hebrew. Jews have received and customs control over the Danube and were able to set their own tolls. Controlling customs, they were first Hebrew latest news and this was an advantage they were using Hebrew for the community.
Geopolitical role of Jews in the area was more important than their number in comparison with the locals. There was a large number of Hebrew that ensure survival of the community, but they did some of the key positions they occupied. Being advantaged by the Ottomans because of commercial interests, the Jews were a necessary alternative to Greek trade monopoly. Indeed, the Jewish presence in these territories has helped Romanian society of the time, at least from a geopolitical perspective. Influence their presence will be observed throughout the following centuries.
In 1718, the first Hahambasi (Betalel Cohen), son of Rabbi Naftali Cohen protégé of Sultan Mustafa III, was appointed by Romanian prince Alexander Ypsilanti. He was responsible for all Jews throughout the country. His office was in Iasi, but he had jurisdiction and the Jewish population of the southern Romanian Land. Hahambasi office lasted until 1834 when it was dissolved. Hebrew community now choose their own spiritual leader. When they lost the title of Hahambasi Jews lost also the rights and protections that came with it.
Most of the population of Romania arrived Hebrew originally from Turkey and the Balkans and consisted of Sephardim. However, by the nineteenth century, most people Hebrew of Romania was composed of Ashkenazim, the result of waves of immigrants who spoke Yiddish, from Galicia and Russia.
Transylvania was a trade route between East and West, and northern and southern Europe. For this reason, the first Hebrew came to Transylvania on these trade routes from Turkey and the Balkans. Hebrew was the first community in Alba-Iulia, which had recorded a Hebrew residence since 1591. Initially as an independent state, Transylvania was subsequently included as part of Hungary, and then the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Jews continued to migrate to Transylvania in small numbers throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, even if there were restrictions residence until 1848. The number of Jews in historic Transylvania increased from two thousand in 1766, thirty thousand in 1880.
Although the early history of Jews in Romania today has been relatively quiet in the middle of the nineteenth century, the independent kingdom of Romania began to be characterized by anti-Semitism, even leading to the expulsion of Jews from some villages. Increased presence of Jews in the country after World War exacerbated the feelings already present anti-Hebrew.
1.2. The situation of Jews in Romania between the two world wars
Political and economic changes, development of new capitalist relations after World War changed essentially and everyday life of Romanians and Jews. Industrial development led to the emergence of new professions, part of the rural population migrated to cities that have experienced a rapid ascent.
Politics came more and more into the everyday life of Romanians during 1919-1939 occurred no more than 11 parliamentary elections. The education level was still very low, only 65%. However secondary education, particularly at university strongly developed, educated the Personality Syndrome outstanding science, art or culture. After 1918, Romania had one of the strongest developments and changes in political, economic and social, at European level.
At the end of World War desire was fulfilled centuries of all Romanians, the Great Union. Besides the huge enthusiasm and joy general, the new state had to solve many complex problems that were inherent in such a socio-political context. Suddenly there were obvious regional disparities in social, cultural and economic. The ethnic and religious structure has become diverse and complex.
It was a strategy for the integration of all these differences in the space of unitary Romanian state. One major concern has become the problem of otherness linked to social dominance theory. This theory points out that human society tends to be structured as a system of hierarchies based on social groups. Thus, a group or a small number of hegemonic groups are top managers and a group or a small number of subordinate groups is in the middle.
Based on this theory, ethnic minorities are subject to a triple alienation: political, cultural and economic.
After World War I it was expected that the roughness of the dominant group and Hebrew to be alleviated. But things did not go into this. The 1923 Constitution, in Article 22, proclaiming that the dominant Orthodox Church, marginalize them and the Hebrew and Muslims. Although the laws of the interwar period, until 1938, it restricted the rights of Jews, Romania remains a country governed by those elites in non-Romanians who practically had no access.
In this context social emancipation of the Jews after World War I, was perceived by part of Romanian society as a desire of Jews to prevail. Social base of anti-Semitic tendencies and movements were those social groups who were competing with the Jews, and they faced various problems.
New generations of young Jews began to give up the concerns of trade and, through higher school education, sought to climb the social ladder. Development of higher education has been encouraged by the expansion of universities and increasing the growing demand for specialists in a society that knew an intense industrial and economic development: growth and industrial diversification, advances in technology, the chemical industry, the electricity, diversification of services, development and diversification of financial banacară agrarian reform of 1921 etc.
Universities in Cluj and Oradea Romanianization and developed. Other universities were born in Timisoara, Chisinau, Iasi, Bucharest etc.
But while the country develops, ordinary people still face shortages and problems caused by the war just ended. The causes of these problems have not been searched, however, bad organization and management in the country, but the culprits service ,, "who were Jews.
After the withdrawal of German, Romanian revolt against the privations of war, hunger and misery was focused on the Jews. Semitic manifestations were more frequent and more extensive. In the period 1919-1921, they were created groups of Romanian students who descended in Hebrew neighborhoods, especially in Bucharest, and destroyed houses, shops, synagogues and Hebrew were attacking them. This phenomenon take place throughout Europe, Eastern and Central.
After the war, the generations of students who had been mobilized returned to finish her education disrupted. Many of these were traumatized by the terrible experience of the war and had frequent and violent demonstrations were difficult to control. In addition, they were admired by younger colleagues and had a great authority on the student associations were a source of confusion and intense political pressure.
We can set an example known Isaicu Lazarus, who was a student at the Faculty of Medicine in Cluj, then assistant professor, to find him then as leader of the Cluj branch of LANC and organizer of the Legion of Transylvania (1927-1928). It was for 3 years on the front, and had typhus and experience. He was also editor of the organ LANC, Romanian Brotherhood of Cluj. There are endless examples.
Most of these veterans were students from the faculties of law, in which the presence was not mandatory. They were the biggest agitators and most engaged in anti-Semitic movements. They reactivated practically Germanophiles Jews.
In addition to these veterans returning to college, increased the number of students, with changing social status of women in the interwar period. Although the number of students has skyrocketed, the state has not adequately involved in the financing of higher education, which could be instrumental in the development of Romanian society. In this context, some of these young people resorted to violence, accompanied by a specific ingredient century end of the nineteenth century, anti-Semitism.
Anti-Jewish propaganda has grown larger and larger, and it was added and the anticommunist. Besides these issues, many young Bessarabia Hebrew origin, enrolled at the University of Iași, being supported and the Romanian state through special funds for integration, priority accommodation in hostels, scholarships. They came from Bessarabia and ideologies of communist origin, influenced by Russia.
The same pressure was exerted from Hungary who had passed through the village from March to August 1919, in which Jews had been important. In this context it was born the term Judeo-Bolsheviks. There have been several lawsuits, some real, some invented that involved Hebrew accused of being communists.
Anti-Semitic movement in the interwar period changed his subject to action from the previous war. By 1914, the anti-Semitic movement was directed against the bourgeoisie Hebrew, craftsmen, traders. In the interwar period it was directed by the Hebrew intellectuals who, through training and education, became able to occupy positions in universities in the state, in the liberal professions etc. For this reason, interwar antisemitism was manifested mainly in academia where he gained power. One of those teachers was Alexandru C. Cuza, professor of economics and finance at the University of Iași, which has far exceeded the level of anti-Semitic supporter of ideologies.
It had a long political career and consistent, based on antisemitic ideology. In 1892 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies National, and only during 1927-1931 was not a deputy. In 1938 even she became a member of the Crown Council.
In the period 1895-1923 helped establish six different political movements. In 1897, together with A. D. Xenopol, he founded the Romanian League against Alcoholism, in which he accused the Hebrew breeding alcoholism among Romanian scopt having as their extermination.
Then, in 1990, together with Nicolae Iorga, he founded the National Democratic Party who held extreme methods, even violence, to reduce the influence of Hebrew. After the war, A. C. Cuza founded in 1919, Christian National Democratic Party, and in 1922, together with N. Paulescu, National Christian Union. It used the swastika as the official symbol, even before the Nazis.
In 1923, Cuza founded the Christian National Defense League (LANC). Cuza has published numerous anti-Semitic works, largely inspired or even partially plagiarized foreign authors (Chamberlain, Drumont, Mommsen, Renan and Gobineau): About Poporație – Statistics, Theory and Policy them; Poporației Christian and decrease proliferation of Jews; The Jew in war; Nationality in Art – Exposure nationalist doctrine; The Jew in the press; Numerous clauses.
In addition to these treaties, Cuza has published numerous articles, political pamphlets, speeches having all the same basic religious anti-Semitism, violent and persistent, especially at the level of discourse and ideology. Consistently, Cuza spoke about the racial inferiority of Jews, about mixing breeds.
By political platform of the National Christian League, Cuza ,, called for the complete elimination of the Jews ": ,, The only possible solution to the Kike problem is the elimination of the Jews". In this respect the proposed withdrawal of political rights of the Jews, revoking the native Jews to expel Jews entered the country after 1914 expropriation by the state of Jewish-owned land and oil industry targets, exclusion of Jews from public offices or jobs; gradual expropriation of urban property; introducing numerous clauses principle in all areas of education and economic activity; stricter laws and harsher offenses related to counterfeiting, contraband, usury, pornography, and white slave traffic.
Cuza's parliamentary program was based on these themes Semitic, and even claimed that numerous clauses is only an intermediate step towards numerus nullus.
Cuza was so radical doctrine as regarded the Jewish problem in Romania, it seems that now anticipate Hitler (also used the swastika before Hitler when he was still a baby). In fact, Cuzists included inspiration from Gobineau and Chamberlain: ,, As humanity to progress, firstly, must ensure the existence of the white race – Arian to its present height, keeping fresh blood, mixed with the blood of an inferior race. [ …] mixture race means decadence and destruction. "
Of course, Cuzists included not reached the scale of Nazi belief and A.C. Cuza was a politician extremist who shocked the Romanian environment, but was characterized by some moderation in terms of racial politics. As historian Eugen Weber said, Cuza was just a superficial and paradoxical nationalism, which resembled a sub-Drumont ,, Romanian, repeatedly and sterile ".
In December 1922, he tripped student strike general throughout the country because of poor conditions, dissatisfaction with the small number of places in university compared to those occupied by Hebrew, the open hostilities between Romanian students and the Hebrew as it was at the Faculty of Medicine Cluj where students refused to Hebrew Hebrew dissecting corpses.
