Integrated Skills Approach in Teaching English as a Foreign Language for Upper Secondary Students [303626]
Integrated Skills Approach in Teaching English as a Foreign Language for Upper Secondary Students
Chapter I – [anonimizat], methods, procedures, [anonimizat]-[anonimizat]-[anonimizat]-[anonimizat] 1989, Romania has entered in a continuous reforming process in the educational system. Over the years the Minister of Education has been trying to answer the Romanian teachers’ perpetual questions: What should we change and what should we keep in order to have success in the teaching/ learning process? Old or new? Or both?
Lately our coursebooks for teaching English as a [anonimizat], [anonimizat]. But, [anonimizat]. Students have to do English examinations where they have to prove their proficiency in the four or even five skills such as: reading, listening, writing, speaking, and use of language. [anonimizat].
How can we succeed such an examination or learn successfully a [anonimizat], [anonimizat]?
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My research paper tries to demonstrate the following hypothesis: “If I [anonimizat] a [anonimizat]. [anonimizat], listening, [anonimizat] – grammar, lexis, phonology, [anonimizat], [anonimizat], [anonimizat] – knowing and doing.
Teaching English is like a [anonimizat]: [anonimizat], [anonimizat] (reading, listening, writing, speaking), the language systems ([anonimizat], pronunciation, syntax, meaning, usage). In order to produce a strong beautiful colourful tapestry all the strands must be interwoven in a positive way during instruction. However, [anonimizat] a tapestry – a small weak ragged pale rug.
The objectives of this research paper are as follows:
To present the advantages and disadvantages of traditional methods in teaching English as a foreign language
To present the advantages and disadvantages of modern methods in teaching English as a foreign language;
To justify that the integrated-skills approach is far better than another approach in practical sense;
The research used 75 students of the same age – 11th graders at the Secondary School “MirceaEliade” Lupeni, who were administered a questionnaire about the using of integrated-skills approach. To get a fuller picture about the topic there also was used a short-time experiment in addition to the questionnaire.
The paper consists of the following parts:
Chapter I – Introduction
Chapter II – Literature review – which is divided in three parts: The subject matter of language teaching, Approaches, methods, procedures, and techniques and Segregated-skills approach versus Integrated-skills approach.
Chapter III – Exploratory research
Chapter IV – Data collection and interpretation
Chapter V – Conclusions and recommendations
Bibliography
LITERATURE REVIEW
1. The subject matter of language teaching
At first glance, the subject matter of language teaching a foreign language is that teaching a foreign language incorporates two important elements such as grammar and vocabulary. In reality, students need far more than knowledge of grammar and vocabulary in order to be able to use the language successfully. In his book “Learning Teaching”, Jim Scrivener says that “teachers typically classify the key subject matter of language teaching under two main headings: “Language Systems” and “Language Skills” (Scrivener, 2005).
According to Scrivener there are five language systems: Grammar, Lexis, Phonology, Discourse and Function and together with the four language skills: Reading, Listening, Writing and Speaking are interwoven to create a strong beautiful colourful tapestry. Systems means knowing the language whilst Skills means doing/ practicing the language. Skills and Systems are closely intertwined. Skills can be improved only with the help of the Systems.
“Language Systems” and “Language Skills” (Scrivener, 2005).
LANGUAGE SYSTEMS
GRAMMAR
According to Jeremy Harper in „The Practice Of English Language Teaching” the Grammar of a language is the description of „the ways in which words can change their forms and can be combined into sentences in that language.” (Harmer, 2006). Any violation of grammar rules causes a malfunction of the act of communication.
The knowledge of morphology – the forms and structures of words, and syntax – the order that words can be arranged in, is essential to successful communication in both written English and spoken English, knowing that the grammar of speech is different from writing grammar because „it has its own constructional principles (see Biber et al. 1999: 1066-1108).
Grammar is the most difficult aspect of language teaching and learning. When people hear the word „grammar” they think of fixed rules of usage and a set of word forms. They also associate grammar with formal writing and formal oral presentations.
Language teachers consider grammar as a fixed set of forms and rules and use it in different ways. On the one hand, there are teachers who teach grammar by explaining the forms and the rules and then drilling students on them, approach which can be considered boring and disaffecting for students who can produce correct forms on drills and tests, but when they try to use the language in context they consistently make errors. On the other hand, there are teachers who, being influenced by recent theoretical work on the difference between language learning and language acquisition, tend not to teach grammar at all. They expect students to learn their second language the same way they acquired their mother tongue – without overt grammar instruction. This approach does not allow students to use their active understanding of what grammar is and how it works.
Teaching grammar
Deductively
The lesson stage starts with the presentation of a rule and is followed by examples in which the rule is applied.
Inductively
The lesson stage starts with some examples from which a rule is inferred.
Teaching grammar from rules
Sample lesson: Teaching articles using grammar worksheets (Upper intermediate) (Harmer, 1999:42)
Step1
The teacher divides the class in groups of three. The teacher hands out an exercise sheet which requires students to fill in the gaps with the appropriate article – a/an, the orzero article.
Students are given five minutes to work on it, then they receive three grammar summaries: A (giving information about when to use the definite article), B (giving the information about how to use indefinite article) and C (giving information about how to use the Zero article).
Each group 1 gets summary A, each group 2 gets summary B, and each group 3 gets summary C.
The teacher asks the students to study their summary and to work as a group to complete the gaps.
Step 2
The teacher re-groups the students in such a way that the new groups comprise members of each of the original groups. In their new groups, the students are asked to compare their answers and share any information from their grammar summary that might help the other members in their group to complete the task. The students are encouraged to explain the information, rather than show them the grammar sheet.
Step 3
The teacher then checks the exercise in open class, asking learners to justify their answers by reference to the rules.
Teaching grammar from examples
Sample lesson: Teaching verbs that take both infinitive and –ing forms, using concordance data (Upper intermediate) (Harmer, 1999:65)
Step 1
The teacher divides the class into three groups: A, B, and C, and gives each group a different set of concordance lines as shown here:
The teacher tells the groups to study their lines and divide them into two patterns looking at the form of the verb that follows the word in the central column. Then they have to try to work out the differences in meaning. The teacher monitors the group work, offering assistance if necessary.
Step 2
The students are re-grouped, so that at least one member of each of the former groups A, B and C, is in each of the new groups. Their task is to explain to each other the patterns of form and meaning they have found. Then they have to work out a general rule that holds for all three verbs.
Step 3
The teacher summarizes by drawing the following timelines:
Step 4
The teacher hands out a discrimination exercise in order to check their grasp of the rule. For example:
1.I went to the post office but I forgot to post/ posting the letter.
2.I don’t remember to see/ seeing the Millers at the party.
Teaching grammar through texts
Sample lesson: Using genre analysis to teach reporting language (Intermediate) (Harmer, 1999:85)
Step 1
The students are dictated the following words, with the explanation that they are the key words in a news story. After asking for the meaning of any unfamiliar words, they, in pairs, try to imagine what the story was about.
Step 2
After eliciting some of the students’ predictions, the teacher presents the following authentic texts, telling them that they are separate news bulletins taken at different times from an Internet website. The students have to put the texts into a chronological order.
Step 3
The teacher checks this task, drawing students’ attention to clues in the text. For example, the use of the indefinite article in a monkey in the first sentence of texts A and C, suggests that it pre-dates references to the monkey in text B. The actual order is C, A, B.
Step 4
The teacher asks the students to use the evidence of all three texts to generalize the function of each paragraph. These functions can be summarized as being:
Step 5
The learners are asked to use the evidence of all three texts to identify the language features of each paragraph. Again, these can be summarized as:
Step 6
The teacher asks learners to imagine the outcome of the story, and to write the fourth and final news bulletin. They are reminded to use the pattern UPDATE – BACKGROUND – VIEWPOINT, and to choose their tenses accordingly. Students work in groups. One group doing this activity produced the following story:
Step 7
The teacher offers the students the final story as actually reported.
Testing grammar
Testing grammar using discrete-item tests
Sample test: Differences between yet, already and still(Intermediate) (Harmer, 1999:143)
Here there are five short discrete-item tests.
Both Test 1 and Test 2 are limited because they only test the students’ knowledge of the word order. Students could do the tests without understanding either the meaning of the adverbs nor the contexts into which they have to put them.
Test 3 tests the learners’ understanding of the item. Tests 4 and 5 allow a considerable degree of freedom.
Testing grammar in an oral performance test
Sample test: Oral interaction test (Intermediate) (Harmer, 1999:148)
Step 1
The students are divided into pairs, and, while the rest of the class is working on a writing activity, each pair takes turns to leave the classroom and go to an adjoining room for the test. Each member of the pair is given a copy of either the Student A or the Student B picture. They have time to read the instructions and to study their pictures.
Step 2
The students perform the activity, taking turns. The examiner listens to and scores each one according to the following criteria (Thornbury, 1999:147):
LEXIS
Nowadays we enjoy an increasing availability of large computerised databases of analysable real conversations and other texts named language corpora, and have a lot of resources based on them such as dictionaries and grammar books.
The concept of lexis refers to our own database of words and combinations of words that we can recall and use without being in the posture of building up new phrases and sentences word by word using grammar knowledge.
Lexis includes:
Traditional single-word vocabulary items
Collocations (e.g. fair hair, traffic jam)
Chunks or multiword items ( e.g. someone you can talk to, on-the-spot decisions, I’d rather not say)
Collocations and chunks are classed as lexical items. There is an intermediate zone between vocabulary and grammar which is occupied by collocations and chunks (see figure below).
Grammar represents our ability to build up new phrases and sentences out of grammatical features and word combinations in order to express a precise meaning.
Lexis is important and needs to be dealt with systematically in its own right because it is not simply an add-on to grammar or skills lessons. Our job as teachers is to help students practice, learn, store, recall and use the new lexical items met during the lesson. English-English dictionaries must be used in order to provide a vital self-study tool for students.
Teaching lexis
There is a great deal of lexis work during reading and listening tasks. Learners are offered the language in realistic contexts and also they can see how the items fit into the meaning and style of a text. Texts are more useful for teaching lexis because they provide important exposure for learners to samples of language being used.
Teachers may select activities specifically designed to revise, teach and practice lexis before, while or after working on the text or recording. Pre-teaching lexis helps students to recall items they already know as much as introducing new items.
Lesson procedure
Pre-teach lexis
Written practice of lexis
Oral practice of lexis
Reading to find specific information
Further lexis work
Communicative activity (for example: role-play)
Sample of lexical activities/ games
Back to the board, (Scrivener, 2005:347)
Back to the board
Students are divided into two teams. One team sends one member to the front, who sits facing the class and with his back to the board. The teacher writes a word on the board. The team of the student sitting at the front must define the word of give examples of its use without saying the word. Clever students will use a lot of techniques to convey the word: collocations, synonyms, etc. (Scrivener, 2005:347)
Word dominoes
The teacher prepares a set of cards, each with a different picture on. One student place a card, then the next student places another card justifying the placing by explaining a connection of some sort that links the two words. The game continues like dominoes until one player has used up all his/her pictures.
(There are birds in the forest; button and birds start with B; shirts have buttons; shirt and shop begin with sh; etc.) (Scrivener, 2005:348)
PHONOLOGY
Phonology is the sound of language. When writing we represent words, and grammar through orthography; when speaking, on the other hand, we build up words and phrases with individual sounds. We also use pitch change, intonation and stress to transmit different meanings.
Using English as a lingua franca, most learners are learning to communicate with non-mother-tongue speakers, as many will rarely – if ever – meet with a native speaker.
Students need to be taught pronunciation that allows them to be understood in the context. It is honest and appropriate for teachers to teach the pronunciation the teacher speaks himself/ herself. Moreover, it is appropriate for teachers to draw attention to differences in accent that appear in course materials. The activities and examples, the learner can find in the majority of current international coursebooks, are based on using RP (received pronunciation – a UK pronunciation variety, originally from south-east England) as a basic pronunciation.
In the figure abovethe phonemic chart shows the phonemes, which are the individual sounds of English language as spoken in UK RP accent.
Phonemic Chart
Learners will find that, while a number of English phonemes are familiar, some will be different from ones they use. In some cases English has two phonemes for a sound, which may sound the same to some students. A common example of this could be the distinction between / ɪ / and /i: / as in ship vs. sheep.Learners will also find that English has phonemes that do not exist in their mother language.
Pitch and intonation are used to convey emotions and meanings, involvement and empathy. Intonation we use is a crucial factor in speaking. It is a way of modifying the strength or intension of what we are saying. It is also used to show how certain we are about what we are saying.
Stress is sometimes placed differently in British English than in American English. The point in a word or phrase where pitch changes, vowels lengthen and volume increases is described by the term stress. One-syllable words do not give us any headaches when it comes to say which syllable is stressed. But words with more than one syllable are more complex and troublesome when talking about stress. There can be more than one stressed syllable in multisyllable words (e.g. information, claustrophobia). In such cases we call the stronger force the primary stress and the weaker force the secondary stress (e.g. /ˏɪnfəˈmeɪʃən /).
Paralinguistic features of language are a number of features of communication which take place outside the formal systems of language. They can be split in two broad categories: those that involve the voice and those which involve the body.
