INTRODUCTION / ARGUMENT …. …………………………………………….4 CHAPTER I: Vocabulary – A Theoretical Approach …………………………..6 CHAPTER II : Teaching the Meaning of… [628228]

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION / ARGUMENT …. …………………………………………….4

CHAPTER I: Vocabulary – A Theoretical Approach …………………………..6

CHAPTER II : Teaching the Meaning of Language Items ……………………. ..32
2.1 Teaching Vocabulary: Goals ………………………………… ….32
2.2 Approaches to Teaching Vocabulary ………………………… …38

CHAPTER III: Teaching Vocabulary Techniques ……………………………. …51
3.1 Ways of Conveying Meaning ………………………………… ….51
3.2 The Right Time to Teach Vocabulary ……………………… .…..55
3.3 Steps in Teaching Vocabulary ……………………………… …..56
3.4 Ingredients of Good Vocabulary Work ……………………… …..59
3.5 Vocabulary Practice : Activities and Games ………………… ……63
3.6 Rememb ering Words………………………………………… ….76
3.7 What Are Dictionaries for? …………………………………. .…81

CHAPTER IV : Tests and Analysis ……………………… ……………………… .86

CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………… …96
BIBLIOGRAPHY …………………………………………………………………97
APPENDICES…………………………………………… ……………………. …100

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INTRODUCTION
Argument
Vocabulary learning is an essential part in foreign language learning, as the
meanings of new words are very often emphasized whether in the classroom or outside of
it. It is also central to language teaching and it is of great importance to a la nguage
learner, since learners’ vocabulary development is an important aspect of their language
development.
Vocabulary knowledge is usually viewed as a critical tool for second language
learners because a limited vocabulary impedes successful co mmunication, that is, lexical
knowledge is central to communicative competence and to the acquisition of any second
language. Moreover, language use and vocabulary knowledge are complementary:
knowledge of vocabulary enables language use and conversely, la nguage use leads to an
increase in vocabulary knowledge.
As the acquisition of vocabulary is essential to successful second language use, it
plays an important role in building up complete spoken and written texts, in fact learning
vocabulary ite ms plays a vital role in all language skills, that is, listening, reading,
speaking and writing. So, without an extensive vocabulary we will be unable to use the
structures and functions necessary for comprehensible communication.
As a result, bo th applied -linguists and language teachers are exploring ways of
promoting it more effectively. Some of this research takes the form of investigation of
strategies learners use for vocabulary acquisition.
I have chosen this subject for my thesis because, as a teacher, I consider teaching
vocabulary of paramount importance to language acquisition. The more vocabulary
students have at their disposal, the better they learn, regardless of their grammatical
knowledge, although this is not to say that t hey should neglect grammar completely.
The main purpose of the present study is to demonstrate that the learning -teaching
process has to make it possible for the students to understand the meaning of their
learning material. Students, as the lear ning subject, are the starting point in teaching and
learning; they also measure the success of learning -teaching process. Teaching and
learning can be successful when the students can directly feel the advantages of learning
material by learning and exper iencing it.
The paper is structured as follows:
Chapter I – ‘Vocabulary – A Theoretical Approach’ – where I will present theoretical
aspects of English vocabulary;

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Chapter II – ‘Teaching the Meaning of Language Items’ – in which I will show both
concepts and concrete methods and techniques (from the first to the present -day ones)
used in the language classroom;
Chapter III – ‘Teaching Vocabulary Techniques’ – in which I will illustrate how
vocabulary activities and games play an important role in teaching a foreign language; I
will also present various examples of vocabulary activities and games.
Chapter IV – ‘Tests and Analysis’ – where I will demonstrate how teaching methods and
techniques are reflected into students’ results.

“Vocabulary is the best single indicator of intellectual ability and an accurate predictor
of success at school .” W. B. Elley

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Motto:
”Vocabulary enables us to interpret and to express .
If you have a limited vocabulary ,
you will also have a limited vision
and a limited future.”
Jim Rohn

CHAPTER I
Vocabulary – A Theoretical Approach
In ord er to have a solid and coherent start when discussing the present paper,
which deals with the topic of the vocabulary, it would be a very good idea to first
establish what vocabulary means. According to dictionaries of contemporary English,
vocabulary represents ” all the words that someone knows or uses” (Longman Dictionary
of Contemporary English);” all the words known or used by a particular person ; all the
words that exist in a particular language or subject (Cambridge Inter national Dictionary
of English).
In accordance with Merriam Webster’s Learner’s Dictionary, there are three
simple definitions of vocabulary: 1.”The words that make up a languag e”; 2.” all of the
words known by a person ”; 3.” words that are related to a particular subject ”; and more
full definitions ,such as: 4.” a list or a collection of words and phrases usually
alphabetically arranged and explained or defined: LEXICON ”; 5.” a sum or a stock of
words employed by a language, group, individual, or work or in a field of knowledge ”;
6.”a list or collection of terms or codes available for use (as in an indexing system) ”; 7.” a
supply of expressive techniques or devices (as of an art form )” (Merriam Webster’s
Learner’s Dictionary,1828).

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As an entry in to Merriam -Webster Thesaurus, vocabulary has another two
definitions: 1.” the special terms or expressions of a particular group or field <scientific
vocabulary> ; 2.”the stock of words, pronunciation and grammar used by a people as
their basic means of communication <children learn enough of the common vocabulary
to make themselves understood by around the age of two> ” (Merriam -Webster
Thesaurus, 1828).
Lexicology is that branch of linguistics (i.e. the science of language) whose basic
task is a study and systematic description of vocabulary in respect to its origin,
development and current use. Lexicology is concerned with words, variable word -groups,
phraseological units and with morphemes which make up words.
The term Lexicology is composed of two Greek morphemes: lexis (lexikos )
meaning ‘word, phrase’ and logos which denotes ‘learning, a department of knowledge’.
Thus the literal meaning of the term Lexicology is ‘ the science of the word’ (Levi țchi,
2013).
However, the literal meaning gives only a general notion of the aims and the
subject -matter of th is branch of linguistic science, since all its other branches also take
account of words in one way or another approaching them from different angles.
Phonetics, for example, investigates the phonetic structure of language, namely its
system of phonemes and intonation patterns, it is concerned with the outer sound form of
the word. Grammar, which is inseparably bound up with Lexicology, is the study of the
grammatical structure of language. It is concerned with the various means of expressi ng
grammatical relations between words and with the patterns after which words are
combined into word -groups and sentences.
As a branch of linguistics, Lexicology has its own aims and methods of scientific
research. There are two main approaches in linguistic science to the study of language
material, i.e. the synchronic (Greek syn – ‘together, with’ and chronos – ‘time’) and the
diachronic (Greek dia – ‘through’) approach. The synchronic approach is concerned with
the vocabulary of a language as it exists at a given time. The diachronic approach deals
with the changes and the development of vocabulary in the course of time. An English

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Historical Lexico logy would be concerned, therefore, with the origin of English
vocabulary units, their change and development, the linguistic and extralinguistic factors
modifying their structure, meaning and usage within the history of the English language.
Lexicology studies various lexical units such as: morphemes, words, variable
word -groups and phraseological units. Linguists proceed from the assumption that the
word is the basic unit of language system, the largest on the morphologic and the sm allest
on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis. The word is a structural and semantic entity
within the language system (Levițchi, 2013).
Yet, vocabulary is much more than just single words . Recent vocabulary studies
draw on an understanding of ” lexis”, the Greek for “ word”, which in English” refers to
all the words in a language, the entire vocabulary of a language ” (Barcroft, Sunderman
& Schmitt, 2011).Thus, vocabulary also includes lexical chunks , phrases of two or more
words such as “Good morning!” or “Nice to meet you!”, which research suggests
students learn as single lexical units.
Phrases like these involve more than one word but have a clear, formulaic usage
and make up a significant sequence of spoken or writte n English language usage. Also
called ” formulaic sequences ” (Alali & Schmitt, 2012), they are central to English
vocabulary learning and therefore worth teachers’ attention as they teach vocabulary
(Lewis, 1993).
Thus, vocabulary can be defined as the words of a language, including single items
and phrases or chunks of several words which convey a particular meaning, the way
individual words do. Vocabulary addresses single lexical items (words with specific
meaning or me anings), but it also includes lexical phrases or chunks.
Vocabulary is the knowledge of words and word meanings. According to Steven
Stahl , (2005),” Vocabulary knowledge is knowledge; the knowledge of a word not only
implies a definition, but also implies how that word fits into the world” . Vocabulary
knowledge is not something that can ever be mastered , it is something that expands and
deepens over the course of a lifetime.

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A rich vocabulary makes the skill of listening, reading, speaking and writing easier
to pe rform. Learners’ growth in vocabulary must be accompanied by opportunities to
become fluent with vocabulary which can be achieved through activities that lead to the
establishment and enrichment of vocabulary knowledge.
In other words, vocabulary is the set of words within a language that are familiar to
the person who uses it. A vocabulary usually develops with age and serves as a usual and
fundamental tool for communication and acquiring knowledge. Acquiring an extensive
vocabulary is one of the largest challenges in learning a second language.
As it is the key to communicate successfully with other people, vocabulary
developm ent is of greatest importance. It can safely be stated that w ords are the currency
of communication. A robust vocabulary improves all areas of com munication -listening ,
reading, speaking, writing .To have mastery over vocabulary is very important because
people are judged or assessed by the words they use. Secondly, having a better
vocabulary improves your ability to think.
Etymology
The origin and etymology of the English word vocabulary lie in the Middle French
vocabulaire , probably from Medieval Latin vocabularium , from neuter of vocabularies
verbal, from Latin vocabulum , from Latin vocare (to name, to call).Meaning range of
words in the language of a person or group is first att ested 1753 (The Concise Oxford
Dictionary of English Etymology,1996 ).
Etymologically, the vocabulary of the English language is far from being
homogeneous. It consists of two layers – the native stock of words and the borrowed
stock of words.
Numerically, the borrowed stock of words is considerably larger than the native
stock of words. In fact native words comprise only 30% of t he total number of words in
the English vocabulary but the native words from the bulk of the most frequent words
actually used in speech and writing. Besides, the native words have a wider range of

10
lexical and grammatical valency , they are highly polysemantic and productive in forming
set expressions.
Borrowed words (or loan words or borrowings) are words taken over from another
language and modified according to the patterns of the receiving language. The number
of borrowings in the voca bulary of a language is determined by the historical
development of the nation speaking the language. The most effective way of borrowing is
direct borrowing from another language as a result of contacts with the people of another
country or with their lit erature. But a word may also be borrowed indirectly not from the
source language, but through another language.
e.g. table – source of borrowing: French ; origin of borrowing: Latin;
elephant – source of borrowing: French ; origin of borro wing: Egypt;
convene – source of borrowing: French ; origin of borrowing: Latin.
The borrowed stock of words may be classified according to the nature of the
borrowing itself as: borrowings proper, translation loans and semantic loans .
Translation loans are words or expressions formed the elements existing in the
English language according to the patterns of the source language ( the moment of truth –
Spanish el momento de la verdad ).
A semantic loan is the borrowing of the meaning for a word already existing in the
English language. For example the compound word shock brigade , which existed in
English with the meaning ‘emergency brigade’ acquired a new meaning ‘ army’ which is
borrowed from the Russian language.
The Etymological Structure of the English Vocabulary
The Native Element
1. Indo-European element
2. Germanic element

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3. English proper element (brought by Angles, Saxons and Jutes not earlier than 5th
c. A.D.)
The Borrowed Element
1. Celtic (5 -6th c. A.D.)
2. Latin: 1st group: B.C.
2nd group: 7th c. A.D.
3rd group: The Renaissance period
3. Scandinavian (8 -11th c. A.D.)
4. French: 1. Norman borrowings (11 -13th c. A.D.);
2. Parisian borrowings (Renaissance)
5. Greek
6. Italian (Renaissance and later)
7. Spanish (Renaissance)
8. German
9. Indian and others
Classification
A. Types of Vocabulary
Some experts divided vocabulary into two types: active and passive. For instance,
Jeremy Harmer (1991) distinguishes between these two types and states that t he active
vocabulary of a person consists of those words that (s)he can use correctly in his own
speech and writing.(S)h e fully understands the meaning of those words. It is also called
working or functional vocabulary.
The passive vocabulary consists of the words a pers on recognizes when he
encounter s them in print or in the speech of others. He can make out the meanings of
those words while reading, for exa mple, he finds a number of unfamiliar words, but he
has not sufficient mastery over those words. He is able to judge their meanings from the
context but he can’t use them in his own speech and piece of writing. It is also called
recognition vocabulary. In addition to that, passive vocabulary is larger than the active
one (Stahl , 2005).

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Other experts, such as Haycraft, also indicate two kinds of vocabulary, namely
receptive and productive . Receptive vocabulary is represented by words that learners
recognize and understand when they face a written text, but do not use th em in speaking
and writing (Stua rt Webb, 2009).Meanwhile, productive vocabulary is represented by
words that the learners understand , they can pronounce them correctly and use them
constructively in speaking and writing. It involves what is needed for receptive
vocabulary plus the ability to speak or write at the appropriate time. Therefo re,
productive vocabulary can be addressed as an active process, because the le arners can
produce the words to express their thoughts to others (Stuart Webb, 2005).

B. Types of Words
Words are the building blocks in a language. They are of two kinds, too: content
words and structural words. Content words are those that stand for things, ideas, entities
(they are called nouns ); actions (called verbs ) or qualities (called adjectives and adverbs ).
All the pronouns (I, you, he, they etc.),all the prepositions (on, under, at etc.),all the
auxiliary verbs (did, shall etc.),all the conjunctions (and, but, or etc.),all the
relatives( whose, which etc.),some structural adjectives (that, any etc.),some structural
adverbs(again, even etc.) are structural words .Structural words are those which have
little or no meaning in themselves, but they bind together with other words to make
phrases, clauses, sentences.
Jim Scrivener, on the other hand, states that “ vocabulary is a powerful carrier of
meaning”. Beginners, as to him,” often manage to communicate in English by using the
accumula tive effect of individual words” (Scrivener , 1998).A student who says
”Yesterday. Go disco .And friends .Dancing. ”will almost certainly get much of his
message over despite completely avoiding grammar, the meaning being conveyed by the
vocabulary alone. A good knowledge of grammar, on the other hand, is not such a
powerful tool.
He takes another context as an example:” I wonder if you could lend me
your…” means little without a word to fill the gap, whereas a gapped word -“calculator”

13
on its own could possibly communicate the desired message:” Calculator?” So,
vocabulary is of much more importance than grammar. Wilkins (1972) stated
that” …while without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabul ary nothing
can be conveyed”.
Recognizing the communicative power of vocabulary, any learner might aim to
acquire a working knowledge of a larger number of words , guided by the principle “The
more words I have, the more precisely I can express the exact meanings I want to”.
The concept of a word can be defined in various ways, but three significant aspects
teachers need to be aware of and focus on are form, meaning and use. According to
Nation (2001), the form of a word involves its p ronunciation (spoken form), spelling
(written form) and any word parts that make up this particular item (such as a prefix, root
and suffix).An example for word parts can be seen with the word uncommunicative ,
where the prefix un- means negative or opposite , communicate is the root word, and –ive
is a suffix denoting that someone or something is able to do something. Here, they all go
together to refer to someone or something that is not able to communicate, that is
uncommunicative .
Nation (2001) stated that meaning includes the way that form and meaning work
together, in other words, the concept and what items it refers to, and the associations that
come to mind when people think about a specific word or phrase. Use, Nation pointed
out, involves the grammatical functions of the word or phrase, collocations that normally
go with it and finally any constraints on its use, in terms of frequency, level and so on.
What is involved in knowing a word
Aspect Component Receptive
knowledge Productive
knowledge
Form Spoken

Written
What does the word
sound like?
What does the word
look like? How is the word
pronounced?
How is the word
written and spelled?

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Word parts
What parts are
recognizable in this
word? What word parts are
needed to express
the meaning?
Meaning Form and meaning

Concepts and
referents
Associations
What meaning does
this word signal?

What is included in
this concept?
What other words
does this make
people think of? What word form can
be used to express
this meaning?
What items can the
concept refer to?
What other words
could people use
instead of this one?
Use Grammatical
functions

Collocations

Constraints on use
(register,
frequency…) In what patterns
does the word
occur?
What words or types
of words occur with
this one?

Where, when and
how often would
people expect to
meet this word? In what patterns
must people use this
word?
What words or types
of words must
people use with this
word?
Where, when and
how often can
people use this
word?
Adapted from Nation (2001, p.27)
Form and meaning
1. One form, many meanings:
Individual words can mean more than on e thing, i.e. the same form has many
meanings, but it can also be different parts of speech. For example book (= something to
read, to reserve, a list of bets etc.), beat (= to win, to hit, to mix an egg), the pulse (of
music/ a heart), can (= ability, permission, probability, a contain er made of aluminium)

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etc. The Present Continuous can refer to both the present (I am reading.) and the future (I
am seeing a doctor tomorr ow.) It can be used to refer to a temporary uncompleted event
(They are enjoying the weather.) or to a series of comp leted events (They are always
talking.). Thus, the same basic form is used to express a number of different concepts of
tome and duration.
With so many available meanings for words and grammatical forms, it is the
context the word occurs in which determines which of these meanings is being referred to
(Harmer, 1998).
2. One meaning, many forms:
On the other hand, a meaning or concept can be expressed in many different ways.
For example , the concept of the future ; apart from the Present Cont inuous (which is used
to express future time), we can also use different forms to express the same basic concept.
e.g. I ’ll see you tomorrow.
I’m going to win the race – with luck.
I can get to you by tomorrow evening.
The president arrives on Sunday.
It is worth pointing out that each different form has a slightly different meaning,
even if they all express future time (Harmer, 1998).
Aspects of meaning
When it comes to meaning and getting familiar with vocabulary, another problem
arises. It is so difficult to memorize lists of words and, even if learners can recall the
word they want, it doesn’t always seem to fit comfortably into their own sentences.
Perhaps the translation approach is part of the problem. It is certain that words live
within their own languages and through a dictionary translation we can only give an
introduction to the meaning of a word, it can never really let us into the secrets of how
that word exists within its language.