Corneliu Codreanu Zelea organized student movements in Iasi. Shortly after, on March 4, 1923, the National Christian Defense League was founded and Codreanu had to organize LANC across the country. Began organizing future Iron Guard movement.
On March 26, 1923, Parliament amended Article 7 of the Constitution and granted Romanian citizenship to all Jews in Romania. The students took the protests. Between students and police have been many confrontations, violence and abuse by state authorities.
Legionary movement soon reached a real force in Romania. But worse than its presence has been the situation throughout Europe where right-wing movements, racist and antisemitic had taken on a large scale. The climax was reached by Hitler and his nationalist who declanțat, otherwise even the most atrocious World War unimaginable effects on Hebrew community around the world, including Romania.
1.3. History of the Jews in Romania during the Second World War
In the short time as was in power, the Legionary Movement has shown its anti-Semitic extremism and aggression, not only by passing new legislation anti-Semitic, but by countless abuses committed against the population Hebrew. The raids made by police Hebrew Legionary houses have become a daily event. Seizures of property, sales of properties at ridiculously low prices, kidnappings, beatings, ill-treatment, culminating in the pogrom wild held in Bucharest during the legionary rebellion in January 1941, when a total of 125 Hebrew were killed and thousands people beaten, tortured and raped in the country.
Legionnaire pogrom in Bucharest was a tragic prelude to Romanian Holocaust, in which between 280,000 and 380,000 Romanian and Ukrainian Hebrew, were killed or died in Romania. Legionary movement played only a minor role in the Holocaust and was outlawed following the coup in January 1941. But their anti-Semitic propaganda and violence in the interwar period was essential for desensitization Romanian population towards the Jews and made it possible discriminatory measures gradually escalating criminal policies.
The mass murder of Romanian and Ukrainian Jews committed by the regime of Antonescu, is perhaps the best documented aspect of history Hebrew community in Romania. Antisemitic legislation, already existing, has been maintained and expanded by Marshal Ion Antonescu after the Iron Guard movement was removed from power following the coup. On 3 May 1941 it was set up the National Center for Romanization responsible for the expropriation and nationalization ,, "ownership Hebrew.
They were established ghettos in Bessarabia and Bukovina, but not in the Kingdom. While evreiii the Kingdom were subjected to forced labor (either at home or in labor camps and battalions), the northeast were subject Deportations area between the Dniester and Bug that killed most of the victims Holocaust.
Antonescu justify its policy towards minority Hebrew by anticommunist policy, accusing the Jews of Bessarabia and Bukovina of communism, supporting the Soviet Union, and even to be its agents. However, nationalism stressed Antonescu's determined not to comply always requests Nazi Germany, as was the case with the setting up of the Hebrew Central in December 1941, or when it refused deportation of Romanian Jews to Poland in the summer of 1942 and even their emigration to Palestine allowed. It was a strange combination and one of the peculiarities of Romanian anti-Semitism, that paternalistic attitude of the Romanian state to what defined the early 19th century as ,, own "Hebrew, and strong nationalist sentiments Antonescu who have made German pressures perceive as an affront to the sovereignty of Romania, which led to the refusal to attend the Marshal of Nazi final solution. This led him to William Oldson ,, use the term antisemitism providential "to describe this paradox. As a result, about 428 000 of Hebrew survived the Holocaust in Romania, most of them being in the Kingdom and Southern Transylvania.
The other half of Hebrew minority in Romania perished during the Antonescu regime. The first victims of wartime Antonescu dictatorship were the Jews of Iasi, some killed during the pogrom, others died during a train deportations to Transnistria, due to appalling conditions of transport.
Most Jews deported from Bessarabia, Bukovina and Odessa, as well as a significant number of Roma were deported to Transnistria. The death toll in the province was the greatest of all territories during the war, accounting for nearly half of the total number of deportees. Makeshift camps without food or adequate means to health care, lack of winter clothing, overcrowded camps and a typhus epidemic led to the death of about 105000-120000 of Hebrew deported.
In the summer of 1942, Antonescu refused the Nazi deportation of Jews from the Old Kingdom and Southern Transylvania as part of the Final Solution. This judgment, which allowed the survival of half the community Hebrew of Romania was partly caused by the protests raised at the time by some Romanian intellectuals prominent leaders of democratic parties, religious leaders of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, the Elena of Romania, Regina parent and Traian Popovici, the mayor of Chernivtsi. In addition, the emigration to Palestine was allowed – by paying amounts ranging from 200,000 to 500,000 per person.
Similarly proceeded Romanian authorities to allow passage safely through Romania of Hungarian Jews in 1944, when the Nazis implemented the Final Solution in Hungary. On 23 August 1944, following the rapid advance of the Red Army to the border of Romania, Marshal Antonescu was overthrown by a coup and replaced by General Sănătescu as the leader of a national government. The new government has realigned Romania allies and declared war on Germany. Dictatorship wartime responsible, together with Nazi Germany, the Holocaust in Romania, reached the end.
1.4. History of the Jews in Romania during the communist regime
After the coup that led to the overthrow of Antonescu's dictatorship, in October 1944, Romania passed under the Soviet sphere of influence and therefore a communist regime was gradually but firmly installed in the country. Perpetuated further, as in the interwar period, the image of a Communist party led by Foreign ,, "first Hungarian and Hebrew, and the idea that this regime was imposed by a foreign power, the Soviet Union. Such perception it was strengthened by the combination of Hebrew and communism, which was a characteristic of interwar Romanian anti-Semitism.
As a result, despite an official ban on anti-Semitism in Romania after 23 August 1944, and the perception of Jews as victims of fascism, anti-Semitism in Romania continued in the post-war, though in a form very different from the one before war. Romanian generals processes that have committed war crimes was emphasized more their role in the attack on the Soviet Union rather than the responsibility for the Holocaust and the plight of Jews was often subsumed under the generic Soviet citizens. As such, as claimed by Raphael Vago, like other countries in Central and Eastern Europe, ,, Romanian society was confronted with his past "and anti-Semitism continued after the war.
This became apparent during the famine that hit Romania, especially in the eastern region of Moldova in 1946, when accusations Semitic alleged responsibility of speculators Hebrew – reminiscent of anti-Semitism wars – have appeared widely. Also, Jews were accused of communist regime in Romania, accusations supported by the presence of personalities Hebrew in the new regime, or Alexander and Ana Pauker Nicolschi.
A treatment Hebrew Communist Party members held in Romania, similar to the persecution of Jews and anti-Semitic events made by Stalin in the Soviet Union.
However, despite these setbacks, there is no doubt that the situation of the surviving Jews of Romania has improved considerably after 23 August 1944, and initially there was considerable enthusiasm for the new regime in Hebrew population. In 1946, following the return of deportees who survived, in other countries, the number of Jews in Romania reached 420,000, the highest of all countries in the bloc, except the Soviet Union. Despite the persistence of anti-Semitism, there were no violent outbursts against the Hebrew population in Romania during 1945-1946, as they were in Hungary, Poland or Slovakia. Moreover, despite its shortcomings, the communist regime in Romania has created some favorable conditions for intellectuals Hebrew. And, as argued Kuller, intellectuals Hebrew prospered under communism in Romania, regardless of the many frustrations and hardships, some common to the majority population, some specific to Hebrew minority.
Meanwhile, efforts to integrate the mass of Jews in the new regime, using Hebrew Democratic Committee (CDE), an organization founded in June 1945 largely failed. As a result, the initial enthusiasm of minority Hebrew, to the new regime in Romania, faded gradually in the context of widespread poverty, aggravated by the currency reform of 1947, which had devastating effects on the private sector, and following the failure of the Romanian state to return property seized Jews during the war. The main consequence has been a pronounced desire to emigrate to the newly established State of Israel. In addition, while the Romanian state post-war followed the initial line imposed by Moscow on the emigration of the Jews (though showing some striking differences as compared with the other satellite states of the Soviet of Central and Eastern Europe), later adopted a cynical policy which looked Hebrew population in Romania as valuable a commodity to be sold ,, "in Israel in exchange for goods or foreign currency, a policy which was to some extent reminiscent of his approach Ion Antonescu repatriation and migration during 1942 and 1944.
Shortly after its creation, Israel was facing the US, and then Stalin has totally changed its policy towards Hebrew. Romania followed suit, stopped Jewish emigration in 1948 but has not implemented the persecution so violent as in the USSR. Filderman, leader of the Union of Hebrew Communities Rabbi Safran Romania and emigrated after they were subjected to harassment. Rosen became chief rabbi of Romania and was tasked with presenting the situation of the Jews in Romania in color very positive abroad, thus playing a role similar to that of Patriarch Justinian Marina in the Romanian Orthodox Church.
International pressures made by Israel, the efforts of some prominent members of the Jewish state apparatus (especially Ana Pauker) and tireless activity of Zionist organizations in Romania (despite their official ban), led to the resumption of emigration. In the first wave of mass immigration from communist Romania to Israel between 1950 and 1952 about 110,000 Hebrew left the country. Despite the large number of Hebrew who left Romania, the application for leave were actually much greater – not less than 220,000 Hebrew submitted applications to emigrate in the first two weeks in the spring of 1950, when emigration It became possible after a two-year ban. Already in this first wave of emigration, both Romanian state received equipment, currency and oil drilling in Israel in exchange for exit visas for Jews in Romania, anticipating ,, trade "more explicit that followed a few years later.
It is no coincidence that when the Romanian state has banned the emigration of Jews took place and the removal from power Pauker, the first major treatment of the Romanian Communist Party, on charges they Hebrew nationalism and support for Zionism. After the withdrawal of Soviet troops from its territory in 1958, politics in Romania was removed from Moscow, and this policy more independent and had beneficial effects on Jewish emigration.
Following a ban stricter emigration between 1952 and 1958 despite protests considerable in the United States, the communist regime led by Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej decided to pursue it, probably in an attempt to improve its relations with the West, seen in this Now as an important trading partner. Moreover, the first element of trade were evreiii themselves – migration was permitted in exchange for much-needed foreign currency into the economy. Henry Jacober, a businessman based in London Hebrew, Romanian Securitate paid cash for exit visas to Hebrew and non-Hebrew alike, amounts ranging between 4,000 and $ 6,000 per person. As a result, from 1958 – when immigration resumed – and until 1965, when Dej died and was replaced by Ceausescu, the Romanian Communist Party Secretary General, 107 540 of Hebrew Romanian emigrated to Israel. "
He took power after Ceausescu resumed soon trade in visas for Hebrew, but in addition, his instructions were that the amount of money to be paid for each Jew to be determined by ,, age, education, profession, family status "; hence, the amounts ranged between 2,000 and 50,000 dollars per person and goes up to $ 250,000 in some cases. Migration has continued at an average annual rate of 1.997 of Hebrew from 1969 1989, amounting to a total of 40 577 of Hebrew who immigrated to Israel during this period.