Vocal paralinguistic features
Whispering ( used to indicate the need for secrecy);
Breathiness ( used to indicate deep emotions, sexual desire);
Huskiness ( used to indicate unimportance or disparagement);
Nasality ( used to indicate anxiety);
Extra lip rounding ( used to express greater intimacy, especially with babies);
Physical paralinguistic features
Facial expression ( a powerful conveyor of meaning);
Gesture (shrugging shoulders, crossing arms, waving, etc.);
Proximity ( the physical distance between speakers);
Posture (hunched shoulders, lowered head, eye contact, etc.);
Teaching phonetics
Teachers should integrate phonemic work into all their teaching of grammar and lexis
Teachers should let students to observe the mechanics of producing particular sounds
Teachers should get students to listen to and distinguish words which have sounds that seem to them very similar
Teachers should train students in using a dictionary to find pronunciation and spelling
Teachers should keep a phonemic chart on the wall of the classroom
Helpful games in familiarizing students with phonemes
Phoneme bingo – the teacher hands out bingo cards with phonemes instead of numbers. Then the teachers calls out sounds rather than numbers. (Scrivener, 2005:419)
Phonemic crossword
FUNCTION
People speak and write because they have messages to communicate or there is something they want to achieve. These purposes are the communicative function of what they say or convey.
Unless we know the context and who is speaking, it is hard to decide exactly what the communicative function is. Students must understand how language takes on different meanings depending on the context and the way it is said. They also must get practice in making and interpreting language.
The study of functions and the way they are realized in language has a serious effect upon the language-teaching materials design. The language purpose is a major factor in the choice of syllabus items and teaching techniques.
Examples of context and meanings activities
Solutions (Advanced Students’ Book) Tim Falla, Paul A Davis, Oxford University Press, 2nd edition, p.22.
Step1
Students are divided in pairs being asked to read the film review and find the appropriate description of the text.
Step2
Students discuss their results.
Step3
Students in pairs answer the questions, then they check their answers with the other students.
Step4
The teacher asks the students to check a list of words in the dictionary, then they are asked to build up sentences with the new words, then to complete the sentences filling the gaps with the appropriate word from the list.
Step5
In pairs students are asked to guess what the function of each of the sentences from the previous exercise is and to complete the table. Then they discuss the results with the teacher.
DISCOURSE
Discourse involves language used in context over an extended period. Discourse analysis helps us see how people take turns to speak in a conversation and the patterns and the routes which many typical conversations follow. Roughly speaking, discourse analysis is the attempt of studying the organisation of language above the sentences or clauses. It studies conversational exchanges or written texts. It studies the smallest bits of language (phonetics and phonology), parts of words (morphology), meanings (semantics), and words order (syntax).
There are two categories of discourse:
spoken or speech discourse which denotes oral conversations, dialogues, monologues;
written discourse which denotes written texts such as essays, articles, letters, etc.
Discourse markers for spoken English:
frequent non-clausal units (e.g. Mmm, No, Uh huh, Yeah, etc.);
a variety of tags not found in written style, such as question tags;
interjections (e.g. ah, oh, wow, etc.);
hesitators(e.g. er, umm, erm, etc.);
condensed questions (e.g. Coffee?, Any luck?, etc.);
echo questions (e.g. Oh, did you say San Francisco?);
response forms such as Yeah, Sure, etc.;
fixed polite speech formulae (e.g. Happy Birthday! Congratulations! , etc.);
Linguists also present organization of meaning in written English. According to Nattinger and DeCarrico (1992) the content in discourse is described in terms of:
“topic markers” ( e.g. Let’s look at x!);
“topic shifters” (e.g. By the way…);
“summarisers” (e.g. To cut a long story short…);
“exemplifiers” (e.g. For example…);
“relators”;
“evaluators”;
“qualifiers”;
We can use a variety of devices to structure written discourse such as repetition, replacement and referencing (anaphoric reference, cataphoric reference and exophoric reference).
Discourse analysis is very important because it helps learners understand both spoken and written texts. The more learners can identify typical patterns of use, the better they will be able to read, listen, write and speak. Discourse analysis also helps us describe typical paragraph organization or the structure of a conversation. There are different types of writing and speaking in different contexts and for different purposes (e.g. scientific writing, academic writing, report writing, certain kinds of narrative compositions, conversations, dialogues, monologues, etc.).
Sample lesson:Letter of complaint
Letter of complaint, Solutions (Advanced Students’ Book) Tim Falla, Paul A Davis, Oxford University Press
Lesson procedure
Activity 1: Speaking
Teacher pre-teaches lexis. Students describe the photos.
Activity 2: Speaking
Students answer the questions orally.
Activity 3: Reading, Discourse
Students read the letter and choose the appropriate form to complete the letter.
Activity 4: Checking
Teacher checks the understanding of the item by using some conceptual questions. Students answer the questions and learn.
Activity 5: Function
Students find linkers in the text and discuss their function then they complete a table.
Activities 6 &7: Speaking, Reading, Writing, Discourse
Students are asked to match the informal words with their formal equivalent, then they have to complete the sentences with the formal form.
LANGUAGE SKILLS
1.2.1. PRODUCTIVE SKILLS
When they write or speak during classes, the students have a chance to practice language production in safety, using different language and genres in different contexts which will help them in future occasions when they are away from the classroom.
Language production means that learners should use any language which is at their disposal not to be restricted to specific practice points but to achieve a communicative purpose. Students may find language production difficult especially with tasks at the communicative end of the communication continuum (see figure below).
Non-communicative activities Communicative activities
The Communication Continuum
Students should operate towards the communicative end of the communication continuum because activities at the non-communicative end of the continuum – such as language drills – are not considered as being part of the category of productive skills even if they are done orally. Similarly, grammar practice exercises where students write sentences to practice a grammar point are very useful for learning the language but they are not writing skill activities.
In order to get students engaged successfully in a productive task teachers:
need to match the task with the students’ language level;
need to ensure that there is a purpose to the task;
should remember that students need to be helped to cultivate spontaneity in speaking and writing;
should not expect instant fluency;
should build up students confidence;
need to assess the problems caused by the language they need.
The students will happily invest a lot of effort and interest in their language production, if the topics we are asking them to write or speak about are interesting and familiar. When students do not have the necessary information about the topic and the genre is unfamiliar, the production activities suffer. To avoid this scenario teachers should:
choose interesting topics
create interest in the topic
exemplify
vary topics and genre
provide necessary information
WRITING
Even though the need for writing has decreased lately due to the development of new technology which offers easier, cheaper and faster video and voice connections, there may still be good reasons why we should include work on writing in a course:
– there are areas where written work is still very important: academic study, examination preparation:
– students must be involved in taking down notes during the lessons;
– writing involves a different kind of mental process; when writing you have more time to reflect, prepare, rehearse and find alternative and better solutions;
– writing can give teachers a break, quieten down a noisy class, etc.
According to SyreneForsman in “Writing to Learn Means Learning to Think” teachers can choose between sentencing students to thoughtless mechanical operations or facilitating their ability to think. If students are encouraged to try a variety of thought processes in classes, they can, regardless of their ages, develop considerable mental power. Writing is one of the most effective ways to develop thinking. (Forsman, p.162)
There are three groups of writing activities in class:
Writing to learn activities
This type of activities can happen frequently or infrequently in class. Some of these activities can extend over the entire semester, some can include a wide variety of writing tasks in different formats for different purposes. Here are some examples:
The reading journal
Generic and focused summaries
Annotations
Response papers
Problem statement
Solving real problems
Analysis of events
Project notebooks
The writing journal, etc.
Focus on Writing, Manuela Cădaru, Booklet, București, 2013
Focus on Writing, Manuela Cădaru, Booklet, București, 2013
Functional writing
Functional writing includes letters, memoranda, directories, manuals, forms, recipes, minutes, etc. This kind of activities allow students to express specific information meant to mirror real-life scenarios such as giving advice, inviting someone to something, complaining about something, applying for something, etc. Students must have a clear sense of purpose and audience in order to succeed in producing effective functional texts. This kind of awareness will facilitate the selection of appropriate language, style and format which will support the piece of writing.
First Certificate Practice Tests, Charles Osborne, Cengage Learning, 2004
Creative writing
Creative writing includes short stories, poems, songs, drama, screenplays and essays. Creative writing is very engaging and motivating, it helps students see language as a communicative tool, with focus on meaning, not merely on a linguistic system.
Complete First Certificate, Students’ Book, Guy Brook-Hart, Cambridge University Press, 2011
Whilst teaching of writing we can focus on both the product of that writing and the writing process. The writing process is very complex and consists of various stages: drafting, reviewing, redrafting and editing.
Ron White and Valerie Arndt are keen to stress that “writing is re-writing, that revision – seeing with new eyes – has a central role to play in the act of creating text”(White and Arndt 1991:5). According to them process writing is an “interrelated set of recursive stages” which includes:
Drafting
Structuring
Reviewing
Focusing
Generating ideas and evaluation
White and Arndt’s model can be represented diagrammatically as in figure below.
White and Arndt’s process writing model
One of the disadvantages of using this model of process writing is that it takes too long time to brainstorm ideas or collect them, it takes time to draft, review and edit, it also takes a lot of time to generate more ideas, to redraft, re-edit and so on. Process writing can be simply not appropriate because classroom time is limited or because teachers want students to write quickly as a part of communication game or teacher want them to compose a story or a letter instantly.
The role of the teacher in teaching writing
There are three important roles the teachers need to deploy when students are asked to produce written texts:
Motivator
Teachers’ main role in writing tasks is to motivate the students, to create the right conditions for them to generate ideas and to encourage them to make as much effort as possible for maximum benefit.
Resource
Teachers should be ready to supply information and language when necessary, to offer advice and suggestions in a constructive and tactful way.
Feedback provider
Teachers should respond positively and encouragingly to the content of what students have written.
SPEAKING
Speaking is “the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts” (Chaney, 1998, p.13).
When speaking in another language speakers need:
To have some sociocultural knowledge, the ability to manage cross-cultural encounters and be aware of the difference and ambiguity inherent in all communication;
To have genre knowledge, to know how different speech events are structured;
To know the ways specific functions are typically encoded;
To know the register of speech, how to adapt the functions for different situations, according to context variables;
To have the discourse knowledge, to know how to use grammar and vocabulary to connect speaking turns and to signal speaker intentions;
To know the grammar systems that favour rapid, real-time speech production;
To know the vocabulary (native speakers employ over 2,500 words to cover 95% of their needs; learners can probably get half that number for the purposes of casual conversations);
To know phonology- working with sounds and spelling, stress, intonation;
Successful oral production depends upon the rapid processing skills that talking necessitates.
Language processing
Speakers need to be able to process language rapidly in their heads and put it into coherent order to be comprehensible and to convey the intended meanings.
Interacting with others
Speaking usually involves interaction with one or more participants. Interlocutors must listen carefully and understand how the other participants are feeling and also they must know to take turns or allow others to do so.
Processing information instantly
Speakers must process the information the moment they get it.
Fluency, accuracy and communication
People usually communicate when someone has the information that another one does not have. Discussions and conversations in which learners use the language they learn interacting in realistic and meaningful ways are examples of communicative activities. They must involve a real exchange of information or opinion.
Fluency and confidence are important goals in teaching speaking. Learners experience and activate fluency and confidence when they are put in safety situations in class feeling inspired and being encouraged to use the knowledge they have already gained, up-in-the-head knowledge. Teachers have to create activities in which learners are not worried about speaking allowing to use everything they have already learned. But sometimes it is necessary for students to be put under the pressure of trying new things out, using things they might usually avoid.
To achieve fluency teachers also have to find ways of enabling as many students as possible to speak as much as possible. All-class speaking activities are useful, but they actually offer very little speaking time and a small number of people to be speaking at the same time. Whereas whole-class mingling, pairs and small groups activities provide opportunities for the most speaking by the largest number of students.
When teaching speaking there are activities in which teachers are working on both accuracy and fluency in relatively equal measure. Language-teaching lesson stages can focus on accuracy rather than fluency or vice versa in response to what is happening in class.
When teachers focus on accuracy they will use instant correction more than when the focus is on fluency. They must be clear about the main aim of the lesson stage and adapt their role appropriately.
When teachers focus on fluency they must reduce their own contributions. The less they speak the more space they will allocate to students. Teachers must monitor discreetly or vanish during the fluency focused activities, without making corrections. If there are errors teachers can take notes unobtrusively for possible use later on at the end of the lesson or next class.
Scaffolding is the way of offering spontaneous correction which can be made during fluency activities if it does not interfere too much with the flow of conversation or if it offers useful language feedback or help in the building up of the conversation.
Doing this a teacher can help a less competent speaker by encouraging and providing possible elements of the conversation.
Scaffolding techniques:
Showing agreement by nodding, eye contact, etc.;
Concisely asking for clarification of unclear information;
Encouragement echo;
Asking conversation – oiling questions such as: Do you? , Is it?
Asking brief questions to extend the story: And then…? He went…;
Unobtrusively saying the correct form of an incorrect word;
Giving the correct pronunciation without drawing attention to it;
Unobtrusively giving a word or phrase that the speaker is looking for;
The role of the teacher
When we try to teach students speaking fluently there are three relevant roles for teachers:
Prompter
During speaking activities students might get lost, cannot think what to say next. The best option in these cases is to leave them to struggle out on their own, but if we want to let the activity progress we can offer discreet suggestions without disrupting the discussion.