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Learners should think about:
 What words have the similar meaning to this word? How do they differ in
meaning?
 Is this word part of a family or group of related words? What are the other
members? How do they relate to each other?
 What other words typically keep company with this word? Do they come
before or after it in a sentence?
 What other words can be formed by adding to or taking away bits of this
word?
 What are the situations and contexts where this word is typically found or
not found? (Scrivener, 1998).
The problematic issue of vocabulary is certainly meaning, as words have many
different meanings. This polysem y is only resolved when we see the word in context.
For example, the Cambridge International Dictionary of English lists three main
meanings for table and four main meanings for book –let alone the large number of
different phrases the words appear in where their meaning is subtly different (e.g. you ca n
eat off a table , you can table a motion at a conference, you can summarize information in
a table, too).It is understanding the meaning in context that allows us to say which
meaning of the word is being used in the particular instance (Harmer,2001) .
It is clear that what a word means is often defined by its relationship to the other
words. For example, we explain the meaning of full by saying that it is the opposite of
empty ; we understand that cheap is the opposite of expensive . The meaning of each word
in pair is reinforced by such antonyms and, since a word can be polysemous, it may have
more than one antonym (e.g. a rich person -a poor person; rich food – plain food ).
At the same time, words have synonyms that mean exactly or nearly the same as
each other. We say that bad or evil are ne arly synonymous as are good and decent in
certain situations (e.g. She is a good/decent pianist ).Certainly, much will depend on the
context the words appear in. In fact, it is very difficult to find real synonyms . Costly and
expensive might seem on the surface to mean the same, yet they are subtly different: we

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tend to use the former about larger projects and larger amounts, while expensive has a
broader range of use. We are unlikely to say: That pen you’ve got there looks very costly ,
but: The new building is proving very costly sounds perfectly all right (Harmer, 2001).
A third relationship which defines the meaning of words to each other is that of
hyponymy , where words like cherry ,pear ,lemon, plum etc. are all hyponyms o f the
superordinate fruit. And fruit itself is a hyponym of other items which are numbers of the
food family: dairy, fish, starch, cereal etc.
The following diagram (adapted from Harmer, 2001) expresses the relationship of
hyponyms and superordinates best:
Food

dairy fish fruit starch cereals

cherry pear berry plum lemon

strawberry raspberry blueberry cranberry

Therefore, part of a word’s meaning concerns its relations with other words, not
only in term s of synonymy and antonymy, but also in term s of how it fits into the
vocabulary hierarchy.
There is another point to add to the vast issue of meaning, namely that what a word
means is not necessarily the same as what it suggests, that is words have different
connotations (positive or negative ), often depending on the context they occur in. For
example the word chubby has a positive connotation when it is combined with baby , but
it suddenly becomes negative in tone if it is combine d with middle -aged English teacher ;

18
or a dangerous man , that may suggest a negative thing or ,on the contrary, others may
find dangerous men curiously attractive(Harmer,2001).
According to Penny Ur, there are three aspects of meaning : denotation,
connotation , appropriateness .
The word’s denotation is the meaning of a word, what it refers to in the real world.
This is often the sort of definition given in a dictionary. For example dog denotes a kind
of animal, more specifically, a common, domestic, carnivorous mammal; and both dank
and moist mean slightly wet.
Connotation is a less obvious comp onent of the meaning of an item, that is the
associations , or positive or negative feelings it evokes, which may or may not be
indicated in a dictionary definition . The same word, dog, as understood by most British
people, has positive connotations of friendship and loyalty: whereas in Arabic, as
understood by mo st people in Arab countries , has negative associations of dirt and
inferiority. Within the English language, moist has favourable connotations, while dank
has unfavourable; so that we could describe something as ‘pleasantly moist’ where
‘pleasantly dank’ would sound absurd.
The most subtle aspect of meaning, that often needs to be taught, is whether a
particular item is the appropriate one to use in a certain context or not. So, it is useful fo r
a learner to know th at a certain word is very common , or relatively rare or ‘taboo in polite
conversation, or tends to be used in writing but not in speech, or is more suitable for
formal than informal discourse, or belongs to a certain dialect. The word weep , for
example, is virtually synonymous in denotation with cry, but it is more formal ,it tends to
be used in writing more th an in speech and it is in general much less common(Ur,1991).
Even where words appear to have the same meaning, to be synonymous, they are
usually distinct from each other. For example we can describe an intelligent person with a
number of differ ent words: intelligent, bright, brainy, clever, smart etc. But each of these
words has a different connotation such as:

19
– brainy is an informal word and might well have a negative connotation when used
by a schoolchild about his/her colleague;
– bright carries the connotation of lively, young ;
– smart in commonly use d in American English and has a slightly tricky
connotation;
– clever is often used in phrases with negative connotations (e.g. too clever by half ,
He may be clever, but he’s not going to get aw ay with it. )
It is clear that form does not equal meaning and vice -versa. Even where two
different forms appear to have the same meaning, we will usually find a difference in
those meanings somewhere (Harmer, 1998).

C. Types of meaning
It is generally accepted that word -meaning is not homogeneous but is made up of
various components, the combination and the interrelation of which determine to a great
extent the inner facet of th e word (R.S.Gingzburg,1979) .These components are described
as types of meaning as follows:
1. Grammatical meaning
Word-forms like tables ,girls, winters ,joys etc. though denoting widely different
objects of reality, have something in common. This common element is the grammatical
meaning of plurality which can be found in all of them. Thus grammatical meaning may
be defined as the component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of
different words as, for example the tense meaning in the word -forms of verbs (talked
walked, thought ,saw etc.) or the case meaning in the word -forms of various nouns ( girl’s
night’s, baby’s etc.).
In modern linguistic science it is commonly held that some elements of
grammatical meaning can be identified by the position of the linguistic unit, that is by its
distribution. Word -forms like reads ,writes, speaks have one and the same grammatical

20
meaning, as they can all be found in identical distribution, for example only after the
pronouns he ,she, it and before adverbs like well, badly, today etc.
So, a certain component of the meaning of a word is described when you identify
it as a part of speech, since different parts of speech are distributionally different (e.g. my
work and I work ).
2. Lexical meaning
This component is identical in all the forms of the word. For example the
following word -forms go, goes went, going, gone possess different grammatical
meanings of tense, person and so on, but in each of these forms we find one and the same
semantic component denoting ‘ the process of movement’.
So, the lexical meaning of a word may be described as the component of meaning
proper to the word as a linguistic unit, that is recurrent in all the forms of that word.
Both the lexical and the grammatical meaning make up the word -meaning, as
neither can exist without the other.
3. Part -of-speech meaning
Lexical items a re usually classified into major word -classes (nouns, verbs,
adjectives and adverbs) and minor word -classes (articles, prepositions, conjunctions).All
members of the major word -class share a distinguishing semantic component viewed as
the lexical component of part -of-speech meaning .For example, the meaning of “thing ” or
substantiality may be found in all the nouns such as house, rice, people, although they
possess different grammatical meanings of number, case etc.
On the other hand, the grammatical aspect of the part -of-speech meaning is
conveyed as a rule by a set of forms . For example, a noun is bound to possess a set of
forms expressing the grammatical meaning of number ( house -houses ), case ( girl-girls)
and so on; a verb possesses sets of forms expressing tense meaning ( talked -talks ), mood
meaning( Talk! – I talk ) etc.

21
In some part s of speech the prevailing component is the grammatical type of
meaning. The lexical meaning of prepositions is relatively vague (e.g. the days of the
week, one of my friends, independent of somebody ).In verbs the lexical meaning comes
to the fore (e.g. run, write, sleep etc. ), although in some of them (e.g. to be ) the
grammatical meaning of a linking element prevails (e.g. She works as a doctor./ She is a
doctor. ).
4. Denotational and connotational meaning
The denotational meaning is that compon ent of the lexical meaning which makes
communication possible . In other words, knowledge is ultimately embodied in words,
which have essentially the same meaning for all speakers of that language. The latter
component of the lexical meaning is the connotat ional one that is the emotive charge and
the stylistic value of the word.
For example, when we examine synonyms like large, big, tremendous / like ,love,
worship / girl ,girlie we observe the difference in the emotive charge of the members of
these sets. The emotive charge of the words tremendous, worship and girlie is heavier
than that of the words large like and girl. It does not depend on the ‘feeling ’of the
individual speaker, but is true for all the speakers of English.
Still, the emotive charge should not be confused with ’emotive implications ’ that
the words may acquire in speech . The emotive implication of the word is subjective as it
greatly depends on the personal experience of the speaker, the mental imag ery the word
evokes in him. The word hospital illustrates best this idea, as what is thought and felt
when it is used will be different in the case of an architect who built it, the man living
across the street or the person staying there after an operatio n.
The emotive charge varies in different word -classes. In interjections, for example,
the emotive element prevails, whereas in conjunctions it is practically non -existent.
Stylistically, words can be subdivided into literary (bookish) , neutral (possessing
no specific stylistic reference) and colloquial (standard words) .This can be observed in
the following example:

22
e.g. parent – bookish
father – stylistically neutral
dad – colloquia l
Literary words are not stylistically homogeneous. Apart from general -literary
words, there are various specific subgroups, namely:
1. Terms or scientific words (e.g. renaissance, teletype etc);
2. Poetic words and archaisms (e.g. ere-before, fare-walk, nay-no);
3. Barbarisms and foreign words (e.g. bon mot -a clever or witty saying, apropos, bouquet
etc).
The colloquial words may be subdivided into:
1. Common colloquial words;
2. Slang, i.e. words which are often regarded as a violation of the norms of Standard
English ( governor =father, gag=joke, dotty =insane etc.);
3. Professionalism, i.e. words used in narrow groups bound by the same occupation
(lab=laboratory, hypo =hypodermic syringe, a buster =a bomb etc.);
4. Jargonism, i.e. words marked by their use within a particular social group and bearing
a secret character (a sucker =a person who is easily deceived etc);
5. Vulgarism, i.e. coarse words that are not generally used in public ( damn, shut up etc.);
6. Dialectical words ( lass=girl or young woman etc.);
7. Colloquial coinages ( newspaperdom , allrightnik etc.). (R.S.Ginzburg,1997)
Extending word use
Jeremy Harmer points out that ‘words do not just have different meanings,
however, they can also be stretched and twisted to fit different contexts and different
uses’(Harmer,2001).You can say that someone is in a black mood or someone is yellow

23
or blue, yet you a re not actually describing colou r. In such contexts black, yellow, blue
mean something else , namely feelings. One can say, for example : The price went up but
went up here cannot mean the same as : She went up the stairs; Prices have taken
dramatic tumble , how can we explain the meanings of dramatic and tumble ?
The change in the denotatio nal component brings about the extension or the
restriction of meaning. The change in the connotational component may result in the
degradation (pejorative or ameliorative) development of meaning. Thus:
 Extension represents widening of meaning. The extension of semantic
capacity of a word is actually the expansion of polysemy in the course of its
historical development.
e.g. manuscript was originally “something hand -written” ;
 Narrowing of meaning represen ts the restriction of the semantic capacity
of a word in the historical development.
e.g. meat in Old English meant “food and drink” ;
 Elevation (or amelioration) represents the semantic change in the word
which rises it from humble beginning to a p osition of greater importance.
e.g. minister in earlier times meant merely “a servant” ;
 Degradation (or degeneration) represents the semantic change, by which,
for one reason or another, a word falls into disrepute, or acquires some
derogatory emo tive charge.
e.g. silly in Modern English originally meant “happy” ;
 Metonymy is a universal device in which the name of one thing is changed
for that of another, to which it is related by association of ideas, as having
close relationship to one an other.
e.g. the chair may mean “the chairman”
the bar – “the lawyers”;
 Metaphor represents the transfer of name based on the association of
similarity.it is the application of a name or a descriptive term to an object,
to which it is not literally applicable.
e.g. head of an army

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eye of a needle.
Metaphorical use of words allows us to move beyond their purely denotional use,
where a word only describes a thing rather than the feelings or ideas it suggests. It helps
us extend our range of expression and interpretation, allowing us the opportunity to
explain our feelings about things in a way that creates readily available images (Harmer,
2001).Such metaphors are used by poets all the time.
Example: The wind clawed through the sunken trees
And scratched and bit and roared with rage
Metaphors sometimes become fixed into phrases which competent speakers
recognize immediately, even though the meaning of the phrase in not clear from any
understanding of the individu al word. Some metaphors that we understand today are not
the original, but common expressions, accepted idioms .
– She kicked the bucket.= She died.
– He has bitten off more than he can chew.= He has tried something too difficult for
him.
– I’ve got him eating ou t of my hand. = He does everything I want him to.
– Out of the blue, I received a letter f rom her. = I did not expect it to happen.
In lexicology there is a great ambiguity of the terms phraseology and idioms.
Opinions differ as how phraseology should be defined , classified, described and analysed .
In linguistic literature the term phraseology is used for the expressions where the
meaning of one element is dependent on the other, irrespective of the structure and
properties of the unit (V.V. Vino gradov). With other authors it denotes only such set
expressions which does not possess expressiveness or emotional colouring (A.I.
Smirnitsky) , or units in which it is impossible to substitute any of the components
without changing the meaning not only of the whole unit, but also of the elements that
remain intact (N.N.Amosova).
In modern linguistic science the term phraseology has a stylistic meaning,
according to Webster’s dictionary “mode of expression, peculiarities of diction, i.e.

25
choice and arrangement of words and phrases characteristic of some author or some
literary work”.
Differences in terminology (‘ set phrases’, ‘idioms’, ‘word -equivalents’ ) reflect
certain differences in the main criteria used to distinguish types of ph raseological units or
free word -groups. Consequently:
 The term ‘set phrase’ implies that the basic criterion of differentiation is
stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of word –
groups;
 The term ‘idiom’ generally implies that the ess ential feature of the
linguistic units is idiomaticity or lack of motivation;
 The term ‘word -equivalent’ stresses not only semantic, but also functional
inseparability of certain word groups, their aptness to fun ction in speech as
single words (Ginsburg, 1 979).
It is commonly held that the essential feature of phraseological units are: a) lack of
semantic motivation; b) lexical and grammatical stability.
As far as semantic motivation is concerned, phraseological units are extremely
varie d from ‘motivated ’ (by simple addition of denotational meaning) like a sight for sore
eyes and to know the ropes , to ‘partially motivated’ (when one of the words is used in a
not direct meaning) or to ‘demotivated’ (completely non -motivated) like red-tape.
Lexical and grammatical stability of phraseological units is displayed in the fact
that no substitution of any elements whatever is possible in the following unchangeable
set expressions: all the world and his wife, red tape, first night, to hop e for the best, busy
as a bee, fair and square etc.
However, the metaphorical and idiomatic use of words and phrases is not always
popular . People usually describe someone who had suffered a disappointment being as
sick as a parrot, and this idiomatic expression became so widely used that it began to
irritate everybody, except when it is used ironically. This idiomatic expression became a
cliché or a ‘lexical zombie’ as Crystal stated (Crystal, 1995).

26
A cliché is not necessarily stro ngly metaphorical all the time, as in the following
examples:
– Money doesn’t grow in trees , you know.
– to add insult to injury;
– I never meant to hurt you.
Collocations , on the other hand, are word combinations which, through custom
and practice, have come to be seen as normal and acceptable. Words often combine with
each other in ways which competent spea kers of the language recognize immediately, but
which others often find strange. As Harmer pointed out, ’the kinds of words that go
together in o ne language are often completely different from the kinds of words w hich
live together in another’ (Harmer, 2001), and this is one of the main difficulties a
Romanian learner encounters when studying English.
It is clear that, while some words ca n live together, others cannot. We say fast
asleep (an acceptable collocation), but fast awake is not possible. We can say clenched
fist or clenched teeth , but we cannot say clenched ears .
When analyzing the way in which words combine collocationally and in larger
chunks, Nattinger talked about lexical phrases (Nattinger, 1988).The se phrases are often
part of longer memorized strings of speech. Ironic , for example, is part of the p hrase It is
ironic that… Lexical phrases or ‘language chunks’ can be considered building units for
the whole utterance: by the way, on the other hand, if you see what I mean, a close shave,
an only child, in love, can’t afford, not supposed to, don’t mind etc.
So, talking about vocabulary exclusively in terms of words is not sufficient to
account for the different kinds of meaning unit which language users have at their
disposal. A phrasal verb, for instance, is made up of two or more words, yet it is only one
meaning unit. We need to see that words in combination have to be perceived as meaning
units in their own right, just as words such as book or table do (Harmer, 2001).

27
Meaning Relationships
It is also useful while teaching vocabulary to take into account how the meaning of
one item relates to the meaning of others. There are various types of such relationships
and here are some of the main ones:
 synonyms = items that mean the same or nearly the same, for example bright ,
clever, smart may be the synonyms of intelligent ;
 antonyms = items that mean the opposite; rich is the antonym of poor ;
 hyponyms = items that serve as specific examples of a general concept ; dog,
elephant, mouse are hyponyms of animal ;
 co-hyponyms or co-ordinates = other items that are the ‘same kind of thing’: red,
orange, green, blue and grey are co -ordinates;
 superordinates = general concepts that ‘cover’ specific items; animal is the
superordinate of cat, tiger, zebra ;
 translation = words or expressions in the learner’s moth er tongue that are more or
less equivalent in meaning to the item being taught .
Properties of Words
1. Words are entities having a part of speech specification
2. Words are syntactic atoms
3. Words (usually) have one main stress
4. Words( usually) are indivisible units

Word Formation
There are a lot of possibilities speakers have at their disposal to create new words
on the basis of existing ones, including the addition and subtraction of phonetic or
orthographic material.
I. Affixation
In any language, vocabulary items, either one -word or multi -word, can sometimes
be broken down into their component parts(bits).It is necessary to teach the common

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suffixes or prefixes (sub -,un-,able – etc.) for the students to guess the meaning of words
like: subdivide, unconscious ,advisable, untranslatable . In many common words, the
affixes no longer have any obvious connection with their root meaning (for example
subject ).
The term root (inappropriately referred to as base or base-word ) is used for the
indivisible central part of a complex word and the derived word can be called derivative .
Example 1: colonial (the derivative) – colony (the base)
-al (the suffix)
Example 2 : colonialize (the derivative) – colonial (the base)
-ize (the suffix)
Example 3 : colonialization (the derivative) – colonialize (the base)
-ation (the suffix)
In the case of colonial , the base is a root , in the other cases it is not.
II. Compounding
Another way in which vocabulary items are built is by combining words(two or
more),for example two nouns, a gerund and a noun, a noun and a verb etc., to make one
item. This new -formed item may be a simple compound word, or two separate sometimes
hyphenated words: bookcase, follow -up, swimming pool , apartment building, greenhouse,
team manager etc.
III. Conversion (zero -suffixation or transposition)
Nouns can be turned into verbs by adding nothing at all to the base. For example
nouns like book or water can also become actions, respectively ‘to arrange to use in the
future’ and ’provide water’ . Conversion is a rather wide -spread process, as is illustrated
in the following examples: to walk/to ta ke a walk; to go/to have a go; to bite/to have a
bite ; to hug/to give a hug.