Romania's anti-Semitic attitude continued even was present in the party press, where they publish so-called judicial poets ,, "as and Corneliu Vadim Tudor. In 1980, the weekly published an editorial Week Bucharest strikingly anti-Semitic, entitled ,, Ideals "written (but not signed) by Corneliu Vadim Tudor, in which he asserted that ,, a nation can be built only by the people in its villages who were born here for hundreds and thousands of years "and rejected the Hebrew minorities.
The scandal editorial provoked protests in the West that led to retractions future of some of these statements by the editorial board of the newspaper, and the first sentence explicit from Ceausescu's anti-Semitism in a speech in April 1981 and a reiteration of this position in January 1982. internally, however, have not taken concrete steps against vandalism against synagogues and Hebrew cemeteries regime is indifferent to abuses carried out against religious communities. In addition, religious persecution affecting all religions in Romania, aimed also Judaism.
Unlike the other species communist bloc countries, Hebrew community in Romania had, however, suffered as before. Even if difficult conditions, with large sums of money or goods, they were able to immigrate to Israel.
1.5. The situation of Jews in Romania post-December 1989
Immediately after August 23, 1944, some of the Jews in Romania have expressed distrust or opposition to the new evolution of the country under Soviet domination and to its political and economic future, who deemed them inappropriate and expectations. A radical means of expressing their lack of support for a regime that had taken over the country was emigration to Palestine. In this respect, many families of Hebrew or people from different regions and even from abroad and took the risk of moving clandestine border between Romania and Hungary. Some of them were seized and sent for trial, others have failed in their attempt. The large number of such attacks demonstrates a general attitude of mistrust and lack of support for the communist regime, the Jews of Romania.
Political developments in post-communist Romania was characterized by the persistence of anti-Semitic attitudes in a country where the minority Hebrew amounted to no more than 0.03% of the total population in 1992. On one side stood a resurgence of nationalism in the period interwar regarded by many as a golden age of Romanian history, on the other hand, a continuation of Ceausescu's nationalist line. This dichotomy has led distinguish the excellent analyst Michael Shafir made her return between radical organizations ,, ",, and those with radical continuity".
Paradoxically, anti-communism manifested in Romania after 1989 did not prevent the continuation of many of the characteristics of ideological Ceausescu regime. Indeed, many of the former employees, affiliated intellectuals and bureaucrats second-ranking regime, which is re-invented as anti-communist ,, democratic politicians "have retained fact conceptions. In the absence of organized dissidence, similar to those in Poland or Czechoslovakia, they were politicians who took power after the collapse of communism, bringing with them anti-Semitic legacy of nationalism that were characteristic Romania under Ceausescu.
In addition, in their attempt to redefine itself as anti-communist politicians of this type frequently emphasized their nationalism. Even organizations that had emerged as a doctrine principles of Marshal Antonescu, even in 1990, two organizations that bore his name, ,, Liga Pro-marshal "and ,, Marshal Antonescu League" aiming to legal rehabilitation of Antonescu, who have formally requested it in 1992. while the first organization was founded by veterans, the second was established after the veterans refusal to cooperate with two people who were perceived as being affected by their collaboration with communist regime: Iosif Constantin Dragan, – a Romanian exile who was a former member of the interwar Legionary Movement, and a Securitate collaborator of the early 1950s – and the poet ,, home "of Ceausescu, Corneliu Vadim Tudor.
Antonescu's rehabilitation issue was used as a political weapon, in a sense triple as ideological tool against ethnic minorities in Romania (especially Hebrew, Hungarian and Roma), a feature that was a direct continuation of Ceausescu's approach; as a means to divert public attention from unresolved issues of government corruption and the Communist past of many of its members; and, finally, but perhaps most importantly, as a means to undermine the credibility of King Michael of Romania. Two of the most radical political parties were imposed on the political scene, the Greater Romania Party – PRM and Romanian National Unity Party – PUNR. In the two candidacy for the Presidency of Romania, in 1996 and 2000, Corneliu Vadim Tudor was likened Marshal and promised to be ,, a second Antonescu ".
Along parties ,, radical continuity, "which originally had significant electoral success, culminating with his entry Corneliu Vadim Tudor in the runoff presidential election in 2000, when he received 33.17% of votes, a series of movements, parties and foundations emerged in the 1990s, who rejected communist legacy altogether, instead turned to a model of the Legionary Movement wars. Though remaining at the edge of Romanian politics until now, however, are striking because radicalism discourse that adopt them, reminiscent of interwar fascism and their glorification explicit legionnaire leaders such as Codreanu, Ion Mota and Vasile Marin.
The proliferation of organizations and parties right radical post-communist Romania must be understood in the context of the reluctance of successive governments, since 1989, to address this issue and to take decisive measures against the spread of fascist or anti-Semitic material nature. The few hesitant steps taken in this regard were almost always due to international protests or as part of packages conditionality for EU and NATO.
During his tenure (1996-2000), President Emil Constantinescu was the first to recognize Romanian responsibility for genocide against the Jews, and insisted that Romania refused to take part in the final solution. On 13th March 2002 the government led by Prime Minister Adrian Nastase issued Ordinance 31/2002, the first element of the law in post-communist Romania, which outlawed organizations ,, fascist, racist and xenophobic "promoting ideas, on grounds of ethnic, racial or religious ".
To answer blocking, made by PRM Ordinance in Parliament and denial made by the party regarding the Holocaust in Romania, an international commission headed by Nobel Laureate for Peace, Elie Wiesel, was called for just study the Holocaust in Romania. Although the Commission's findings were unequivocal, it took four years for the decree that banned anti-Semitic propaganda to become law. On 9 October 2013 (Memorial Day of the Holocaust in Romania), National Liberal Party, Crin Antonescu announced that it has made a new legislative proposal would amend the law in 2006 to include an explicit prohibition of actions, organizations and symbols legionnaire character. The law was promulgated in 2015.
Semitic sentiments in public opinion declined considerably in recent years, now reaching the target of xenophobic manifestations are Roma. Meanwhile, despite the gradual decrease in popularity formations right, most intellectuals (Gheorghe Buzatu, Paul Goma, Ion Coja) have become known for their materials published that denies the Holocaust Romanian selectively, ie not deny it as such but only Romanian involvement, and simply rely on the Nazi responsibility.
Michael Shafir identified six types of anti-Semitism in post-communist Romania, such as:
1) ,, self-exculpatory nostalgic anti-Semitism "- former members of the Iron Guard movement and organizations that are part of ,, radical return";
2) ,, self-propelled anti-Semitism "- specific organizations and personalities ,, radical continuity," using atisemitismul to seize political power;
3) ,, neo-populist antisemitism mercantile "- used as a way of promoting personal interests and / or party without the essential ideology or belief system that person or organization.
4) ,, utility Semitism "- occasional use for the needs of politicians in general, nor anti-Semitic;
5) ,, reactive anti-Semitism ";
6) ,, antisemitism revenge "- hatred simple Hebrew, for what they are, what they do.
Despite the decline in recorded anti-Semitic attitudes in the population surveys, it is clear that anti-Semitism is unfortunately still present in contemporary Romania, despite the fact that the Hebrew community in the country is now very small.
Chapter 2. The Jews of Romania and Palestine
2.1. Exodus of Jews from Romania to Palestine
The first wave of immigration took place between 1882 – 1903. It took place in two groups, through which about 25 thousand Hebrew came to Palestine, most of them from Romania and Russia. Immigration has been funded by supporters of the movement Zion and Bilu companies.
A second immigration took place between 1904-1918. This immigration took place following the establishment of Zionism movement. The number of immigrants reached around 40 thousand, mostly from Russia and Romania. They were mainly young adventurers who were recruited by Zionist organizations and colonizing. By the end of the second stream of immigration, and the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the number of immigrants reached around 85 thousand of Hebrew and the number of land owned reached 418 000, and around 44 agricultural settlements.
The third wave of immigration was in the period 1919 – 1923. During this phase, the number of immigrants reached 35 thousand Hebrew at a rate of 8 thousand immigrants annually, most of them from Russia, Romania and Poland, in addition to a small number in Germany and America.
The fourth was immigration during 1924 – 1932. This phase began during the British Mandate, during which 80 thousand immigrants came to Palestine, most of them middle class, especially in Poland; They used small amounts of money that they brought with them to start small projects in Palestine. Zionist immigration peaked in 1925 when about 33 thousand Hebrew arrived in Palestine, compared to 13 thousand people in 1924. Subsequently, the number began to decline again, and reached 13 thousand in 1926. The number immigrants continued to decrease in 1927 due to the economic problems facing the country was then, so their number decreased to three thousand and then just two thousand in 1928. thus, by the end of this phase, the total number of Jews who immigrated to Palestine reached around 175 000, of which 136 thousand were settled 19 civil settlements, the rest were spread in 110 agricultural settlements.
Table 1 presents the countries where they came from immigrants between 1919 to 1936:
Country Number of immigrants Percent (%)
Poland 124 010 42.80
Russia 30 429 10.50
Germany 28 629 9.89
Romania 14754 5.10
Lithuania 3.22 9305
Yemen and Eden 2.95 8529
7674 USA 2.65
Greece 2.25 6516
Iraq 5122 2:11
Latvia 1.57 4546
Turkey 1.39 4016
1.29 Czechoslovakia 3748
Austria 1.27 3690
Iran 1.05 3047
Total 289616 100%
The third wave of immigrants was in the period 1919-1923. The decrease migration caused by war stopped thereafter. However, the most sophisticated immigrants came from Romania, Russia, Hungary, and Poland. The dominant cause of these migrations was the British government's mandate for Palestine, and the announcement of the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which supported the creation of a Hebrew in their own region.
During the Cold War, Truman and the US administration has focused under the influence of Zionist circles strong financial support to Israel against Islamic alliance ,, ". In the Eisenhower administration, American support for Israel was intensified. French military involvement with the UK in Suez Canal crisis ,, "in 1956, produced a certain detachment of diplomacy from Washington to its Western partners. In this context, Romania – being consistent with UN resolutions – not off dialogue with the Israeli government, although there was a visible detachment in bilateral relations in the period between 1951 and 1957.