Participant
Teachers should take the role of being a good animator during an activity of speaking. This role can be achieved by setting up an activity with passion and enthusiasm. Teachers can also participate in discussions or role-play. Doing this they can prompt discreetly, introduce helpful information, and ensure student engagement. They must be careful not to dominate the speaking and not to draw all the attention to themselves.
Feedback provider
Teachers must not over-correct the students who are in the middle of a speaking activity. This can lead to their inhibition and can take the communicativeness out of it. During the activity teachers should tactfully and appropriately give helpful and gentle correction which may get students out of difficulty. When the activity is over teachers have to allow students to assess what they have done and tell them what went well or bad.
Here there are some common communicative activities:
– Picture difference tasks;
– Group planning tasks;
– Ranking tasks;
– Pyramid discussion
– Board games;
– Puzzles and problems;
– Role-play, real-play and simulation;
Criteria for speaking tasks
Productivity
Purposefulness
Interactivity
Challenge
Safety
Authenticity
Complete First Certificate, Students’ Book, Guy Brook-Hart, Cambridge University Press, 2011
How to teach speaking, Scott Thornbury, Pearson Longman, 2007
RECEPTIVE SKILLS
Receptive skills are the ways people extract meaning from the written or spoken discourse. As I have already said, understanding the meaning of a discourse involves more than knowing the language, we need to have pre-existent knowledge of the world we live in – schematic knowledge. There are various schemata such as genre, topic, discourse patterning and the use of specific language features. They help us make sense of what we are hearing or reading.
The reasons for reading and listening can be divided in two broad categories:
Instrumental reading/ listening –large amounts of reading and listening happen because we need to achieve some clear aims. For example, we read a map in order to know where to go.
Pleasurable reading/ listening – we also read or listen for pleasure: when we read magazines or newspapers, when we listen to a Talk Radio or read poetry.
There are a lot of crossovers between the two categories. Instrumental reading or listening can be pleasurable as well. Reading history books may be done for fun and for utilitarian purpose as well. Even though the two categories can be “crossovered” the processes we go through when reading poetry or when looking for a number in a telephone directory are different. We use different skills depending on what we are reading or listening:
Identifying the topic
Predicting and guessing
Reading and listening for general understanding
Reading and listening for specific information
Reading and listening for detailed information
Interpreting text
Top-down and bottom-up
There is a frequent distinction made between two reading/ listening processing: top-down and bottom-up. Metaphorically, this can be seen like the difference between looking down on something from above – getting an overview, and, on the contrary, being in the middle of something and understanding where we are by concentrating on the individual features.
In top-down process the reader or the listener gets a general view of the reading or listening passage. On the other hand, in bottom-up process the reader or listener focuses on individual words or phrases, understanding the reading or listening passage by threading the detailed elements together so as to build up a whole.
Problems and solutions to teaching reading and listening
Language
Texts with long sentences and a lot of unfamiliar words will be more difficult to understand than texts with shorter sentences and a smaller percentage of unknown words. In order to avoid problems and not to de-motivate students, teachers have to pre-teach vocabulary, use extensive reading/ listening and consider alternatives to authentic language.
Topic and Genre
Many reading/ listening activities are not as successful as they should be because students are not familiar with the genre and the topic is not interesting for them. Therefore they become reluctant to full engagement with the activity which can hinder the success of the activities. To solve these problems teachers should pay attention when choosing and using a topic and how they approach different genres.
Teachers should:
Choose the right topic
Create interest
Activate schemata
Vary topics and genres
Comprehension tasks
The choice of comprehension tasks is a key feature in the successful teaching of the receptive skills. Testing students while encouraging them to improve the receptive skills is not an appropriate way of teaching reading and listening successfully even though reading and listening are good mediums for testing the skills and language. To solve these problems teachers need to use comprehension tasks.
Testing and teaching
Some tasks which ask if certain statements about the text are true or false or ask wh-questions about the text, could be on half way between testing and teaching. They could be used to assess students’ performance or to help each individual to understand the text through conversation and comparison.
Appropriate challenge
Texts and tasks must be the right level of challenge for students. They must not be far too easy or far too difficult. Texts must perfectly match the tasks. The tasks must be “difficult but achievable”. (Scrivener 1994b: 149).
Negative expectations
Sometimes students feel that they will not understand the passage or the tape because it is too difficult and they are frustrated and de-motivated. Their frustrations are due to previous unsuccessful experiences when they received reading and listening tasks which were too difficult for them.
Teachers could change the negative expectations into optimism by following the next steps:
Manufacturing success – by giving students the chance to achieve the purpose of the task through a right level of challenge in terms of language, text and task. Teachers need to create the ideal conditions to help the students read or listen successfully and doing it they will dilute the negative effect of past experiences and will increase the students’ self-confidence.
Agreeing on a purpose – It is important for students to know why they are reading or listening, if they are supposed to discover detailed information or just get a general understanding of what the text is about. Knowing the purpose of the task students can choose how to approach it.
READING
Usually learners expect to read texts thoroughly and to stop only when they have understood every word. This approach will not turn them into better readers. Teachers need to raise the students’ awareness that it is not always essential to understand every word. In order to read better learners should practice some different reading techniques and not to worry about understanding every word, but achieving a specific goal.
There are activities designed to improve reading and increase reading speed which follow two ideas:
Read quickly and get the gist of the passage
Read quickly and find a specific piece of information
Skimming is fast reading to get the gist of a passage. A typical skimming task could be a general question such as: Is this story set in a city or in the countryside? Students have to find the answer quickly without reading every word in the text. Skimming is concerned with finding main ideas, key topics, basic structure, overall theme, etc.
Scanning is fast reading for finding a specific piece of information such as: names, addresses, facts, numbers, dates, prices, etc. A typical scanning activity task would sound like this one: What time does the train to London leave?
Skimming and scanning are both top-down skills. Many reading lessons move from big to small, from overview to details.
Intensive reading versus extensive reading
Classroom materials and work involve a lot of intensive reading – reading texts closely and carefully gaining an understanding of as much details as possible. Reader goes back over and over the same text to find more and more in it.
It does not happen the same way in everyday life when we tend to do more extensive reading – fluent, faster reading of longer texts for pleasure and entertainment, but without such careful attention to details. We read for general understanding when we read a novel or a magazine article and do not come back when we do not understand words or small sections.
Extensive reading has a powerful impact on language learning. Students involuntarily pick up items of vocabulary and grammar from the text, increasing their overall linguistic confidence.
Examples of reading activities – Intensive reading- Skimming and Scanning
Solutions (Advanced Students’ Book) Tim Falla, Paul A Davis, Oxford University Press, 2nd edition
Complete First Certificate, Students’ Book, Guy Brook-Hart, Cambridge University Press, 2011
LISTENING
In the past listening was seen as a passive process by which the listener receives information conveyed by a speaker. Recently scholars have seen listening as a more active process in which the message is not fixed but is interactive between participants. Meanings are shaped by context and interpreted by the listener.
As well as reading, listening skills are divided in two categories: top-down and bottom-up.
Examples of top-down skills:
Discriminating between emotions
Getting the gist
Recognizing the topic
Using discourse structure to enhance listening strategies
Finding supporting details
Making inferences, etc.
Examples of bottom-up skills:
Discriminating between intonation outlines in sentences
Listening for word endings
Picking out details
Recognizing words, discriminate between word boundaries
Finding the stressed syllable
Using features of stress, intonation and prominence to help identify important information, etc.
When preparing the listening activities, teachers have to use authentic materials which contain interesting topics related to the students’ everyday life. Students should be able to distinguish between main idea and hidden points, between main idea and specific details. Authentic materials and situations are important because they prepare students for real life types of listening which can be met outside the classroom.
Authentic materials represent real language which is designed for native speakers without any teaching purposes. Here are some examples of authentic listening materials:
Radio/ TV commercials
TV shows
News
Films
Radio/ TV programmes
Music
Weather forecasts
Public announcements, etc.
Advantages of using authentic materials:
– They offer students a chance to deal with complete and meaningful message conveyed in a small amount of material;
– They provide authentic cultural information;
– They expose students to real language;
– They have appositive effect on student’s motivation;
– They support a more creative approach to teaching;
Intensive listening versus extensive listening
Intensive listening is when students are listening to a recorded text or to a live interview of conversation in class, and discuss detailed aspects of meaning, language, usually under the teacher’s guidance.
Recorded materials – are usually used when teachers want their students to practice listening skills. They can have different forms: tapes, CDs, podcasts, etc.
The advantages of using recorded materials are:
They allow students to hear a wide range of different voices apart from just the one of their teacher. The students have the opportunity to “meet” a variety of different characters and a wide variety of situations.
They are portable, cheap and readily available.
Coursebooks include CDs and teachers can rely on them to provide a significant source of language input.
The disadvantages of using recorded materials are:
Big classes with poor acoustics do not ensure that all students can hear equally well.
Everyone has to listen at the same speed dictated by the recording.
They cannot interact with the speakers in any way nor can they see the speaking taking place.
Lesson stages when people sit around listening to a tape recorder or disk player are not natural situations.
In spite of the bigger number of disadvantages, however, teachers still want to use recorded materials for the advantages mentioned above.
“Live” listening – is an efficient way of ensuring genuine communication. The obvious advantage is that students can interrupt speakers and ask for clarifications. They also can indicate if the speaker is going too fast or too slowly and above all they can see the speaker.
Forms of “live” listening:
Reading aloud
Story telling
Interviews
Conversations
“Live” listening is not a substitute for recorded materials, but it offers an extra dimension to the experience of listening.
The roles of teacher during the intensive listening activities
Organizer
Teacher need to tell students the exact purpose of the listening activity and give them clear instructions about how to achieve it. Teachers have the responsibility to build the students confidence offering achievable tasks and comprehensible texts.
Machine operator
When teachers use recorded materials they need to be efficient in the way they use the player, knowing where the segment they wish to use is on the disk, knowing how to use the playback machine counter, computer or CD player, and how to get back there. Teachers should take decisions about where to stop the extract for certain questions and exercises.
If the students are involved in “live” listening teachers need to observe them carefully to see if they can understand the speaker or to see if the teachers need to adjust the “machine” accordingly.
Feedback organizer
After completing the task, teachers should lead a feedback session to check if students have completed the task successfully. Teachers ask students to compare answers in pairs and then ask for answers from the class in general or from pairs in particular.
Prompter
After listening to a recorded material for comprehension purposes students can be asked to listen to it again to notice a variety of language and spoken features. Teachers can sometimes offer them script dictations to provoke the student’s awareness of certain language items.
Extensive listening
Extensive listening is encouraging students to choose for themselves what to listen to and to listen for pleasure and general language improvement. It usually takes place outside the classroom, at home or on the road as they travel, etc. materials for extensive listening are available and numerous: audio versions of readers and books, coursebooks tapes or CDs, music, films, TV and Radio programmes, etc.
Examples of listening activities
Complete First Certificate, Students’ Book, Guy Brook-Hart, Cambridge University Press, 2011
APPROACHES, METHODS, PROCEDURES, AND TECHNIQUES
“Methodology” is the general area where it is talked people about approaches, methods, techniques and procedures which go into the practice of teaching English.
Approach – refers to theories about the nature of language learning that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching (Richards and Rodgers 1986: 16). It describes how language is used as a model of their language competence and how people acquire knowledge of the language. An approach makes statements about the ways in which successful language learning will be promoted
Method – is the practical version of an approach. Methods include a wide range of procedures and techniques as part of their standard fare.
Procedure – is an ordered sequence of techniques which can be described in terms such as: first you do this, than you do that.
Technique – is the way you apply teaching/learning. For example: “silent viewing” is a common technique when using video material with no sound.
Well known methods and approaches include:
Audio – lingualism
Audio – lingual methodology used the Stimulles-Response-Reinforcement model. It was created after the Behaviorist model of learning. In Behaviorist theory conditioning is the result of three-stage procedure: stimulus, response and reinforcement. It claimed that through a continuous process of positive reinforcement teachers would engender good habits in language learners.
Audio-lingualism relied heavily on drills to form the habits and solving the drills and learning constantly the students were shielded from the possibility of making mistakes.
Characteristics of audio-lingual method
Stress is laid on memorization of set phrases and overlearning
Structures are taught using repetitive drills
There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught inductively
Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context
Very little use of mother tongue is permitted
There is a great effort to get students to produce error free utterances
Presentation, Practice and Production
A variation of Audio-lingualism in British – based teaching is the procedure most often referred to as PPP. The Teacher introduces a situation which contextualizes the languages to be taught, then the language is presented. The students practice the language using reproduction techniques such as choral repetition, individual repetition and cue-response drills.
The PPP procedure was considerably criticized over the last few years. Michael Lewis suggested that PPP was inadequate because it reflected neither the nature of language nor the nature of learning (Lewis 1993: 190) and later J. Scrivener underlined the most worrying aspect of PPP: “it only describes one king of lesson; it is inadequate as a general proposal concerning approaches to language in the classroom” (J. Scrivener 1996 : 79).