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IV. Truncation (clipping)
This process involves the deletion of material. Some English Christian names can
be shortened by deleting parts of the base word: Elizabeth – Liz; Michael – Mike; Patricia
– Trish; discotheque – disco; la boratory – lab; demonstration -demo etc.
V. Diminutives
When truncation and affixation occur together, expressing intimacy or smallness,
the new -formed words are called diminutives : Amanda – Mandy; Andrew – Andy;
Charles – Charlie; Roberta – Robbie; Patricia – Patty etc.
VI. Blends
There are also amalgamations of parts of different words such as :
modulator/ demodulator – modem ; smoke/f og – smog etc
VII. Acronyms/ Abbreviations
Those types of blends based on orthography combine the initial letters of
compounds or phrases into a new word, pronounced as such: NATO, UNESCO, USA,
UK etc. (Plag, 2007).
The Grammar of Words
It is also important to know how words operate in a sentence, and here words and
phrases, on the one hand, and grammar, on the other, meet up through the operation of
word classes or parts of speech, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs, determiners or
prepositions. If you know a word’s part of speech, you know what other words can occur
with it in a phrase or sentence and where it can be put sy ntactically, a fact graphically
demonstrated by Jeremy Harmer.
A good knowledge of the restrictions within word classes allows competent
speakers to produce well -formed sentences. For example, English speakers might say :
There isn’t any money in the wallet, but would not say There aren’t any moneys in the
wallet because money is an uncountable noun . The same can be said about words like

30
furniture ,sugar, oil, pollution, luggage , while words like bag, book, house, flower are
thought of as countable because they have plural forms and therefore they can be used
with plural verbs.
Since the same word can have a number of different meanings, it is not always
possible to say that a collection of letters like sugar is always uncountabl e. If we change
its meaning slightly, it will be possible to say Two sugars, please!, and the waiter at the
table might well say Two ice -creams and two cheeses , showing that cheese has suddenly
changed its status from uncountable to countable(Harmer,2001).
We are, thus, faced with the same word but we are actually dealing with two
different meaning units. The same may happen with verbs we often classify into
transitive (that take an object), intransitive (that do not take an object) or both. The verb
herd (to herd sheep ) is a transitive verb, as it always takes an object. Another example
can be open which can be either transitive or intransitive: He opened his mouth
(transitive) but : The dentist’s surgery opens at six o’clock (intransitive).
If we observe the verb, we see the way in which words can trigger the grammatical
behavio r of other words around them:
-want triggers the use of to + the infinitive e.g. I want to sleep.
– like triggers the use of – either the -ing form of the verb which follows it
e.g. I like watching TV .
-or the use of to + the infinitive
e.g. I like to watch TV.
– tell triggers the use of a direct object and the construction to + infinitive
e.g. He told us to start reading.
– say triggers the use of that + a clause construction
e.g. He said that he would start reading.

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As it was previously stated, a word as a part of speech can be changed
morphologically; adding the –s morpheme to the noun house makes it plural; adding the
–s morpheme to the verb house is obligatory if we use it with the third person singular
pronouns; the use of affixes (such as im -, dis- etc.) can change the meaning of words (e.g.
patient -impatient; advantage -disadvantage) .
On the other hand, words can also occupy more than one word class as it is most of
the times indicated by morphological change. The word act, for example, can be an
abstract noun or a verb, but if we want to use the person noun we change it to
actor/actress ; if we want to use the adjective we add a suffix with or without the negative
prefix active/inactive ; and if we want to use it adverbially we add –ly actively .
The following examples show the way in which words can occupy different word
classes, sometimes without changing sometimes by altering their morphological shape:
Abstract
noun Person noun Verb Adjective Adverb
creation creator create creative creatively
help helper help (un)helpful/helpless helpfully/helplessly
residence resident reside residential residentially
success successor succeed (un)successful (un)successfully
suspicion suspect suspect suspicious suspiciously

In other words, vocabulary is an endless issue, always changing, always new , the
main item in the learning -teaching process. That is why, the students should be supported
in finding out what words mean, both literally and metaphorically , how words operate
grammatically and how they change their word value. Without the l exical knowledge,
they would not be able to use grammar to generate meaningful sentences.

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CHAPTER II
Teaching the Meaning of Language Items
Vocabulary is central to any language teaching because, without sufficient
vocabulary, students cannot understand others or express their own ideas. Teaching
vocabular y to students learning English as a second or foreign language is not just about
words, it involves lexical phrases and knowledge of English vocabulary and how to go
about learning and teaching it.
2.1 Teaching Vocabulary : Goals
The process of teaching a foreign language is a complex one, as it has to be broken
down into components for purposes of study. Such components can be :the teaching acts
of presenting and explaining new material , providing pract ice and testing (Ur,1991).Last
but not least, learners’ growth in vocabulary must be accompanied by opportunities to
become fluent with vocabulary .This fluency can be partly achieved through activities that
lead to the establishment and enrichment of vocabulary knowledge, but the essential
element in developing fluency lies in the opportunity for meaningful use of vocabulary in
tasks with a low cognitive load (Nation,1994).
In order to conduct such activity successfully, teachers should firstly engage
students and set certain goals , namely :
 to meet new vocabulary for the first time;
 to establish previously met vocabulary;
 to enrich previously met vocabulary;
 to develop vocabulary strategies;
 to develop fluency with known vocabulary.
Generally, the teaching processes of presenting, practising and testing correspond
to strategies used by many learners while trying to acquire a foreign language either on
their own or in a short period of time. But in the classroom it is teachers’ job to make sure
students perceive and understand new language (by paying attention, by constructing
meanings, by formulating rules etc.),they make conscious effort to learn it thoroughly

33
(by mental repetition of items, by finding opportunities to practice) and they are checked
or check themselves (get feedback on performance).
Consequently, teachers should promote these three learning processes by the use of
appropriate teaching acts. So, the teacher presents and explains new material in order to
make it clear, comprehensible and available for learning; gives practice to consolidate
knowledge, and tests in order to check what has been mastered and w hat still needs to be
learned or reviewed . It is n ot obligatory that these acts occur in this order, they may
sometimes be combined within one activity. Moreover, good teac hers are usually aware
which is their main objective at any point in a lesson.
Teachers should also ensure that their students are aware of the vocabulary they
need for their leve l and that they can use the words which teachers previously selected
and want them to use. For this to happen, teachers should get their students used to using
vocabulary in context . Since words do not just exist on their own, they live with other
words and they depend upon each other, when learning words in context students are far
more likely to remember them than if they learn them as single items (Harmer, 1991).
By the word context linguists and researchers understand the minimal stretch of
speech determining each individual meaning of a word. The context individualiz es the
meanings, it brings them out. The two main types of linguistic contexts, which serve to
determine individual meanings of words are : the lexical and the grammatical context .
These types are differentiated depending on whether the lexical or the grammatical aspect
is predominant in determining the meaning.
In lexical contexts of primary importance are lexical groups combined with the
polysemantic words under conside ration. For example, the adjective heavy in isolation
possesses the meaning “ of great weight ”. When combined with the lexical group of
words denoting natural phenomena as wind, rain etc. it means “ striking, following with
force, abundant ”, e.g. heavy wind, heavy rain, heavy storm etc. In combination with the
words industry, arms, artillery etc. heavy has the meaning “ the larger kind of something ”
as heavy industry, heavy artillery etc.

34
In grammatical contexts the grammatical (mainly the syntactic ) structure of the
context determines various individual meanings of a polysemantic word. If we compare
the following two sets of examples:
1. I made Jim work. He made us laugh. He made her cry.
2. She made a good teacher. He made a good husband.
We observe that in the pattern “to make + N(PR) + V inf” the word make has the
meaning “ to force ”, and in the pattern “to make + A + N” it has the meaning “ to turn out
to be ”. So, the grammatical context helps to determine the meaning of the word make .
Thus, linguistic (verbal) contexts comprise lexical and grammatical contexts. They
are opposed to extra -linguistic contexts (non -verbal). In extra -linguistic contexts the
meaning of the word is determined not only by the linguistic factors, but also by the
actual situation in which the word is used.
It is necessary for a language teacher to find systematic ways of helping students
with vocabulary. Random explanations and examples in the middle of the lesson may
solve unexpected pro blems on the spot, but thes e words are not likely to become a long –
term acquisition. A systematic teaching usually devote s time to helping students at each
of the stages of learning vocabulary:
– when they meet new words and understand their meaning/meanings and the way
they are used;
– when they practis e the new words in different types of activities;
– when they try to memorize the words (by finding effective ways for this to
happen) ;
– when they try to recall and use the words appropriately(Scrivener,1998).
When teaching secondary school students, that vague territory that we call
intermediate , where students have progressed beyond novice stages to an ability to
sustain some communicative tasks ,to establish some minimal fluency, to self -correct on
occasion, to ’get along’ in the language, the teacher ’s role and the students’ capacities are
of great importance (Brown,2000).

35
At intermediate level most new words learned by student s have immediate practical
use; they quickly become part of the learners’ everyday English, that is , their productive
vocabulary. The teacher can help this by giving students opportunities to practice new
vocabulary items in spoken communication. As students learn more and more words,
they will find that many items seem less immediately useful and are only occasionally
met within the context of reading or listening material. Work on pronunciation can still be
useful, but is more likely to be analytical (e.g. Which is the stressed syllab le?) rather than
part of communication practice (Scrivener, 1998 ).
At the intermediate stage phrases, sentences, structures and conventional rules have
been practiced and are increasing in number, forcing t he mental processes to automatiz e.
One of teachers’ main goals at this level is to get students to continue to automatize, to
allow the pieces of language to internalize and be available for immediate (automatic) use
whenever needed (Brown, 2000).
As to the role of the teacher, he/she is no longer the only initiator of the language.
Students should be encou raged to ask questions, make comments and negotiate thei r
opinions in learning where appropriate. More student -student interaction can now take
place in pairs, small groups and whole -class activity.
As students are now able to maintain topics of discussion and focus, learner –
centered work is possible for longer periods of time. The intermediate level is richly
diverse and that diversity can work to the teacher’s advantage w ith carefully designed
activities that will make the difference among students. Teachers should not set equa l
expectations for all students, the abilities, especially speaking ones, can vary widely.
While speaking, most of the teacher’s oral pro duction can be at a natural pace , but
teacher’s talk should not occupy the major proportion of the class time because, this way,
teachers do not give students enough opportunity to talk. And, of course, it is the right
time for teach ers to use less o f thei r native language (or of learners’) at this level, except
for certain situations that will demand it.
At intermediate level students sometimes become concerned ab out grammatical
correctness and, focusing on grammar rules, make up sentences that get them too far from

36
authentic, real language. Fluency or accuracy is the question that arises now; some
students are likely to become too concerned about accuracy, while others may seem self –
satisfied with their grammar knowledge a nd actually become quite fluent although
sometimes difficult to comprehend. As to Douglas Brown, teachers should be prepared to
offer individualized attention to each. A big part of teachers’ task with most students is to
maintain their flow with just enou gh attention to error to keep them growing (Brown,
2000).
Since, at intermediate stage, some of this new language is under control gives rise
to more opportunitie s for the student to be creative and this creativity expressed into the
target langu age is in fact a sign of language development and of the internalization of a
coherent system.
Consequently, due to th e increasing language capacity of students, techniques can
increase in complexity. Common interactive techniques for intermediat es include chain
stories, surveys, paired interviews, group problem solving, role-plays, story-telling etc.
Listening and speaking goals
It is obvious that the linguistic complexity of communicative listening -speaking
goals increases steadily at intermediate level. Students can participate in short
conversations, ask and answer questions, find alternative ways to convey meaning, elicit
information from other s and more.
Reading and writing goals
Reading materials are character ized now by increasing complexi ty in terms of
length, grammar and discourse, as students read paragraphs and short stories, and are
beginning to use skimming and scanning skills. Writing is also more sophisticated,
students taking into account grammar and spelling rules as well. As mentioned before,
grammar should not be the dominant focus of students’ attention, since their (and their
teacher’s) goal is to become English speakers.

37
Selecting vocabulary
Each individual student has some degree of linguistic knowledge and ability in
English and they learn at different speeds and in different ways. That is why many classes
can be described as ‘mixed ability’, and this can be a problem for the study of language
forms, since it is impossible to know whether certain forms are new or not for the
individual students in a class. For this reason, and to avoid already known language,
teachers need to pay great attenti on to the vocabulary they select for each lesson.
Almost all teachers decide how and when to have students study certain language
forms and use on the basis of the syllabus and/or the course -book. Still, many of these
sequences may not suit the p articular styles and progress of our students thus they may be
adjusted or replaced in some way. Teachers may want to try out new activities to escape
routine in teaching and to meet students’ needs.
How to select what words to teach may be one o f the problems of vocabulary
teaching. If we refer to dictionaries, those for intermediate and upper –intermediate
students have approximately 35,000 -55,000 words, usually with more than one meaning
for a word. Teachers must reduce this huge list to manageable proportions for their
students, but encourage them to use the dictionary to discover new words and meanings.
Jeremy Harmer stated that a general principle in the past was to teach more
concrete words at lower levels and gradually becom e more abstract, words that are not
physically represented in the classroom and, thus, more difficult to explain
(Harmer,1991) .
But the principle of frequency and coverage proves more useful today. Teachers
can decide which words they should tea ch on the basis of how frequently they are used
by speakers of the language. At the same time, a word is more useful if it covers more
things than if it only has a specific meaning.
Teachers’ decision about what vocabulary to select for teaching wi ll be constantly
influenced by information we can get about frequency and use, taking into account other

38
considerations like: topic, function, structure, teachability, needs and wants
(Harmer,1991).
2.2 Approaches to Teaching Vocabulary
Approach, Method, Techn ique – the concept
About five decades ago Edward Anthony stated a definition of the concept of
method that has admirably withstood the test of time. As to him, method was the second
of the three hierarchical elements, namely approach, method and technique. An
approach was ‘a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning and
teaching ’. Method was described as ‘an overall plan for systematic presentation of
language based upon a selected approach’. Techniques were ‘the specific activities
manifested in the classroom that were consistent with a method and, therefore, were in
harmony with an approach as well’ (Anthony, 1963).
Four decades later, Brown Douglas, admitting that Anthony’s terms were still in
common use among language teachers at that time, came up with a set of definitions that
reflect the current usage of these concept s:
 Methodology – “Pedagogical practices in general (including theoretical
underpinnings and related research). Whatever considerations are involved in
‘how to teach’ are methodological”;
 Approach – “Theoretically well -informed positions and beliefs about t he nature
of language, the nature of language learning, and the applicability of both to
pedagogical settings”;
 Method – “A generalized set of classroom specifications for accomplishing
linguistic objectives. Methods tend to be concerned primarily with tea cher and
student roles and behaviors and secondarily with such features as linguistic and
subject -matter objectives , sequencing, and materials. They are almost always
thought of as being broadly applicable to a variety of audiences in a variety of
contexts ”;
 Curriculum/ Syllabus – “Designs for carrying out a particular language program.
Features include a primary concern with the specification of linguistic and

39
subject -matter objectives, sequencing, and materials to meet the needs of a
designated group of learners in a defined context. (The term ‘syllabus’ is usually
used more customarily in the United Kingdom to refer to what is called
‘curriculum’ in the United States”;
 Technique – “Any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or tasks used in the
language classroom for realizing lesson objectives” (Douglas , 2000).

Elements and subelements of method

APPROACH DESIGN PROCEDURE
a. A theory of native
language
– an account of the nature
of language proficiency
– an account of the basic
units of language
structure
b. A theory of the
nature of language
learning
– an account of the
psycho -linguistic and
cognitive processes
involved in language
learning
– an account of the
conditions that aloe for
successful use of these
processes a. The general and
specific objectives of the
method
b. A syllabus model
– criteria for the selection
and organization of
linguistic and/or subject –
matter content
c. Types of learning and
teaching activities
– kinds of tasks and
practice activities to be
employed in the
classroom and in
materials
d. Learner roles
– degree of control
learners have over the
content of learning
– patterns of learner
groupings that are a. Classroom
techniques, practices,
and behaviors observed
when the method is used
– resour ces in terms of
time, space, and
equipment used by the
teacher
– interactional pattern
observed in lessons
– tactics and strategies
used by teachers and
learners when the method
is being used

40
recommended
– degree to which
learners influence the
learning of others
– the view of the learner
as processor, performer,
initiator, problem solver
etc.
e. Teacher roles
– types of functions
teachers fulfill
– degree of teacher
influence over learning
– degree to which teacher
determines the content of
learning
– types of interaction
between teachers and
learners
f. The role of
instructional materials
– primary function of
materials
– the form materials take
(e.g. textbook,
audiovisual )
– relation of materials to
other input

Adapted from Richards and Rodgers, 1986

41
It is obvious that i nstruction in vocabulary involves far more than looking up
words in a dictionary and using the words in a sentence. Vocabulary is acquired
incidentally , through indirect exposure to words and intentionally , through explicit
instruction in specific words and word -learning strategies.
Apart from the way students usually learn a language in the classroom, they may
absorb new material unconsciously or semi -consciously, through exposure to
comprehensible and personally meaningful s peech or writing, and through their own
engagement with it, without any purposeful teacher course (Ur, 1991).
Students can acquire vocabulary incidentally by engaging in rich oral language
experiences at home and at school, listening to books read aloud to them, and reading
widely on their own. Reading is very important in terms o f long-term vocabulary
development, extensive reading gives students repeated or multiple exposures to words
and is also one of the means by which students see vocabulary in rich contexts (Kamil
and Hiebert, 2005). Linguists recommend providing structured read -aloud and discussion
sessions and extending independent reading experienc es outside school hours to
encourage vocabulary growth in students (Cunningham, 2005) .
While incidental learning is still where most voca bulary acquisition takes place,
through p re-planned classroom lessons, the teacher provide s a framework for organized,
conscious learning, while simultaneously being aware of (and providing opportunities
for) further, more intuitive acquisition (Ur,1991).
In terms of method, Brown Douglas pointed out that at the beginning foreign
languages were taught by means of what has been called the Classical Method which
focused on grammatical rules, memorization of vocabulary and of various declensions
and conjugations, translations of texts, doing written exercises. In the nineteenth century
the Classical Method came to be known as the Grammar Translation Method .
The major characteristics of this method were :
– classes were taught in the mother ton gue, with little active use of the target
language;

42
– much vocabulary was taught in the form of lists of isolated words;
– long, elaborate explanations of the complicated grammar structures were given;
– grammar provided the rules for putting words together, and instruction often
focused on the form and inflection of words;
– reading of classical texts was begun early;
– little attention was paid to the content of texts, which were treated as exercises in
grammatical analysis;
– the only drills were exercises in transl ating disconnected sentences from the target
language into the mother tongue ;
– little or no attention was given to pronunciation .
It is clear that it does not enhance students’ communicative ability in the language.
Remarkably, this method withsto od attempts at the turn of the twentieth century to
‘reform’ language -teaching methodology.
The history of modern foreign language teaching may be said to have begun in the
late 1800s with Francois Gouin, a French teacher of Latin with remarkable insights,
although he was influenced by Charles Berlitz, the popular German founder of the Direct
Method. Gouin came to the conclusion that language learning is primarily a matter of
transforming perceptions into conception, and thus the Series Method was created, a
method that taught learners directly (without translation) and conceptually (without
grammatical rules and explanations) a ‘series’ of connected sentences that are easy to
perceive. Through a series of fifteen sentences (of a large number o f grammatical
properties, vocabulary items, word orders and complexity) the language was easily
understood, stored, recalled and related to reality.
Approximately a generation later, the Direct Method became widely known and
practiced. Its basic premise was that second language learning should be mor e like first
language learning, that is , lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no
translation between first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammatical
rules. Ri chards and Rodgers summarized the principles of the Direct Method as follows:
– classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language;