The main cause of this situation was different attitudes towards minority Hebrew emigration from Romania to Israel, nerve between leaders of the two countries, which has led to political overtones, including in international bodies. Hebrew population movement to Palestine started in the interwar period and continued during the Second World War and was strengthened with the creation of Israel in 1948.
Communist authorities in Bucharest, which initially sought to answer a request made formally acceptable government Ben Gurion, following the directives of the Kremlin, which was opposed to massive emigration, and changed his attitude. In addition, due to constant conflict between Arabs and Hebrew, in terms of location of immigrants from Europe in the Palestinian territories occupied by Israeli forces after the 1948 war, the situation was assessed as a violation of UN resolutions. Arab states and the US protested repeatedly drawing attention to the danger ,, communization Palestine ", the Hebrew people from U.S.S.R. and countries in Eastern Europe.
Although at that time Romania did not take into account the Israeli request, then it was more involved in regional affairs, because in the 60s and 70s even become a mediator discrete and effective Arab-Israeli conflict. Meanwhile, the Romanian government proved much more flexible in dealing with problems relating to immigration, which was promptly notified and appreciated as such by the Israeli authorities, as evidenced by his letter to Walter Eytan, Director General of the Foreign Ministry Israeli, that aa sent on September 23, 1956 by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Romanian: ,, it is a great encouragement for me to receive confirmation that the government of the people Romania joined the emigration policy that allows Israel to the Israeli people wishing to bring their families being together, […] I can assure you that every act of the government in this direction will be received with deep satisfaction the people of Israel and, more than anything else, will improve relations between our countries "
The positive attitude shown by the Romanian authorities in connection with solving a larger number of applications for emigration – promptly seen by Western political circles – was openly acknowledged and the Israeli side. Thus, on March 3, 1959, during the presentation of credentials, Minister Shmuel Bend mention: ,, My Government welcomes the People's Republic of Romania to the humanitarian attitude of the Government of Romania on the issue of reunification of separated families, an attitude that is deeply appreciated and attract general sympathy in Israel. "
Two years later, the new minister Katriel Pesach Salmon on April 14, 1961, after saying that ,, in the tradition of my country pioneer who created a special place for agricultural settlements early founders, who came from Romania with more than three generations ago ", he also expressed confidence in strengthening relations especially in the economic and cultural.
In summer the same year, 1964, when he received Charge d'Affaires ad interim in Romania, Golda Meir, the Foreign Minister of Israel, stressed the government's attitude in Romania towards the country, which, with few exceptions has been constant and favorable international echo of its diplomatic approaches. He also expressed his willingness to propose cabinet reciprocally increase the level of embassies and diplomatic representatives to support Romanian initiatives to develop economic and political relations with Western countries.
This close cooperation between the two governments has produced among Romanian emigration, displacement of about 400,000 people, actions and significant positive feedback and a sense of pride ,, that were born, raised and trained in our country " .
Stressing that the decision of Romania has not been determined circumstances, it was the result of an objective process to decide on relations with other countries through a creative interpretation of the concept ,, the peaceful coexistence of countries with different social and political systems "Israeli media noted the contribution of the Romanian ambassador in fostering dialogue, better understanding and rapprochement between the two countries and peoples.
Ethnic minorities (Hebrew, German and Hungarian) were clearly over-represented among those who emigrated legally from Romania during the communist regime. Immediately after World War II, Communist authorities began to sell simply Romanian citizens of German and Hebrew by West Germany and Israel respectively. Under the leadership of the Communist majority Romanian Jews (between 300,000 and 350,000 people) emigrated to Palestine, Israel or the United States. Emigration, both ethnic Germans and those Hebrew, came under the control of the communist authorities. The reason was quite simple – Germans and Jews were invaluable goods to western markets.
In the last years of the communist regime, measures against ethnic minorities peaked unimaginable. ,, Alien elements "from all public offices were removed. In addition, Ceausescu sold literally minorities. If Hebrew population, this business was not new – mass emigration was also encouraged in the late 1950s.
By 1958, hundreds of thousands of Romanian citizens of Hebrew received permanent visas to emigrate to Palestine, despite angry protests from the Middle East. Also USSR and also tried to force the Romanian communist government to stop emigration, although only briefly. In 1961, in exchange for huge sums of money paid by the state of Israel, Hebrew many families have been granted passports to leave Romania.
The transaction proceeded under the Ceausescu regime – the minimum amount payable for one person was $ 2,000. ,, Affair "was so successful that Ceausescu decided to apply the same tactic with the German population after establishing diplomatic relations with the Federal Republic of Germany in 1967.
Table 2. Population by ethnic origin emigrated from Romania
The share of the general population (Census 1977) Share of population Emigrants (1975-1989)
Romanian 87.0% 35.5%
German 1.6% 44.2%
Hungarians 7.9% 12.8%
Hebrew 0.1% 5.5%
Others 3.3% 2.1%
2.2. Setting the Jews in Palestine – integration methods
Establishing and strengthening the state of Israel was one of the main goals of the Zionist project. It was designed in Europe in the late nineteenth century and aspires to empower Hebrew as a nation with the right to a national state. Territory chosen to create Hebrew nation state was Palestine. Hebrew waves of immigrants came to Palestine. The newcomers tried to resume ,, "colonization of Palestine and the revival of Hebrew in Jewish vision in an ethnic, pure geopolitics.
The Zionist movement began to buy land to establish new immigrants. During the period 1919-1948, before the creation of Israel, about 483,000 immigrants arrived in Palestine Hebrew. They were distributed in about 470 settlements and colonies. Since the establishment of Israel in Palestine between 1948-1998, about 279,000 immigrants came to Israel Hebrew, living in 1,078 settlements and colonies.
Before the establishment of Israel in 1948, the instruments used to accelerate and absorb the Hebrew immigrants were different from those adopted in the period after 1948. In the pre-state Zionist movement operated under certain restrictions, despite support and assistance to British mandate of implementing the Balfour Declaration of 1917 and establishing a national home in Palestine Hebrew. Shortly after its creation, Israel has begun to adopt a series of laws ethnic, to ensure it has a pure ethnic nation. These laws included demographic and geographic instruments that were to be used in the Judaization of Palestine and its transformation.
One of the main laws used to ensure exclusive Jewish immigration to Israel was ,, Law of Return. "Under this law, every Jew is entitled to immigrate to Palestine and to obtain citizenship immediately upon arrival in Israel. The Zionist movement, as , a semi-governmental continue to work with the Israeli government to encourage Jews in the diaspora to immigrate to Israel and settle here. to facilitate the absorption of new immigrants, the Zionist movement and the Israeli government have developed goals, policies and plans. These objectives, policies and plans had social, cultural, economic and geopolitical.
The Zionist movement was a national religious movement which aimed to revive the Hebrew people as an entity, a nation in a territory populated by geopolitical a pure ethnic state. Jewish immigration to Palestine was not only based on economic considerations, such as colonial models, but was also based on considerations and religious and ideological motivations.
The Zionist movement has crystallized three interrelated elements to implement this project: religion, nation and territory. It argued that Hebrew people are ,, return "to Palestine, which was their historical homeland, and that does not migrate. The project involved the Zionist movement and the indigenous inhabitants of the land purchase allowing the creation of Hebrew colonies.
Palestine was not an empty ground, it was inhabited and populated by more than 700,000 Palestinians in 1917, and about 1.3 million Palestinians in 1947. The Zionists have used the slogan ,, land without a people should be given a people without land. "In this way, the Zionist movement created the moral and ideological legitimacy for the colonization of Palestine.
In order to implement this vision and myth, the Zionist movement had to create a special term with religious dimensions, emotional and moral. For example, immigration was named Aliya ,, "meaning to go up. Emigration was called ,, Yereda", which means descent. Acquisition of land or confiscation has been described as a salvation and liberation of land by foreigners.
In Palestine, the Zionist movement has created a model of various urban and rural communities to absorb new immigrants. Therefore, a type of agricultural settlement was known as Kibbutz (collective colony community), another was moshavim (semi-colony Community) or Ovdem moshavim (agricultural workers colony) and moshavim (colony), etc. After the establishment of Israel, were established other settlements in different parts of the country. Hebrew settlements diversity reflects the diversity of the communities in which their occupants immigrated.
,, Zionist pioneers "began their immigration to Palestine in 1882 and the country's demographic landscape has been transformed gradually with the establishment of specific ethnic colonies. These new colonies Hebrew, which were built to integrate new immigrants Hebrew, formed another level of structure. This led to the creation of a dual structure, one Palestinian and one Hebrew. Soon hostility broke out between indigenous inhabitants and newly arrived settlers.
Hebrew immigrants accounted for an exceptional workforce and came with experience in the various communities and their countries of origin. In many cases, the relationship between migrants and their home countries, continued through cultural, language, citizenship and investment opportunities. These special relationships have helped to strengthen the State of Israel.
Most of the immigrants were integrated into colonies under a clear geographical pattern, which indicated a geo-political division in Palestine.
The first wave of immigrants arrived in Palestine in Hebrew during 1882-1903. They were, in particular, in Russia and Romania. They established agricultural colonies in different parts namely Hebrew: Petah Tiqva, Rishon LeZion, Zikhron Ya'aqov, and Hadera.
The second wave came between 1904-1914 in which 40,000 Hebrew moved to Palestine between 1882 to 1914, the Zionist movement established agricultural colonies around thirty through private investments, in order to absorb new immigrants Hebrew.
The third stage of the Hebrew immigration took place during 1919 – 1923, which arrived in Palestine Hebrew 35,000. Many immigrants in this wave were young people who were generally well educated and trained in their home countries. Palestinian resistance to this wave of immigration began to increase and the political conflict between the Zionist movement and the Palestinians was intensified.
The fourth stage of the Hebrew immigration occurred during the period 1924-1931, through which 85 thousand Hebrew emigrated to Palestine. Immigrants were primarily middle class. Most of them have settled in cities and have found employment in economic activities in urban areas, while the earlier arrivals had settled in rural colonies.
The fifth wave occurred between 1932-1947, in which approximately 270 thousand Hebrew moved to Palestine. They brought significant amounts of capital and invested in industry, commerce, agriculture and Palestine. This marked an important stage in the growth of urban population in large cities (Tel Aviv and Haifa) and at their peripheries. This wave of immigrants has strengthened the Zionist movement in Palestine began to demand autonomy as a preliminary step towards creating a geo-political entity.