The PPP procedure might be appropriate for beginners and elementary students where accurate reproduction and controlled repetition seem to be necessary.
The Communicative Approach
The Communicative Approach or Communicative Language Teaching is the name of a set of beliefs which included a re-examination of what aspects of language to teach and how to teach them. The “what to teach” aspect stressed the significance of language functions rather than focusing solely on grammar and vocabulary.
The “how to teach” aspect is related to the idea of plentiful exposure to language in use which is vitally important for a student’s development of knowledge and skill. Activities used in Com. L. Teaching involved students in real or realistic communication where the accuracy of the language is less important than the successful achievement of the communicative task they are performing”. (Harmer, 2001: 85)
We can say that an activity is communicative when:
– students have a desire to communicate something
-students have a purpose for communicating
-students are focused on the content of what they are saying/writing
-students use a variety of language structures
-teacher will not intervene to stop the activity
-the materials will not dictate what specific language form the students use either.
The Communicative approach is the method that most contemporary teacher would subscribe to even if it was under attack from non-native speaker teachers because this approach demands uncontrolled range of language use on the part of the student and expect the teacher to be able to respond to any and every language problem which may come up. The approach also may offend the traditional education and erode the explicit teaching of grammar with a consequent loss among students in accuracy(in the pursuit of fluency).
Four methods
Four methods developed in the 1970sand 1980s have had a great impact upon language teaching
Community Language Learning (CLL)
In the classic form of Community Language Learning students sit in a circle and decide what they want to talk about. This method is based around use of the learners’ language and a counsellor or a knower who stands outside the circle helps in mediating. The idea is to facilitate rather than teach.
In some CLL lessons the students’ utterances are recorded (onto tape) to be analyzed later. Usually there is a period for reflection when students comment on how they felt about the activity. The idea that students should reflect upon their learning experiences influenced other methods in the “mainstream” teaching and it is now widely accepted.
The Silent Way
In this teaching method one of the most interesting features is the behaviour of the teacher who says as little as possible. This method, devised by Caleb Gattegno, requires the learner to take active ownership of their language learning. The use of Cruisenaire rods in mainstream ELT arose from this method.
Suggestopaedia
For George Lazanov, the one who developed this method, the physical surrounding and the classroom atmosphere are vitally important. If the students are comfortable, confident and relaxed learning is enhancing.
A sugestopaediclesson has three main parts:
-oral review
-presentation and discussion of new dialogue material
-“concert” session – where students listen to relaxing music while the teacher reads the new dialogue material. There can be also “several minutes of solemn silence” (Lazanov1978: 272). Lowering the affective filter is now accepted as an important part of all teaching methods. Music is frequently used in classes too.
Total Physical Response(T.P.R.)
T.P.R. is a method devised by DR. J. Asher. This method is useful with beginner and lower-level students. Following the pattern of child language acquisition, learners listen to instruction from the teacher, understand and do things in response to speak only when they are ready to do it.
The lexical approach
Dave Willis (1990) and Michael Lewis (1993,1997) discussed and popularized this method, which is based on assertion that “languages consists not of traditional grammar and vocabulary but often of multi-words prefabricated chunks”(Lewis 1997:3) Prefabricated chunks means “lexical phrases”: collocations, idioms, fixed and semi-fixed phrases. Proponents suggest that traditional present-the-practice methods are of little use and suggest a method based on exposure and experiment.
The Grammar-Translation method
In this classical method the focus is on studying grammatical rules and morphology, doing written exercises, memorizing vocabulary, translating texts. It used to be done in schools worldwide, and now it is still the predominant classroom method in some cultures. There is relatively little focus on speaking and listening skills. Traditional language teaching in schools worldwide was done in this way.
The Communicative Translation Teaching
It is a student-centered teaching approach that incorporates and uses communicative and interactive activities in translation studies. The teacher functions as a facilitator encouraging the students to be active and autonomous. The Communicative Translation Teaching can be characterized by: authentic materials, cooperative learning, task-based learning and autonomous learning.
SEGREGATED SKILLS APPROACH VERSUS INTEGRATED SKILLS APPROACH
A stand-alone speaking/ writing/ reading/ listening course might give the impression that the primary skill exists in isolation. Very few events in the real life world exist independently. For instance, speaking always assumes a listener, or even a relatively non-interactive speech event, such as a formal speech, involves some preparation in the form of writing.
A skill, therefore, needs to be practiced in conjunction with other skills, which suggests an integrated skills approach. Real life tasks may involve speaking, reading, listening and writing as well. And as I have already written above, in the previous sections of my work the correct usage of the primary skills also involves a variety of different registers, genres, use of language.
TRADITIONAL TEACHING
Segregated skills approach or Language-based approach is favoured by traditional discrete-item syllabuses and is still used because it is believed to be much easier to present courses on writing divorced from speaking, or listening isolated from reading. According to Mohan in his book “Language and contents”, “The mastery of discrete language skills, such as reading or speaking, is seen as the key to successful learning and language learning is typically separated from context learning”. (Mohan, 1986). This approach restricts language learning to a non-communicative range that does not prepare students for everyday life language.
Traditional teaching is often characterised by the longest class time for using the board and explaining things – “chalk and talk” approach as it was named by some scholars. It is deeply teacher-centered. The teacher does most of the talking and is by far the most active person. The students’ role is to listen, concentrate and take notes. This view of teaching represents the predominant mode of education in many cultures. Teachers are expected to teach in this way. According to Scrivener, traditional teaching process is characterised as “jug and mug” – the knowledge is poured from one receptacle into an empty one.
Traditional teaching puts the responsibility for teaching and learning mainly on the teacher and it is believed that if students are present in the class and listen to the teacher’s explanations, they will be able to use the knowledge. In fact, we never know how much learning is taking place.
Moreover, traditional teaching does not present the language as a means of communication. It shows language as a set of rules and concentrates on grammar and isolated items of vocabulary. It is supposed that one who knows the rules and the lexis, understands and speaks the target language. According to Tharp (Tharp, 49) the essential issue was: rules to be memorized, grammatical texts analysed and texts literally translated. Students were expected to memorize and practise the grammatical rules using them while translating sentences and analysing English texts.
Traditional teaching has the following positive aspects:
Using students’ native language in class is economic because it saves time;
Using students’ native language in class is effective because they really understand the main point, the new concept;
Students cannot make mistakes when trying to express themselves through controlled opportunity for production by memorizing dialogues and performing drills;
Students always know what follows because traditional teaching lessons have fixed steps which under no circumstances should be broken;
There are negative aspects of traditional teaching as well:
There is not enough attention paid to teaching the basic skills;
It often presents writing in a very unpleasant way – if they make mistakes student have to write as a punishment;
It focuses on grammatical structures and isolated items of vocabulary;
The teacher spends a lot of time explaining things;
Students are expected to memorize the rules and the items of vocabulary;
MODERN TEACHING
Unlike traditional teaching, modern teaching is student-centered. According to Jim Scrivener, the teacher’s main role is “to help learning to happen […] involving students by enabling them to work at their own speed, by not giving long explanations, by encouraging them to participate, talk, interact, do things, etc.” (Scrivener, 18-19).
Ronald V. White (White, 11) articulates three principles of modern teaching:
The primacy of speech;
The centrality of connected text as the heart of teaching-learning process;
An absolute priority of an oral methodology in the classroom;
Instead of memorizing grammatical rules and isolated vocabulary items, modern teaching prefers to present contextualized language and to develop receptive and productive skills and sub-skills, such as: skimming, scanning, listening for gist, listening for specific information, intensive and extensive reading and listening.
The first linguist who promoted the integrated skills approach was H.G. Widdowson (1978:144). He pointed out that the language uses take place in the form of discourse and in specific contexts, not in discrete “units”. For this reason, learners need to develop productive and receptive skills in both written and spoken discourse.
When teaching the productive skills teachers must be aware of a contradiction between accuracy and fluency. Students should be encouraged to speak the language, to get the meaning through, even if there are some errors occurring. Furthermore, the skills should be taught in contexts which mirror real life situations, and the activities should be both motivating and interesting.
Teaching grammar in a modern way is also an essential part. There are four conditions of a good grammar presentation:
To create a safe atmosphere – the feeling that the tasks are achievable;
To give short explanations – for the need of students’ participation and interaction;
To teach the meaning before the form;
To check the understanding – to see if students understand the new concept, actively listen to, speak, read and write;
When teaching lexis, the most popular or the most common methods in modern teaching, as Scrivener suggested, are:
Match the words with the picture;
Check the meaning of these words;
Match the words with the definitions;
Brainstorm words on a set topic;
Divide these words into groups; etc.
Pre-teaching lexis can be the first stage in a teaching vocabulary lesson, as Scrivener suggested in his book “Learning teaching” which can help learners to recall lexis they have met before and also to learn new words. It is helpful for the following activities and can be exciting and involving.
Jim Scrivener (Scrivener, 233-234) suggests six stages in a teaching vocabulary lesson:
Pre-teaching lexis
Written practice of lexis
Oral practice of lexis
Reading to find specific information
Further lexis work
Communicative activity
There are at least two forms of instructions that are clearly oriented toward integrating the skills:
Task-based language instruction
Content-based language instruction
TASK-BASED LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION
Task-based language instruction is a teaching approach greatly popularized by N. Prabhu, a teacher working with schools in Bangalore. According to this method, students are likely to learn language if they are given a task they have to perform or a problem to solve instead of a language structure. Only after the task has been completed does the teacher discuss the language, make corrections and adjustments.
Task-based language instruction engages a wide range of real-life or pedagogical tasks in order to promote acquisitions. Real-life tasks are designed to work out those skills the students need to have in real world. They stimulate authentic behaviour and their aim is to achieve an end product. On the other hand, pedagogical tasks act as a bridge between classroom and the real world to prepare students for real-life situations. They help the learner to understand how language works and develop their learning skills and strategies.
Advantages of Task-based instructions:
It uses tasks as an organizational principle;
It is student-centered;
It promotes learning by doing;
It promotes cooperative and collaborative learning;
It uses meaningful, comprehensible and elaborated input;
It follows the principles of Communicative Language Teaching;
CONTENT-BASED LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION
Content-based language instruction is also built on the principles of Communicative Language Teaching and emphasizes learning content through language. In Content-based language instruction, students are exposed to language through stimulating content and engaged in appropriate language-dependent activities practicing all the language skills highly integrated in communicative content.
The European Commission perceives the integration of language and content as “an excellent way of making progress in a foreign language. Content-based language instruction effectively increases learners’ English language proficiency and teaches them the skills necessary for the success in various professions.” The same commission also states that Content-based language instruction enables students to participate in an increasingly complex academic and social environment.”
Benefits of Content-based language instruction:
It is student-centered;
Learners are exposed to language through stimulating content;
Learners are taught useful language embedded within relevant discourse context;
Complex information is delivered through real-life context;
It offers greater flexibility and adaptability;
Potential problems of Content-based and Task-based Instructions
Some students may feel that they are not improving their language skills because these instructions are not basically focused on language learning;
The overuse of the students’ native language during parts of the lesson;
It can be hard to adapt texts and information sources to the students’ proficiency levels;
Some students may copy directly from the source texts they use to get their information, or in order to solve some tasks;
GRAMMAR – TRANSLATION APPROACH VERSUS COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
These two approaches are the representatives for traditional teaching – Grammar-Translation Approach, and respectively, for modern teaching – Communicative Approach.The main differences between them are presented in the table below.
Advantages of integrated skills approach
Exposes English language learners to authentic language;
Challenges them to interact naturally in the language;
Stresses that English is not just an object of academic interest nor merely a key to passing an examination;
Stresses that English becomes a real means of interaction and sharing among people;
Allows teachers to track the students’ progress in multiple skills at the same time;
Promotes the learning of real content not just the dissection of language forms;
Can be highly motivating to students of all ages and backgrounds;
EVALUATION
Errors and correction
Students’ errors show us that progress is being made, they show the fact that the students are experimenting with language, taking risks and trying new things in their attempt to communicate. By carefully analyzing the errors the teacher knows exactly which level the student has reached. Errors can be of many kinds: grammatical errors, inappropriate context, errors of intonation, pronunciation errors, etc.
When to correct depends on the aims of the lesson:
Immediately
After a few minutes
At the end of activity
Later in the lesson
At the end of the lesson
In the next lesson
Later in the course
Never
For instance, if the main objective of a speaking activity is accuracy, we can immediately correct the error or later or never. If the main objective of a speaking activity is fluency, we can correct later or we can use scaffolding(brief, unobtrusive, immediate correction) or not at all.
Who corrects? There are several options such as:
Self-correction
Student-student correction
Teacher-student correction
Small groups correction
All class correction
Coursebook/ reference books correction
Testing
There are four main reasons for testing:
Placement tests – which place students in the right class in school
Diagnostic tests – which expose learner’s difficulties, gaps in their knowledge and skill deficiencies during a course
Progress tests – which test the students’ progress over the course so far
Proficiency tests – which test the students’ general level of English, without reference to any course.
Types of tasks
Some questions/ tasks may involve elements of both discrete and integrative items.
A good test:
– will seem fair and appropriate to the students and to anyone who needs to know the results.
– will not be too troublesome to mark.
– will provide clear results.