43
– only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught;
– oral communication skills were built up in a carefully traded progression
organized around question -and-answer exchanges between teachers and students
in small, intensive classes;
– grammar was taught inductively;
– new teaching points were taught through modeling and practice;
– concrete vocabulary was taught thro ugh demonstration, objects, and pictures;
– abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas;
– both speech and listening comprehension were taught;
– correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.
(Richards and Rodgers, 1986)
Thus, there is room for more direct teaching methods in the second language
classroom, provided such factors are taken into consideration:
 Learners need to be exposed to the words in a variety of contexts. Dependence on
a single vocabulary instruction me thod will not result in optimal learning.
Learners best remember words when they have used them in different ways, so
variety is essential for vocabulary teaching.
 Recycling and reviewing vocabulary is an important part of the lesson plan as
most new words are forg otten if not reinforced.
 For long -term retention, no more than 10 -12 new words should be presented at a
time.
 Vocabulary learning is effective when it entails active engagement in learning
tasks.
 Vocabulary tasks should be restructured as necessary. It is important to be certain
that students fully understand what is asked of them in the context of speaking,
reading, listening or writing, rather than focusing only on the words to be learned.
 Computer technology can be used effectively to help teach vocabula ry.
The Direct Method enjoyed considerable popularity at the beginning of the
twentieth century; it was most widely accepted in private language schools where

44
students were highly motivated, the classe s were small and native -speaking teachers
could be employed. It did not take well in public education, where certain constraints
made such a method difficult to use.
Moreover, the Direct Method was criticized for its weak theoretical foundations.
By the end of the first quarter of the tw entieth century, the use of th is method declined
and soon after it was redirected into what was “the most visible of all the language
teaching ‘revolutions’ in the modern era – the Audiolingual Method ” (Douglas, 2000). It
appeared out of necessity during W orld War II, the need for Americans to become orally
proficient in the languages of both allies and enemies. The military special, intensive
language courses were colloquially called the “Army Method”, which was characterized
by a great deal of oral activi ty- pronunciation and pattern drills, and conversation
practice, with virtually none of the grammar and translation found in traditional classes.
In all its variations and adaptations, the Army Method came to be known in the 1950s as
the Audiolingual Metho d.
The main characteristics of this new method are:
– new material is presented in dialogue form ;
– there is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and over -learning;
– structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught o ne at a
time;
– structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills;
– there is little or no grammatical explanation; grammar is taught by inductive
analogy rather than by deductive explanation;
– vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context;
– there i s much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids;
– great importance is attached to pronunciation;
– very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted;
– successful responses are immediately reinforced;
– there is a great effort to get students to produce error -free utterances;
– there is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content.
(Douglas, 2000)

45
After many years of popularity, even in contemporary methodologies are found
adaptations of the Audiolingual Method. Still, it was d iscovered that language was not
really acquired through a proc ess of habit formation and over -learning, errors were not
necessarily to be avoided and so on. But all these imperfections made methodology to
move forward.
Then, the increasing intere st in generative transformational grammar and focused
attention on the rule -governed nature of language and language acquisition led to a
deductive approach rather than the inductivity previously experiment ed. This was the
beginning of the Cognitive Code Learning methodology, based on the argument that
children subconsciously acquire a system of rules. It is actually ‘an approach that
emphasizes a conscious awareness of rules and their applications to second language
learning’ (Douglas, 2000).
By the decade of the 1970s, as people increasingly recognized the importance of
the importance of the affective domain, some innovative methods took on a distinctly
affective nature:
– Community Language Learning (affectively based method);
– Suggestopedia (a me thod of learning based on relaxed states of mind – acquired
with the help of baroque music – for maximum retention of material);
– The Silent Way (a problem -solving approach to learning; the learner s discover
or/and create , they work out solutions );
– Total Ph ysical Response (associating language with physical activity) ;
– The Natural Approach (was aimed at the goal of basic personal communication
skills, that is , everyday language situations – conversations, shopping, travelling
etc.).
Peter Duppenthaler states that s everal authors, resear chers in the area of voc abulary
acquisition, such as K.S.Folse, J.Walters, A.Hunt and D.Beglar, agree that there are both
direct (such as memorization of vocabulary items) and indirect (context ual) approaches
(Duppenthaler, 1999 ).

46
Moreover, after a survey of a number of articles in the field of second language
acquisition, J.Coady (1997) proposes that there are four main approaches to second
language vocabulary instruction: Context Alone, Strategy Instruction, Development plus
Explicit Instruction and Classroom Activities.
1. Context Alone “proposes that there is actually no need or even justification for
direct vocabulary instruction. This position is based on the claim that students
will learn all the vocabulary they need from context by reading extensively, as
long as there is successful comprehension” (Coady,1997).
2. Those in favo ur of Strategy Instruction “also believe that context is the major
source of vocabulary learning but they express some significant reservations
about how well students can deal with context on their own, they tend to feel
that teaching vocabulary learning strategies is essential” (Coady,1997).
3. Development plu s Explicit Instruction “argues for explicit teaching of certain
types of vocabulary using a large number of techniques and even direct
memorization of certain highly frequent items”. This approach seems to favour
“ a combination of regular periods of self -selected reading, often using graded
readers, and interactive vocabulary instruction” (Coady,1997).
4. Classroom Activities “advocates the teaching of vocabulary words along very
traditional lines”. In a large number of practical handbooks for teachers, ‘these
texts tend to present generic activities for vocabulary learning to teachers’
(Coady, 1997).
So, effective vocabulary development is a multifaceted process requiring a
combination of direct instruction, discussion, and independent learning strategies. In the
classroom and on their own, students draw on a variety of methods to learn thousands of
words. The following are some general modern strategies and specific techniques to keep
in mind while teaching vocabulary.
1. Encouraging Wide Reading
The most valuable thing teachers can do to improve students’ vocabulary is getting
them to read more. Although direct instruction plays a crucial part in vocabulary growth,

47
most of the words the students learn will be acquired through incidental learning, as they
read on their own. Researchers demonstrated the effectiveness of wide reading as
follows:
– If, over a school year, a fifth -grader reads for an hour each day, five days a week,
at a rate of 150 words per minute, the student will encounter 2 ,250,000 words in
the course of reading.
– If 2 to 5 percent of the words the student encounters are unknown words, he/she
will encounter from 45,000 to 112,500 new words.
– Students learn between 5 and 10 percent of previously unknown words from a
single read ing. Using the lower number given above for unknown words
encountered during the reading program, one can see that a student would learn at
least 2,250 new words from context each year (Austin, 2000).
In order to be truly ben eficial, wide reading should include texts with varied levels
of difficulty, students reading at or below their current levels will not increase their
vocabulary. On the other hand, when students read texts that consist primarily in
unknown words, they usually become frustrate d. To get the most out of incidental
learning, they should read some books for fun and others for a challenge.
But motivating students to read is not an easy task. Here are a few suggestions for
teachers to make reading appealing to students at a ll ability levels:
 Devote some class time to independent silent reading. It may be particularly
helpful for students who have never done extensive reading for pleasure. Reading
for a length of time in class will enable students to do this on their own outs ide of
class, too.
 Make a variety of books available in class and recommend books for students to
find in the library and to read outside of class .
 Promote social interactions related to reading. Setting a time for regular book
discussions will motivate st udents to read more and help them understand their
reading better.

48
 Show the importance you (the teacher) place on reading by telling students about
the books you are reading. When students have silent reading time, read a book of
your own to show that reading is a valuable activity that you enjoy, too.

2. Emphasizing Learning from Context
Most of the words acquired through incidental reading are learned through context,
by making connections between the new word and the text in which it appears. S tudents
also learn words through repeated exposures, gaining more comprehension of a word’s
meanings and functions by seeing it several times in different contexts.
Some studies show that teaching students how to identify and use context clues is
an effective technique for increasing vocabulary ( Austin, 2000 ), other research suggests
that learning words from context is an innate skill that all readers use. Steven Stahl, for
example, has found that children of all abilities learn at the same rate f rom context, that
is, advanced readers are no more efficient at learning from context than less advanced
readers, the advanced readers simply read more (Stahl, 1999 ).
However, all experts stress that it is crucial to make students aware of the
importance of using context clues as an essential tool in word acquisition. In this respect,
there are some techniques for enhancing students’ awareness of the importance of context
clues:
 Show them how to use context clues when reading a text.
 Provide explanations of how, when, and why to use context to figure out word
meanings.
 Provide guided practice in using context.
 Remind students to apply the skill when reading on their own.
 Have students rate their knowledge of a new word by using a checklist suc h as the
following:

49
Knowledge Rating Checklist
How much do I know about these words?
Can define Have seen/heard Don’t know
arched 
bobbed 
foster 
plasterer 
socket 
Adapted from Cynthia and Drew Johnson
3. Using Prefixes, Suffixes and Roots
Experts have noted that the upper elementary grades are a good time to start
teaching students how to use word parts to figure out the meanings of words. Information
from affixes (prefixes, suffixes) and roots can help students learn and remember words,
thus using word parts can be a particularly useful strategy in efficient reading. Breaking
words into affixes and roots will make some long words more manageable for students
who may be intimidated by the length of words (e.g . interdependent ; inter -; depend ; –
ent), being at the same time another tool for vocabulary growth.
4. Extending Instruction through Reading Aloud and Discussion
Research has also shown that reading aloud to students can help them acqu ire
words, too (Stahl, 1999). Reading literature to students exposes them to rich language
that they do not usually hear in everyday speech . Steven Stahl claimed that sixth graders
learn about as many words from a single listening as they would from a sing le reading.
Reading aloud can, thus, be a good strategy to use with students who have smaller
vocabularies, although even advanced and older students will enjoy and benefit from this
activity.
On the other hand, discussion can greatly enhance any vocabulary instruction.
Students of any level can benefit from the knowledge contributed by their classmates, and
misunderstandings of words are cleared up publicly. Moreover, as students wait to be

50
called on, they often practice responses silently. Discussions can be made more fun by
having students act out or pantomime words or engage in debates about word meanings.
As a result, discussion reinforces vocabulary development.
Nowadays, due to the concentration on language as a means of communication and
the focus on communicative activities, the new approach has been called the
Communicative Approach . Its aims are communicative and great emphasis is placed on
training students to use language for communicative eff iciency.
At the same time, a Balanced Activities Approach sees the teacher ensuring that
students get a variety of activities which encourage acquisition, and consequently their
continuing interest and involvement in language learning. An importa nt component of the
Balanced Activities Approach is the teacher’s willingness to be both adaptable and
flexible, that is, to adapt the programme, to be sensitive to the changing needs of the
group as the lesson progresses, to alter the lesson plan if it pr oves necessary (Harmer,
1991).
Ultimately, teachers decide on what to teach and how to teach it, even when they
are presented with set curricula . There are always ways to fit in something teachers think
is important or worthwhile. The trick is to decide on what those things are and to be
willing to do them – self-awareness is a good starting place (Duppe nthaler, 1999 ).
Innovative methods expose us to principles and practices that teachers can adapt to
multiple contexts. Teachers’ responsibility is to choose the best of what others have
experimented with and adapt to their own situation. Those insights and intuitions can
become a part of any teacher’s own principled approach to language teaching .

51
CHAPTER III
Teaching Vocabulary Techniques
According to Jeremy Harmer, there are two main teaching techniques:
I. Explanation technique
– The general model for introducing new language consists of five components: lead-in,
elicitation, explanation, accurate reproduction and immediate creativity .
– The whole procedure is teacher -led since it is the teacher’s job to explain the language .
He/she creates a context or uses one from some materials and elicits language, which is
then given as models for the students to repeat. Then , the teacher conduct s a cue -response
drill before moving quickly to immediate creat ivity and pair -work, where the students
start to take over control.
II. Discovery technique
– This technique aims to give students a chance to take charge earlier. The teacher gives
the students a text or some examples of English sentences, and asks them to discover how
the language works.
– The students will be more involved, as the teacher gets them to do most of the work;
this technique actually invites them to use t heir reasoning processes.
– Students are given a lead-in to the topic, text or context, but the elicitation stage is
different, that is, students work individually or in pairs, they find the target information
by themselves. When they discuss the language with the teacher, the lesson has reached
the explanation stage (Harmer, 1991).

3.1 Ways of Conveying Meaning
In the classroom, the meaning can be conveyed in various ways, depending on the
word its elf (denoting objects, concrete or abstract, actions, characteristics, feelings etc) ,
the type of activity, students’ level etc. Here is a list of the most common ways of
conveying meaning:

52
1. Realia
 That is, presenting words by bringing the real things the words represen t into the
classroom for the student to see what the things look like in reality, touch them, or
even try them in some cases, in order to get a real picture of it.
 The teacher holds up the object or points to it, makes it work or sound, says the
word and t hen gets students to repeat it.
2. Pictorial representations
 That is, board drawings, wall pictures and charts, flashcards, magazine pictures
and any other non -technical visual representation .
 Are u sed to explain the meaning of vocabulary items : the teacher can draw things
on the board or bring in pictures. Also concepts like above and opposite can be
easily illustrated just as houses, flowers, smiles etc.
3. Demonstrating the word through acting or miming ( Total Physical Response)
 Have learners as sociate the verb to an action, or an emotion to a gesture by
physically acting out the word . Actions particularly are probably better explained
by mime.
 Concepts like running, writing, smoking, dancing are easy to present this way. So
are ways of walking, expressions, prepositions ( to, towards, under etc.) and times
(for example, a jerked back over the shoulder can represent the past).
4. Using Opposites
 Sense relations can be used to teach meaning. For example, the meaning of
bright can be presented by contrasting it with dark, hot – cold, big – small etc.
 These concepts may be presented with pictures or mime, and by drawing attention
to the opposites/contrasts in meaning in order to ensure understanding.
5. General/specific meaning
 Sense relat ion – general and specific words – we can say furniture and explain
this by enumerating or listing various items – table, chair, bed, wardrobe, bedside
table etc.
6. Connecting words to a personal experience
 Learners can think about the way they respond to new words by categorizing them
into groups: the words they like/dislike, or the words they think will be easy (or
difficult) to remember and why.
7. Explanation
 It can be used with intermediate students – explaining the meaning of a word must
include explaining any facts of word use which are relevant.
 If a teacher explains the meaning of the word mate , for example, he/she has to
point out that it is a colloquial word used in informal contexts and that it is more
often used for males than for females.
8. Grouping w ords by collocations

53
 That is, manipulating and remembering new words by joining them according to
the words they are often found with. For example, ‘ to…your temper’
(set/do/make/ lose).
9. Changing, stretching and limiting the meaning of a word function how it is
used
a) Metaphors : the meaning of some words can be extended, e.g. : ‘I like it when
you bring me jewels’ , the young lady purred .
b) Idioms: sometimes metaphors are used so often that they become fixed in the
language, e.g.: The detective likes to play cat an d mouse with his suspects .
10. Semantic maps – Teaching Multiple -Meaning Words
 Can be used as a strategy for students to discover the relationships between
vocabulary words .
 Semantic mapping is an active form of learning as it builds on prior knowledge .
 A semantic map is a graphic organizer that is organized around a word that
represents an important concept (e.g. movement ); on the map, related words are
clustered around the target word according to criteria that teachers or students
choose .
 These criteria might include such features as similar or dissimilar attributes,
connotative or denotative meanings, or even shared linguistic components.
 Students fill in the maps by referring to context, using their prior knowledge and
consulting dictionaries.
11. Translati ng the word into the students’ native language
 It is a quick and easy way to present the meaning of words, but:
a) It is not always easy to translate words;
b) Even where translation is possible, it may make it a bit too easy for
students by discouraging them from interacting with words, from
discovering the meaning from the context they appeared in;
c) It is considered that the words learned this way do not last long in
students’ memory, because this technique lacks practice.
12. Vocabulary games
 May be used for reinforcing the meaning and helping the students to
remember the new words they have learned before the vocabulary game.
 Everything students learn while relaxing and having fun is assimilated a lot
easier and for a longer period of time, irrespective of th eir age.
13. Contextual analysis
 Involves inferring the meaning of an unfamiliar word by scrutinizing the text
surrounding it. The meaning is defined within the context.
14. Morphemic analysis
 It is the process of deriving a word’s meaning by analyzing its meaning ful
parts, or morphemes (root words, affixes).

54
15. Dictionary use
 Teaches students about multiple word meanings, as well as the importance of
choosing the appropriate definition to fit the particular context.
16. Using computer technology to help teach vocabulary
 The greatest potential of computer technology lies in certain capabilities that
are not found in print materials, including;
a) Game -like formats. Such formats may be more effective at capturing students’
attention than textbooks and workbooks.
b) Hyperlinks. Clickable words and icons placed in online text can offer students
opportunities to encounter new words in multiple contexts by allowing them quick
access to text and graphics. When they are well designed, such extensions can add
depth to word learning, part icularly in the area of content -specific words.
c) Online dictionaries and reference materials. Devices that allow students to
click on words to hear them pronounced and defined may extend students’
understandings of new words.
d) Animations. Animated demonstrat ions of how the human body works or what
life was like in Ancient Times may hold students’ interest, and when combined
with audio narration or text captions and labels, they offer potential for word
learning.
e) Access to content -area -related websites. These websites, such as those operated
by various museums and numerous libraries, allow students quick access to
photographs, maps, and voice -over narration and text that may both reinforce
content -area vocabulary and relate new words to existing concepts.
For each lexical item in the following random list I have suggested a different way
that a teacher could help students begin to learn the meanings:
glove Mime putting it on
jogging Watch a video where someone is jogging
frown Facial expression
fireplace Draw it on the board
rarely Draw a line; mark never at one end and
always at the other; then mark points along
it: sometimes, often, usually, occasionally
etc
put down Get students to act it out
paint the town red Tell a personal anecdote
campaign Get students to deduce it from the context
in a text
door frame Point to the object
ambition Read out the dictionary definition
get away with Translate it
terrace Show a picture in a book or other material

55
pollution Explain it with examples
memory stick Bring it into the class to show them
That will be the day Act out a short conversation
pigtail Students look it up in a dictionary
cushion Play a game (e.g. matching words to
pictures)
penny board Students who know explain to those who
don’t
traffic jam Create a story using model cars
reduction Draw a diagram or graph
fun Use collocations (e.g. have fun)

In order to appeal to different types of learners, it is better to use more than one
method of conveyance at a time if feasible.

3.2 The Right Time to Teach Vocabulary
When deciding what vocabulary to teach the key question of ‘what is the aim of the
lesson?’ has to be addressed. This will dictate when and if to teach vocabulary. The aim
dictates what to teach, too. Many lessons go astray and lose focus because the teacher
gets sidetracked into explaining non -essential language that is unnecessary to meet the
aim of that particular stage of the lesson.
The table below demonstrates possible aims for dealing with vocabulary at
different points in the les son:
At the beginning of
the lesson This may happen when there is not a supporting text. The
teacher may teach a range of vocabulary in order t o help the
learners with the task in which they use the vocabulary.
Pre-text To ensure the s tudents unders tand the key vocabulary in order
to be able to complete the reading or listening tasks.
Mid text To support the students to complete the tasks; not to ensure
that they understand every word of the text.
Post text To focus on the vocabulary once the general and detailed
meaning of the text has been understood. The students would
then go on to use the language from the text in a controlled or
freer practice activity.
After a production
task The teacher may not ice that the students needed certain
vocabulary when they were doing a production task and teaches
it once the task is over.
It is also likely that the vocabulary practised and presented is
still being avoided by the students, so they need additional
consolidation work.

56
Randomly No teacher can anticipate every problem that students will
have, so vocabulary questions can arise at any point in the
lesson. The teacher can respond in a variety of ways, from
stopping the whole class to do meaning work and checking
understanding, to telling the learner to look the word up as
homework.
The teacher’s decision should be based on the following:
– Is the word key target language? If it is, it needs attention
and if it is not, then can the student go on with the task
and bypass it for the time being?
– Is the whole class struggling with the same word or is it
just one student not understanding the word?