Pre-state waves of immigration have substantially increased the number of rural and urban settlements Hebrew and their general population. Between 1922 and 1945 the number of cities increased from 8 to 27, and the total population of these cities has increased from 70000-440000. The number of rural settlements ,, Moshavot "increased from 34 to 44 and their population grew to 12,000 from 80,000. The number of colonies rural community ,, moshavim" increased from 11 to 98 and their population has grown at 140-31000. the number of colonies rural collective "Kibbutzim" increased from 19 to 115 and their population increased from 1200 to 37000. to absorb this wave of immigrants, the Zionist movement has established about 330 colonies, the many of them in rural areas.
Before 1948, each wave of immigration has left its mark colonies geographic distribution, population and forms of settlements. In general, the first three waves left their imprint on rural agricultural colonies type Moshavot, Kibbutzim and moshavim. Instead, the fourth wave of immigrants has marked a milestone in the immigration of urban elements and the development of urban, while immigrants from the fifth were absorbed primarily in urban centers and introduced new sectors and new types the economic enterprises.
A combination of different factors affected the distribution model colony Hebrew immigrants. Availability of land for agricultural use was one of the main factors that affected this model. The geographical distribution of Hebrew colonies show that they were originally established in outlying areas where there was only minimal resistance of the Palestinian people.
Significantly, in the pre-state Hebrew ties between elites and farming settlements were very close by. Many representatives of the political elite came to farming settlements and several national missions were conducted in agricultural settlements.
Statistics show that the socio-cultural pre-colonial agricultural state was quite large. Instead, in 1961 the average number of years of education was 9.9 moshavimi old (those founded before 1948), 10.9 Kibbutzim old, and only 6.8 in moshavimii established by immigrants in the 50s.
Residents of rural Hebrew colonies formed the nucleus of the Zionist ideology in Palestine in the pre-state, despite their location, on the outskirts of the territory. This nucleus has absorbed subsequent waves of immigrants Hebrew and shaped geo-political attitude of the Zionist movement. Gradually, this basis has started to change and move to Tel Aviv, the main urban center of the Zionist movement established during the five waves of immigration Hebrew. Due to limited opportunities for acquisition of agricultural land, many immigrants have started moving to urban centers and work in urban economic activities.
The structure of rural settlements concentrated movements also played a role in attracting immigrants to the central region. The institutions located in Tel Aviv, led to the economic development and financial services. Increased amount of services were created jobs in cities, and this was a major factor in attracting immigrants.
In a short period of time (1930-1937), the population of Tel Aviv increased by 108,000 persons (from 42000-150000), and the city began to spread northward and eastward. This process was one of the main causes of urbanization initial Moshavoturilor.
Rapid urbanization that occurred in Moshavoturi and led the movement from rural areas to urban centers, was largely possible because they were private projects ,, "and ,, no national" as they were Moshavimurile and Kibbutzurile . Between 1960 and 1970 as a result of these processes, many of these communities have become medium and large cities in the outer ring of the metropolitan area. These cities have absorbed large numbers of immigrants from the former USSR in the 90s.
As a consequence of limited growth colony rural suburb, the geographic distribution of immigrants, when Israel was strong, was highly concentrated in the central region. Most of the Hebrew population lived in a large number of agricultural settlements from the country's geographical periphery. Thus, when Israel was established, more than half the population living in the northern district of the Southern District declined and was almost devoid of population Hebrew.
The geographical distribution of urban population in the late 1940s, was the main cause of the geographical polarization of the Israeli population. Although only 9% of Israeli settlements (44 of 490) were urban in 1949, Hebrew urban population represented 80% of total Hebrew. The urban population was concentrated in a small number of localities in the central region.
Since 1948, approximately 2.8 million immigrants came to Israel Hebrew. They constitute about two thirds of the total population in Israel Hebrew. A large number of Hebrew continued to build more settlements and to expand existing ones, including those in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The number of Hebrew settlements increased from about 490 colonies in 1948, about 1078 villages in Mandate Palestine.
The socio-economic status of immigrants in the 50s was relatively low, especially compared with European immigrants who arrived in pre-state period. Absorbing large numbers of immigrants, immediately after the establishment of Israel, the government and the Zionist movement have seized abandoned houses of Palestinians after the 1948 war, they built temporary camps, and later new cities.
Most Europeans Hebrew immigrants who came to Palestine in the pre-state were appointed ,, Ashkinaz. "They were considered ,, natives" of new immigrants who arrived in Israel in the 50s. New immigrants who came from the Arab-Islamic Hebrew ,, Sfaradem were appointed. "They were absorbed in Ashkenaz. Ashkenaz developed and enforced policies and instruments that facilitated the absorption of new immigrants in the 1950s immigrants were sent to by the Israeli government and the Zionist movement, which was dominated by Ashkenaz, on the outskirts state in temporary camps and ,, new "cities, in addition to homes occupied by Arab Palestinians.
The second wave of immigrants Hebrew came to Israel from the former USSR between 1989 and 1992. During this period approximately half a million immigrants have arrived in Israel. Since 1993, about 70,000 immigrants came to Israel in Hebrew each year, including ,, Falasha ", immigrants from Ethiopia, in what was called" Operation Shlomo ".
Since 1948, the model geographically absorption of immigrants has changed from a centrally planned, formal, active, and the intervention of government and agency Hebrew in the distribution of immigrants in the suburbs, in an absorption process semiliber immigrants in years' 90. This change occurred as a result of changes in ideological, structural, economic and social development in Israeli society. The Israeli government adopted the policy of dispersal ,, population "as one of its basic principles. The policy of population dispersion, was made possible by the arrival of a million immigrants in 1950 in transit camps in new cities (known ,, later as development towns "), and rural settlements in the Galilee and Negev built, which were defined as peripheral regions.
The absorption of immigrants in Israel's periphery continued after 1950, although to a lesser extent in the 90s. More than two thirds of immigrants from the 90s were absorbed in the cities of central Israel, while previously most of the immigrants were absorbed in the suburbs.
The government has used a variety of means to disperse the immigrants around the periphery. One was the financial means. Others included the creation of new Israeli settlements alongside Palestinian Arab homes and neighborhoods populated cities abandoned during the war and after 1948.
They used three principal means of settling established to absorb immigrants.
1-establishment of transit camps
2 Establishment of new cities
3-Setting rural settlements
Israel official national plan for 2020 forecasts resettlement of about half a million immigrants Hebrew in Israel. An immediate objective of this policy is to expand the work of absorbing the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In its current fight on the demographic and geographical Palestine between Israelis and Palestinians is far from complete.
2. 3. Kibbuțurile Jews – description, role, objectives, history
Kibuțurile is a European phenomenon, transplanted in Palestine (and, since 1948, Israel), through its connection with the Zionist movement. This connection has been a key factor in the creation and development of these structures. Even its members priivit kibbuțurile an action, a construction Zionist, and his special way of life was seen both as an end in itself but as a means to achieve the return of Jews to Palestine.
By 1907, when the kibbutz founders first arrived in the country, there were about thirty villages Hebrew, which were based on small farms owned by Hebrew, but they depend largely on the work of Arabs. Degania, the first kibbutz was founded in 1909-1910, as the culmination of a series of experiments in an attempt to living and working in common purpose of which was to create a Hebrew leader of the working class. Hebrew creating a society represent independent socialist Palestine.
By the end of World War kibbutzurilor traditional social structure evolved into a tightly knit community that lived on land ,, nationalized "(owned by the National Hebrew), which control their own society and economy, and ensure their existence only through work its members. They were governed by all its members who gathered weekly; the table was taken jointly in a central dining room, which served also as a social and cultural center, and other consumer items were distributed freely or under the principle ,, to each according to needs ". In the early stages decisions have been taken jointly by all members. From mid-twenties, the administration was transferred to a growing network of committees and officials full-time or reduced (free), serving in rotation. But the weekly general meeting remained sovereign in all spheres of life's kibbutzim.
The nuclear family was a recognized element in the company's kibbutzim. Women worked a whole day, and the children were cared for in small groups, conceived as a means of practical education for life in the kibbutz. Each was supervised by a caretaker and then the children were absorbed in kindergarten and later in school. Children spent hours in their parents' home after work.
Each Kibbutz economy was based on agriculture, adapted to local conditions such as climate, water availability, size and abilities of members. Cultural activities have varied widely, but their common element was the Hebrew year, the celebration weekly Sabbath and festivals agricultural cycle Hebrew – cultural.
After the establishment of the British Mandate in 1919, thousands of young pioneers have begun to enter the country, and many of them joined kibbutzurilor already founded. The government limited compulsory number of immigrants, and many have waited for years until they were allowed to enter the country. The waiting period was often spent in training kibuțuri Hebrew diaspora. By 1928 there were 41 kibbuțuri in Palestine, with a population of nearly 2,400 adults and 300 children. This, was, however, less than 2% of the Hebrew; and although the population has increased steadily kibbutzuri, it was never more than a small part of the community Hebrew – 7.6% at the peak in 1948.
In the early years, kibbuțurile enjoyed broad public support because they were seen as the spearhead of the Zionist enterprise, to increase the Hebrew colony in places and in conditions where others did not survive. But this virtual monopoly was broken in 1921, with the establishment of Moshav, a village based on family farms, established on land owned by national and implement the principle of autonomy of the workforce.
In order to protect their interests, the 1930 kibbutzurile have created three national movements that differ both by their political affiliation and their beliefs about the nature of society in the kibbutz:
• kibbutzuri ,, large and growing "enlargement taking place to the limits of its economic possibilities and based on industry and agriculture;
• Another was more selective, and its members were brought only in his own youth movement;
• kibbutzurile lowest were deliberately limited in size in order to safeguard quality members ,, intimate relations "between them, and was engaged only in agriculture.
In 1934 he founded a religious movement, a movement of Orthodox Hebrew religious. Over the years, the social structure of Kibbutzim has tended to become more similar. But unlike most communal movements, they aspired to influence society, and early stage, each had its own political affiliations.
From 1932 to 1936, Jewish emigration from Nazi Germany led to an unprecedented rise in Hebrew population, from 175,000 in 1931 to 350,000 in 1935. The proportion of Kibbutzim in Hebrew population remained constant. They have made great efforts to provide houses for refugees in Europe, often at the expense of living standards in the Kibbutzim. One of the outstanding innovations of this period was the youth organization Youth Aliya, which brought young people fleeing Nazi persecution in Palestine and educated in Kibbutzim.
