International Journal of [605964]

Applied intercultural communication

Introduction

The world we live is becoming a global village…

Chapter 1

1.1
​
Intercultural communication competence: a precondition of the contemporary individual

(cauti
3-4
defini
ț
ii
date
de
mai
multi
autori
la
ce
inseamna
​
Intercultural
communication

competence
​
,
le
aranjezi
cronologic
si
spui,
tot
conform
autorilor
pe
care
ii
cite
ș
ti,
care
sunt

tendintele
actuale
privind
comunicarea
interculturala
si
de
ce
oamenii
secolului
21
trebuie
sa
se

adapteze – 4 pagini)

In
this
chapter,
I
would
like
to
introduce
the
widely
used
notion
of
intercultural
communication

and
its
defining
characteristics
in
the
field
of
translation
and
social
sciences,
not
without

shedding
light
upon
the
facts
for
which
it
has
become
crucial
to
each
of
us
to
have
some
degree

of intercultural communication competence.

Intercultural
communication
has
been
discussed
and
defined
thoroughly
in
plenty
of
books
and

papers.
From
these
ones,
I
gathered
the
ones
that
make
the
most
of
sense
in
our
field
of
work
and

that give a more complex definition, rather than a dictionary explication.

Intercultural
communication
or
communication
between
individuals
coming
from
different

cultural
backgrounds
has
always
occupied
an
important
role
in
the
precondition
of
human

coexistence
on
Earth.
The
term
​
intercultural
​
is
preferred
over
the
largely
term
​
cross-cultural

because
it
is
linked
to
language
use
such
as
“interdisciplinary”,
that
is
cooperation
between

people
with
different
scientific
backgrounds.
Perhaps
the
term
also
has
somewhat
fewer

connotations
than
​
cross-cultural
​
.
It
is
not
cultures
that
communicate,
but
people
(and
why
not

communities)
with
different
cultural
backgrounds
that
do.
In
general,
the
term
“cross-cultural”
is

probably best used for comparisons between cultures (”cross-cultural comparison”).

1

Intercultural
communication
can
also
be
described
as
the
sending
and
receiving
of
messages

across
languages
and
cultures.
It
is
also
a
mediated
understanding
of
meaning
in
human

experiences
across
social
systems
and
societies.
When
we
refer
of
other
cultures,
we
don’t
mean

1

​
(Hall, Edward T. &amp ; Hall, Mildred R. (1990). Understanding cultural differences.

Yarmouth, London: Intercultural Press.

only
those
who
talk
in
a
language
that
is
different
from
ours
or
who
live
in
a
another
country
or

state,
but
we
also
refer
to
those
who
live
in
the
same
city,
neighbourhood
and
maybe
same
flat,

but
who
do
not
share
the
same
values
in
social
groups.
Let’s
take
as
an
example
a
16-year-old

adolescent,
who
does
not
typically
communicate
as
an
86-year-old
senior
man.
The
fact
that
they

were
born
and
raised
in
the
same
neighborhood
(either
in
the
city
or
in
a
rural
area),
doesn’t

imply
that
they
will
find
the
same
connotation
in
their
speeches.
On
the
contrary,
their

conversation
could
be
just
as
“intercultural”
as
that
of
two
people
who
come
from
opposite

corners of the globe because they come from two subcultures.

Let
us
more
closely
analyse
the
concepts
that
can
be
found
in
the
expression
​
intercultural

communication.
​
One
of
them
is
culture
which
has
been
analysed
in
several
different
ways
by

different
researchers.
It
will
be
used
here
in
the
following
way.
The
term
“culture”
refers
to:
​
The

ever-changing
values,
traditions,
social
and
political
relationships,
and
worldview
created
and

shared
by
a
group
of
people
bound
together
by
a
combination
of
factors
(which
can
include
a

common
history,
geographic
location,
language,
social
class,
and/or
religion).
​
That
the
members

of
a
group
have
two
legs
is
thus
not
a
cultural
characteristic
but
a
natural
one,
while
a
special
but

common way of walking would probably be cultural.

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND RELATED TERMS

Intercultural
communication
is
a
symbolic,
interpretive,
transactional,
contextual
process

whereby
people
from
different
cultures
negotiate,
at
varying
levels
of
awareness,
shared

meanings.
What
distinguishes
intercultural
communication
from
other
types
of
communication
is

that
we
are
interacting
with
people
from
different
cultures—people
perceived
as
“different
from

us”
(Gudykunst
&
Nishida,
1989).
This
perceived
cultural
variability
and
diversity
might
include

differences
in
communication
and
social
style,
worldview,
customs,
traditions,
norms,
rules,

roles,
and
expectations.
It
is
this
medley
of
people
from
diverse
cultures
that
prompts
our
study

and
requires
international
business
to
adjust,
accommodate,
and
appeal
to
commonality—to

exercise cultural sensitivity and employ intercultural coping skills.