3.3 Steps in Teaching Vocabulary
No matter when we teach vocabulary or whether we pre -teach it, there are endless
ways of integrating it in the flow of active speech. What we should carefully consider
before planning our lessons is the logical steps to be taken in task -based activities. Jeremy
Harmer and other methodologists have commonly agreed that there are three such stages
to be followed during vocabulary teaching, that is, engage, study, activate . The elements
can come in different orders and sequences depending on what is being studied.
 Engage – consists of activities meant to engage the students’ interest in the topic
and its related vocabulary, such as: a text, a discussion/interaction, a word task
etc.
Examples of ‘ engagement ’ activities:
– A text – its purpose is to arouse the students’ interest as well as to introduce the
vocabulary and concepts which are to be studied. It also provides a focus for
general integrated skill work.
– A discussion/interaction – may provide an opportunity for students to consider the
topics in the light of their own experience.
– A word task – students do a match ing activity as a way of introducing the topic
area and giving them the information they need for a discussion/interaction.

 Study – consists of activities meant to explore the words which the topic has
introduced in more detail, such as: completing charts, fill -ins, matching, searching
for word meaning, choosing between different words etc.
Examples of ‘ study ’ activities:

57
– Completing charts – charts which focus on word formation, on words which go
together etc.
– Fill-ins – fill in the blanks in sentences or paragraphs(using words they have been
studying), select the correct word from a box, select a word and use the correct
form (adjec tive, noun, verb etc.) in the blanks.
– Matching – match one set of things with other, a set of words with a set of
pictures, words or expressions with meanings.
– Searching for word meaning – find in the text words which have a certain
meaning, use a dictiona ry to help them to be sure of the meaning of words.
– Choosing from different words – students are asked to choose between two
different meanings or two different words, e.g. older/elder .

 Activate – consists of activities meant to give students an opportuni ty to use
words which have been studied, such as: telling stories, writing tasks.
Examples of ‘ activate ’ activities:
– Telling stories – words studied are used in either oral or written stories.
– Writing tasks – words studied are used to write descripti ons, dialogues,
advertisements etc.
The following descriptions of two language topics show different sequences of
these three stages:
Example 1: Invitations (elementary)
Engage

Activate

Activate

Study

Study The teacher gets students to say what their favourite
evening activities are – for example, where they like going
out. He/she then shows them a picture of Dan and Jane and
asks: ’Are they friends?’ etc. to generate a limited discussion
about their relationship.
The teacher tells students they are going to listen to a tape.
He/she asks them what they think it is about, based on the
picture of Dan and Jane. He/she tells them that all they have
to do is say what Jane wants and what Dan’s reply is, and
he/she tells the m to listen right to the end for this.
The students listen to the tape more than once and then
compare their answers in pairs before the teacher checks that
they have understood that Jane invites Tom to the cinema and
he eventually agrees.
The teache r tells them to listen again for the invitation
language and then models it himself/herself. He/she gets the
students to repeat the new language and then practice it in
pairs.
Later, the teacher gives the students a written version of the

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Activate whole conversation and with them he/she works on it as if
he/she were a theatre director.
They practise the scene in pairs and some of the pairs act it
out.

Example 2: Comparatives (lower intermediate)
Engage

Activate

Activate

Engage

Activate

Study

Activate The teacher tells a story about a journey he/she took that
was terrible, with many things going wrong etc.
Then he /she puts students in groups and tells them to find
out what is the most and least favourite means of transport in
each group. Then, the groups report back to the class.
The teacher selects two forms of transport and asks students
to compare them, thus giving him/her a chance to s ee if any
of them can already use comparatives.
The teacher now tells them to look at the title of the
magazine article and asks them to speculate on what the
article is going to be about.
The students then read the article and the teacher asks them
if they agree with the writer’s opinions.
The students do the ‘discovery’ activity about comparative
adjectives in the text. They repeat the comparatives found in
the sentences.
The teacher asks them to make new comparatives as they
have seen in the text.
Then, the teacher has them role -play a situation in which a
customer goes into a furniture store to buy a new wardrobe.
The customer has to call his wife and describe the wardrobes
and asks which one the wife thinks he should buy. During the
conve rsation, the students are asked to use as many
comparatives as possible.
Adapted from Harmer, 1998
Robert Marzano, an education researcher and teacher, stresses that in all content
areas direct vocabulary instruction is essential and suggests si x steps:
Step one : The teacher explains a new word, going beyond reciting its definition (tap into
prior knowledge of students, use imagery);
Step two : Students restate or explain the mew word in their own words (verbally or/and in
writing);
Step three : The teacher asks students to create a non -linguistic representation of the word
(a picture or symbolic representation);

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Step four : Students engage in activities to deepen their knowledge of the new word
(compare words, classify terms , write their own analogi es and metaphors etc. );
Step five : Students discuss the new word (pair -share, elbow partners, group share);
Step six : Students periodically play games to review new vocabulary (e.g. Telephone,
Jeopardy, Pyramid etc.).
Marzano’s six steps do somet hing revolutionary to vocabulary learning: they make
it fun. Students think about, talk about, apply and play with new words.

3.4 Ingredients of Good Vocabulary Work
Since organizing vocabulary practice is the most important thing the teacher does in
the classroom, it does contribute significantly to successful language learning, and
therefore it is worth thinking about what factors contribute to the effectiveness of
classroom practice.
According to Penny Ur, practice is usual ly carried out through procedures called
‘exercises’ or ‘activities’. The latter term usually implies more learner activity and
initiative than the former , but there is a large area of ove rlap: many procedures could be
defined by either. The goal of exerci ses and activities may be the consolidation of the
learning of any aspect of language, for example of a grammatical structure, or the
improvement of listening, speaking, reading or writing fluency, or the memorization of
vocabulary (Ur, 1991).
The aim of good vocabulary work is to present and practise new language in ways
that help the learner retain the information in their long term memory, so that in the future
it can be easily retrieved and used.
The ‘ingredients’ of good vocabular y work include:
 Memorable presentations – The language is presented in such a way that learners
can pull on the context developed by the teacher to help them remember the work.
This can be done through contextualization, pictures, clines, timelines, realia ,
mime etc.;
 Engagement – The meaning work is engaging with learners involved in the
process of conveyance. The conveyance method includes a range of techniques,
for example mime, pictures, contextual stories etc.;
 Diagnosis – During conveyance diagnosis of what learners already know and
developing their knowledge from that point is essential rather than assume the

60
learners know nothing of the meaning. The teacher works to elicit from a context
what is known by the learners before ‘telling’ the meaning.
 Accuracy – Te meaning presented is accurate so learners are confident and can
use the language. For example, many words have multiple meanings ( book, light,
foot, get, set ) but the meaning taught needs to be the one used in the lesson
material;
 Confirmation of Understanding – Learners have their knowledge checked and
confirmed through the use of meaning check questions, elicited examples and
diagnostic tasks. The learners have practice and the opportunity to practise the
language in meaningful and personalize d tasks. In this way they can test their own
hypothesis. The question:’ Can I say it this way ?’ shows that the students are
testing out how to use the language for themselves and it gives the teacher a
chance to diagnose their knowledge and provide support.
 Full Coverage – In order to use new vocabulary, the learners need to know:
– meaning – What is the exact meaning of the word as it is presented in the context?
What is the connotation, register etc.?
– form – What is the form (grammar) of the word? Is it a noun, verb etc.? Does it
have a dependent position?
– pronunciation – How is the word pronounced?
Penny Ur points out seven characteristics of effective vocabulary practice:
1. Validity
The activity should activate students primarily in the sk ill or material it aims at
practicing. This is an obvious principle that is surprisingly often violated. For example,
many ‘speaking’ activities have students listening to the teacher more than talking
themselves.
Validity does not necessarily im ply that the language should be used for some kind
of replication of real -life communication. Pronunciation drills and vocabulary practice
may also be valid if they in fact serve primarily to rehearse and improve the items to be
practised.
2. Pre-learning
Students should have a good preliminary understanding of the language they are
required to practise, though they may only be able to produce or understand it slowly and
after thinking about it. If they are required to do a practice activity based on something
they have not yet begun to learn, they will either not be able to do it at all, or they will
produce unsuccessful responses .

61
In either case the activity will be fairly useless in providing practice, its main
function being as a diagnostic test, enabling the teacher to identify and teach or re -teach
language the learners do not know. If, however, they can produce hesita nt successful
responses, they have a firm basis for further effective practice of the target language
material.
3. Volume
The more language the students actually engage with during the activity, the more
practice in it they will get. The lesson tim e available for the activity should be filled with
as much ‘volume’ of language as possible. If students are not engaging with the language
being practised for whatever reason (e.g. nothing demanded of them, using their mother
tongue, classroom management, distraction or digression) it is a wasted time as far as the
practice activity is concerned.
4. Success -orientation
It is important to select, design and administer practice activities in such a way that
learners are likely to succeed in doing the task. Repeated successful performance is likely
to result in effective automa tion of whatever is being performed, as well as reinforcing
the learners’ self image as successful language learners and encouraging them to take up
further challenge s.
It should be noted that success does not necessarily mean perfection. A class may
engage successfully with language practice in groups, where mistakes do occasionally
occur, but most of the utterances are acceptable and a large volume of practice is
achiev ed. This is often preferable to teacher -monitored full -class practice, which may
produce fully accurate responses, but without opportunities for active participation by
most of the class.
5. Heterogeneity
A good practice activity provides opportunities for useful practice to all of the
different levels within a class. If the teacher gives an activity whose items invite response
at only one level of knowledge, then a large proportion of the class will not benefit.
Example: an acti vity on “must /must n’t”
e.g. Sam is a child . Sam (must/mustn’t) unlock the door .
The students who are not confident that they understand how to use must may not
do the item at all. Those who are more advanced, and could make far more complex and
interesting statements with the same item have no opportunity to do so, and get no useful
practice at a level appropriate to them.

62
This is the reason why the teacher should redesign the text and task as follows:
e.g. Sam is a child. He must make his bed and brush his teeth, but he (must/mustn’t)
unlock the door. What else must, or mustn’t, Sam do?
Then the activity becomes heterogeneous. The teacher has provided weaker
learners with support in the form of sample responses, an d he/she has given everyone the
opportunity to answer at a level appropriate to him/her, from the simple ( Sam must do his
homework ) to the relatively complex and original ( Sam mustn’t use credit cards ). Thus a
much larger proportion of the class is able to participate and benefit.
6. Teacher assistance
After having proposed the activity and given clear instructions, the teacher’s main
function is to help the students to do it successfully. Thus, the teacher should assist the
students, increase their chances of success and the effectiveness of the practice activity as
a whole. The teacher should allow them plenty of time to think, make the answers easier
through giving hints and guiding questions, confirm beginnings of responses in order to
encourage c ontinuations, or in group work move arou nd the classroom making himself /
herself available to answer questions.
Through such activity the teacher, incidentally, convey a clear message about the
function and attitude of the teacher, that is, he/sh e wants his/her students to succeed in
learning and is doing his/her best to see them do so.
7. Interest
Little challenge in the language work itself because of its ‘success -orientation’ and
a lot of repetition of target forms (previously pointed as ‘volume’) may lead to boredom
and, consequently, to learner’s inattention, low motivation and ultimately less learning .
On the other hand, an interesting topic, the need to convey meaningful information,
a game -like ‘fun’ task, attention -catchin g materials, appeal to learners’ feelings, a
challenge to their intellect, or even the challenge of getting – the-answers -right may be the
roots of students’ interest.
For example, an activity whose aim is to get learners to practise asking and
answering ‘yes -no’ questions simply demands that learners build such questions by
transforming statements into questions and answering by ‘short answers’ rules. But such
an activity will get far more attentive and interested participation if participants pro duce
their questions as contributions to some kind of purposeful transfer of information, such
as guessing what their desk -mate has got in his/her pocket or what someo ne’s preferences
are ( Ur, 1991 ).

63
3.5 Vocabulary Practice: Activities and Games
After students have seen and heard some lexical items for the first time, they will
need opportunities to become more familiar with them that is, to practise recognizing,
manipulating and using them. Many simple vocabulary practice activities are based
around the following ideas:
a) discussions, communicative tasks and role -play requiring use of words;
b) making use of the vocabulary in written tasks .
There are many options when organizing such tasks:
– The teacher could ask students to do the exerc ises on their own;
– Students could work together in pairs or small groups to find the answers, then
compare with other pairs;
– The whole class could decide on answers together;
– The teacher could make teams and the activities could be run as a competition,
giving questions in turns to the separate teams and awarding points for right
answers etc (Scrivener, 1998).
Ideas for vocabulary activities :
1. Brainstorming round an idea
The teacher writes a single word in the centre of the board and asks students to
brainstorm all the words they can think of that are connected with it, every item
suggested is written up on the board with a line connecting it to the original word, so that
the result is a ‘sun -ray’ picture. This activity is meant for revising words t he students
already know, but new ones can be introduced as well, by the teacher or/and by the other
students. Although there are no sentences or paragraphs, the circle of associated items is
in itself a meaningful context for the learning of new vocabular y.
bird
green forest
climb leaf
branch TREE brown
shade high
flowers trunk
roots

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2. Identifying words they know
It can be used as an introduction to the vocabulary of a new reading passage: the
students are given a new text and asked to underline all the words they know. Then, they
get together in pairs or groups to compare – students who know certain words teach them
to the others in the group who don’t. Afterwards, they try to guess the meaning of the
remaining words together. Finally, the teacher brings the class together to hear the re sults,
checking guesses and teaching new items, if necessary.
This type of activity stresses what the stude nts know rather than what they do not; it
encourages student cooperation and peer -teaching; it also entails repeated exposure to the
text and vocabulary items through individual, group and teacher -led stages (Ur, 1991).
There are many types of vo cabulary activities and games such as:
– matching pictures to words;
– matching parts of words to other parts (beginnings and endings);
– matching words to other words (collocations, synonyms, opposites);
– using suffixes and prefixes to build new words from given words;
– classifying items into lists;
– using given words to complete a specific task;
– odd-one-out;
– filling in crosswords;
– filling in semantic maps;
– filling in gaps in sentences;
– word games;
– memory games etc.
Teaching vocabulary words to students does not have to be boring and repetitive.
There is a great variety of activities and games meant to energize the class during
vocabulary instruction. With a little creativit y, vocabulary instruction can become an
exciting time in the classroom for all the people involved.
Here are some activities and games that can be used for students of all ages and
which can be adapted to their level of English.

65
Examples of Vocab ulary Activities

1. Two Words, One Sentence
Students need to use words in order to learn about how the words work with other words,
so this activity encourages them to produce language. The teacher writes two words on
the board and puts students into pairs or groups, then asks them to produce a single
sentence that includes both words. He/she gets some of the students to tell their
sentences. The teacher chooses the best one and writes it on the board for the others to
copy, then repeats this process with tw o more words.
2. Word Bag
This is an ongoing activity that can be done throughout the school year. At the end of
each chapter, the teacher gives students small slips of paper and asks them to write words
they need or want to learn (connected with the same to pic) on one side of the slip, and
information about the word on the other side (such as a translation, example sentences,
grammatical information and so on). At the end of the class, the teacher collects all the
slips of paper and puts them in a bag , and t hen gets each student to draw one from the
bag, completes it and then reports the answer to the class. It can be done as a quick
revision quiz as well.
3. Five-word Story
The teacher draws a grid on the board with a set of words that the students have recently
started learning. Students are put into small groups and asked to select five of the words.
Then, they create a very short story that includes all five words; they exchange stories
among them and someone from each group rea ds the story aloud.
4. Three Meanings
The teacher asks the students to close their books, writes a word on the board and says
three definitions (or reads them from the textbook glossary). The students will guess
which is the correct meaning, individually or divided into three big teams, out of which
one will be the winner.
e.g. advertisement – announcement / warning / commercial
5. Lexical Threads
The students are divided into two groups. One student gives the teacher a letter from the
alphabet; each group calls out a verb in its infinitive form that begins with that letter ;
each team calls out a new word and the teacher or a team representative record s it on the

66
board. The group that cannot think of anymore loses. With this activity students can write
a lot on t he board. It is highly motivating when they see how much they know; language
emerges from the knowledge of students and the teaching itself is kept to the minimum;
the students usually tell each other what the word mean and the activity goes on.
e.g. (I) visit / museums / when / I / go /on / holiday / with / my / family / and / …..
6. Five Things
Students are divided into three teams. The teacher reads out some categories; they
quickly think of five things in that category; someone from each team goes to the b oard
to write the words; the first team to write the list wins a point. It is a brainstorming
activity and teachers should set a time limit for students to accomplish it.

7. Odds and ends
Students are divided into groups of four. The teacher gives each group a place and they
have to write ten things that you can find there ; then they give the other groups time one
minute to say what they think is on the other’s team list. A group gets one point for each
thing on their list that the others do not guess. H ere are some examples of places:

8. A to Z
Students are divided into groups of six. They choose one of the following categories and
add up examples of things starting with latter A, then B and so on till he cannot find any;
that moment he gets out of the ac tivity. The others choose another category and repeat.
Students may also add words starting with the last letter of the previous word for more
difficulty.
animals, adjectives, books, clothes, drinks, furniture, games, nationalities, tools, verbs

e.g. animals – antelope, bear, cat, donkey…
people keep
people waste
people save
a hiker's backpack
a desk drawer
a driver's pocket

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animals – antelop e, elephan t, tiger, rhino…..
9. Suits You
Teacher and students talk about which clothes go together and which do not. Some
students tell the class which clothes and colours suit them or do not. Then they discuss
the differences between some pairs of words connected with the topic of clothes and
colours , such as:
to fit/to suit fashion/style to go with/to suit
blouse/shirt casual/smart size/fit
sweater/sweatshirt inside out/back to front to try/to try on

10. The Internet
Group -work activity; each group imagines they are going to give a course on how to use
the Internet to a class of complete beginners; they first explain key vocabulary:
worldwide web, ISP (Internet Service Provider), to log on, password, virus, site, spam,
home page, online, offline, to download, to browser, to log out, surf etc.

Students prepare their notes then compare them with the others’. The other groups
together with the teacher decide who has the clearest explanations. The activity may
continue with asking students to make a list of top ten uses of the Internet. Lists are
compared and discussed.
11. Definitions
Pair-work or group -work activity; students work together to write definitions for various
things given to them by the teacher (either written on the board or handed out on slips of
paper) , within the limit of two lines:
A friend is………………………………………………………………………………….
Hobbies are…………………………………………………………………………………
Being young is……………………………………………………………………………..
Being a parent is……………………………………………………………………………
Pets are…………………………………………………… ………………………………..
Love is………………………………………………………………………………………
Music is……………………………………………………………………………………..
Cars are……………………………………………………………………………………..
A phone is…………………………………………………………………………………..
A family is…………………………………………………………………………………..
Money is…………………………………………… ……………………………………….