Traditional assessment versus authentic assessment
Traditional assessment
Tests taken with pencil and paper only;
The tasks are usually true/false, matching or multiple choice;
Easy to grade;
Tests isolated application facts or memorized data at lower-level thinking skills;
Provides little evidence of what a language learner can actually do with the language;
Authentic assessment
Tests a variety of skills;
Requires the learner to perform in realistic situations
Requires students to generate rather than choose a response;
Requires students to use more complex, higher-order thinking skills;
Students must reason, problem-solve, or collaborate with others to produce individual responses;
Example of an integrated-skills test
The aims of the test
Students’ ability to use the language systems
Students’ ability to use the receptive skills
Students’ ability to produce written discourses
Aid material
Handouts
Marking scale
Structure and tasks
The test consists of five tasks which test students’ different abilities and skills such as:
Task1: lexis (discrete)
Task 2: reading, listening (discrete)
Task 3: writing, discourse, genre (integrative)
Task 4: grammar (discrete)
Task 5: reading, writing, lexis, function (discrete, integrative)
Assessment scale
Discrete items will be marked according to the marking scale below.
Marking scale
6x1p=6p
7x2p=14p
16p
10x2p=20p
a.10p
b.12x2p=24p
10p for granted
Total: 100p
Integrative items will be marked as follows *:
Total score ___ out of 16.
Test paper
Level: Intermediate
Working time: 50 minutes
Type: progress test
Label each of the photographs with a type of shop listed in the shop below.
1.____________________ 2. ___________________ 3. ___________________
4. ___________________ 5. ____________________ 6.___________________
Listen to the extract and choose the best answer A, B or C for the following questions. You have one minute to read the questions before listening.
Where is Redsands Park situated?
In the city centre.
In the city, but not near the centre.
Outside the city in the countryside.
The location was chosen because
It would not harm the environment
It was easy to get permission to build there.
It was easy for people to reach.
What is the main attraction of Redsands Park?
It’s convenient place to do the shoping
It’s entertaining for the whole family
It offers high-quality goods at low prices.
When Will visited shopping centres in the US, he was impressed by
Their luxury
Their security
Their friendliness
Will says families argue when they go shopping because
They don’t enjoy the same things
They can’t agree on what to buy
They also argue at home
How are the shops at Redsands organized?
Each shop chooses its own location
Each section has a variety of shops
Similar shops are located in the same section
What does Will plan as the next development at Redsands?
Electric vehicles
Moving walkways
Automatic delivery systems.
Write a paragraph answering the following question: Do you enjoy shopping with your family? Why (not)? (50-60 words)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Complete these sentences by writing as or like in each space.
He has a weekend job _______ a shop assistant.
He was considered by his teachers_______ the most brilliant student they had ever taught.
How embarrassing! Donna came to class wearing exactly the same clothes ______ me!
I find certain subjects______ physics and chemistry very difficult to study.
I shall be on holiday next week ______ you know.
I’m afraid I don’t study _______ much _______ I should.
I’m speaking to you ________ a friend.
My English teacher is lovely. She’s _______ a mother to me!
Several cities in Switzerland, such ______ Zurich and Berne, have reputations _______ excellent places to live.
Tanya’s father gave her a car for her 18th birthday ______ she’s done so well in her exams.
a. Read the text below without paying attention to the gaps. What does the writer say are the differences? What reasons are given?
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
b. Read the text again and decide which word best fits each gap.
Keys and marking scales
1. delicatessen shop 6x1p
2. department store
3. market stall
4. fashion boutique
5. bookstore
6. supermarket
1.B 2.C 3.B 4.A 5.A 6.B 7.C 7x2p
The written paragraph 16p
1.as 2.as 3.as 4.like 5.as 6.as,as 7.as 8.like 9.as,as 10.as 10x2p
a. Women: they take time to search for the right item at the right price, shopping is a leisure activity, they enjoy looking at things.
Men: they know what they want and go directly to buy it, they don’t compare prices and they spend 10% more than women.
Reasons: our origins as hunters and gatherers. 10p
b.1.when 2.like 3.until 4.as 5.hand 6.what 7.it 8.result/ consequence 9.on 10.according 11.not 12.that/ which 12x2p
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This present research was designed to give arguments in favour of using integrated-skills approach in teaching English as a foreign language and to demonstrate the effectiveness of integrated-skills approach in developing students’ proficiency in English in an attractive, motivating and communicative way.
My research paper tries to demonstrate the following hypothesis: “If I use integrated-skills approach in teaching English as a foreign language, then it will help students to improve their English proficiency. If the students practice the four language skills – reading, listening, writing and speaking, being combined with the study of the language systems – grammar, lexis, phonology, function and discourse, and at the same time, communicating real meaning, having fun and being motivated to learn, then their natural strategies for language acquisition will be used, and this will allow them to learn to use the language – knowing and doing.
Teaching English is like a tapestry woven from many strands, such as: the type of the teacher, the learner, the setting, the four primary skills (reading, listening, writing, speaking), the language systems (the knowledge of vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation, syntax, meaning, usage). In order to produce a strong beautiful colourful tapestry all the strands must be interwoven in a positive way during instruction. However, if the strands mentioned above are not woven effectively, the instructional loom is likely to produce something which is not recognizable as a tapestry – a small weak ragged pale rug.
The objectives of this research paper are as follows:
To present the subject matter of language eaching;
To compare the two approaches of teaching English as a foreign language: segregated-skills approach and integrated-skills approach;
To demonstrate the effectiveness of teaching English using the integrated-skills approach;
LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH
Some disadvantages of questionnaires:
Questionnaires, like many evaluation methods occur after the event, so participants may forget important issues.
Questionnaires are standardised so it is not possible to explain any points in the questions that participants might misinterpret. This could be partially solved by piloting the questions on a small group of students or at least friends and colleagues. It is advisable to do this anyway.
Open-ended questions can generate large amounts of data that can take a long time to process and analyse. One way of limiting this would be to limit the space available to students so their responses are concise or to sample the students and survey only a portion of them.
Respondents may answer superficially especially if the questionnaire takes a long time to complete. The common mistake of asking too many questions should be avoided.
Students may not be willing to answer the questions. They might not wish to reveal the information or they might think that they will not benefit from responding perhaps even be penalised by giving their real opinion. Students should be told why the information is being collected and how the results will be beneficial. They should be asked to reply honestly and told that if their response is negative this is just as useful as a more positive opinion. If possible the questionnaire should be anonymous.
Some advantages of questionnaires:
The responses are gathered in a standardised way, so questionnaires are more objective, certainly more so than interviews.
Generally it is relatively quick to collect information using a questionnaire. However in some situations they can take a long time not only to design but also to apply and analyse.
Potentially information can be collected from a large portion of a group. This potential is not often realised, as returns from questionnaires are usually low. However return rates can be dramatically improved if the questionnaire is delivered and responded to in class time. (John Milne, Centre for CBL in Land Use and Environmental Sciences, Aberdeen University.http://www.icbl.hw.ac.uk/ltdi/cookbook/info_questionnaires/)
Threats to validity of survey research
Certain situations can threaten the internal or external validity of an evaluation design.
Threats to internal validity
Threats to internal validity of a survey might mean the factors outside of the programme or treatment could account for the results obtained from the evaluation.
Selection bias – participants are selected from populations with different characteristics;
History – external or unanticipated events occur between evaluations surveys;
Maturation – aging or development of participants occurs;
Threats to external validity
If there are threats to external validity, the researcher might be wrong in making a generalization about the findings.
Situational/ Contextual Factors – specific conditions under which the research was conducted limit its generalizability;
Hawthorne Effects – participants reaction to being studied alters their behavior and therefore the study results;
Experimenter Effects – results are influenced by the actions of the researcher;
METHODOLOGY
This research makes a comparative study between two approaches of teaching English as a foreign language: segregated-skills approach and integrated-skills approach with the intention to demonstrate that teaching English as a foreign language while using integrated skills approach helps students to become more proficient in the language and to improve their natural strategies for language acquisition allowing them to learn to use the target language. To demonstrate all of these a number of 75 students from the Upper Secondary School were administered a questionnaire with 15 items. The research has both male and female respondents.
This research is descriptive and almost non-experimental. The research was based on primary data and the data were collected via the survey approach through a self-administered questionnaire.Besides the data collected via the survey, this paper also presents data collected via a short-term experiment in order to increase the scope and the depth of analysis.
I have chosen the method of questionnaire as the main data resource because:
it is suitable for empirical research;
the data collected through this method is easily quantifiable;
this method gives informants enough time to provide well thought out answers;
this requires low cost and saves time.
The questionnaire was prepared by researcher in connection with the research demands. It is an adaptation after Jim Scrivener’s Needs Analysis Questionnaire from his book “Teaching learning” (Scrivener, 2005). While preparing the questionnaire, the researcher had paid close attention to ensure the standard and the quality of the questions, being concerned about the validity, clarity, reliability and practicality of the instrument.
Sample population
In order to test her working hypothesis the researcher administered a questionnaire to 75 students (33 boys and 42 girls) of the same age – 11th graders, who were studying at the same high school in different classes and profiles such as: Natural Sciences (3 classes per week), Social Sciences (3 classes per week) and Mathematics-Informatics (4 classes per week). All the students who participated in this research have been studying English for at least 6 years therefore their level of English was or should have been somewhere between upper-intermediate and advanced.
Pre-test/ Post-test design
To get a fuller picture about the effectiveness of using the integrated-skills approach the researcher used in addition to the questionnaire a short-time experiment. The additional method was used to increase the scope and depth of analysis. It is a single group pre-test/ post-test design experiment conducted in a short period of time – one month. 28 students from the 11th grade were tested before and after the treatment. The results scored in the Pre-test are compared with the results scored in the Post-test to see if there is a significant change in the results.
The Pre-test
SCHOOL: Theoretical High School “MirceaEliade” Lupeni
GRADE: 11th
TOPIC: Conditionals
TYPE: Authentic Assessment
TIME: 50 MIN
LEVEL: Upper-intermediate
AIMS:
Students’ ability to react to written and spoken language;
Students’ ability to produce written texts;
Students’ ability to use Conditional Structures;
You will hear part of an interview with a writer called Jeff Bowen, who believes his house is haunted. For questions 1-10, listen and complete the sentences just one or two words for each space. Before you listen, read the questions as quickly as possible.
Jeff has lived in the house for (1) _______________. He thinks his house is haunted because of the (2) ___________________ which people have had there.
His (3) ____________________ saw medieval soldiers. Another visitor saw furniture moving in (4) __________________. When working in his study, Jeff has felt there was a person (5) __________________ him.
He decided to convert a (6) __________________ into a study. An expert told him the house was built on the site of a (7) __________________.
He recently had a (8) ___________________ installed in his garden. One of the workers saw a man with (9) ____________________ on his shirt.
Jeff only lives in the house (10) _________________.
Answer the following questions.
Do you think it’s possible for houses to be haunted? Why (not)?
What would you do if you were to live in a haunted house? Why?
Finish the following sentences.
If I were to choose a place …
Unless you make up your mind…
If only…
But for the rain…
The child wouldn’t have stopped asking questions unless…
Replace if by unless.
If I hadn’t had a nightmare I wouldn’t have woken up.
_______________________________________________________
If she didn’t like the painting so much she wouldn’t pay so much for it.
________________________________________________________
If he doesn’t read the map carefully, he will get lost.
_________________________________________________________
Use the right tenses for the verbs in brackets.
I will send her a photo if she (ask) __________________.
He (find) __________________ some interesting points if he had read the advertisement thoroughly.
If he really (undestand) ___________________ me he would change his behaviour.
It’s high time we (go) __________________ to bed.
I would rather she (not/ say) _______________________ that stupid thing.
Rewrite the following sentences using inversions.
If you were to find some vestigies of Antiquity, what would you do with them.
Were __________________________________________________________
If my aunt happens to sell the old house, she will come to live with us.
Should _________________________________________________________
If the Smiths had laid aside some money, they wouldn’t have stayed at home the whole summer.
Had ___________________________________________________________
Write an email to your friend giving him/ her some advice regarding his/ her visit in your country this summer. Advise him/ her on where to go and what to see. Write between 80-100 words.
Marking scale
10 x 0.2p
2 x 0.5p
5 x 0.25p
3 x 0.25p
5 x 0.25p
3 x 0.25p
2p
1 p for granted
The Post-test
The post-test was given to students at the end of the experimental stage. The items and the marking scales were similar to those used in the pre-test.
SCHOOL: Theoretical High School “MirceaEliade” Lupeni
GRADE: 11th
TOPIC: Conditionals
TYPE: Authentic Assessment
TIME: 50 MIN
LEVEL: Upper-intermediate
AIMS:
Students’ ability to react to written and spoken language;
Students’ ability to produce written texts;
Students’ ability to use Conditional Structures;
You will hear part of a radio interview with Sylvia Welling, a student who is working on a rainforest in Costa Rica. For questions 1-10, listen and complete the sentences just one or two words for each space. Before you listen, read the questions as quickly as possible.
Sylvia is spending her (1) _________________ working on the project. The aim of the project is to (2) _______________ about the rainforest.
Sylvia is on the project because she wants to gain (3) ________________ experience. One part of her job involves (4) ____________________ in the forest.