The
approaches
to
culture
and
conceptual
taxonomies
presented
here
provide
frames
of
reference

that
allow
us
to
use
culture-specific
knowledge
to
improve
our
intercultural
awareness
and

competence.
As
you
study
these
approaches
to
cultural
patterns,
we
encourage
you
to
keep
in

mind
that
individual
members
of
a
culture
may
vary
greatly
from
the
pattern
that
is
typical
of

that
culture.
Martin
and
Nakayama
(2001)
note
that
an
underlying
problem
with
cultural

taxonomies
is
the
tendency
to
“essentialize”
people.
In
other
words,
“people
tend
to
assume
that

a
particular
group
characteristic
is
the
essential
characteristic
of
given
group
members
at
all

times
and
in
all
contexts…
this
ignores
the
heterogeneity
within
any
population
.
.
.
[or]
the

contexts when interacting” (p. 36). (The concept of intercultural)

Hall’s Low- and High-Context Cultures

Hofstede’s Dimensions of Cultural Variability

Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Value Orientation

Parsons’s Pattern Variables

1.2 The inter- and transdisciplinary dimension of
​
intercultural competence

(legătură strânsă intre comunicarea interculturala, antropologie, studii culturale, lingvistica si

traductologie – 3 pagini)

The birth of theoretical reflections about intercultural communication is controversial.

Literature is divided between who think that it should coincide with the United States’

statement in the global context, on the contrary who think we should refer to the

studies of the Chicago School, which although not analyze dynamics of intercultural

communication processes, promote accurate reflections about diversity and

relationship among individuals from different cultural backgrounds. In the first case,

Roger and Steinfatt are among the scholars who most support the idea that the first

analysis about intercultural communication can be attributed to the Foreign Service

Institute, which – after the Second World War – prepared materials and lectures on

different cultural forms and different kinds of communication to teach U.S. diplomats

how to relate with citizens of nations to which they were assigned14. Many other

experts believe in the importance of post-colonial era, which has allowed to consider

a number of fundamental issues. However, as mentioned, the Chicago School for

many remains the first theoretical reference. Authors such as William Thomas, Floran

Znaniecki, Robert E. Park, Georg Simmel have addressed issues such as the theory

of marginal man, social distance and ethnocentrism: all fundamental analysis for the

subsequent study relating to intercultural communication. Anyhow, there is no doubt

that more concrete attention to the discipline occurred in the first half of the last

century. The approval of the Foreign Service Act (1946) and then the establishment

of the Foreign Service Institute (FSI) in the United States have made possible to have

the first analysis proposed by linguists and anthropologists, who pay attention also to

communication and macro-cultural forms of each countries. Among anthropologists

contacted by the FSI there is E.T. Hall, who proposed a new vision, which aims to give

relief to micro-cultural aspects of society. He is interested in a particular non-verbal

communication of individuals, such as tone of voice, gestures, posture and proxemics.

In other words, he applies linguistic relativity to non-verbal communication and thus

defines a set of concepts and categories essential for those who want to think about

theories and practices of intercultural communication.

However, it is true that an academic discipline institutionalizes its birth when a

University opens courses or when someone writes interesting books. Well, in 1966

opened the first course of intercultural communication at the University of Pittsburg

and a few years later two major studies were published: American Cultural Patterns.

A Cross-Cultural Perspective of E.C. Stewart16 and Intercultural Communication: A

Reader by L. Samovar and R. Porter17, surveys that actually certify the autonomy of

the discipline.

The conceptual stages and issues that lead to intercultural communication definition

can be summarized in five key moments. As it turns out, at the beginning intercultural

communication rests on a practical view: to prepare U.S. diplomats in their work. This

approach is still very important to all intercultural communication scholars. A second

decisive moment is the one devoted to the attention given to interpersonal relationships,

followed by the most important study of Hall, his book The Silent Language, which

places the basics of the discipline through an interdisciplinary approach, involving:

linguistics, anthropology, psychology and communication (only later it will be clear the

importance of including the sociological dimension). Another important issue was the

choice of giving relief to non-verbal communication, recognizing that it is through the

knowledge of everything that is communicated outside of words that you can reduce

misunderstandings between people from different backgrounds. Finally, it is given a

central role to experience: in fact, it is not possible acquire practical and effective skills

only
through
theory,
on
the
contrary
it
is
necessary
also
practice.
The
conceptual
stages
and

issues
that
lead
to
intercultural
communication
definition
can
be
summarized
in
five
key

moments.
As
it
turns
out,
at
the
beginning
intercultural
communication
rests
on
a
practical
view:

to
prepare
U.S.
diplomats
in
their
work.
This
approach
is
still
very
important
to
all
intercultural

communication scholars. A second

decisive moment is the one devoted to the attention given to interpersonal relationships,

followed by the most important study of Hall, his book The Silent Language, which

places the basics of the discipline through an interdisciplinary approach, involving:

linguistics, anthropology, psychology and communication (only later it will be clear the

importance of including the sociological dimension). Another important issue was the

choice of giving relief to non-verbal communication, recognizing that it is through the

knowledge of everything that is communicated outside of words that you can reduce

misunderstandings between people from different backgrounds. Finally, it is given a

central role to experience: in fact, it is not possible acquire practical and effective skills

only through theory, on the contrary it is necessary also practice.