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12. Confusing Words
In pairs or individually, students are asked to write sentences to demonstrate the
differences between these pairs of words. The answers are checked orally.
e.g. Jim has robbed about 12 people. He has stolen about $400 in total.
Rob/steal watch/see see/look see/notice
Talk/tell cloth/clothes hard/hardly in/within
Earn/win durin g/while little/a little wait/expect
Remember/remind each/every son/sun look/look like
Principle/principal error/fault wear/put on lose /loose

13. City or Country
Pair-work activity; each peer gets one of the two places to live: in a city or in the country
and has to list as many advantages as possible then to write a paragraph. Afterwards, they
are asked to write the whole composition together using linking words as well (some of
them are given by the teacher, such as: on the one hand, on the other hand, a first
advantage would be, the second …..).
14. Odd One Out
Students are given different sets of words on hand -outs; they have to choose the odd one
out and circle it; more than one answer is possible if they motivate their choice. Answers
are checked and discussed.
1 fridge, cooker, microwave, stove 5 rice, potatoes, pasta, wheat
2 pudding, pie, pancake, bread 6 sheep, horses, cows, fish
3 scramble, boil, fry, roast 7 lemon, lime, grapefruit, grape
4 French, Italian, Chinese, Indian 8 box, bottle, tin, jar

15. What’s Cooking?
Group -work activity; each group writes a ten -item shopping list on a piece of paper
starting from the words given by the teacher; then they decide on a recipe for a two –
course meal using all the ingredients on their list (tell them they can only add salt, pepper
and oil). In turns, the groups describe their meal to the class then will vote on which meal
they would most like to eat.

69
Shopping List:
Something salty: …………………………………..
Something sweet: ………………………………….
A tin of something: ………………………………
A jar of something: ………………………………
A green vegetable: ……………………………….
Another vegetable: ………………………………
A fruit: ………………………………………………
A dairy product: …………………………………
A kind of meat or fish: …………………… ……
Other (of their choice): …………………………

16. Food Graph
Pair-work activity; students name a kind of food that is ….. ( characteristics being listed
in alphabetical order):
alive …, blue …, cold …, dairy …, expensive …, fresh …, green …, hard …, icy…, juicy …,
………………………
After giving examples, students have to plot the words on a scattergram like this;

17. Body Verbs
The teacher writes some words connected with human body activity on the board; for
each verb students in turns go to the board and write which part of the body does it and a
sentence about a situation in which people do this, for example:
e.g. clap – hand(s) – People sometimes do this when they listen to songs.
kneel kick point weep snore
wave wink sneeze hug yawn etc.

18. Newspaper Detective
UNHEALTHY
I
HEALTHY

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The teacher hands out one page of the newspaper or magazine to each students or they
have already got some of their choice; each student finds a picture, a whole paragraph or
single words that collocate with the word given by the teacher; then cuts the
picture/paragraph out or underlines/highlights the words he has found; in turns, students
explain to the class why their picture/paragraph/words relate to the given word.
19. Missing Vowels
Pair-work activity. The teacher gives each pair of students a different slip of paper with a
sentence, in which the vowels are missing, on it; work together to solve it then in turns
report it to the class. Students are asked to write another sentence without vowels for
another pair to write out in full. The activity may continue by asking one student in each
pair to look back through the vocabulary notes that they have made in recent lessons and
choose ten words , to write them wi thout vowels and test his/her partner.
e.g. Th nxt trn t pltfrm sx s th thr svntn t Brghtn
The next train at platform six is the three seventeen to Brighton .
20. Storyboard
Firstly the teacher (to model the activity) then students in turns stand in fron t of the class
and tell the others a story without speaking or writing, but drawing on the board or
miming. The others will say aloud each line of the story; if it is correct the person in front
will nod and they can write it down.
e.g. It was a beautiful weekend morning. The sun was shining although it was sno wy
outside. I got up, …

Examples of Vocabulary Games
1. Snake Word
Students get into teams; each team sends a representative to the blackboard; he/she
chooses a marker and they stand in a line; the teacher writes a letter and the first student
must write a word beginning with that letter; the following student writes a word
beginning with the last letter of the previous word and so on. After the time devoted has
passed and a student has not written a word, he passes his turn; if you pass your turn three
times, you are replaced by another student in your team; only two replacements are
allowed; after that the team is eliminated.; the winner is the team that lasts the longest and
writes the most words.
e.g. Englishasoundsyllables ongamelements…

71

2. The Memory Game
During regular classes, the teacher notes down the word combinations that come up; then
put each part of the collocation (or parts of the proverbs) on two separate pieces of paper;
put all of the first part of each phrase together, face down on the desk; then mix up the
second group of words and put them face down, too; in groups students work together
picking up one piece of paper from each group as to make a phrase ( proverb).
e.g .greenhouse effect
animal poaching
environmentally friendly
recycle waste
ozone layer
endangered species
3. Hot Seat
The class is divided into two teams; they sit facing the board; the teacher takes two empty
chairs, one for each team, puts them in front of the class facing the teams; one member
comes up and sits that ch air having their back to the board; the teacher writes a word on
the board; the team -mates describe that word using synonyms, antonyms, definitions etc.
to their team -mate who is in the hot chair; the first hot seat student to say the word wins a
point for his team; then the teacher changes the students over, with a new member taking
their place in their team’s hot seat, then writes the next word and so on; at the end one of
the teams wins.
4. Job Clap
Students stand in a circle; they take turns to name a job, then the workplace for that job ,
and then another job, and so on; students clap their hands to this rhythm (the teacher
demonstrates it to them) and give their answer on every beat; if they miss the beat, they
are out. It is a quick and funny game revisin g vocabulary.
e.g. A – doctor ; B – hospital
C – pilot ; D – plane
E – mechanic ; F – garage
5. Suitcase Game

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The teacher asks two students to leave the classroom while he/she gives the instructions
to the others. Students are asked to na me some things to take on holiday, but they can
only name things that begin with the same letter as their first name.
e.g. Ann can pack an anorak.
Robert can pack a raincoat .
Tony can pack a towel.
The two students are asked to come in without explaining them the rules. In turns,
students are asked to name some things to take on holiday, including the ones who left
the room, asking them each by name; if the students who left do not choose something
that begins with the first letter of their name , the teacher tells them they cannot take that
thing, without telling them why; after a few rounds, if they have not worked out the rule,
the teacher makes it more obvious by asking students to suggest what they could take or
emphasizing their names. The g ame finishes when those two students work out the rule
and make up correct sentences, too.
6. Spoons
Students race to collect four similar cards and t o grab a spoon before they are all taken.
The teacher makes a set of four cards for each vocabulary word; one card should have the
definition of the word and the other three should name the word; in order to have four of
a kind, they need to collect the definition card and the others three; once a student collects
four of a kind, he grabs a spoon; if students see a spoon being taken, they also need to
grab one before they are all gone. The winner is that student who, when all the cards
finish, has the most sets of four cards.
7. Draw, Act or Sculpt
The class is divided into teams; the teacher has already prepared voc abulary words or
phrases on cards and places them into a hat; the teacher should pick one vocabulary word
per round; each team sends one player to view the word; he can draw it, act it out or
sculpt it using clay for their team; the first team who guesses the word/phrase wins the
round.
8. Conversation Competition
Pair-work game; when the teacher says ’Go!’ the students stand up and have a set amount
of time to talk with their partner on any appropriate subject; they must use at least ten of
the unit’s words i n their conversation and the teacher checks them off as they use them;
when they have used all ten words, they sit down; the teacher circulates around the
classroom during the game to engage students in conversation and keep them on task; the

73
first pair to finish wins a prize, after sharing their conversation with the class and they tell
the others the words used by them once again at the end of the game.
9. Circle Rotation
If there is enough room, the students are divided into two groups and have them form an
inner and an outer circle, with students facing each other; for 15 seconds each student in
the inner circle asks a vocabulary question he has previously prepared about spelling,
definition, example etc. to the student he is facing; if the outer -circle student answers
correctly, the inner -circle student signs his word list; for another 15 minutes, the outer –
circle student asks the other one a question he has prepared and signs his list if the answer
is correct; then students rotate to the right and repeat the process with other students and
other questions. The one who has the most signatures at the end wins the prize.
10. Realia Race
Whole -class activity; the teacher says or writes some adjectives on the board; the first
student to call out something (or something in the classroom for much more difficulty)
described by that adjective gets a point; the student with the most points at the end of the
activity gets a reward.; only examples of objects are accepted.
11. In My Fridge
Whole -class activity meant to consolidate a, an, some, much, m any and countable,
uncountable nouns. The first learner says: In my fridge there is an apple ; the next learner
must repeat the sentence and add an item of his own: In my fridge there is an apple and
some cheese ; a third student repeats the whole sentence and adds up something else: In
my fridge there is an apple, some cheese and much ice -cream ; and the game goes on as
long as possible, the student who forgets an item or does not respect their order gets out
of the game. It is an attention and memory game.
12. Word Clouds
Team -work activity; one team representative comes to the board, draws at least fi ve
clouds and writes in each of them some words with their letters mixed up; the words have
been met over the previous lesson or two; the other team has to decipher the sentence and
write it on the board in a previously set time ; if they manage, they get o ne point; if not,
they miss that turn; the winner is the team with the most points.

L O O S
S H C ? E E H
T R Y M A
N
R E A E T V I
P R A

74
e.g. Are there many private schools?
13. Kim’s Game
The teacher gets into the class a tray full of objects (as many as possible ), for example
objects connected with information technology such as: a CD, memory stick, phone etc;
he/she shows it to the students for two minutes, then covers it or removes it from sight;
the students must make a list, as individuals or in pairs, of all the objects they can
remember; the winner is the one who gets most.
14. Instant Crossword
Whole -class activity meant to revise previously met vocabulary; the teacher asks the class
to look back over words that they have studied in the last days; in turns, they come to the
board to write them clearly interlocking, as in a crossword puzzle; it could continue as a
competitive team game, trying to make the grid as big as possible; the gam e will continue
so long as the winner is clear.
S H
POLITE O
C N S
RELIABLE EFFICIENT
A S R
OBEDIENT O
L N
ORGANISED G

15. Finish the Word
Team -work activity; each team takes it in turns to call out a letter which is then written on
the board; they also say whether it goes in front of or behind the letters already on the
board; the chain of letters on the board grows longer turn by turn; they must always have
a word in their mind to fit the letters or change it instantly to ‘challenge’ the opponents;
the correct challenge wins the round.
e.g. Team 1 A
Team 2 AV
Team 1 RAV
Team 2 RAVE
Team 1 RAVEL

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Team 2 TRAVEL
16. Who Am I?
Team -work activity; each student describes the clothes he/she is wearing on a slip of
paper and gives it to the teacher; in turns they come in front of the class, draw one of
those slips, rea d the description aloud and after looking attentively at their colleagues try
to guess who the person described is; if the answer is correct, he gets a point for his team.
17. Positive or Negative?
Team -work activity; the class is divided into two or three teams; each team prepares a set
of nouns met i n the previous units; Team1 shouts out one noun for which Team 2 has to
find two characteristics: one positive and one negative; if the answers are correct, the
game goes on with Team 2 shouting out another nou n for Team 3; each team gets points
and at the end of the game the winner is that team with the most points.
e.g. contestant – relaxed // anxious
18. Languages
The teacher writes a list of countries on the board for which in turns students will add up
the nati onality and the language of each one ; it is a competition out of which students will
revise countries, nationalities and languages, and most importantly, they will learn from
each other.
e.g. France – French – French
Brazil – Brazilian – Portuguese
Israel – Israeli – Hebrew (Arabic)
19. Arithmetic
Team -work activity; each of the three teams sends to the board a representative and
writes a number ( from 1 to 7) on the board; the teacher tells them the rules of
calculations: e.g. 7
-add five +5
-add four +4
-take away two -2
– add six +6
-take away the first number ( -7)

76
-answer 13
Students will be surprise d at seeing that there is no winner as the answers all the same
(13), although they have started with different numbers and will consider they have not
calculated correctly; they will do the calculations again and again till one (or some) of
them discovers the enigma .
20. Change of mood
Whole -class activity; the teacher plays some music, bits of famous songs; the students
have to react according to the rhythm and express whatever music expresses: ease,
sadness, happiness, anger, relaxation, rush, laziness, love etc. It is a funny activity which
may well be used an ice -breaker.

3.6 Remembering Words
‘There is no point in studying new words if they are not remembered’ (Scrivener,
1998). Learning vocabulary is largely about remembering and s tudents generally need to
see, say and write newly learned words many times before they can be said to have
learned them.
Some researchers have suggested various numbers of encounters with a word for
learning to take place, ranging from five to u p to twenty (Nation, 1990). Some suggest
that an impressive amount of learning can take place when students learn lists of paired
items, that is, English word and translation equivalents; others suggest that this method of
learning does not aid deeper understanding of the words or help develop fluency.
However, most agree that repetition is an important aid to learning and that having
to actively recall or ‘retrieve’ a word is a more effective way of learning than simple
exposure or just seei ng a word over and over (Sokmen, 1997). Moreover, repeating words
aloud helps students remember words better than repeating them silently.
Many students record newly learned words in long lists in their files or notebooks.
In many cases these lis ts are disorganized and are often never looked at again after they
have been writ ten. That is why teachers should train students to record their new
vocabulary in a more useful manner in order to help their progress.
Here is part of a word list f rom an exercise book:
e.g. knit = a tricota
distinguish = a distinge

77
worsen = a înrăutăți
unveil = a descoperi
bud = boboc
interview = interviu
Although the student obviously came to know the meaning of each word, the list is
not as useful as it might be , for many reasons:
– The items seem to have no connection with each other, they are possibly written down
in order of appearance in the text;
– There are no other words that co llocate with them (job interview );
– There are no examples of the words in use, in sentences;
– Are they nouns, verbs, adjectives etc.? ( bud- n., v.) ;
– How many meanings does a word have? (bud, knit , unveil );
– What other words are connected in form to any of these words ( bud-buddy )?;
– How are they pronounced?;
– Where is the stress?;
– Are they roots or derived words ( unveil );
– No grammar specifications ( worsen );
– Who uses them?
A useful word lis t should answer a great deal of questions. Jim Scrivener proposes
an ’alternative word list’ which provide much more information . Teachers decide
themselves how they want to interpret the column headings, and the last column is
intended for the student to think of some ’bright idea’ to help them remember the word
(something it sounds like, or whatever useful to them).
’Alternative word list ’
Topic: Page:

Word Translation Grammar Collocations Example
sentence Bright
idea
fat grăsime,untură ,gras, n., adj. a fat lot = o Hippos Jimmy

78
unsuros, gros,bogat;
iron. deloc mulțime have got a
fat body .

Adapted from Scrivener, 1998
One way to ensure that the teaching of vocabulary has a value after the lesson is
over is to encourage students to keep a useful word list, which enables them to record not
only the word, but also the way in which they learned it.
Another possibility is grouping words together so that a set is learned together; this
is oftem more effective than st uduing unrelated individual words. For example the
teacher can present a set of words connected with houses by using a picture of a house
(outside or inside ) ; the students each have a copy of the picture and write the words on it
as they learn them.

Fig 1: House vocabulary
A similar idea is to build a word spider (or a memory map ) and collocation tables
where connections in meaning or use between different words are visually indicated in
the structure of the diagram. It is very useful for th e students themselves to think through
the connections and to decide where each new word fits on the plan rather than a
completed word spider presented to them by the teacher. Athus, the learning of new
words and the recording othem are part of the same ac tivity.

79

Fig 2: Spider d iagram – model

Fig 3: Spider diagram – example

80

child dog flower landscape man picture voice weather woman
charming
handsome x
lovely
nice x
pretty x

Fig 4: Collocation table
At various stages of learning teachers will want students to revisit language forms
which they have been exposed to previously. This may be part of an overt correction
stage, part of a sequence which the teacher has slotted in because students have had
trouble with that language in a task, or part of a straightforward revision process where
language forms are recycled from time to time to help students remember them better
(Harmer, 2001) .
So, teachers should review vo cabulary as often as possible in activities that have
students actively recall words and produce them rather than merely see or hear them.
Here are some suggestions Michael McCarthy gave his students when trying to
revise vocabulary by themselves and, why not, suggestions that any teacher could give to
his/her students:
‘When you revise a unit, first read it through . Then look at anything you wrote in
your vocabulary notebook connected with the unit. Then, and most importantly , try to do
something different with the new words and expressions in that unit in order to help fix
them in your memory. Then:
 Highlight (or underline) any words and expressions that you had forgotten or were
not sure about.
 Look at the unit and choose ten words and expressions that you particularly want
or need to learn. Write them down.
 Look up any words that you selected in an English -English dictionary. Do these
words have any other uses or associations that might help you learn them?
Looking up the verb wish, for example, might lead you to wishbone or wishful
thinking . Write anything that appeals to you in an appropriate phrase or sentence.
 Perhaps the dictionary can also help you find som e other words based on the same
root. Looking up the noun employment will lead you to the verb employ , to the
nouns employer and employee , and perhaps to the adjectives employable ,
unemployed and self-employed .

81
 Write down the words and expressions you wish to learn in phonetic script. Use a
dictionary to help you.
Write down the words and phrases from a unit in your notebook in a different
way- put them into a network or a table, perhaps.
 The next day, ask yourself again: How much can I remember?
 Test yourself. Cover part of a word or phrase. Can you remember the complete
word or phrase?
When you have done all the steps above that you feel will be useful to you, close
your book and notebook and remind yourself of what you have been studying. How much
can you remember? ’ (McCarthy, 1999).
3.7 What Are Dictionaries For?
It is true that motivated students will want to know the meaning of many more
words than their teachers teach them in the course of the syllabus, and the best way to get
this information is from a dictionary. Thus, the dictionar y provides one of the best
resources not only for the students who want to increase the number of words they know,
but also for those who want to understand what a word means when they come across it
in a text or in a conversation.
Types of Dictionaries
1.Reference dictionaries are those where students look up a word to see what
meanings it has got, how it is used, the way it is spelt and pronounced. They are bilingual
or monolingual.
2.Production dictionaries are those designed for studen ts to use the other way round,
starting with a meaning they wish to express and in order to look for the word that
expresses it. In a production dictionary students look for a general word that they already
know, and which is a bit like the concept they wi sh to be able to express in English.
For example, if a student wants to express the idea of ‘someone secretly listening to
someone else while standing near him’, he will look up the word listen and will discover:
listen to and eavesdrop – which expresses the target idea (Harmer, 2001).
In most of the cases, students consult bilingual dictionaries to find an equivalent in
their own language. But bilingual dictionari es do not usually provide suffic ient
information for the studen ts to be able to use; for example one English word has five or
six equivalents listed in Romanian, but the student cannot tell which one of these
meanings is referred to in the context he/she found it. Moreover, there is often no
information either about t he level of formality of the word, its grammatical behavior or its
appearance in idioms.