She also works as a (5) ___________________ for visitors. She says rainforests are destroyed to make land available for (6) _________________.
She predicts that (7) _________________ of rainforests will have been destroyed by the year 2050. As a result, the world will probably become (8) __________________. She thinks that many species of animals will only be found (9) _________________.
She hopes visitors will be more careful about (10) __________________ when they go home.
Answer the following questions.
If you had the chance to visit a place like Costa Rica, would you work on a project like this? Why (not)?
Why is it important to preserve rainforests?
Finish the following sentences.
If I were to live in another country …
Unless you paid the taxes …
If only…
But for the neighbours’ dog …
The man wouldn’t have stopped asking questions unless…
Replace if by unless.
If I hadn’t had that pain I wouldn’t have been awake.
_______________________________________________________
If she didn’t want that car so much she wouldn’t pay so much for it.
________________________________________________________
If he doesn’t read the instructions carefully, he won’t know how to build it.
________________________________________________________
Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word given. Do not change the word given, use between two and five words, including the word given.
He won’t pass the test because he doesn’t work hard enough. (HARDER)
If he worked _____________________________ pass the test.
Studying abroad will make you more independent. (BECOME)
If you _____________________________ more independent.
Sandra only goes to lessons because she wants to meet other students. (ATTEND)
If Sandra didn’t want to meet other students, ________________________________ lessons.
I’ll lend you my book if you take care of it. (AFTER)
If you __________________________________ you can borrow it.
I can’t tell you the answer because I don’t know.(WOULD)
If I ____________________________________ tell you.
Complete each of the following sentences by putting the verb in the brackets into the correct tense.
If my mother had let me when I was a child, I (have) ___________________ a pet dog.
In Don hadn’t been wearing thick boots, the snake (bite) ___________________ him.
If the shops (be) _________________________ open, I could have bought you some bread.
Write an email to your friend giving him/ her some advice regarding the best things to do in his/ her leisure time. Advise him/ her on where to go and what to see or do. Write between 80-100 words.
Marking scale
10 x 0.2p
2 x 0.5p
5 x 0.25p
3 x 0.25p
5 x 0.25p
3 x 0.25p
2p
1 p for granted
LESSON PLANS USED IN THE STUDY
LESSON PLAN 1
TEACHER: URSU CRISTINA
SCHOOL: Theoretical High School “MirceaEliade” Lupeni
GRADE: 11th
TEXTBOOK: Prospects – Advanced (McMillan); Complete First Certificate (Barbara & Amanda
Thomas – Cambridge)
TOPIC: Conditionals (Type Zero, Type I, Type II)
TYPE: Presentation-Practice-Production
TIME: 50 MIN
FRAMEWORK OBJECTIVES
1. Developing active listening skills and strategies
2. Developing and adapting speaking skills and strategies
3. Developing and responding to reading skills and strategies
4. Developing and adopting writing skills and strategies
5. Developing an interest in learning English
LESSON AIMS
To give students practice in listening , understanding and responding to what people say
To revise conditional constructions
To give students practice in using the conditionals
To understand and respond to different forms of written texts
To write a composition
ANTICIPATED PROBLEMS: Students may have trouble understanding and responding to what speakers say. The conditional structures could be a problem as well. Students may not remember the forms, the rules and the usage of the conditional structures.
ACTIVITY 1
Aims:
To give students practice in listening , understanding and responding to what people say
To revise conditional constructions
Class organization: Pair work activity, whole-class activity
Estimated time: 10 min
Materials: computer / CD player, overhead projector
Procedure:
Students are asked to listen to an extract, then to answer and discuss the questions. Students will write on the board the answers eliciting the key words.
If for any reason you can’t make it to a tutorial, try to let your tutor know.
Your tutors will organize you into groups and suggest researchunlessyou prefer working alone.
Teacher then asks some concept questions such as:
Was the tutorial canceled? (no)
Is the situation real or imaginary? (imaginary) etc.
ACTIVITY 2
Aims:
To revise conditional constructions
Class organization: Whole-class activity, pair-work activity
Estimated time: 15 min
Materials: handouts, board
Procedure:
Students divided in pairs have to complete the table with the examples, rules and forms of conditional sentences. Then they check their answers completing the table on the board.
ACTIVITY 3
Aims:
To give students practice in using the conditionals
To understand and respond to different forms of written texts
Class organization: Whole-class activity, pair-work activity
Estimated time: 20 min
Materials: handouts, computer, smart/ interactive board
Procedure:
Students are asked to solve the exercises from the handouts. Then they solve some online multiple choice and matching drills.
ACTIVITY 4 – HOME ASSIGNMENT
Aims:
To write a composition
Class organization: Individual activity
Estimated time: 5 min
Materials: board
Procedure:
Students are asked to choose a story / fairy-tale and change its plot: What if…
They have to write the story at home in about 150 – 200 words.
Handout – lesson plan 1
ACTIVITY 1. Work in pairs. You will overhear a teacher talking with his students. Listen to the extract and answer the following questions:
Why is he talking to them?
What should students do in case they can’t make it to the tutorial?
What happens in case their tutor has to cancel a tutorial or put it off?
What happens in case a student doesn’t like working alone?
ACTIVITY 2. Complete the following table.
ACTIVITY 3
Match the beginning of each sentence with its ending.
Finish the following sentences:
If you speak a bit of the language, …
Unless you pay your taxes, …
If you studied in a different country, …
Were I to live in another country, I …
Work in pairs. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word given. Do not change the word given, use between two and five words, including the word given.
He won’t pass the test because he doesn’t work hard enough. (HARDER)
If he worked _____________________________ pass the test.
Studying abroad will make you more independent. (BECOME)
If you _____________________________ more independent.
Sandra only goes to lessons because she wants to meet other students. (ATTEND)
If Sandra didn’t want to meet other students, ________________________________ lessons.
I’ll lend you my book if you take care of it. (AFTER)
If you __________________________________ , you can borrow it.
I can’t tell you the answer because I don’t know.(WOULD)
If I ____________________________________ tell you.
ACTIVITY 4
WHAT IF… Imagine that your favourite story can have another ending. What if Cinderella didn’t lose her shoe? Or what if Harry Potter’ parents weren’t killed?
LESSON PLAN 2
TEACHER: URSU CRISTINA
SCHOOL: Theoretical High School “MirceaEliade” Lupeni
GRADE: 11th
TEXTBOOK: Prospects – Advanced (McMillan); Complete First Certificate (Barbara & Amanda
Thomas – Cambridge)
TOPIC: Conditionals (Type III)
TYPE: Presentation-Practice-Production
TIME: 50 MIN
FRAMEWORK OBJECTIVES
1. Developing active listening skills and strategies
2. Developing and adapting speaking skills and strategies
3. Developing and responding to reading skills and strategies
4. Developing and adopting writing skills and strategies
5. Developing an interest in learning English
LESSON AIMS
To give students practice in listening, understanding and responding to what people say
To revise conditional constructions
To give students practice in using the conditionals
To express how events in the past could have been different
To write an article
ANTICIPATED PROBLEMS: Students may have trouble understanding and responding to what speakers say. The conditional structures could be a problem as well. Students may not remember the forms, the rules and the usage of the conditional structures.
ACTIVITY 1
Aims:
To give students practice in listening , understanding and responding to what people say
To revise conditional constructions
Class organization: Pair work activity, whole-class activity
Estimated time: 10 min
Materials: computer / CD player, overhead projector
Procedure:
Students are asked to listen to an extract and elicit the key words. Students will write on the board the key words then will answer the concept questions.
If I hadn’t reacted quickly, the hippo would have killed me.
Teacher then asks some concept questions such as:
Are these statements true or false?
The speaker reacted quickly.
The hippo killed him.
The speaker is talking about the past. Etc.
ACTIVITY 2
Aims:
To revise conditional constructions
Class organization: Whole-class activity, pair-work activity
Estimated time: 15 min
Materials: handouts, board
Procedure:
Students divided in pairs have to complete the table with the examples, rules and forms of conditional sentences. Then they check their answers completing the table on the board.
ACTIVITY 3
Aims:
To give students practice in using the conditionals
To understand and respond to different forms of written texts
Class organization: Whole-class activity, pair-work activity
Estimated time: 20 min
Materials: handouts, computer, smart/ interactive board
Procedure:
Students are asked to solve the exercises from the handouts. Then they solve some online multiple choice and matching drills.
ACTIVITY 4 – HOME ASSIGNMENT
Aims:
To write an article
Class organization: Individual activity
Estimated time: 5 min
Materials: board
Procedure:
Students are asked to choose a story / fairy-tale and change its plot: What if…
They have to write the story at home in about 150 – 200 words.
Handout – lesson plan 2
ACTIVITY 1
Work in pairs. You will hear part of a radio programme in which a man talks about how he was attacked by a hippo. Listen to the extract and answer the following questions:
Are these statements true or false?
The speaker reacted quickly.
The hippo killed him.
The speaker is talking about the past.
ACTIVITY 2
Now look at these sentences and answer the questions below.
I think if they’d had more acrobats, we’d have enjoyed the circus more.
I think if they had more acrobats we’d enjoy the circus more.
Which sentence (a or b)…?
Means: Theydon’t have enough acrobats, so we don’t enjoy the circus very much. ____
Means: They didn’t have enough acrobats, so we didn’t enjoy the circus very much. ____
Has this form: if + past simple, would + infinitive __________
Has this form: if+ past perfect, would have (been/ done/ enjoyed, etc.) ________
Is second conditional _______
Is third conditional _______
Has the same form as If I hadn’t reacted quickly, the hippo would have killed me. _____
ACTIVITY 3
Complete each of the following sentences by putting the verb in the brackets into the correct tense.
If Martin had concentrated on his work, he (finish) ___________________ it earlier.
If my mother had let me when I was a child, I (have) ___________________ a pet dog.
In Don hadn’t been wearing thick boots, the snake (bite) ___________________ him.
If the shops (be) _________________________ open, I could have bought you some bread.
We would have gone swimming if the weather (not/ be) ______________________so cold.
If John (pay) ______________________ attention, he wouldn’t have had the accident.
Sorry! I (not/ make) _____________________ so much noise if I’d known you were asleep.
If the dog hadn’t barked, we (not/ hear) _____________________ the burglar downstairs.
Work in pairs. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word given. Do not change the word given, use between two and five words, including the word given.
It’s a pity I can’t cook well. (BETTER)
I wish I ______________________________ cook.
I regret not studying harder when I was at school. (STUDIED)
If only _____________________________ when I was at school.
I want the neighbours to stop making so much noise. (MAKE)
I wish the neighbours _____________________________ noise.
What a pity that the cancelled the match! (NOT)
If only they __________________________ the match.
I’m sorry you didn’t meet my brother. (WISH)
I _____________________________________ my brother.
Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verb in brackets.
I wish it (be) __________________ summer, then we could go to the beach!
If the weather had been warmer, we (have) ____________________ lunch on the terrace.
If only you (not/ make) _____________________ so much noise! I can’t concentrate on my studies and it’s really annoying me!
I wish I (live) ____________________ near the city centre. It’s such a long bus ride from here.
I wish you (speak) ________________________ more clearly so I could understand you better.
If only Amanda (not/be) ______________________ so moody! I find her very difficult to get on with sometimes.
ACTIVITY 4
Home assignment
Are there any dangerous wild animals in your country? Write an article for your school magazine about people who have been attacked by animals. Write your article not longer than 150 words.
LESSON PLAN 3
TEACHER: URSU CRISTINA- DANIELA
SCHOOL: Theoretical High School “MirceaEliade” Lupeni
GRADE: 11TH
TEXTBOOK: CAE Gold Coursebook (Pearson Longman); IELTS Tests (Cambridge
University Press); SOLUTIONS (Tim Falla& Paul Davies – OXFORD)
TOPIC: Pushing the boundaries
TYPE: Mixed
TIME: 50 MIN
FRAMEWORK OBJECTIVES
1. Developing active listening skills and strategies
2. Developing and adapting speaking skills and strategies
3. Developing and responding to reading skills and strategies
4. Developing and adopting writing skills and strategies
5. Developing an interest in learning English
LESSON AIMS
To speak correctly and fluently on a certain topic using and adapting the conventions and forms of spoken discourse
To listen actively understanding and responding to what speakers say in a certain context
To understand and respond to different forms of written texts
To use and adapt (new) words in context
To write an opinion essay
ACTIVITY 1- SPEAKING, READING
Aims:
To speak correctly and fluently on a certain topic using and adapting the conventions and forms of spoken texts
To understand and respond to different forms of written texts
To use and adapt (new) words in context
Class organization: whole-class activity, small-group activity
Estimated time: 20 min
Materials: handouts, textbooks, notebooks, whiteboard
Procedure:
Students are asked to read the text, answer the questions and discuss the views presented in the article.
ACTIVITY 2- LISTENING, SPEAKING, WRITING
Aims:
To speak correctly and fluently on a certain topic using and adapting the conventions and forms of spoken discourse
To listen actively understanding and responding to what speakers say in a certain context
Class organization: whole-class activity, small-group activity
Estimated time: 15 min
Materials: Textbooks, handouts, CD, Computer/ CD player, whiteboard
Procedure:
Students listen carefully and solve the tasks.