Scannavini
K.,
​
The
necessity
of
Intercultural
Communication
for
a
peaceful
world,
​
University

“La Sapienza”, Rome, Italy

The
study
of
intercultural
communication
wouldn’t
be
sufficient
without
the
correlation
between

it
and
the
adjacent
social
sciences,
such
as
anthropology,
cultural
studies,
linguistics
and

traductology.

Let
us
start
by
stating
the
obvious
link
between
the
study
of
anthropology
and
intercultural

communication:
the
study
of
humans
and
human
communication
in
different
social
groups
from

the
beginning
to
the
present.
The
subject
of
intercultural
communication
tries
to
comprehend

how
people
from
different
cultural
backgrounds
behave,
communicate
and
interact
with
their

surroundings.
On
the
other
side,
the
role
of
an
anthropologist
in
the
occupational
world
is
found

in
the
bridging
between
different
societies,
namely
transfer
of
expertise,
knowledge
and
services

between different cultures.

 
O n e
o f
t h e
r o l e s
o f
a n
a p p l i e d
a n t hr o p o l o g i s t
i n
t he
o c c u p a t i o n a l
w o r l d
e x i s t s
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
i n
t h e
b r o k e r a g e
b e t w e e n
d i f f e r e nt
s o c i e t i e s .
T h i s
i n v o l v e s
s o m e
t y p e
o f
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
t r a n s f e r
o f
k n o w l e d g e ,
e x p e r t i s e ,
o r
s e r v i c e
b e t w e e n
d i s t i n c t
c u l t u r e s
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
( C h a m b e r s
1 9 8 5 :
2 6 ) .
F u r t he r m o r e ,
t he
v i e w
“ f r o m
t h e
g r o u n d
u p ”
i s
a n
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
i m p o r t a n t
a n d
c r i t i c a l
c o nt r i b u t i o n
t o
t he
u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f
t h e
e f f e c t s
o f
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
p u b l i c
d e c i s i o n s
( C h a m b e r s
1 9 8 5 :
2 8 ) .
C h a m b e r s
s p e c i f i e s
i n
h i s
b o o k
“ A p p l i e d
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
A n t h r o p o l o g y –
A
p r a c t i c a l
g u i d e ”
( 1 9 8 5 )
f i v e
s e p a r a t e
r o l e s
o f
a p p l i e d
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s
w i t h i n
c u l t u r a l
b r o k e r a g e .
T he r e
w o u l d ,
f i r s t l y ,
b e
o n e
a s
a
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ,
w h o s e
p u r p o s e
i t
i s
t o
a c c o u nt
o r
t e s t i f y
o n
b e h a l f
o f
t h e
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
p e o p l e
t h e y
s t u d i e d .
A no t he r
o n e
w o u l d
b e
a s
a
f a c i l i t a t o r ,
w h i c h
i n c l u d e s
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
a c t i v i t i e s
d i r e c t e d
t o w a r d s
c a u s i ng
a
m a t t e r
i n
a
r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n
t w o
o r
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
m o r e
g r o u p s
o f
p e o p l e .
I t
c a n
f u r t h e r
b e
d i v i d e d
i nt o
a
“ t o p – d o w n – a p p r o a c h ”
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
s u c h
a s
a
f i e l d – s i t u a t e d
c h a n g e
a g e nt
o r
a
“ b o t t o m – u p – a p p r o a c h ”
l i k e
a c t i o n
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
a n t h r o p o l o g y .
A
f u rt h e r
f u n c t i o n
w o u l d
b e
a s
a n
i n f o r m a n t
w h o
t r a n s f e r s
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
k n o w l e d g e
a b o u t
o n e
s e c t o r
o f
s o c i e t y
t o
a n o t h e r
o n e .
T h e
a n a l y s t ’ s
r o l e
i s
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
b a s e d
u p o n
c o n s u l t a t i o n,
w h e r e
t he
a n t hr o p o l o g i s t
i s
a n
e x p e r t ,
w h o
i s
c a l l e d
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
u p o n
t o
r e s p o n d
t o
s p e c i f i c
n e e d s
f o r
i nf o r m a t i o n
o r
i n s i g h t .
H e
i s
a n
a c t i v e
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
c o n t r i b u t o r
i n
t h e
f o r m u l a t i o n
a nd
i nv e s t i g a t i o n
o f
a p p l i e d
r e s e a r c h
a c t i v i t i e s .
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
T h e
l a s t
t a s k
i s
o n e
a s
m e d i a t o r .
T h e
i n t e nt i o n
i s
t hu s
t o
t r e a t
e a c h
f a c t i o n
a s
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
a n
e q u a l
p a r t n e r
a n d
p a r t i c i p a nt
i n
o b t a i ni n g
s o l u t i o n s
f r o m
c o m p o u n d
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
s o c i a l
p r o b l e m s .
I t
i s
a r g u e d ,
t ha t
“ t h e
r o l e
o f
t h e
m e d i a t o r
i s
c o m p a t i b l e
w i t h
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
t h e
p e r s p e c t i v e
o f
t he
a n t hr o p o l o g i s t ”
f o r
t h e
r e a s o n
t h a t
“ i t
e n c o u r a g e s
a
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
h o l i s t i c
v i e w
d e v e l o p e d
a r o u n d
i s s u e s
a n d
e v e n t s ,
s u p p o r t s
p u b l i c