In 1936 he broke Arab armed struggle against the Zionist project. During the Arab uprising crops were destroyed and attacked settlements. Kibbutzurilor members were recruited into the police force, and were set up small groups of volunteers who fought under the British Army. Kibutzurilor image was changed so the basic features of brotherhood, austerity and hard work have now added courage and heroism.
These qualities, prestige and public support have continued to characterize kibutzurile during the second World War and in the three years that followed, until the establishment of Israel in 1948 until the War of Independence.
Since 1942, the Palestinian economy has thrived. Despite labor shortages in kibbutzuri expanded agricultural fields, began to develop non-agricultural sectors such as canning factories, garages, shops carpenters. The postwar period was marked by the fight against the British government and increased immigration, particularly Holocaust survivors.
Kibbutzurilor members have played an important role in organizing the movement of refugees in Europe and illegal immigration.
During the War of Independence in 1947-1949, many kibbutzuri hampered the invading Arab armies. Nine were conquered and destroyed; kibbuțuri a whole block (block Etzion, south-west of Jerusalem) was taught, and many of its inhabitants were massacred. Palmahulul was extended, and won victories on many fronts. And even during the war, we kibuțuri were established along the borders of the new state, as well as in strategic areas abandoned by the Arab population. In the fourteen months of the War of Independence, they were established 57 new kibbitzuri with unprecedented intensity. But this was the end of massive expansion, which began in 1936. The Holocaust reduced the Hebrew communities in Europe and, within them, labor reserves of Kibbutz movement; and youth movements of Palestine and the Diaspora non-European countries were relatively weak. Employment in areas abandoned by Arabs continued, but mainly in the form of moshavim. In the year after the war, in July 1949 they were established 22 new kibbutzuri versus 110 moshavim.
It was just one aspect of a crisis that marked the movement kibutzurilor since 1949. Most of its traditional functions – defense, absorbing immigrants – now seemed to be obsolete or beyond their capacity. The purpose of creating a socialist society remained relevant, but it was far from being achievable and increasingly less in line with public opinion and Israeli political aspirations. Their contribution to the economic independence of Israel was seen as one of the main justifications for the existence kibbutzurilor.
Over the next thirty years, kibbuțurile prospered and developed a network of industries, many with exceptional success. Their standard of living also increased steadily. And became increasingly alienated to less privileged classes, most of them originating from the Middle East. ,, The principle of self-employment "was subjected to constant erosion.
In the early 1950s, the crisis was exacerbated by political tensions. The part that controlled the two largest movements kibbutzurilor (MAPAM – United Workers' Party) was in opposition Labour Party dominant, especially on foreign policy: supported neutrality or alliance with the Soviet Union in the Cold War. However, about one third of the members of the higher of movements, Kibbutz Me'uhad, supported the Israeli political leadership. In the hectic of the Cold War, when a third world war seemed unlikely, proved to be impossible for the two factions to live together, and in May 1951 the largest kibbutz movement was split in two. It was a traumatic experience, one whose effects are still felt. Pro-Soviet Mapam began to change in 1952. Although the Kibbutz movement continued to be active in politics, their main contribution was substantial support for the peace movement of the early 1980s.
Since the mid-fifties prosperity has increased. Standards of housing, food and clothing have improved and the system of distribution of consumer goods was gradually changed to give members greater freedom of choice. But certain problems that have existed for many years, began to intensify. Material inequality between members, resulting mainly from resource use outside kibbutzurilor increased steadily. Democracy was still an integral part of the system, but in almost every kibbutz there was a de facto oligarchy, often reinforced by the complexities of kibbutz industry and the development of regional businesses, driven by a managerial class of kibbutz members.
Moreover, women have played a smaller role than men in management kibutzurilor, their managerial skills were mainly used in areas ,, feminine "such as education and culture, and most of them have worked in occupations traditionally feminine, such as childcare, cuisine and clothing store. These issues were the subject of controversy, and there have been several changes to the system: management positions were occupied by rotation; Committees were mixed gender and women had a greater diversity in choice of profession as the economy has become more diverse; general meetings and other important events were broadcast on closed circuit television. But many of the problems have persisted, and one, the employed labor force, proved intractable.
Lentră population growth, the population was never large enough to support kibbutzurilor society without recruiting from outside its ranks. But education grew steadily being based on education, work, and focusing on practical applications and WCF and artistic expression. By the mid 1960s, there has been an increasing trend to shape the curriculum to national rules. At the same time, the 1970s kibbutz principle that every child had the right to education at the university level, has been widely accepted. All of these developments have brought education closer kibbutzuri accepted norms of Israeli society.
Since the early 1960s was constant pressure, especially from mothers with young children, to eliminate system ,, communal sleeping. " By 1992 this change was accepted kibbutz movements.
The Six Day War of 1967 led to fundamental changes in Israeli politics and society. Israel demonstrated its military capacity before the attack, and conquered large areas. Kibutzurilor younger generation played an important role.
In subsequent political controversy about the future of the occupied territories, the kibbutz movements and their political representatives they were found across the political spectrum, which opposed any return of the territories conquered by those who advocated unconditional withdrawal.
27 kibbutzuri us were founded between 1967 and 1977. Some of the Golan Heights kibbutzuri were evacuated before the Syrian attack, but their members have returned after the war. In 1982, according to the peace agreement with Egypt in northern Sinai kibbutzuri three were moved to sites within pre-1967 borders.
Despite the tensions of war, terrorist attacks and bombings in the border area in kibbutzuri continued efficiency and growth, marked by widespread industrialization – almost every kibbutz now have at least one industrial enterprise. In addition it noted the creation of regional cooperative conglomerates, with a high standard of cultural creativity, steadily kibutzurilor population, an increase in familialismului and loosened the rules in lifestyle. In the early seventies there was also a growing trend among young people born in the kibbutz to leave the organization, and this has increased to alarming proportions in the 1980s.
The political atmosphere in Israeli society has changed radically in 1977, when the Labour Party's defeat in Beijing Menahem, Herut (later Likud). This party and its political allies have strengthened Israel's tendency towards market economy.
In the mid 1980s, when the entire Israeli economy suffered a severe crisis, many companies have gone bankrupt, while others were recovered only with government aid. The vast majority of kibbutzurilor were saddled with huge debts.
In addition were added and uncertainties still unresolved on kibbutzurilor functions in the state, anti-socialist sentiments now prevailing in Israel and dissatisfaction felt by many ordinary kibbutz members have produced a wide variety of ideas that led to the concept of ,, new kibbutz ".
Kibbutzimurile ,, we "or ,, privatized" relies largely on market forces, while capital goods are still owned by the community, and as far as possible, they have the legal status of companies limited. Workers receive wages according to the market and pay a tax to cover internal and community members to receive support in times of unemployment, sickness and old age. Democratic structure tends to be the model of parliamentary government (or local), voting by voting closed on key issues; job rotation during driving is much longer than the classic kibbutz. Many of the functions traditionally performed by public institutions were taken over by the family: for example, few privatized kibbutzim ,, "now also provides three meals in common dining halls, and some have even closed.
Some kibbutzuri ,, have been in this financial crisis, and 20% to 30% of their population left the kibbutz, "said Ran Abramitzky, an assistant professor at Stanford University, who has researched kibbutzurilor economy in the last five years. and Kibbutzim have decided to act as the brain drain better skilled, better educated workers. "
Kibbutz is a unique phenomenon in accordance with Abramitzky. It has proven to be more flexible than other common or collectivized projects created elsewhere in the world.
On the other hand, some kibbutzuri (about 40 out of a total of nearly 270) keeps stubbornly kibbutzurilor classical structure and principles.
And the last decade of the twentieth century has seen a small revival spurt of kibbutzurilor were founded fifteen small kibuțuri some slum areas of Israeli cities, others in rural areas. Few of them rely on agriculture; most of them members engage in various forms of social assistance, education and other related fields. Their members are basically coming from Israeli youth movements, and take pride in the belief that they continue the tradition kibbutz in the service of society, albeit in a different way ,, purer "than the one used by Kibbutzim veteran.
Currently, the total population is about 102,000 kibbutzuri membership or approximately 1.8% of Israel's population. Although he participated in the country's general prosperity in the sixties and seventies, kibbutzurile went into a steady decline.
Chapter 3. Case Studies
3.1. Hebrew Romanian communities in kibbuțuri
Twelve young Romanian Hebrew, ten men and two women, were set on barren land, overlooking the Sea of Galilee. It was in 1910 in a place called Degania A, adjacent Arab village of Umm Juni, a Palestine was still under Ottoman rule. The founders of Degania A could be seen as twelve children from the days of Jacob, the tribes progenitors future. Determined to redeem the earth ,, "to break the class system and radically transforming the dignity of manual labor provided Hebrew, they went where others feared to tread there. Degania in Hebrew and Umm Juni in Arabic means ,, tare "conditions were harsh, the soil was stubborn and malaria was rampant. Their experiment was virtually collapsed later that year, only to be refreshed by a Russian pioneers again in 1911.
In 2007, the first kibbutz Degania A became that would be privatized. The most productive socialist on earth, and the surviving communist regimes in the Eastern bloc, the kibbutz has gone through hard times, economic crisis, the aging population, the emergence of consumerism and globalization, the withdrawal of state support after the 1977 fall of the Labour Party from power – all these elements have become part of the story kibbutz.
Five years after its founding, in 1915, the community celebrated the birth Degania Kibbutz first. Thousands of sons and daughters of the movement followed, including her Ehud Barak, Amos Oz, Shimon Peres (who later founded Kibbutz Alumot), Arthur Koestler, the painter Avigdor Arikha, poet Hebrew Rachel, who lived and is buried at Degania. Five prime ministers in the Israeli Labour Party – Barak and Peres, David Ben-Gurion, Levi Eshkol and Golda Meir lived part of his life in the kibbutz and six ministers Yitzhak Rabin's first government, 1974-1977, Kibbutz or Moshav members were ( Moshav being semi-collectivized agricultural settlements).
Zikim is a kibbutz in southern Israel. Located in the northern Negev desert, is under the jurisdiction of Hof Ashkelon Regional Council. In 2006 it had a population of 385 inhabitants.