82
Such a lack of information could lead to serious errors of translation and the
teacher’s job is to turn using dictionaries to students’ advantage by engaging them into
good dictionary practice using monolingual dictionaries (Harmer, 1991).
In monolingual dictionaries there are many more words than students wil l ever see
in class; there is mo re grammatical information about the words than studen ts usua lly get
in class; there i s information about pronunciation, spelling, word formation, metaphorical
and idiomatic use; there are examples of words in sentences and phrases; and in ‘active –
study ’ dictionaries there are also short exercises for the learner to practise that word; in
fact, there is a whole profile of a particular word.
The only problem is that students at beginner and elementary levels simply cannot
access this information due to its difficulty with these lower levels. But it is advisa ble for
them to look up a word in a bilingual dictionary and, after understanding the meaning,
check the monolingual dictionary as well for a better understanding, for a better profile of
the target word. So, as their English starts to improve, elementary students should be
encouraged to use monolingual dictionaries to complement their bilingual one (Harmer,
1991).
At intermediate levels and above, should turn completely to monolingual dictionary
use. Since their vocabulary and language knowledge improves, they can understand the
definitions and the information they can find. Now, they can start using their monolingual
dictionaries as a source of information for meaning, pronunciation and grammar. Jeremy
Harmer considers that ‘there is no better resource for the learner’ than a monolingual
dictionary (1991).
But, dictionary use should not interfere wit h other methodological concerns, for
example understanding meaning from context in reading comprehension activities.
The teacher should also trai n students to use dictionaries properly. As they contain
so much technical information, it can be discouraging for students to use such a complex
resource unless they are trained in this respect.
Jeremy Harmer claims that there are three things a teacher should achieve in
training students in dictionary use (Harmer, 1991) :
1. To remove the fear that they may have when faced with the mass of information a
dictionary contains .
2. To make the dictionary a normal and comfortable part of language study and practice.
3. To train students to understand the information, that is:
 Finding a word

83
-each entry begins with the base form of the word
-compound words are found in alphabetical order as well and the stress mark` shows
which part of the word to say strongly
-when a word can be spelled another way, or wh en there is another word for it, this is
shown
-when two words have the same spelling but different parts of speech, they have separate
entries
 Understanding an entry,
-where a word has more than one meaning, the most frequent meaning is shown first (1)
-words which have several meanings have ‘guidewords’ (e.g. OPINION) to help you find
the meaning you are looking for
-example sentences show how words are used in typical situations
-each word has a part of speech label (e.g. noun, verb, adj.)
-the symbols A1, A2, B1, B2 show the level of the word. A1 is the lowest level, followed
by the others.
– phonetic transcription. There is a list of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
symbols at the back of each dictionary
-irregular inflections of words are clearly shown (e.g. spoke, spoken)
 Learning more about a word
-cross references show you where you can find related info rmation such as opposites,
pictures, study pages and idioms (See colour picture on page 4)
-collocations are shown in bold type in examples
-some words are used as part of a phrase; this is shown clearly at the start of the
definition
-phrasal verbs come after the entry for the verb in alphabetical order
-some words are used as part of an idiom ; these are shown in coloured type at the end of
the entry
-all definitions use simple words, any difficult word is explained in brackets (=…)

84
 The information in the boxes
-the word partner boxes give students information on words that are often spoken or
written together
-thesaurus boxes show students all the different words which have the same or a similar
meaning (e.g. other ways of saying happy )
-common learner error notes give extra informatio n about words which often cause
problems for learners
 Grammar labels (e.g. nouns C, U; verbs I, T,+ two objects; adj. etc.)
 Usage labels (e.g. informal, formal spoken, literary, humorous etc.)
 UK/US labels (e.g. UK, US)
 Pronunciation (stress mark`)
 Regular inflections (e.g. –y; -ies)
(Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary, Fourth Edition, 2012)
Online dictionaries are nowadays widely used due to their time -saving quality.
Good online dictionaries share information audio -visually and in an active way.
A great option for visually representing words and their meanings is VisuWords or
Lexipedia . Students type in a word and the site populates a mind -mapped image of the
word, its definition a nd related words. This image makes it easy to find connections and
relationships that assist with the meaning, determine the perfect synonyms and better
understand the shades of meaning.
Here are some examples of monolingual dictionary entries (in print and online):

Fig 5: Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English , Pearson Education Ltd

85

Fig 6: Oxford English Dictionary Online

Fig 7 : Longman English Dictionary Online , www.ldoceonline.com

86
CHAPTER IV
Tests and Analysis
Vocabulary Test 1 – ‘Means of Transport”
I. Fill in the blanks with the right letters: (20 points)
1. l – – – y 6. c – – – – – – – – – t
2. h – – – – – – – – r 7. g – – – – e
3. t – – e 8. c – – – – – n
4. c – – w 9. s – – – – – d
5. p – – – – – – – r 10. r – – – – y
II. Find the locations: (16 points)
1. a building where trains stop so that passengers can get on and off
2. the raised place wher e you get on and off
3. a small room on a ship where you can sleep
4. a small building where you keep your car
5. a place where goods are taken on and off ships
6. a building where you get onto planes, buses or ships
7. the flat top part of a ship, that you can walk on
8. a place where people buy train or bus tickets
III. Find the odd word out: (12 points)
1 .driver, captain, steward, crew
2 .trolley -bus, tube, bus, tram
3 .dock, garage, pilot, station
4 .passenger, ticket collector, flight, driver
5 .voyage, cabin, flight, trip
6 .driver, ticket collector, passenger, pilot

87
IV. Put the correct verbs from the following list in the passage below. Add –s or –es
where necessary: take, reach, get on, get off, tram stop, wait for, tram, get to . (24 points)
I always go to school by………..1. It’s quicker and more comfortable. I………….2 the
tram at the ………….3 As soon as it arrives I…………….4 When the tram…………5
the school I……………6My journey by tram…………..7 about forty minutes and I am
so happy that I……………8 school on time.
V. Use the correct prepositions to, off, by, at, for or nothing in the sentences: (18 points)
1. I usually go….school….foot, not….bus.
2. He waited….the train….the railway station.
3. When the train arrived….the platform, he got….
4. As soon as the train reached….the destination, he got….
10 points granted
100 points total

Answer Key
I. 1 lorry, 2 helicopter, 3 tube, 4 crew, 5 passenger, 6 compartment, 7 garage, 8 captain , 9
steward, 10 runway
II. 1 railway station, 2 platform, 3 cabin, 4 garage, 5 dock, 6 terminal, 7 deck, 8 booking
office
III. 1 crew, 2 tube, 3 pilot, 4 flight, 5 cabin, 6 pilot
IV. 1 tram, 2 wait for, 3 tram stop, 4 get on, 5 reaches, 6 get off, 7 takes, 8 get to
V. 1 to, on, by
2 for, at
3 at, on
4 – , off

88
Analysis
The students that were tested were in the 5th D grade. They were provided with 45
minutes which was enough time to solve all the tasks.
The test aimed at the following skills:
-students’ ability to recognize and choose the correct means of transport and proper
locations;
-students’ ability to understand the general sense of a text and fill in the right verb to
render the action required by each sentence;
– students’ ability to use collocations (i.e. prepositions + nouns, verbs).
The results of the test were good. Out of 28 students, only 3 students got less than
50 points. The table below shows the class results:
Number of points Number of students
< 50 3
50-64 p 7
65-84 p 8
85-100 p 10

The average grade of the class is over 80 points, which can be considered a good
result, though obviously further work is compulsory for those students who failed the test
but also for those who got less than 64 points.
I organized extra practice for the students who did not do well, that is , various
consolidation exercises on the vocabulary connected with the topic of ‘transportation’.
The typical problems some of the students encounte red when being tested were
related to filling the gaps with the right verb and adding ‘ –s’ or ‘ –es’ where necessary. On
the other hand, the exercise where everybody did well was the last one in which they
were supposed to fill in the right letters and to f ind the odd word out.

89

Vocabulary Test 2 – ‘Food and Drink ’

I. List the following words expressing food and drink into four groups: (16 points)
(Cherry, eggplant, lettuce, plum, coffee, hot chocolate, juice, coke, apple, cappuccino,
radish, celery, pear, tea, beer, ice tea )
a) cold drinks ……………………………………………………………
b) hot drinks …………………………………………………………….
c) fruit …………………………………………………………………….
d) vegetables ………………………………………………………………
II. Unjumble the words for food and drink: (20 points)
1 pous…………………… 6 pare………………………..
2 lasad………………….. 7 keel………………………..
3 goncac………………… 8 pa se………………………..
4 lomen…………………. 9 bagabec……………………
5 ticirap…………………. 10 nabana…………………….
III Write sentences about each person’s likes and dislikes, tak ing into account the
following: V=Like; VV=love; X=not like; XX=hate. (16 points)

Jessie Anne Denis Grandparents
lemonade VV X V X
doughnuts V V VV V
soup XX XX XX VV
ice tea X VV X XX

IV Write dialogues like in the example for the following pairs of word s: (40 points)
Example: Are cucumbers good to eat in summer? Yes, they are.
1. cherries – autumn 5. lettuce – spring

90
2. spinach – winter 6. quince – summer
3. beans – winter 7. cauliflower – winter
4. green pepper – spring 8. hot peppers – autumn (8 p. Granted, 100 p. Total)

Answer Key
I. Cold drinks: juice, coke, ice tea, beer
Hot drin ks: hot chocolate, cappuccino, tea, coffee
Fruit: cherry, apple, pear, plum
Vegetables: lettuce, radish, celery, eggplant
II 1 soup 6 pear
2 salad 7 leek
3 cognac 8 peas
4 lemon 9 cabbage
5 apricot 10 banana

91
Analysis
The students that were tested were in the 5th C grade . They were provided with 45
minutes to complete the tasks.
The test aimed at testing the following skills:
-students’ ability to group food and drink items under four headings;
-students’ ability to recognize the words for food and drink;
-stude nts’ ability to express likes and dislikes in the Present Tense Simple;
-students’ ability to write dialogues as in the example.
The results of the test were pretty good. Out of 30 students, only 4 students got less
than 50 points. The table belo w shows the class results:
Number of points Number of students
< 50 4
50-64 p 6
65-84 p 10
85-100 p 10

The average grade of the class is about 85 points which can be seen as a good
result, though it is clear that further practice is absolutely necessary.
There was a series of mistakes which occurred, related especially to using correctly
the verb pattern ‘like/dislike + V1 -ing”, to using the interrogative form and short answers
in the Present Tense Simple.

92
Vocabulary Test 3 – ‘Holidays: Places and Activities’

I. Fill in the blanks with the right preposition: (12 points)
1. She’s going to Italy…..plane.
2. My mother and father prefer to live close…..nature.
3. They sta yed…..a camp site.
4. Sam is very fond…..going sailing.
5. My cousin wants to learn…..other countries.
6. They used to stay…..youth hostels.
7. Mother often goes…..concerts.
8. They spend a lot of time…..the countryside.
9. Grandpa isn’t very keen…..music.
10. Let’s sunbathe…..the beach!
11. He stayed…..a cheap hotel.
12. Teenagers like going…..discos and parties.

II Write full sentences about Judy’s, Bella’s, Victor’s and Peter’s holidays : (20 points)
Judy – in the mountains / by train / chale t / hiking and climbing
Bella – in Transylvania / by bus / monastery / historical places
Victor – abroad / by plane / hotel / sightseeing
Peter – in a campsite / by car / tent / sunbathing and swimming

III Make up dialogues like in the e xample, each time finding a reason for not accepting
the invitation : (20 points)
Example: go to the cinema

93
A: Let’s go to the cinema!
B: Oh, no! It’s too late for that. Maybe some other time!
1 go to a pizza restaurant
2 go to a disco
3 have a party
4 have a barbeque
5surf the Internet

IV Describe how you spend your free time when you do not go away. Write no more than
ten lines. (40 points)
(8 points Granted, 100 points Total)

Answer Key
I. 1 by, 2 to, 3 in, 4 of,5 about, 6 at/in, 7 to, 8 in, 9 on, 10 on, 11 in/at, 12 to

94
Analysis
The students that were tested were in the 8th B grade. They were provided with 50
minutes to solve all the tasks.
The test aimed at testing the following skills:
-students’ ability to use the right prepositions in certain contexts;
-students’ ability to write full sentences about some people’s holidays in different
locations, that travelled by different means of transport and did different activities;
-students’ ability to make up dial ogues in which to refuse invitations;
-students’ ability to write about themselves, that is, to describe how they spend their free
time when they are not away.
The results of the test were good. Out of 29 students, only 2 students got less than
50 points. The table below shows the class results:
Number of points Number of students
< 50 2
50-64 p 6
65-84 p 11
85-100 p 10

The average grade of the class is abou t 85 points which can be considered a good
result, t hough obviously further work is compulsory for those students who failed the test
and also for those who got below 64 points.
The typical problems some of the students encountered when they were tested are
as follows:
1) The most common mis take with the Past Simple Tense; s tudents don’t remember the
past form of some irregular verbs in the affirmative and they tend to make them regular

95
(e.g. spend – spended ). The solution is to further practise b y making sentences of their
own.
2) Sometimes s tudents find it difficult to make up dialogues and use words that keep
conversation going. The solution is more ‘role-play’ activities in class .
3) Some students use the past form of the verb (both regular and irregular) with the
negative and interrogative form (didn’t enjoyed; Did the guests left?) instead of did/didn’t
and the inf initive form of the main verb. The solution is to do extra work on the weak
points by practising rephrasing sentences from affirmative to negative and interrogative.
4) In terms of writing techniques, so me students still find difficulty in organizing ideas
into paragraphs (i.e. topic sentence, main body, conclusion) and using linking words. The
solution is firstly extra explanation, then consolidation through reading and practice.
Taking everyth ing into account, extra work meant to revise, consolidate and
enhance vocabulary development is the best technique in the long course of second –
language acquisition.

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CONCLUSION

The current thesis was originally motivated by an interest in the awareness and
instructional practices of teachers in the context of secondary schools, with respect to
vocabulary teaching. The findings have shown that once language teachers are aware of a
wide variety of vocabulary learning strategies, success is due to come along.
With this paper, an attempt was made to review the trends in the area of teaching
vocabulary through various techniques that second language teachers use whe n teaching.
Before presenting the meaning or form of vocabulary items, teachers need to notice the
type of the vocabulary, the students’ level and also the value of the techniques for the
learners.
In other words, there are many factors that may affect their learning, so teachers
need to be aware of these differences when applying their teaching techniques. They can
further provide their students with vocabulary practice, that is, opportunities to encounter
words repeatedly, in more than one cont ext and to use them appropriately.
All things considered, language teachers should aim at helping students become
independent language learners inside and outside the class.

“We think with words, therefore to improve thinking, teach vocabulary! ”
Draper and G. Moeller

97
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. Books and Journals:
1. Alali, F. and Schmitt , N., ‘Teaching Formulaic Sequences’, TESOL, 2012;
2. Austin, T.X., ‘Promoting Vocabulary Development’, Texas Reading Initiative,
Texas Education Agency, Texas, 2000;
3. Brown, Douglas, H., ‘Teaching by Principles – An Interactive Approach to
Language Pedagogy’, Second Edition, Longman, Pearson Education Limited,
2000;
4. Barcroft, J., Sunderman, G. and Schmitt, Norbert, ‘Handbook of Applied
Linguistics’, Abingdon, UK, 2011;
5. Cambrid ge International Dictionary of English , Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK , 1995 ;
6. Coady, J., ‘L2 Vocabulary Acquisition: A Synthesis of Research’, in J. Coady
and T. Huckin (Eds.) ‘Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition’, Cambridge
University Press , Cambridge, UK, 1997;
7. Crystal, David, ‘The Cambridge Encyclopedia of English Language’, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1995;
8. Duppenthaler, Peter, ‘Vocabulary Acquisition: The Research and Its Pedagogical
Implications’, 2008 ;
9. Ginsburg, R.S., ‘A Course in Modern English Lexicology’, Second Edition,
Revised and Enlarged, 1979;
10. Harmer, Jeremy, ‘The Practice of English Language Teaching – New Edition’ ,
Longman, Pearson Education Limited, 1991;
11. Harmer, Jeremy, ‘How to Teach English?’, Longman, Pearso n Education Limited,
1998;
12. Harmer, Jeremy, ‘The Practice of English Language Teaching – Third Edition’’,
Longman, Pearson Education Limited, 2001;
13. Johnson, Drew and Cynthia, ‘Why Teach vocabulary?’, Anaxos, Inc. ;
14. Kuznetsova, V.S., ‘Notes on English Lexico logy’, K ,1968;
15. Levițchi, Leon, D., ’A Course in Lexicology’, Contemporary Literature Press,
București, 2013;

98
16. Lewis, Michael, ‚The Lexical Approach: The State of ELT and a Way Forward’,
Holse, UK: Language Teaching Publications, 1993;
17. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Longman, Pearson Education
Limited, 1995 ;
18. McCarthy, Michael and O’Dell, Felicity, ’English Vocabulary in Use – units of
vocabulary reference and practice, self -study and classroom use’, Cambridge
University P ress, 1999;
19. Merriam Webste r’s Learner’s Dictionary, 1828 ;
20. Nation, Paul, ‘Learning Vocabulary in Another Language’ , Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK, 2001;
21. Nattinger, James, R., ’ 1998;
22. Plag, Ingo, ’Word -formation in English’, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK, 2007;
23. Richards, Jack, C and Rodgers, Theodore, S., ‘Approaches and Methods in
Language Teaching’, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1986;
24. Seymour, David and Popova, Maria, ‘700 Classroom Activities’, Macmillan
Heinemann Education , 2003;
25. Schmitt, Norbert, ‘An Introduction to Applied Linguistics’, Second Edition,
Hodder Education, Routledge, New York, 2010;
26. Schmitt, Norbert, ‘Vocabulary in Language Teaching’, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, UK, 2000;
27. Scrivener, Jim, ‘Learning Teaching’, Macmi llan Heinemann Education, 1994;
28. Stahl, Steven, ‘Vocabulary Development’, Cambridge, UK, Brookline Books,
1999;
29. Stahl, S teven, ‘Teaching Word Meanings’, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Publishers , 2005;
30. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, Edited by T.F. Hoad,
1996;
31. Ur, Penny, ‘A Course in Language Teaching – Practice and Theory’, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1991;
32. Wilkins, D. A., ‘Linguistics in Language Teaching’, E. Arnold, 1972.

99

II. Electronic Resources :
1. http://www.academiaedu.ro
2. http://epsbooks.com
3. http://www.everythingesl.net/inservices/graphic_organizers.php
4. https://www.flocabulary.com/vocabulary -mini-games/
5. http://www.freerice.com
6. http://researchgate.net
7. http://tesol.org/docs
8. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pyfkcUbhbJs ).