p a r t i c i p a t i o n
i n
d e c i s i o n
m a k i n g ,
a n d
a c k n o w l e d g e s
c u l t u r a l
d i v e r s i t y
a s
a
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
m a j o r
c o n c e r n
i n
p u b l i c
d e c i s i o n
m a k i n g ”
( C h a m b e r s
1 9 8 5 :
3 3 ) .
I t
c a n
b e
s a i d
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
t h a t
n e w
s i t u a t i o n s
r a i s e
d i s t i n c t i v e
l e a r ni n g
p r o s p e c t s
“ a n d
t h e
p r a c t i t i o n e r ' s
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
r o l e
c h a n g e s
i n
r e s p o n s e
t o
a c c u m u l a t e d
e x p e r i e n c e
a n d
i n
r e l a t i o n
t o
t h e
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
c h a n g i n g
n e e d s
a nd
c a p a b i l i t i e s
o f
t h e
c o m m u ni t y
s e r v e d ”
( P e t e r s o n
1 9 8 7 :
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2 6 3 ) .
 
 

 
 
 
 
1.3 The impact of globalization effects on culture and communication

(vorbesti
despre
globalizare,
faptul
ca
lumea
a
devenit
o
piata
mondiala
pentru
comert,
dar
care

atrage
dupa
sine
si
o
piata
mondiala
a
fortei
de
munca,
si
de
aici
nevoia
oamenilor
de
a

comunica
cu
personae
care
apartin
unor
culture
diferite,
fapt
ce
implica
nu
doar
competenta

lingvistica,
ci
si
cunostinte
despre
cultura
si
obiceiurile
altora,
aici
poti
sa
dai
si
cateva
exemple
–

5 pagini)

Globalizarea „este un proces de interacțiune și integrare al oamenilor, companiilor și

guvernelor mai multor națiuni, un proces condus de comerțul și investiția internațională

și

susținut de tehnologia informatică”

33. Acest proces are efecte asupra mediului înconjurător, a

culturii, a sistemelor politice, a dezvoltării economice și a bunăstării oamenilor în toate

societățile din colțurile lumii. Accesul la noi tehnologii, presă, internet și alte medii de

comunicare permit interacțiuni globale individuale sau publice cu concepția că ele

formează

comunicarea interculturală.

Stager încearcă să indice că termenul globalizare se aplică unui set de procese sociale

care par că „transformă condiția noastră socială actuală de atenuare a naționalității

într-una a

globalității”34

. Autorul crede că globalizarea est un proces inegal, adică oamenii din diferitele

colțuri ale lumii sunt afectați în mod diferit de această transformare a structurilor sociale

și

culturale. Cu toate acestea, când vorbim despre globalizare, prima limbă la care ne

gândim

este engleza.

În lingvistică, ideea de globalizare a apărut odată cu situația din economie, prin faptul

că ilustrează o ipostază a relației dintre dinamica societății și aspectele comunicării. În

consecință, conceptul de globalizare lingvistică trebuie văzut ca o „acceptare deliberată

a

unui mijloc de comunicare comun/unic în relațiile economice internaționale”

35

. Acest mijloc

33 http://www.globalization101.org/what-is-globalization (trad.n.)

34 Steger, B., Manfred, Globalization: A very short introduction, Oxford University

Press, New York, 2003, p.

10 (trad.n.)

35 Cristina Călărasu (2003a), “Globalizare lingvistică si anglicizare”, în Aspecte ale

dinamicii limbii române

actuale II, Editura Universității din Bucure
ș
ti, București, p.1

24

de comunicare necesar în procesul de înglobare al economiei prezintă o serie de

caracteristici

diferite în funcție de tipul de comunicare specializat. Limba aleasă pentru comunicare în

relațiile economice internaționale trebuie să fie limitată la utilizarea/preluarea unor

procedee

din sfera de registre aparținând acelei limbi naturale. De aceea, vor fi preluate doar

acele

mijloace care corespund exigențelor unei comunicări concise, precise, care nu permite

ambiguitatea în decodarea informației. O limba naturală odată acceptată pentru

îndeplinirea

acestei funcții, cerută de o situație de comunicare determinată, va fi limitată la o

anumită

«constructă» extrasă din ea, din care vor fi eliminate elementele de expresivitate. De

exemplu, pe planul sintaxei, vor fi eliminate anumite procedee stilistice, precum

digresiunile,

repetițiile, divagațiile, dar vor fi utilizate elementele lingvistice de bază care vizează

alcătuirea frazelor și propozițiilor, cu precădere frazele simple în care raporturile

sintactice să

aibă interpretări unice; o frecvență ridicată o vor avea propozițiile cauzale, finale,

condiționale, consecutive, temporale obligatorii în tipului respectiv de comunicare; se

vor

utiliza forme morfologice care asigură concizia exprimării, de exemplu gerunziul sau a

formele verbale care reduc propoziția la o simplă parte de vorbire, uneori apropiind-o de

structurile nominale. Un lexic specializat, bazat pe monosemantism (selectat din

vocabularul

economic, dar și din cel abstract/standard) va constitui elementul cu care se vor

construi

enunțuri cu ajutorul procedeelor preluate dintr-o morfologie și o sintaxă de bază,

reunind

principalele elemente ale limbii standard.