The kibbutz was founded in 1949 by a group of young Romanian Hebrew Hashomer Hatzair movement that belonged before their arrival in Palestine in 1947. At that time, the Negev Hebrew colonies were very rare, and each new location was considered to ,, as a point of light "(zik) in the wilderness. Michael Har-Segor, an Israeli historian, came up with the name of Zikim translating a quote from Pushkin in Hebrew: ,, from sparks a flame will come."
Zikim is built on land belonging to the Palestinian village depopulated Hiribya. Members of Hashomer Hatzair Hebrew Zikim drew worldwide, most recently in South America. Actor Bob Hoskins worked as a volunteer in Zikim in 1967.
The main crops are mango and avocado. Zikim also operates one of the largest dairy farms in Israel. The main industrial product is polyurethane product kibbutz factory, Polyrit.
Kfar Glikson, a kibbutz in the north of Israel was founded in 1939 by immigrants from Hungary and Romania Hebrew. Having about 300 residents, Kfar Glikson is based on agriculture (crops, farm milk), a small handicraft industry and rural tourism.
Shaar Haamakim means ,, Gate valleys, "The kibbutz was founded in 1935 by immigrants from Romania and Yugoslavia. Like many Kibbutz settlements, it was originally affiliated with the socialist youth movement.
Dalia is a kibbutz in northern Israel. Located in Galilee about 30 km southeast of Haifa, is under the jurisdiction of Megiddo Regional Council. In 2006, had a population of 737 inhabitants. The Kibbutz was established in 1939.
Kibbutz Dalia was formed by merging the two communities Hashomer Hatzair affiliated with. The first kibbutz "BaMa'ale" and consisted of members from Romania and Transylvania. Many studies have completed training in agriculture and industry in their countries. The first immigrants arrived in 1933 and stayed mainly in Magdiel and Hadar Kfar Malal in Ramatayim. They worked in agriculture and other temporary jobs, while waiting for permission to establish definitive Hebrew Agency in Palestine. The second Kibbutz "BaMifne" in Karkur consisted of members of Germany. Before emigrating, most of them have completed training in agriculture studies in Denmark, while others studied in Germany, France and England.
Megan is a secular kibbutz about 80 families. Kibbutz was founded in 1949. Hashomer Hatzair members from Romania who came to Israel during the War of Independence. The founders were formed in Kibbutzim Yad Mordechay Gath and then settled the land in Sheikh Noran western Negev.
Currently, the kibbutz is more than 200 residents and 100 children. The total population reaches 500. Magen is a classic kibbutz and not a renewal. In the kibbutz are a clinic, swimming pool, playground, grocery store, gym, lounge, dining room, basketball court, soccer field and tennis court. The average age is 40-60. Kibbutz Kibbutz movement absorbs only members belonging to families, especially young families with children and established secure profession, but it is possible to absorb and singles. The absorption process is to receive a welcoming committee, followed by more than two years in the kibbutz, followed by another reception committee.
Labor occupations in kibbutz and its vicinity: agriculture, industry, services and liberal professions. Many members work outside kibbutzlui. Magen lives from different branches of agriculture: field crops, potatoes, peanuts, wheat. Another source of production is ,, Plastic Magen factory "factory that produces plastic bumpers sunlight, thermal relays, etc. In addition, there are two schools. Here are ZOO Experience – the largest zoo in the western Negev.
Nir Yitzhak was founded on December 8, 1949. Initially, the kibbutz was named ,, Tet-Vav ", but after several years, the name was changed after the late Yitzhak Sade, commander of Palmach.
The first members arrived at the kibbutz, after a period of training in Kibbutz Gat. All of them were graduates of Ha-Shomer Ha movement ,,-Tzair "and various youth movements (originating in Europe). The first two years kibbutz was populated by small groups in different places: from Mishmar Ha Emek came youth from Bulgaria, from Ramat Ha-Ha-Ein Shofet Shofet and youth came from Romania and Haifa came ,, Gvulot. "Two years later, the Argentine ring members began to arrive in three cycles.
Kibbutz three groups of educated youth (1957-1962, 1963-1968, 1983-1989), and seven graduates from these three groups remained far kibbutz members. In the 28 years since 1973 has absorbed different groups kibbutz in Israel, Argentina, European countries and elsewhere in the world, alone, boys and girls after military service.
Romania Segev group participated Moshav Nahalal alongside young people and members of the Gordonia youth movement kibbutz Hanita formation. Kibbutzlui's agricultural beginnings were difficult. Hard work and isolation were characterized kibbutz. The two agricultural sectors were an orchard planted on a mountain and trees in arid lands. Lack of permanent water dispersion plots, plantations of fruit trees on unsuitable surfaces put an end to these agricultural experiments.
Hanita now has about 600 residents. Agriculture plays an important role: a plantation of avocado, bananas, olives. The industry plays an important role: a factory of contact and intraocular lenses; Kotlov a factory specializes in the metallization of plastics. This factory, characterized by high technology plays a major role in the economy of Hanita.
Kibbutz Shaar Haamakim was founded in 1935 by immigrants from Romania and Yugoslavia Hebrew and has been affiliated with Mapam, the Left Party pro-Soviet workers – but not Marxist. About 700 people live in the village. Most of its current revenue is derived from solar water heating plant, Chromagen.
On 30 June 1937, the first kibbutz religious ,, Tirat Tzvi, "was founded in Beit Shean Valley south. Kibbutz founders were immigrants from Romania, Poland and Germany, graduates of the training groups Shah, Rodgers and Kfar Yavetz. They wanted to establish a kibbutz in combining Torah and work. For many years, kibbutz marked the southern borders of Jordan Valley Hebrew.
Distance from other settlements Hebrew and proximity to hostile population represented an existential threat to the founders of the kibbutz. At about eight months after the establishment of the kibbutz, a group of Arabs invaded the kibbutz. Members have demonstrated courage and ingenuity and succeeded in pushing back the attackers to defend the kibbutz.
At the beginning of the War of Independence, on 16 February 1948, the kibbutz members fought heroically. Currently, kiubbutzul living from agriculture and the food industry.
Kibbutz Nir Eliyahu is located north-east of Kfar Saba, in the hills of red soil Sharon, watching the western slopes of Samaria. Kibbutz belongs to South Sharon Regional Council. On July 27, 1950 I pitched early settlers in this place. A group in Turkey with young immigrants from Romania and Poland gathered to found Kibbutz. In the Six Day War, the kibbutz has been damaged. In 2002, after the attacks Intifada and paving Highway 6, it was installed a security system and a wall height of 8 meters to protect the road.
In Kibbutz Bet, have stability groups who arrived from Romania. But after a short period of time, they have decided to become independent ,, named Gimel ", that the third letter of the Hebrew alphabet. They knew that he expects a lot of work to support their economic affairs in order to find a way to join workers in the country and also to remain true Movement and to serve as an example for the organization in Romania. This last point has meant, among other things, keeping constant contact and building a station ,, intake "for newcomers.
Nirim, kibbutz in southern Israel in the Eshkol region ,, "west of the Negev, affiliated with Kibbutz Ha-Shomer ha-burn Ẓa'ir. Initially it was one of the 11 villages in the Negev established the night of October 6, 1946. the founders, joined pioneers in Hungary and Romania. in the War of Independence Israeli Nirim was the first village Hebrew exposed to an attack concentrate of the Egyptian army invading (May 1948). After the cessation of hostilities in April 1949, the kibbutz was transferred in a northwest, bordering the Gaza Strip, while the former place was taken by Nir Yiẓḥak, another kibbutz ha-Shomer ha-Ẓa'ir. in addition to intensive agriculture partially (field crops plantings of avocados, flowers, poultry, and dairy), kibbutz has also developed organic farming. kibbutz is co-owner of NIRL a factory paint base near Kibbutz Nir Oz. in the mid 1990s, the population was about 445 inhabitants, dropping to 365 in 2002.
3.2. Training and kibbutzuri
Initially, newcomers may find it difficult to adapt to the new language, the physical work and how collective life. It is a program for learning Hebrew. All studies, particularly those of a new language, requires considerable effort. Living expenses are financed through work and studies. Kibbutzuri way of life is both liberal and tolerant, but there are certain customs, regulations and norms that may not be immediately apparent or understandable for a newcomer. While it acquires a deeper knowledge of the content and specific lifestyle.
Kibbutzurilor members have, on average, a high level of formal education. Most founders came from cities kibbutzurilor (either in Israel or abroad) in order to achieve the Zionist ideal of changing the occupational structure of the Hebrew people in a nation of traders in one of the farmers. They made their secondary education and higher education often before arriving in Palestine / Israel. Their education has been applied in agricultural development in kibbutzuri and later contributed to the rapid adaptation of their industry. People born and educated in kibbutz received also advanced agricultural training at a high technological level, and their experience has improved their ability to adapt to industrial technology and its economic and financial requirements. In addition, job mobility in kibbutzuri developed members flexibility and adaptability required in procesulș industrialization.
Thus, already at the beginning of industrialization in the kibbutz, industrial workers had high levels of formal education compared with those who were not in the kibbutz. Michal Palgi in a study conducted in 1976, found that industrial workers in the kibbutz had, on average, 12.2 years of schooling, while workers in the rest of Israel had only 8.6 years of schooling. Currently, the average level of education for industrial workers on kibbutzuri – with an average age of 45 years – is about 15 years of schooling.
From a handful of founders, barefoot and almost empty, in a town of 1910, Degania, the kibbutz movement has grown into a national network of 270 independent kibbutzuri over 120,000 people. They represent less than 3% of Israel's population, while their contribution to the economy (manufacturing, agricultural and industrial) is three to four times higher than their proportion in the population.
It is also remarkable contribution to the cultural and artistic creation, education and presence in the armed forces. Kibbutzurile veteran in the third and fourth generation, grandchildren and great-grandchildren of the founders, have already begun to integrate into positions of leadership and organization. Social and economic systems are undergoing rapid and radical changes, adapted to the new conditions of XXI century.
Kibbutzurilor vitality is expressed through their ability to change, to renew frameworks in the previous conditions, change rigid forms, which could hinder development, and to adapt to advanced technologies and new ways of organizing. Some observers have predicted the end kibutzurilor. However their capacity to adapt stunned everyone.
Kibbutz arose from necessity – the best answer to the problems of Israel's founding period. Its members have tried – and failed – to turn a utopian vision into reality. Given the changes that followed the collapse of totalitarian communism and capitalist neo-conservatism recurrence, kibutzurile have further responses – for some of the problems of modern society in this century.