100
APPENDICES

Lesson Plan 1

Teacher : Savulescu Ionela Victorita
School : Matei Basarab, Pitesti
Date :
Grade : 7th D (the 5th year of study)
Level: intermediate
Textbook : Pathway to English, English Scrapbook
Previous lesson : Festivals around the world
New lesson: Molly’s Wheelbarrow
Time : 50’
Vocabulary : wheelbarro w, land, sea, boat, hovercraft, get in, get on, catch, miss ;
Classroom management : student -centered
Types of interaction : teacher -student, student -teacher, student -student
Skills covered : speaking, writing, read ing;
Aids : board, activity files, pictures
Method: communicative
Types of activity : whole class, pair -work, individual work
Strategies : dialogues, exercise (question -answer, fill -in)
Aim: to introduce students into the topic of means of transport
Subsidiary aim : to revise Present Perfect structures

101
Stages of the lesson
1. Homework check -up(5’)
Aims: To check if students can look for specific information in a text
Procedure: Ss read the information on top festivals. T checks the answers
2. Warm -up(3’)
Aims: To create a relaxed atmosphere
Procedure: Ss are given worksheets containing riddles in the form of questions and
answers, which they have to match.
Riddles
1. Why does the invisible boy look in the mirror?
2. Why do we buy clothes?
3. What does the big chimney say to the little chimney?
4. What does the boy squirrel say to the girl squirrel?
5. What does the big watch hand say to the little watch hand?

a. Don’t go away. I’ll be back in an hour.
b. To see that he’s not there.
c. I’m nuts about you.
d. Because we can’t get them free.
e. You are too young to smoke.
1 2 3 4 5

3. Speaking, reading(10’)
Aim: To revise means of transport

102
Procedure: Ss are asked to name the means of transport they see in the pictures from the
textbook and then divide them in three categories (on land, on water, in the air) which
they are going to write on the board.
Then T gives them hand -outs with other means of transport which they also have to write
in the right column.
4. Presentation(10’)
Aim: To introduce get in/out of, get on/off, catch/miss in connection with the means of
transport
T asks students to look at the picture in ex 1a and answer the question :”What is the man
doing?”, “ And at the end of the journey?” T writes the verbs and the means of transport
which can be used with them (get on/off the plane/train/bus).Then T. elicits catch and
miss by asking:”What happens if you are at the station on time. Do you catch or miss the
train?”
5. Accurate reproduction(5’)
Aim: To give controlled practice of expressions with tr ansport
Procedure: Ss work in pairs to fill in the sentences in ex2b, after they read the expressions
in the box.
6. Speaking and writing(10’)
Aim: to revise by + means of transport
to practice ”how long does it take?”
Procedure: Ss work in pairs, ask and answer the questions write down the answers and
report to the class (It takes Dan two minutes to get to the station.)
7. Speaking and writing(5’)
Aim: To enable students to use words connected to the topic of the lesson
Procedure: T writes some phrase s on the board and Ss work in pairs, asking questions
using Present Perfect structures:
drive a car
miss a train
sit in a traffic jam for hours

103
cycle in the rain
be on an airplane
Have you ever driven a car?
8. Issuing homework (2’)
Aim: To reinforce the new structures
Procedure: Ss must write about means of transport in the past.

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Lesson Plan 2

Teacher : Savulescu Ionela Victorita
School : Matei Basarab, Pitesti
Date :
Grade : 5th C (3rd year of study)
Level : pre-intermediate
Textbook : Pathway to English, English Agenda
Previous lesson : Vocabulary and grammar roundup
New lesson: Which Do You Prefer ?
Vocabulary : basketball, hockey, volleyball, quiz, chess, boring, difficult, expensive
Time : 50’
Classroom management : student -centered
Types of interaction : teacher -student, student -student, student -teacher
Skills : speaking, writing, listening
Audio -visual aids : pictures, worksheets, board, tape
Method: communicative
Types of activity : whole class, individual work, pair -work
Strategies : game, conv ersation exercise
Aim: to introduce Ss into the topic of sports and games
To enable Ss to express preferences and give reasons
Evaluation : continuous, through observation and analysis of answers

105
Stages of the lesson
1. Homework check -up(5’)
Aim: to check the Ss’ homework
Procedure: Ss had a cloze as their homework. They read the text, say the missing words.
T corrects them.
2. Warm -up(5’)
Aim: to stir the Ss’ interest
to anticipate the topic of the lesson
Procedure: T gives students worksheets, asks them to complete the puzzle and find the
words
1. People often add ……….. and pepper to food. 6. They come from chickens.
2. An ……………. a day keeps the doctor away. 7. People often eat it with butter.
3. A red vegetable. 8. It is white and you drink it.
4. Chinese love this food. 9. You use hot….. when you make
coffee.
5. You can drink it with milk or not.
3. Lead -in (10’)
1 s a l t
2 a p p l e
t o m a t o
4 r i c e
5 t e a
6 e g g s
7 b r e a d
8 m i l k
9 w a t e r

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Aim: to introduce the students into the topic of the new lesson
To activate the new vocabulary
Procedure: Ss are asked to match the pictures in ex 1a to the sports and games. Then they
come to the board and write them in two columns. Next the teacher gives them some
worksheets with pictures of different sports whose name they have to write down. They
are encouraged to give their own examples including extreme sports like bungee -jumping
or white water -rafting, and other games than the ones m entioned in the textbook.
Children’s games :
hopscotch
leapfrog
swing
see-saw
roundabout
slide
other games:
noughts and crosses
draughts
backgammon
3. Listening(10’)
Aim: to listen for specific information
Procedure: T plays the tape mentioning that Liz, Kate and Steve are talking about the
sports they prefer. Students work in pairs and after they listen to the conversation they fill
in the grid with the sport they prefer and why. T asks them a question first to set an
example, and then they ask one another.
Which is Steve’s favourite sport?
4. Immediate creativity: speaking and writing(15’)
Aim: to give students controlled practice in the form of the new language. Teacher tells
Ss to look at ex4 and read the examples of reasons for which people prefer sports and

107
games. After mak ing sure the students understand the meaning of the words, Teacher
asks them to work in pairs and make up dialogues, agreeing or disagreeing with their
peers’ preferences.
Which sport do you prefer?
I like tennis because………
I agree/I think y ou’re wrong
5. Issuing homework(5’)
Aim: to develop Ss’ ability to talk about sports
Procedure: T writes a list of sports on the board and asks students to write play or go in
front of them and then asks them to find a piece of equipment matching these sports .
Ex: cricket -cricket bat
Swimming
Cycling
Table tennis
Golf
Canoeing
Skiing
Darts

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Lesson Plan 3
Teacher : Savulescu Ionela Victorita
School :”Matei Basarab”, Pitesti
Date :
Grade : 7thA (the 5th year of study)
Level: intermediate
Textbook : Pathway to English, English Scrapbook
Previous lesson : The Seven Wonders of the World
New lesson: Henry VIII
Time : 50’
Vocabulary : court, heir, reign, gain, defeated, long for, to get tired of
Classroom management : student -centered
Types of interaction : teacher -student, student -teacher
Skills covered : speaking, reading, listening ,
Aids : boar d, activity files, C.D., power -point presentation
Method: communicative
Types of activity : whole class, individual work
Strategies : dialogues, exercise, conversation
Aim: to improve reading skills
to present students a historical figure of British history
to present and practise new vocabulary

109
Stages of the lesson
1. Homework check -up(2’)
Aims : to check if students can look for specific information in the form of relative
clauses
Procedure : Ss had to look for extra information about the seven wonders and make
sentences using relative clauses.
2. Warm -up(3’)
Aims : to create a relaxed atmosphere
Procedure : Ss are given slips of paper with riddles in the form of questions and ans wers,
which they have to match. One student reads the questions and the others find the right
answers. Teacher explains if the meaning is not clear to the students: What does “nuts
about you” mean? It means “madly in love with you”.
Interaction : S-S
Skill : speaking
Riddles
1. Why does the invisible boy look in the mirror?
2. Why do we buy clothes?
3. What does the big chimney say to the little chimney?
4. What does the boy squirrel say to the girl squirrel?
5. What does the big watch hand say to the little watch hand?

a. Don’t go away. I’ll be back in an hour.
b. To see that he’s not there.

110
c. I’m nuts about you.
d. Because we can’t get them free.
e. You are too young to smoke.
3. Lead in (5’)
Aims : to introduce the topic
Procedure : Teacher asks students if they think that being a king is more difficult than
being an ordinary person. Students are asked to imagine they can be kings (or queens) for
one day and rule a country: What decisions would they make? Teacher writes on the
board:
“If I were a king I would……………………………………………” and she asks students to work
in pairs and finish the sentence as they see fit.
Interaction: T-S, S-S
Skill: writing, speaking
4. Listening task (10’)
Aim: to improve listening and speaking skills
Procedure : Teacher explains they are going to listen to a text about Henry VIII who got
married six times. Teacher asks students about the reasons for which people get married.
She presents students with a quotatio n from Prince Philip about marriage and asks them
to comment:
„When a man opens a car door for his wife, it's either a new car or a new wife. ”
Then she plays the tape. Students listen carefully for the pronunciation of the new words.
Skills : speaking, listening
Interaction : S-T, T-S

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5. Reading (20’)
Aim: to read for specific information
Skills : reading
Interaction : T-S
Step 1
Procedure : Students read the paragraphs. Teacher writes the new words on the board and
supplies the definitions.
Heir: heir to the throne -the next king or queen; the one who receives the property
when another person dies; heiress (fem); to inherit, inheritance
To maintain: to keep, to make something stay the same ;
Step 2
Procedure : Students are shown a power -point presentation of Henry VIII, in which other
facts about the British monarch and his wives are included. After viewing the
presentation students come to the board to fill in a table :
Wives What she was like How the marriage ended

112
6. Vocabulary practice (8’)
Aim: To enable students to use the new language connected to the topic of the lesson
Procedure : Students solve the two exercises on their activity files. The first exercise uses
verbs with prepositions and the second is a fill -in exercise where students are required to
complete with words from the text.
Interaction : S-T
Skill: writing
A. Replace the words in italics with a suitable verb phrase from the text Henry VIII.
To long for, to accuse of, to agree to, to look after, to get tired of
1. She didn’t want to wait for you anymore and she left.
2. The prisoners wanted very much to see the blue sky again.
3. Miriam loves taking care of plants.
4. He said:”yes” to all my demands.
5. He’s on trial for murder.
B. Fill in with one word from the text:
1. After giving birth, Jane fell………………. and died.
2. What Henry wanted the most was an…………… to the throne of England.
3. James IV, the Scottish king was killed in a ………………………..
4. A lot of money was spent on unnecessary…………………………..
5. Henry felt……………………….. when Jane Seymour died.

113
7. Issuing homework(2’)
Aim: to reinforce the new structures
Procedure : Ss must find information about Queen Elizabeth I, who was Henry’s
daughter and whose reign was also known as the Elizabethan era
Activity file
A: Replace the words in italics with the following:
to long for, to accuse of, to agree to, to look after, to get tired of
1. She didn’t want to wait for you anymore and she left.
2. The prisoners wanted very much to see the blue sky again.
3. Miriam loves taking care of plants.
4 .He said:”yes” to all my demands.
5. He’s on trial for murder.
B. Fill in with one word from the text:
1. After giving birth, Jane fell………………. And died.
2. What Henry wanted the most was an…………… to the throne of England.
3. James IV, the Scottish king, was killed in a ………………………..
4. A lot of money was spent on unnecessary………………… ………..
5. Henry felt……………………….. when Jane Seymour died.

114
Lesson Plan 4
Teacher: Savulescu Ionela Victorita
School: Matei Basarab, Pitesti
Date:
Grade: 7th C (5th year of study)
Level: intermediate
Textbook: English Scrapbook
New lesson: He Said He Loved Trains
Topic: Reported S peech
Aim: to give students practice in the use of reported speech
to reinforce the newly acquired structure
Types of interaction: student -teacher; student -student; teacher -student
Skills covered: speaking, reading, writing ;
Aids: board, textbook, handouts,
Strategies: exercises (gap-filling, match), conversation
Types of activity: whole class, pair-work
Possible problems:
-students may find the changes from Direct to Indirect speech too difficult. The
teacher will revise the most important aspects by means of a fill in exercise
-students may be less active due to the difficulty of the structure. The teache r will
encourage them using pair -work

Stages of the lesson
1. Warm -up(5’)
Aim: to revise the newly acquired structures
to create willingness to participate in the new lesson

115
Procedure : Teacher tells students to ask their desk -mates questions and then report back
to the class the answers.
EX: What’s your favourite programme?
He/she said his/her favourite programme was……
Skill : speaking
Interaction : Student -student
2. Activity 1 (10’)
Aim: to revise reported speech
Procedure : Teacher writes a fill in exercise on the board and asks students to fill it in:
Indirect speech is when we…………………….
From Direct to Indirect speech we change……………………
An Indirect speech statement is introduced by…………………..
Adverbs that change from Direct to Indirect speech are……….
Interaction : Student -teacher
Skill : speaking, writing
3. Activity 2 (10’)
Aim: to identify the language structures
Procedure : Teacher refers stu dents to their textbook to find the reported information
corresponding to the speaker’s actual words and write the pairs on the board.
Interaction : Student -teacher
Skill : speaking, writing
Teaching aid : textbook, board
4. Activity 3 (10’)
Procedure : Students are given slips of paper and work in pairs. They read the Dir ect
Speech sentences aloud and their peers have to choose the correct Indirect Speech
sentence which fits it.
“I’m ha ving a party tonight” -She said that she wa s having a party that night.

116
“I have a party t omorrow.” – I said I had a party the following day
“I will have a party next week.” He told us he would have a party the following week.
“I don’t usually have parties.” She confessed she didn’t usually have parties.
Interaction : student -student; student -teacher
Skill : speaking, writing
Teaching aid : hand -outs
5. Activity 4 (10’)
Procedure : Teacher gives students hand -outs containing a text and a comprehension
exercise. Then they are required to write on the board the direct statements.
Interaction : student -teacher
Skill : writing, reading
Teaching aid : board, hand -outs
6. Assignment (5’)
Teacher asks students to report some of the things their parents tell them every day.

117
Teaching Vocabulary – Lesson sequence
The ‘you tube’ video used for the lesson is:
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pyfkcUbhbJs ).
This video features vocabulary concerning the topic “Healthy Lifestyle”
Overall task objective s / lesson objectives: a) Learn new vocabulary
5 Associate the word with the picture
Steps Objectives Duration Class activities and interactions to achieve the
objectives
Lead in Warm –up
and
introduce
the topic of
the day. 10 min.
 Teacher asks Ss to make a dialogue and
ask each other about their health: “How are
you?” How do you fell today?” Are you
OK? What about (name)?
 Students work in pairs.
Being
healthy Learning
new
vocabulary
and practice
20 min Activty1.
Teacher says: “Now you are going to watch a
video about “Health”. T writes the title on the Bb
and plays the film.
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pyfkcUbhbJs ).
Ss watch the movie
T asks Ss to tell any word they can remember
from t he presentation
Activity 2:
T plays the movie step by step and the Ss repeat
each word and write it in the notebooks
Activity 3 Pair work
T. asks Ss to mime a word and his partner to
guess it.
Writing
focus Associate
the word
with the
picture. 10 min Activity 4
 Teacher plays the movie step by step again
with stops before each caption and Ss have
to write the word after listening. T pays the
film and Ss check their spelling with the
caption.
Activate Practising
the new
words 5 min  Handout: Ss have to mach pictures with
words.
 T. suggests the use of the link in their
homework.
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pyfkcUbhbJs ).

118
Vocabulary Test 1
TESTING READING
Level : A1
Read the text below and complete the following tasks .
“Healthy eating really does cost more. That’s what University of Washington researchers
found when they compared the prices of 370 foods sold. Calo rie for calorie, junk foods
not only cost less than fruits and vegetables, but junk food prices also are less likely to
rise as a result of inflation. The scientists took an unusual approach. Although fruits and
vegetables are rich in nutrients , they also contain relatively few calories. Foods with
high-energy density : which pack the most calories per gram, included candy, pastries,
baked goods and snacks; t he survey found that higher -calorie, energy -dense are the better
bargain for shoppers. It also showed that low -calorie foods were more likely to increase
price over the two -year st udy period. High calorie foods remained a relative bargain,
dropping in price . The data show that it is easier for low -income people to sustain
themselves on junk food rather than fruits and vegetables. However, most people eat a
mix of foods. The average American spends about 7$ a day on food, although low –
income people spend about 4$.But it is easier to overeat junk food, both because it tastes
good and because eaters often must consume a greater volume in order to feel satisfied”.
1. Who/What do the wo rds in bold refer to ?
2. Give the antonyms of the following words: 1.less, 2.rich, 3.high, 4.increase, 5.easier
3. Answer the question: Why are high -calorie foods considered a bargain?

Answer Key :
1. they = fruits and vegetables , which = foods with high e nergy density , it = junk
food
2. 1.more, 2.poor, 3.low, 4.decrease, 5.harder
3. Because they continue to drop in price.
(10 point s each correct answer, 1 0 point s granted , 100 points total )

119
Vocabulary Test 2
TESTI NG READING
Level A2
Read the text and answer the following questions:
1. Which is a popular job for young boys?
2. What is the value of a part -time job besides the chance to make money?
3. What do young people learn on their part -time job besides responsibility and
respect for others?

“Other part -time jobs which are popular especially among young boys is managing a
paper route or mo wing the lawns of people in one’s neighbourhood. These jobs also
require a sense of maturity and responsibility and can be a source of good income for a
high school student . Young boys who run paper routes are required to get up early in the
morning to deliver the daily news regardless of the weather. This job has no holidays and
requires the newspaper to be delivered every day without exception. In America there are
no news paper holidays. If they choose to mow lawns, part of the job may require that
they also periodically rid it of weeds and occasionally re -seed are as which they have been
burned by the sun or thinned out by wear. These jobs, dependent on the weather, require
stamina, diligence and discipline. In America part -time jobs for high school students are
often seen as an opportunity to teach young people about work responsibility and respect
for others. The young people learn how to become part of the adult world and to share in
the making of society.”

Answer Key :
1. Popular jobs for young boys are managing a paper route or mo wing the lawns in
their neighbou rhood.
2. The part -time jobs are valuable because they help young people become work
responsible and mature. They also learn the respect for others.
3. On their part -time jobs, young people learn how to become part of the adult world
and to share responsibility in the making of society.
(30 points each correct answer, 1 0 point s granted , 100 points total )

120
Vocabulary Test 3
I. Fill in the right words connected with physical appearance: (30 points)
I am ……….1, not short. People say I am quite well -built, but I think I am too…….2 . My
face is round, not………..3, or oval, or broad, or na rrow. I’ve got a ………..4 mouth like
a ripe strawberry and a ……………5, not a big nose. My eyes are……………6 like the
sea water and my eyelashes are quite……………..7 not short like my sister’s. I’ve
got………… 8 ………… 9 hair like the fairies in the fairy tales and I am in
my………….10, as I am twenty -one years old.
II. Look at the description below. Write one of your own, changing the words which do
not fit to your physical appearance: (20 points)
My name is James. I am short and plump . I’ve got a broad face and a wide mouth. My
nose is long and straight and my eyebro ws are bushy . I’ve got a square chin and crew –
cut hair. I’m in my thirties .
III. Give the opposites and then fill in the blanks : (20 points)
I’m quite tall and………..1. thin. I’ve got a ………….2. broad ………..3. wrinkled face
and a ………….4. big nose. My eyebrows are ………….5. thick and my hair is
…………6 .long and………….7. curly. I am not very………..8. old, no t
very…………9. young . People like me as they consider me …………..10. bad-looking .
IV Describe your desk -mate physically , as seen in the texts above: (20 points)
10 points Granted
Total: 100 points
Answer Key
I: 1.tall; 2.fat; 3.square; 4.full; 5.small; 6.blue; 7.long; 8.long; 9.fair; 10.early twenties.
III: 1.fat; 2.narrow; 3.smooth; 4.small; 5.thin; 6.short; 7. straight; 8.young; 9.old;
10.good -looking