În ceea ce privește apariția și acceptarea unei astfel de limbi, ca instrument de

comunicare în procesul de înglobare a economiei, ea întârzie să apară datorită unor

factori

destul de variați și numeroși, ai căror implicații tensionează și întârzie procesul. În mai

puțin

de o generație, ne-am mutat de la o situație în care o limbă a lumii era o posibilitate

teoretică,

la una în care această limbă globală este o realitate vizibilă. Guvernele pot influența cu

greu

alegerea acestei limbi. Limbile cu identitate trebuie menținute. Accesul la o limbă

globală în

curs de apariție trebuie garantat de către guverne. Ironia este că această problemă este

aproape de punctul culminant în cel mai inoportun moment în care climatul financiar al

lumii

și-o poate permite. Cei care vor participa la luarea deciziei, trebuie să ia în considerare

că o

asemenea limbă poate să apară o singură dată și că schimbarea ei presupune o

revoluție de

proporții uriașe.36

Acceptarea unei limbi naturale ca instrument unic de comunicare apare astăzi ca o

necesitate obiectivă, stringentă a vieții sociale. Această înțelegere presupune, după

cum am

36 David Crystal (2003), „English as a Global Language”, (2nd edition), Cambridge

University Press,

Cambridge, p.28 (trad.n.)

25

precizat, acceptarea deliberată a unei singure limbi. Limba aceasta trebuie să

funcționeze în

domeniul comunicării, situație în care trebuie să se renunțe la mentalitatea de tip

concurențial

care implică ideea de supremație lingvistică. În consecință, în plan subiectiv, se poate

ajunge

la ofensarea unor orgolii naționale, a anumitor veleități culturale dobândite în decursul

timpului și favorizate de anumite împrejurări istorice; efectele negative ale supremației

lingvistice ar apărea, în special, în sfera limbilor consacrate ca “limbi internaționale”.

Până acum, această necesitate a fost atinsă de limba engleză, care a fost acceptată în

mod circumstanțial ca limbă a globalizării. Dar este, totuși, o cale lungă, de la a fi o

lingua

franca până la a fi acceptată ca o realitate universală. În ciuda creșterii remarcabile a

utilizării

englezei, cel puțin două treimi ale lumii nu o vorbesc. În câteva țări, se manifestă o

încercare

de a menține rolul altor limbi (precum franceza în câteva țări din Africa). Acesta este un

moment important în istoria lingvisticii, deoarece guvernele trebuie să plănuiască și

să-și

creeze obiective pe termen lung în ceea ce privește susținerea limbii engleze sau a altei

limbi

în comunitățile lor. Avantajele și dezavantajele alegerii limbii engleze, precum și

motivele

pentru care aceasta s-a ridicat în fața celorlalte limbi internaționale sunt prezentate în

subcapitolul următor.

Chapter 2

2.1 Enhanced intercultural competence: effective communication across languages and cultures

(De
ce
si
cum
dezvoltam
competenta
de
comunicare
interculturala.
Cauti
1-
2
modele
propuse
de
2
autori

diferi
ț
i
pentru
dezvoltarea
acestei
competente
–
dai
ș
i
exemplele
lor
ș
i
spui
care
sunt
cele
mai
importante

beneficii
​
– 4 pagini)

Although the field of linguistics is relatively new, it has witnessed several

attempts to conceptualize what it means to communicate effectively in a

given language. In its early years, with generative linguistics, the concept of

competence was theorized as the knowledge of language items (e.g., grammar,

phonology, morphology, etc.) that refers to what one knows about language,

regarding the ‘native-speaker’ who is part of a monolingual community as the

ideal speaker-hearer of a language (Chomsky, 1965). Reactions to this purist

theory began to burgeon with Hymes (1972) drawing from anthropology to

redefine the concept of competence and arguing that social factors play a key

role in communication. For Hymes, knowing how to use a language reflects

knowing how to use it appropriately in different social contexts. Since then,

the concept of communicative competence has gained significant attention

and has been reconceptualized over the years (see Canale & Swain, 1980;

Canale, 1983; Bachman, 1990; Celce-Murcia, 1995; Celce-Murcia, Dörnyei,

& Thurell, 1995; Celce-Murcia & Olshtain, 2000 for a historical perspective),

moving away from the native speaker model.