ACTIVITY 3 – SPEAKING (DEBATING), LISTENING
Aim:
To speak correctly and fluently on a certain topic using and adapting the conventions and forms of spoken texts
To listen actively understanding and responding to what speakers say in a certain context
Class organization: Whole-class activity, pair-work activity
Estimated time: 10 min
Materials: handouts
Procedure:
Students debate on the following topic: Designer babies will lead to a healthier and happier population.
ACTIVITY 4 – WRITING (HOME ASSIGNMENT)
Aim:
To write an opinion essay
Class organization: individual activity
Estimated time: 5 min
Materials: whiteboard, notebooks
Procedure:
Students are asked to write an opinion essay in response to the following statement: Designer babies will lead to a healthier and happier population. (180-200 words)
Handout – lesson plan 3
Pushing the boundaries
ACTIVITY 1- SPEAKING, READING
Read the first paragraph of the text. What is unusual about Andi, the monkey in the paragraph?
Before birth, he was genetically identical to a human embryo.
His DNA was genetically engineered to make him immune to certain diseases.
His DNA includes a gene from another creature.
Read the rest of the text. Which view is closer to your own opinion?
ACTIVITY 2- LISTENING, SPEAKING, WRITING
Listen to a man and a woman discussing on the topic of genetic experiments. Answer the questions.
Who is favour and who is against?
At what point does the woman think the man is not being serious?
Who makes points 1-8 , the man or the woman? Complete the points with the adverbs below.
entirely, eventually, freely, genetically, morally, realistically, virtually, widely;
It’s ________________ indefensible to use animals in experiments.
If scientists are allowed to create designer babies, than one day, people who haven’t been _________________ modified will be seen as inferior.
By altering our DNA, scientists will __________ be able to eliminate the most serious diseases.
There’s no reason why parents shouldn’t be able to choose ___________ whether they have baby girl or boy.
Artificial alterations to our genes may have _________ unforeseen side effects.
__________, scientists will never find a cure for cancer unless experiments on animals are permitted.
If this kind of experiment is ____________ permitted, scientists will go on to create monsters by mixing human and animal DNA.
We have to embrace scientific progress, since it’s impossible to hold it back.
ACTIVITY 3 – SPEAKING (DEBATING), LISTENING
Complete the useful expressions for reacting to an opposing view. Then listen again and check.
I don’t really ____________ with that.
That’s just an opinion – there’s no evidence to _______________ it.
But where will it ___________?
That’s a fair point, I __________. But in my view…
That argument doesn’t __________ sense.
You don’t __________ to ___________things to such an extreme.
I ____________ what you mean. But …
You can’t __________ serious.
Student As work in pairs and Student Bs work in pairs.
Student As: You agree with the statement below.
Student Bs: You disagree with the statement below.
Each write a list of points to support your own position. Use the points from exercise 2B and your own ideas. Compare your list with your partner.
Designer babies will lead to a healthier and happier population.
ACTIVITY 4 – WRITING (HOME ASSIGNMENT)
Write an opinion essayin response to the following statement: Designer babies will lead to a healthier and happier population. (180-200 words)
LESSON PLAN 4
TEACHER: URSU CRISTINA
SCHOOL: Theoretical High School “MirceaEliade” Lupeni
GRADE: 11th
TEXTBOOK: Prospects – Advanced (McMillan); Complete First Certificate (Barbara & Amanda
Thomas – Cambridge)
TOPIC: Let’s celebrate!
TYPE: MIXED
TIME: 50 MIN
FRAMEWORK OBJECTIVES
1. Developing active listening skills and strategies
2. Developing and adapting speaking skills and strategies
3. Developing and responding to reading skills and strategies
4. Developing and adopting writing skills and strategies
5. Developing an interest in learning English
LESSON AIMS
To allow students to practice speaking spontaneously and fluently about something that may provoke the use of words and phrases they have been learning recently
To give students practice in listening , understanding and responding to what people say
To use passive constructions
To give students practice in reading both for gist and for detail
To understand and respond to different forms of written texts
To use and adapt new words in context
To write an email
ANTICIPATED PROBLEMS: Students may have trouble understanding and responding to what speakers say. The passive with reporting verbs could be a problem as well. Also students may not know to give details about some world-wide celebrations.
ACTIVITY 1- SPEAKING
Aims:
Toallow students to practice speaking spontaneously and fluently about something that may provoke the use of words and phrases they have been learning recently
To use and adapt new words in context
Class organization: Pair work activity, whole-class activity
Estimated time: 8 min
Materials: handouts, textbooks, computer, overhead projector
Procedure:
Students are asked to look at the pictures, complete the descriptions of festivals and celebrations, match the phrases in bold with the pictures and discuss the question.
ACTIVITY 2- LISTENING, SPEAKING
Aims:
To give students practice in listening , understanding and responding to what people say
To allow students to practice speaking spontaneously and fluently about something that may provoke the use of words and phrases they have been learning recently
Class organization: Whole-class activity, small-group activity
Estimated time: 7 min
Materials: handouts, computer, CD
Procedure:
Students listen to a part of a radio interview and choose the correct answer to the question. Students are asked to debate on the following topic: Which one is the best: street theatre or indoor theatre?
ACTIVITY 3- SPEAKING, GRAMMAR
Aims:
To allow students to practice speaking spontaneously and fluently about something that may provoke the use of words and phrases they have been learning recently
To use passive constructions
Class organization: Whole-class activity
Estimated time: 10 min
Materials: handouts, computer, overhead projector
Procedure:
Students are asked to underline the verbs in the passive and then to rewrite the sentences in the passive starting with the word given.
ACTIVITY 4 – WRITING, READING
Aims:
To understand and respond to different forms of written texts
Class organization: Whole-class activity
Estimated time: 10 min
Materials: handouts
Procedure:
Students are asked to read the text quickly to find out what happens at the Egyptian festival at Sham el Nessim. They also must think of the word which best fits to each space.
ACTIVITY 5–SPEAKING, GRAMMAR, READING
Aims:
Toallow students to practice speaking spontaneously and fluently about something that may provoke the use of words and phrases they have been learning recently
To use passive constructions
Class organization: Whole-class activity, small group
Estimated time: 10 min
Materials: handouts, textbooks, computer, overhead projector
Procedure:
Students are asked to look at the read text and underline Passive with reporting verbs constructions. Student solve in small groups some drills.
ACTIVITY 6–READING, SPEAKING, WRITING
Aims:
To use and adapt new words in context
To write an email
To understand and respond to different forms of written texts
Class organization: Individual activity
Estimated time: 5 min
Materials: handouts, notebooks
Procedure:
Students read the task and after discussing and making notes they write an email in response to an English speaking friend.
Handout – lesson plan 4
ACTIVITY 1
Work in pairs. Write one of the verbs from the box in each of the spaces below to complete the descriptions of festivals and celebrations. Use each verb once only.
celebrate commemorate dress up
gather round hold let off march
perform play wearing
We hold a festival every March to (1) _ celebrate__ the arrival of spring.
People in our region (2) ______________ in traditional costumes and they (3) _____________ one of our traditional dances.
People (4) _____________ through the town in a spectacular parade to (5) ____________ a famous battle.
In many parts of the town residents (6) ____________ street parties.
Bands (7) _____________ dance music all night long.
Crowds (8) _____________ street performers who perform street theatre.
During the festival we (9) _____________ fireworks.
People from the town go out in the street (10) ____________ disguises.
Find the words and phrases in bold above illustrated in the photos.
Look at the photos again. They show different events which take place during festivals. Discuss these questions.
Why do people do these different things at festivals?
Which type of activity is most enjoyable for people to watch?
Which country do you think each of the photos was taken in?
ACTIVITY 2
Work in pairs. You are going to hear an interview with a man who performs street theatre during festivals including one called the Hat Fair. Before you listen discuss these questions.
What sort of things do street performers do?
Do you enjoy watching street theatre? Why (not)?
Now listen, and for questions 1-7, choose the best answer (A, B or C)
Why is the festival called the Hat Fair?
It was started by local hat-makers.
Many participants wear hats.
Street performers collect money in hats.
What does Max most enjoy about the Hat Fair?
The type of audiences he gets
The other street performers he meets
The shows he can do
How did Max start in street theatre?
He lost his job in a circus
He did it while he was at university
He learnt it from his father
What do audiences enjoy most about Max’s act?
The jokes
The acrobatics
The danger
What does he say is the main advantage of street theatre?
Performers earn more than in conventional theatre
Performers are only paid in their performance is good
Performers can work independently
What does he say is usually the main problem with street theatre?
The weather
The location
The police
According to Max, how does the Hat Fair help the city?
It attract visitors to the town
It encourages local people to work together
It helps local people to relax together
ACTIVITY 3
Rewrite these sentences in the passive, starting with the words given.
They discovered America in 1492.
America __was discovered in 1492.__
Someone has stolen my wallet!
My wallet _____________________
You won’t be able to ring me while they are repairing my mobile.
You won’t be able to ring me while my mobile _____________________
Have you heard? They’ve given me a place on the course!
Have you heard? I ______________________
If you’d interrupt the meeting, the police would have arrested you.
If you’d interrupt the meeting, you ____________________
ACTIVITY 4
Read the following text quickly to find out what happens at the Egyptian festival of Sham el Nessim.
For questions 1-10, read the text again and think of the word which best fits each space. Use only one word in each space.
Sham el Nessim
A large number of contemporary Egyptian traditions (1) _are_ said to have their origins in very ancient times. These include the holiday which is known (2) _____ Sham el Nessim. This holiday may have (3) _____ celebrated as early as 4.500 years ago. It is thought (4) _____ have been the first festival to celebrate the beginning of the spring.
Nowadays, in the early morning of Sham el Nessim millions of Egyptians come out to crowd public parks and other open areas. Young men swim in the Nile and families generally enjoy the cool breeze of the spring.
Sham el Nessim (5) _____ also celebrated by eating traditional foods and these include salted fish, coloured eggs, sunflower seeds and raw onions. The reason for each of these foods (6) _____ eaten is supported (7) _____ a different myth. For example, offerings of fish are believed to (8) _____ been made to the ancient gods and by (9) _____ this a good harvest was ensured. Salted fish symbolizes welfare to the ancient Egyptians and in ancient time fish (10) _____ easily caught by being trapped in natural pool s created by the movement of the Nile.
ACTIVITY 5
Rewrite the newspaper headlines as sentences, using he verb in brackets. You will need to add some extra words.
PRIME MINISTER TO RESIGN TOMORROW
_The Prime Minister is expected to resign tomorrow._______ (expect)
NEW AIRPORT RUNWAY WILL PROBABLY BE BUILT NEXT YEAR
_It (think)
NEW TEAM HAS BEEN SELECTED
_It (report)
FEDERER IS THE BEST TENNIS PLAYER EVER
_Federer (consider)
REPORT PROVES THIS SUMMER IS HOTTEST FOR 50 YEARS
_This summer (report)
BONES FOUND ON BEACH BELONGED TO A DINOSAUR
_It (believe)
ACTIVITY 6
Work in pairs. Look at the following email and discuss the question which follow.
You have received an email from your English-speaking friend, Sam, asking you about a festival in your country. Read Sam’s email and the notes you have made. Then
write an email to Sam, using all your notes.
Write your own email to Sam.Write between 120 and 150 words.Make sure you include all fourpoints from the notes.
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
The research was based on primary data and the data were collected via the survey approach through a self-administered questionnaire. Besides the data collected via the survey, this paper also presents data collected via a short-term experiment in order to increase the scope and the depth of analysis.
The questionnaire was administrated by the researcher herself. The questionnaires were distributed to the students with the request of returning the completed questionnaires after answering all the questions. After completion, the data were collected, edited, coded, classified and tabulated for computation and analysed.
The results of the Pre-test
The table and the chart below present the students’ grades in the pre-test and their distribution. As it can be seen in the table 3 students failed the test, 5 students scored 5, another 5 students scored 6, 6 students scored 7, 5 students scored 8 and two groups of 2 scored 9 and respectively 10. The mean of the pre-test was 6.67.
Distribution of grades in pre-test
The results of the Post-test
The table and the chart below present the students’ grades in the post-test and their distribution. As it can be seen in the table none of the students failed this time, 1 student scored 5, 4 students scored 6, another group of 4 students scored 7, 8 students scored 8, 6 students scored 9 and 5 students scored 10. The mean of the post-test was 8.03.
Distribution of grades in post-test
Pre-test and Post-test results
The comparison of the results of the two tests reveals the following differences between them:
– the mean of the post-test is higher than the mean of the pre-test;
– in the post-test no one failed;
– in the pre-test 5 students scored 5 while in the post-test only 1 student scored 5;
– in the pre-test 5 students scored 6 while in the post-test only one student scored 6;
– in the pre-test 6 students scored 7 while in the post-test only 4 students scored 7;
– in the post-test 8 students scored 8, with 3 students more than in the pre-test;
– in the post-test 6 students scored 9 while in the pre-test only 2 students scored 9;
– in the post-test 5 students scored the maximum score while in the pre-test only 2 students
scored 10;
The conclusion of the comparison of the results of the two tests is that students’ performance is significantly improved as we can see in the table and chart below.