Since their inception, kibbutzimurile had a place in the political and cultural center of the Hebrew community in Palestine. Kibbutzurilor representatives were members of the social and cultural elite, and from their ranks came many of the leaders of the Israeli political class.
Kibbutzimurilor success has become a proverb in Israel. Agriculture in Israel, was more efficient than in the US. While urban life was tough and uncertain, Kibbutz members had a safe and high standard of living and a better quality of life.
Success and wealth kibbutzurilor resulted in large amounts of capital and provided without conditionality of Hebrew communities worldwide to the considerable difficulties of these communities.
Some kibbutzuri became true capitalist structures. Cooperative principles were replaced by those of self-interest.
Currently setting and managing policy was distanced classic kibbutz and it would seem that in this respect the managers and directors try to take control of kibbutz members. Kibbutz members are at risk of losing control of their destiny when the community, decision making moves to maximize profits.
3.3. Current status of Jews originating in Romania
Today, many Hebrew coming from Romania are part of the total Israeli population Hebrew. Israel continues to be a haven of security and hope for Jews worldwide. Whether caught up in conflicts, as in Ukraine, whether face anti-Semitism as in France, or economic difficulties in Latin America as Jews continue to come home in the land of their ancestors.
Over 380,000 Romanian Hebrew today live in Israel, constituting the third largest community in the country. Israel was founded Union of Jews born in Romania (AMIR). The objectives of the organization are:
• Creating a museum in Israel, showing images of Jews born in Romania and achievements – in Israel, Romania and other countries.
• Organisation of the first International Congress of the Jews born in Romania living world wide in Jerusalem in 2004.
In order to achieve the two objectives AMIR included many different organizations of the Jews born in Romania (in Israel and in other countries of the world) and Hebrew who were born in Romania and do not belong to associations.
Hebrew original of this great community in Romania, have highlighted many personalities who had an important role in Israel's history.
Thus, the former prime minister Yitzhak Rabin, having previously Elie Wiesel name, was the most influential Jew in the second half of the 20th century, and his influence increased with the years. Wiesel was born on 30 September 1928 in Sighet, Transylvania, Romania.
Although they left Romania for many or fewer years, many of the Jews born in Romania returning constantly here, meet with the people grew and grew, fighting and campaigning for the rights evreilopr who still live in Romania . And many testimonies of those who live in Israel shows that they took with them some of the Romanian people, among whom they lived, still retain the habits and still speak Romanian, despite any differences or memories less pleasant related history of anti-Semitism in Romania and lived.
CONCLUSIONS
Hebrew first arrived in Dacia once the Roman legions. In the Middle Ages, arrived in several stages of migration due to historical conditions.
Jews played an important role in royal courts as well as developments regarding current political issues. Skilled mediators and diplomats from bloodborne, doctors and officials, the Hebrew people managed to shape the geopolitical relations between the Principalities and the Ottoman Empire in a special way. Thus the Jews had a powerful influence over succession to the thrones of Moldavia and the Romanian Country.
Geopolitical role of Jews in the area was more important than their number in comparison with the locals. There was a large number of Hebrew that ensure survival of the community, but they did some of the key positions they occupied. Being advantaged by the Ottomans because of commercial interests, the Jews were a necessary alternative to Greek trade monopoly. For these reasons they envy nobility and merchants Greeks and Armenians.
By 1914, the anti-Semitic movement was directed against the bourgeoisie Hebrew, craftsmen, traders. In the interwar period it was directed by the Hebrew intellectuals who, through training and education, became able to occupy positions in universities in the state, in the liberal professions etc. For this reason, interwar antisemitism was manifested mainly in academia where he gained power.
Legionary Movement has shown its anti-Semitic extremism and aggression, through countless abuses committed against the population Hebrew. Legionnaire pogrom in Bucharest was a tragic prelude to Romanian Holocaust, in which between 280,000 and 380,000 Romanian and Ukrainian Hebrew, were killed or died in Romania.
Emigration to Palestine began in during the Second World War and was allowed Antonescu – by paying amounts ranging from 200,000 to 500,000 per person.
The combination of Hebrew and communism, which was a characteristic of interwar Romanian anti-Semitism. The situation of the surviving Jews of Romania has improved considerably after 23 August 1944, and initially there was considerable enthusiasm for the new regime in Hebrew population.
Despite the persistence of anti-Semitism, there were no violent outbursts against the Hebrew population in Romania during 1945-1946, as they were in Hungary, Poland or Slovakia. Moreover, despite its shortcomings, the communist regime in Romania has created some favorable conditions for intellectuals Hebrew.
In the first wave of mass immigration from communist Romania to Israel between 1950 and 1952 about 110,000 Hebrew left the country. After the withdrawal of Soviet troops from its territory in 1958, politics in Romania was removed from Moscow, and this policy more independent and had beneficial effects on Jewish emigration.
Ceausescu resumed soon trade in visas for Hebrew, but in addition, his instructions were that the amount of money to be paid for each Jew to be determined by ,, age, education, profession, family status "therefore, the amounts ranged between 2,000 and 50,000 dollars per person and goes up to $ 250,000 in some cazuriSpre contrast to the other species communist bloc countries, community Hebrew of Romania was not, however, suffer the same long. Even in difficult conditions, with large sums of money or goods, they were able to immigrate to Israel.
Political developments in post-communist Romania was characterized by the persistence of anti-Semitic attitudes in a country where the minority Hebrew amounted to no more than 0.03% of the total population in 1992. On one side stood a resurgence of nationalism in the period interwar regarded by many as a golden age of Romanian history, on the other hand, a continuation of Ceausescu's nationalist line.
2015 decree that banned anti-Semitic propaganda issued by the government of Adrian Nastase to become law. Semitic sentiments in public opinion declined considerably in recent years. Despite the decline in recorded anti-Semitic attitudes in the population surveys, it is clear that anti-Semitism is unfortunately still present in contemporary Romania, despite the fact that the Hebrew community in the country is now very small.
The first wave of immigration took place between 1882 – 1903. It took place in two groups, through which about 25 thousand Hebrew came to Palestine, most of them from Romania and Russia. A second immigration took place between 1904-1918. This immigration took place following the establishment of Zionism movement. They were mainly young adventurers who were recruited by Zionist organizations and colonizing.
The third wave of immigration was in the period 1919 – 1923. During this phase, the number of immigrants reached 35 thousand Hebrew at a rate of 8 thousand immigrants annually, most of them from Russia, Romania and Poland, in addition to a small number in Germany and America.
The fourth was immigration during 1924 – 1932. This phase began during the British Mandate, during which 80 thousand immigrants came to Palestine.
The fifth wave occurred between 1932-1947, in which approximately 270 thousand Hebrew moved to Palestine. They brought significant amounts of capital and invested in industry, commerce, agriculture and Palestine. Hebrew population movement to Palestine started in the interwar period and continued during the Second World War and was strengthened with the creation of Israel in 1948.
By 1958, hundreds of thousands of Romanian citizens of Hebrew received permanent visas to emigrate to Palestine. In 1961, in exchange for huge sums of money paid by the state of Israel, Hebrew many families have been granted passports to leave Romania.
The Zionist movement began to buy land to establish new immigrants. During the period 1919-1948, before the creation of Israel, about 483,000 immigrants arrived in Palestine Hebrew. They were distributed in about 470 settlements and colonies. One of the main laws used to ensure exclusive Jewish immigration to Israel was ,, Law of Return. "Under this law, every Jew is entitled to immigrate to Palestine and to obtain citizenship immediately upon arrival in Israel.
The Zionist movement created a model of various urban and rural communities to absorb new immigrants. Therefore, a type of agricultural settlement was known as Kibbutz (collective colony community), another was moshavim (semi-colony Community) or Ovdem moshavim (agricultural workers colony) and moshavim (colony), etc.
In every period of its history, the kibbutz movement was influenced by developments in the outside world, especially the world of Hebrew.
Kibbutzimurile played a major role in resolving threats from the period 1936-1939, ,, Arab uprising ', and came at the height of their influence. But their natural reserves Zionist youth movements were dramatically reduced during the Holocaust and they did not moshavimurile able to compete in an effort to absorb mass immigration in the early 1950. in parallel with the establishment of Israel in 1948 began a decline, both in the world and in Israel, in terms socialist and egalitarian ideology that had been until then, ideological support and this decline was accentuated with the fall of the Soviet Union and the discrediting of communism.
During the seventy years of existence, 1910-1980, classical kibbutzurile were undoubtedly the most successful form of intentional communal society. Kibbutzimurile had considerable success in absorbing the younger generation through close supervision of their education, and by creating a single educational system. The birth rate was not sufficient in itself to ensure its survival. Since the early 1920s, Zionist youth movements were the source of labor.
Kibbutzimuri was developed in the youth movement as a means of population growth. A number of historical factors have combined this purpose: Zionist motivation, which prompted tens of thousands of young people to look kibutzurile Hebrew as a way to escape poverty.
From the earliest days, kibutzurile enjoyed the support of the Zionist movement, and, after 1948, the State of Israel in a variety of ways: support for youth movements and their farms, allocation of land, legal aid and political collaboration defense matters, financial support.
The sacrifices and hardships which were unavoidable part of everyday life, especially in pre-state Hebrew, were considered justified in the light of an objective which included the creation of an independent Hebrew community in Palestine.
The unique structure, population growth and economic success of kibbutzurilor classic, allowed the survival and prosperity, and was undoubtedly the most successful joint movement until the crisis of the eighties. Status kibbutz new contemporary kibbutz movement, which contains a wide variety of social structures and a greater range of social and economic factors, is much worse.
Although the education system kibbutz there is still a large part of its special character it has been eroded in adapting to the needs and pressures of modern Israeli capitalist society. As a result the proportion of young people born in the kibbutz leaving the kibbutz maturity has increased steadily over the past decade. Youth movements continue to exist both in Israel and in the Diaspora, but they are numerically small compared to the pre-Holocaust.
With the end of the 1977 Israeli hegemony labor movement, institutional support for kibbutzimuri was diminished, and they can not be secure help from the government or the Zionist movement in times of crisis.
On the other hand, there are still a number of kibbutzuri classical and seem to prosper both economically and demographically. Moreover, changes in the kibbutz opened possibilities for small groups that have grown in the last decade. They strive to promote the values and ideals on which Kibbutzim veteran, classic, largely neglected them. Their members are mainly graduates of Israeli youth movements.
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