Any discussion of communicative competence in recent years recognizes

the importance of the use of the language in social contexts, also referred to

as pragmatics. Bachman (1990) uses pragmatics as an overarching term that

includes sociolinguistic competence and its related elements: sensitivity to

differences in dialect or variety, in register, naturalness, cultural references,

and
figurative
language.
For
example,
a
competent
speaker
is
one
who
has
awareness
that
a

language
can
be
used
distinctively
in
certain
geographical
locations
and/or
within
different
social

groups,
and
that
certain
linguistic
features
carry
cultural
meanings.
Although
Bachman’s
(1990)

model
rightly
acknowledges
the
sociocultural
dimension,
it
is
limited
to
the
appropriate
use
of

the language itself.

2.2 The
​
cultural shift
​
in Translation Studies to adequately engage intercultural communication

(vorbesti
despre
ce
inseamna
​
cultural
shift
in
Translation
Studies,
cum
a
fost
tratat
domeniul
traducerii

inainte
de
acest
cultural
shift
si
cum
este
abordata
traductologia
din
perspectiva
acetui
cultural
shift,
dai

citate,
definitii
si
reformulezi
parerea
a
3-4
autori
–
vezi
Bassnet,
Munday,
Baker
si
Venuti.
Apoi
discuti

despre
legatura
stransa
dintre
the
​
cultural
shift
in
Translation
Studies
si
dezvoltarea
competentei
de

comunicare interculturala – 6 pagini)

2.3
The
intercultural
communication
competence
as
contemporary
visa
for
the
​
international

professional setting

(de
ce
trebuie
sa
ne
dezvoltam
competenta
de
comunicare
in
societatea
moderna
ca
sa
obtinem
joburi
mai

bune,
salarii
mai
mari
si
sa
ne
putem
adapta
cerintelor
pietetii
muncii,
sa
putem
fi
cat
mai
flexibili
si

mobile pe piata muncii – 3 pagini)

Chapter 3

3.1 Cultural contrasts among tourism practices: a case study

(motivezi
de
ce
turismul
este
una
dintre
dimensiunile
economice
cele
mai
dinamice,
care
implica
insa
o

varietate de diferente culturale, de la limbaj la traditii, obiceiuri, etc. 3 pagini)

3.2 Framing the setting: applied intercultural communication in tourism

(discuti
despre
backgroundul
cultural
din
Romania,
cum
este
promovat
turismul
si
cum
sunt
primiti

turistii
–
in
general.
Apoi
incercam
sa
descriem
3-4
situatii
intr-un
hotel
si/sau
pensiune
unde
pot
aparea

neintelegeri
din
cauza
diferentelor
cuturale,
obiceiuri
si
limbaj
si
care
pot
fi
evitate
cu
ajutorul

competentei de comunicare interculturala – 6 -7 pagini)

3.3 The role of translation as intercultural communication skill in in tourism (
​
2 pagini)

Conclusion –
​
vezi model trimis de mine – o scriem la final, dupa ce terminam toate capitolele

Bibliography
​
–
​
vezi model trimis de mine – o scriem la final, dupa ce terminam toate capitolele

BIBLIOGRAFIE BUNA

Arent, R. (2009)
​
Bridging the Cross-Cultural Gap.
​
Listening and Speaking Tasks for Developing

Fluency in English,
​
Michigan ELT, Michigan

Schmidt, W. V.
​
(2007) C
​
ommunicating Globally: Intercultural Communication and International

Business,
​
Sage Publications, Los Angeles

Adler, N. (1980).
​
Cultural synergy: The management of cross-cultural organizations.
​
California

Hall, E.T. & Hall, M. R. (1990),
​
Understanding cultural differences,
​
Intercultural Press,

Yarmouth,

Scannavini
K.,
“The
Necessity
of
Intercultural
Communication
for
a
Peaceful
World
​
”
​
in
​
London

Academicus – International Scientific Journal
​
University “La Sapienza”, Rome, Italy 172 – 188

BIBLIOGRAFIE EXEMPLU

Athu, Cristina (2011), Influența limbii engleze asupra limbii române actuale. În limbajul

economic și de afaceri, Editura Universitară, București, (rezumat la:

Coșeriu, Eugen (1999), Introducere în lingvistică, ediția a II-a, Editura Echinox, Cluj-Napoca

Crystal, David (2003), English as a Global Language, (2nd edition), Cambridge University Press,

Cambridge

Frisch, Helmuth, (1995) „Relațiile dintre lingvistica română și cea europeană. O istorie a

lingvisticii românești din secolul al XIX-lea”, Editura Saeculum I.O., București

Meyer-Lübke, Wilhelm (1930), „Rumänisch und Romanisch”, în Analele Academiei, București

ARTICOLE

Avram, Mioara, „Considerații asupra dinamicii limbii și asupra studierii ei în româna actuală”, în Aspecte

ale dinamicii limbii române actuale, Actele Colocviului Catedrei de limba română a Facultății de Litere din

Universitatea București (27- 28 noiembrie 2002),
​
http://ebooks.unibuc.ro/filologie/dindelegan/cuprins.html

Călăra
ș
u, Cristina (2003a), “Globalizare lingvistică si anglicizare”, în Aspecte ale dinamicii limbii române

actuale II, Editura Universității din Bucure
ș
ti, București,
​
http://ebooks.unibuc.ro/filologie/dindelegan/31.pdf

Firică, Camelia; Firică, Jean ”Linguistic Globalization Consequence of Economic Globalization”, in Journal

of Applied Economic Sciences (JAES) Nr. 3(17) / 2011, p. 244 – 248

Inegrescu-Babuș, I., „Cercetări privind elementele de substrat în limba română” în Revista Limba

Română, Nr. 2/2014

Negrea, Violeta; Agache Liliana, „Anglo-American Word Loan – a Challenge of Urban Linguistic

Globalization”, Universitatea Creștină ”Dimitrie Cantemir” și Institutul de Lingvistică „Iorgu-Iordan-Al.

Rosetti”, Academia Română,

București, Nr. 2/2004

Popescu, D., „Comunicarea la nivel global și limba engleză” în Analele Universită
ț
ii

“Constantin Brâncuși” din Târgu Jiu, Seria Litere și Științe Sociale, Nr. 2/2011

Sala, M., „Limba română, limbă romanică (aspecte la conferința prezentată de academicianul

Marius Sala”, Revista de Știința, Inovare, Cultură și Artă, Nr.3-4 (5), decembrie, 2006

Zoranić, A. L., Fijuljanin, F. „English Language as an Instrument Of Globalization”, în

International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), Nr. 10-

11, May 2013, Sarajevo, p. 56-59

DICȚIONARE

Borchin, Ioana Mirela, Comlosa D. (2002), Dic
ț
ionar de comunicare (lingvistică și literară) vol.I, Editura

Excelsior Art, Timișoara

SITOGRAFIE

http://www.creeaza.com/referate/literatura-romana/STILISTICA-

FUNCTIONALA137.php#_ftn13 Accesat ultima dată: 20.06.2015

Both intercultural communication and translation have seen increasing

attention in the last decade. This huge interest does not mean, however,

that we are faced with new phenomena. On the contrary, direct and me-

diated communication between people speaking different mother

tongues and belonging to different cultural groups has existed for many

centuries as a fact of life. The contributions of translators to the develop-

ment of alphabets and national languages, to the development of national

literatures, to the dissemination of knowledge, to the advancement of,

and to the transmission of cultural values throughout history are well

documented (cf. Delisle and Woodsworth 1995).

There has been a long tradition of thought and an enormous body of

opinion about translation, and in the second half of the 20th century

Translation Studies developed as an academic discipline in its own right.

Intercultural Communication, too, is regarded as an academic field with

its own specific concepts and analytical methods. But despite a consider-

able amount of research output, both disciplines seem to have reached a

stage where some of the key concepts and assumptions are being chal-

lenged, and the object of research is being looked at from a new perspec-

tive. Moreover, some of the key concepts employed in Translation Studies

and in Intercultural Communication also play an important role in re-

lated disciplines. This can be illustrated with reference to announcements

of some international conferences to be held in 2003 and 2004.

From 23-24 May 2003, a conference on “The Consequences of Mo-

bility: Linguistic and Sociocultural Contact Zones” will be held at

Roskilde University, organised by the research group on Sociolinguistics,

Language Pedagogy and Sociocultural issues in the university’s Depart-

ment of Language and Culture. The announcement defines the confer-

ence aim as investigating the “different kinds of linguistic and sociocultu-

ral contacts brought about by transnational migrations in the contempo-

rary world”, with the focus on “studies of cultural and social identities, of

multiculturality, cultural hybridity and identity politics in complex soci-

eties.”

From 7-12 July 2004, the 8th Congress of the International Associa-

tion for Semiotic Studies (AIS/IASS) will be held in Lyon, with the main

title “Signs of the World: Interculturality and Globalisation”. Its call for

papers refers to the role of signs in a “world whose recent evolution im-

plies a change in the nature of geopolitical and intercultural relations.”

TRANSLATION AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 81

The congress will consider the contribution of semioticians to the debate

on “how world cultures can be made more intelligible to each other

within the framework of their own differences.”

From 12-14 August 2004, a conference on “Translation and the Con-

struction of Identity” will be held at Sookmyung Women’s University, in

Seoul. The following are listed as themes in the Call for Papers: “Con-

struction and maintenance of national, religious and ethnic identity;

Power, diplomacy and culture in international relations; The intellectual

effects of globalisation; Negotiating identities across cultures: migration,

gender, asylum; Self and other in crosscultural encounters; The impact of

institutional identities on translation and crosscultural research.” This

conference is to see the launch of the International Association for Trans-

lation and Intercultural Studies (IATIS) as a “global forum designed to

enable scholars from different regional and disciplinary backgrounds to

debate issues relating to translation and other forms of intercultural com-

munication.”

From 26-29 September 2004, the European Society for Translation

Studies (EST) will hold its 4th Congress in Lisbon under the main title

“Translation Studies: Doubts and Directions”. The aim is to appraise and

update the concepts and analytical tools used within the discipline. It is

intended for the Congress to be “a platform for critical debate and an op-

portunity to discuss current relevant problems and possible future devel-

opments in Translation Studies.”

What we can see in these few announcements is a relatively large

amount of shared interest and overlapping concerns. Practically all of

them make use of the same (or similar) key concepts, especially the fol-

lowing ones: culture, world culture, social networks, globalised commu-

nication, space, intercultural relations, exchange, encounters, translation,

intercultural communication, representation, crosscultural representa-

tion, identity, difference, power.

These key concepts also show up in promotional leaflets for new jour-

nals and book series. For example, a new book series on language and di-

versity is called Encounters, and its aims are described as follows: “En-

counters sets out to explore diversity in language, diversity through lang-

uage and diversity about language.” This exploration includes exploring

“the way in which language and linguistic behaviour can contribute to

the construction or negotiation of sociocultural and political differences”.

2003 sees the launch of the transdisciplinary Journal of Tourism and Cul-

tural Change which will “critically examin[e] the relationships, tensions,

82 CHRISTINA SCHÄFFNER

representations, conflicts and possibilities that exist between

tourism/travel and culture/cultures in a rapidly changing and increasingly

complex global context”; and it will also embrace the “powerful creative

dimension to tourism and cultural change that emerges in literature,

travel writing, translation, the learning of other languages, film, art and

varieties of performance.”

In view of such a considerable overlap in aims and content, one could

ask whether there is indeed a need for new journals and new associations.

There already are a number of journals devoted to intercultural commu-

nication and translation, e.g. Target (subtitle: International Journal of

Translation Studies); The Translator (subtitle: Studies in Intercultural

Communication); Across Languages and Cultures (subtitle: A Multidisci-

plinary Journal for Translation and Interpreting Studies); Perspectives:

Studies in Translatology; Language and Intercultural Communication; Jour-

nal of Multilingual & Multicultural Development, etc. Among existing as-

sociations is the International Association for Languages and Intercul-

tural Communication (IALIC), whose 5th annual cross-cultural capabil-

ity conference, held from 2-3 December 2000 in Leeds, was devoted to

discussing “Revolutions in Consciousness: Local identities, global con-

cerns in languages and intercultural communication”, i.e. topics that are

still on the agenda in 2003 and 2004. From a different angle, we can say

that the huge interest in aspects of intercultural encounters, exchanges,

and representation reflects an increasing awareness of the relevance of di-

rect and/or mediated communication in practically all spheres of social

life, and thus in a large number of disciplines in the arts and humanities.

This development is accompanied by at least two main trends: (i) an ex-

plicit focus on interdisciplinarity, multidisciplinarity, or transdisciplinar-

ity in approaching the objects of research, and (ii) a questioning of tradi-

tional concepts.

Reference to interdisciplinarity is made in almost all the conference

announcements mentioned above, and also in the description of a num-

ber of journals. The disciplines that particularly share an interest in inter-

cultural communication and translation, in addition to Translation Stud-

ies and Intercultural Communication Studies, are linguistics, semiotics,

psychology, sociology, anthropology, ethnography, cultural studies, media

studies, literary theory, gender studies, postcolonial studies. A question-

ing of existing concepts is announced both for the 2004 EST congress

and the 2004 AIS/IASS congress, both refering to the need to appraise

and update concepts and analytic tools. The 2004 Seoul conference an-

TRANSLATION AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 83

nounces a panel on “Redefining Translation in the 21st century”; and an-

other panel on “Translation and Ethnography” envisages a broad under-

standing of the concept of translation which includes a view of ethno-

graphic writing as a translation practice.

Questioning whether traditional definitions still fit the current con-

text or whether a new definition or a new concept is required, can also

signal a kind of crisis, or transition, or a potential paradigm shift in a dis-

cipline. Such shifts within a discipline are related to (changes in) social

processes. Taking again the conference announcements, we see another

feature they have in common: the need for interdisciplinarity and for re-

thinking existing concepts is motivated by the changing world of the 21st

century. Recurring key concepts are, for example, change, globalisation,

global context, shifting contexts, increasing complexity. The awareness of

the increasing complexity of their traditional objects of research has led

disciplines to reflect more closely on their own status and their contribu-

tion to the advancement of knowledge in the new era. As we read in the

announcement of the 2004 AIS/IASS congress: “The congress will allow

for clarification of the specific contributions of semiotics to world com-

prehension and to political, economic, cultural, aesthetic and anthropo-

logical debate.”

Translation Studies (TS) and Intercultural Communication Studies

(ICS) can also provide valuable contributions to the current debates. In

the following sections, I will (i) briefly sketch the development of the dis-

cipline of TS, (ii) comment on similarities and differences between TS

and ICS with special reference to the concept of (inter)cultural compe-

tence, and (iii) illustrate the development of translation competence in

the context of translator training.

2. Translation Studies: Where do we