Distribution of grades in pre-test and post-test
Pre-test and Post-test means
The results of the questionnaire
The questionnaire administered to the students aimed to assess their opinion towards the use of traditional and modern methods in teaching English as a foreign language and their motivation for learning the target language.
Q1: How important is English to you?
The first item of the questionnaire aimed to measure the importance of learning English as a foreign language for 11th graders. Most of the respondents, a little over 73%, found learning English very important, while 25.33 % of them considered that learning English is moderately important. One student said that studying English is not very important.
Q2: Where do you “see” or “hear” English?
The second item of the questionnaire aimed to find out where the students had contact with the target language. Everybody (100%) answered that they encounter English at school. Besides school, the respondents also answered that they had contact with English in recreational places (40%), on the internet (92%), on TV (73.33%), 44% of the students said that they read books in English and 8% of the respondents said that they hear English when travelling.
Q3: How long have you been studying English for?
The third question wanted to measure for how long the respondents havebeen studyingthe target language. 100% answered that they had been studying English for 6-10 years.
Q4: How would you rate your skills in English?
The fourth item of the questionnaire aimed to measure the respondents’ proficiency in the four skills (reading, writing, speaking and listening).
Reading: 33.33% of the students answered that they found reading easy, while 46.66% found reading relatively easy. 17.33% of the students found reading rather difficult, while 2.66% of the respondents said that they read with difficulty or not at all.
Writing: 36% of the students said that they can easily write in English, while 44% of them said that writing in English is relatively easy for them. 4% of the respondents cannot write at all or find it very difficult while 16% think that writing in English is very difficult.
Speaking: over 66% of the students said that speaking is easy and relatively easy, while over 29% of the respondents said that speaking is difficult. For 4% of the respondents speaking in English is very difficult or impossible.
Listening: 22.66% of the respondents can listen easily, while over 42% of the students found listening relatively easy. 30.66% of the questioned students found listening relatively difficult, while 4% of the respondents found it rather difficult or impossible.
Q5: What is the most important reason that you need English for?
The fifth item of the questionnaire aimed to find out what are the students’ motivations for learning the target language. 13%
Q6: Write five things you would like to do better in English.
The sixth item wanted to find out which domains the students would like to improve. 70 students out of 75, which represent 93.33% of them, wanted to improve their writing and reading skills. 65 students, which are over 86%, wanted to improve speaking while 80% of the respondents would rather improve grammar. 66.66% of the students would like to improve listening, while 40% of the questioned students would rather improve vocabulary and English for Specific Purposes, Business English and English for exams more exactly.
Q7: Which of the following things do you want or need to study more?
The seventh item of the questionnaire aimed to what are the students’ needs for further study of the target language.
Writing: 46.66% said that they need to study more of writing, while the same percentage said they don’t mind. 6.66% of the students said that they don’t need to study writing any more.
Speaking: 69.33% of the students said they need to study more of speaking, 24% don’t mind about speaking, while 6.66% don’t want much of it.
Reading: 60% of the respondents said that they need to study more of reading, while 17% of students equally answered that they don’t mind about reading; respectively don’t want much of it.
Listening: the most of the students (66.66%) said that they need to study more of it, 30.66% don’t mind and 2.66% said they don’t need studying more listening.
Grammar: 76% of the students agreed that they need to practice more of grammar, while 24% said that they don’t mind.
Vocabulary: most of the students, over 66%, said that they need to study more vocabulary, while 32% of the students said that they don’t mind about it. Only one student said that he/ she don’t need much of vocabulary.
Pronunciation: 65.33% of the respondents said that they need to study pronunciation more, 25.33% of the students don’t care about it and 9.33% of the students would prefer not to study it any more.
Real life communication: 76% of the students said that they need to study real life communication, while 16% of the respondents would rather don’t care about it. Only 8% of the respondents said that they don’t need to study much of it.
Q8: What do you find enjoyable, boring, easy and difficult when studying language?
The aim of the eighth question was to discover the things students find enjoyable, boring, easy and difficult when they study the target language.
Enjoyable: on the first place chosen by 33.33% of the students as being enjoyable is Speaking. It is followed by Reading voted by 25.33% of the students, then Listening chosen by 14.66% of the students. 10.66% of the students said that Vocabulary is enjoyable, and then is Writing voted by 5.33% of the students. 5.33% said Pronunciation is enjoyable, followed by Grammar which was chosen by 2.66% of the students. Finally, on the last position is Translation with 2.66% of the students. Drills and Things already known didn’t get any vote.
Boring: Grammar in on the first position in Top ten of boring things, chosen by 36% of the students, then Things already known got 13.33% of the students votes. Writing was chosen as being boring by 13.33% of the students, which is followed by Listening with the vote of 10.66% of the respondents. Reading got 9.33% of the votes while Drills and Speaking received each 5.33% of the students’ votes. 4% of the students considered Translation boring, while 2.66% considered Vocabulary as being boring. Pronunciation didn’t get any vote from the students.
Easy: the easiest was voted Reading by 26.66% of the students. Writing comes very close being chosen by 24% of the respondents. 16% of the students chose Listening as being easy, whilst equally 9.33% of the students said that Speaking and Vocabulary are easy. The list continues with: Grammar 5.33%, Translation 4%, Drills 2.66%, Pronunciation 2.66%, and Things already known 0%.
Difficult: Grammar is again on the first position with 30.66% of the students’ choices, being followed by Speaking with 21.33%. 14.66% of the students found Writing difficult whilst 13.33% of the students thought Listening is difficult. On the next four positions there are: Pronunciation 8%, Vocabulary 5.33%, Reading 4%, and Translation 2.66%. Drills and Things already known didn’t get any vote.
Q9: How do you find grammar?
The ninth item of the questionnaire aimed to measure the importance of grammar for the students. The majority of the students (52%) considered grammar as being very important, while 40% of the respondents said that grammar is rather moderately important. 8% of the students found grammar not very important or not important at all.
Q10: How much do you practice the four skills (reading, writing, speaking, listening) when studying language structures?
The tenth question aimed to measure the quantity of skills practice during the grammar activities. 25.33% of the students said that they get very much practice of the skills during the grammar activities, while 48% of the students said that they get much of it. 24% of the students said they get a little practice of the skills during grammar lessons and 2.66% of the respondents said that they don’t practice the skills at all.
Q11. How much vocabulary do you practice when studying grammar in a traditional way?
The aim of the eleventh question was to measure how much vocabulary do the students practice when studying grammar in a traditional way. 21.33% of the students answered that they get very much practice of vocabulary during the traditional lessons, while 45.33% said that they get much practice of vocabulary. 30.66% of the respondents said that they get a little practice of the vocabulary, whilst 2.66% of the students said that they don’t get any vocabulary practice.
Q12: How do you find lessons with real life situations of communication?
The twelfth item of the questionnaire aimed to find out the students’ opinion on the real life communication lessons. 58.66% of the respondents found the real life communication lessons as being very interesting while 37.33% of the students found them rather moderately interesting. Only 4% of the students considered that these kinds of lessons are not very interesting.
Q13: How much do you practice the four skills (reading, writing, speaking, and listening) during lessons about real life situations?
The purpose of the thirteenth question was to emphasize how much skills practice the students get during the real life situation lessons.49.33% of the students said that they get very much skills practice during the real life situation lessons, while 32% of the students said that they get pretty much practice. At the opposite end, 13.33% of students said that they get a little skills practice during the real life situation lessons and only 5.33% of the students said that they don’t get any practice at all.
Q14: How much vocabulary do you practice during real life communication lessons?
The fourteenth item of the questionnaire wanted to show how much vocabulary practice the students get during communicative lessons. Over 82% of the respondents said that they get very much and respectively much vocabulary practice during the real life situation lessons, while 13.33% of the students said that they get just a little vocabulary practice during the communicative lessons.
Q15: How much would meaningful communication situations help you develop your language skills?
The last item of the questionnaire aimed to show in which measure the meaningful communication situations help the students to develop their language skills. 46.66% of the respondents said that the meaningful communication situations help them very much to develop their language skills, while 40% of them said the meaningful situations help them rather much. 9.33% and only 4% of the questioned students said that the meaningful communication situations help them a little and respectively do not help at all to develop their language skills.
After analysing the results of the mini experiment and the results of the questionnaire the researcher can state that the hypothesis of this research is confirmed. Using integrated-skills approach with all the activities and materials which contain authentic and meaningful information, help students to increase their level of proficiency, to be more motivated and more involved in learning the target language.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIOS
APPENDIX
Needs analysis questionnaire
This questionnaire is not a test so there are no “right” or “wrong” answers and you do not even have to write your name on it. The result of this survey will be used only for research purposes so please give your answer sincerely, as only this will ensure the success of this project. Thank you very much for your help!
Gender: M □ F □
How important is English to you?
Very important
Moderately important
Not very important
Not important at all
Where do you “see” or hear English?
At school
In recreational places (e.g. gyms, cafes, cinemas, etc.)
On the Internet
On TV
In books
Other: _________________________________________________________
Estimate how long you have studied English altogether:
Less than a year
1-2 years
3-5 years
6-10 years
How would you rate your skills in English according to the options below:
Reading
With ease
With relative ease
With relative difficulty
With difficulty or not at all
Writing
i. With ease
ii. With relative ease
iii. With relative difficulty
iv. With difficulty or not at all
Listening
i. With ease
ii. With relative ease
iii. With relative difficulty
iv. With difficulty or not at all
Speaking
i. With ease
ii. With relative ease
iii. With relative difficulty
iv. With difficulty or not at all
What is the most important reason that you need English for (now or in the future)?
Travel
Study
Business
An exam
Reading literature
Friendship
Emigration
Relationship
General interest
Attending conferences
Other: ____________________________________________________________
Write five things you would like to be able to do better in English (e.g. write a letter to a friend).
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Which of the following things do you want or need to study more of? Mark the box in the correct places to show your opinion and then add a comment to explain why you chose that answer.
What do you find enjoyable, boring, easy and difficult when studying language?
I enjoy it when …
I get bored when …
I find the following things quite easy:
I find the following things quite difficult:
How do you find Grammar?
Very important
Moderately important
Not very important
Not important at all
How much do you practice the four skills (reading, writing, listening, speaking) when studying language structures / grammar?
Very much
Much
A little
Not at all
How much vocabulary do you practice when studying grammar?
a. Very much
b. Much
c. A little
d. Not at all
How do you lessons with real life situations of communication?
a. Very much
b. Much
c. A little
d. Not at all
How much do you practice the four skills (reading, writing, listening, and speaking) during lessons about real life situations?
a. Very much
b. Much
c. A little
d. Not at all
How much vocabulary do you practice during real life communication lessons?
a. Very much
b. Much
c. A little
d. Not at all
How much would meaningful communication situations help you develop your language skills?
a. Very much
b. Much
c. A little
d. Not at all
Recording script for evaluation test 1
Interviewer:
Where would you expect to find a shopping centre? We used to think the most convenient place was in the city centre. Then they started building them among green fields where everyone could go by car and park easily. But a new one, Redsands Park, has taken over some abandoned industrial land on the edge of the city and is pulling in eager shopper from all over town. Will Payne, you're the chief architect of Redsands Park, why here?
Will Payne:
Principally for the access. We could have put the shopping centre out in the country and we did give it serious consideration, but the area we've chosen has got its own underground station and it's also close to the motorway, so it's not hard to get here either by car or public transport. What surprised us though were the protests from local people. We'd expect to be able to get permission easily because we'd be bringing jobs and business to the area. In fact, people worried that there'd be more crime and that sort of thing, so getting permission took quite a long time. We were able to get it in the end though, as you can see.
I:
Sure. And judging by the milling crowds of people, I can see the place is a great success. What's drawing the all in, do you think?
W P:
Well, surveys of our customers show that people aren't just coming to shop, they're coming to spend the day. Lots of the best stores have branches here, so it's not particularly cheap, but people know they can get quality and there's something here for everyone. It cater for every taste including people who'd rather not shop at all but would prefer to see a film or go to the gym instead. Families can have fun in the same place without having to hang around with each other.
I:
The interior really is astonishing. From where I'm standing I can see trees, plants and fountains in the malls. There are cafés, relaxing music and even a free fashion show in one of the halls. Where did the inspiration for all this come from, Will?
W P:
A visit to the United States. I went there a number of years ago and visited a couple of malls in San Francisco and Seattle. I was really taken by their appearance. Of course these places offer safe, crime-free shopping, but the truth is they're a bit like places. People can spend the day surrounded by expensive things without having to pay a penny. People treat you well and you only have to pay for what you buy.
I:
So, Will, can you explain to me, why is the combination of shopping and other activities so successful?
W P:
Well, when we started planning Redsands, we discovered that around half of normal family shopping expedition end with a family argument, and we wanted to avoid that. We want people to have a seriously good time.
I:
Why is it that families argue so much when they're shopping?
W P:
Because they're spending the day together and probably not all of them enjoy shopping, or at least they don't enjoy shopping for the same things. When they're at home they can each go off on their own and do what they really enjoy doing separately.
I:
And how does Redsands cater for this?
W P:
By organising shops, cafés and other establishments into groups. This means that families can still be fairly close to each other even though they're doing different things. So mum can wander into the clothes shop if that's what she wants to do, while dad can pop into the computer shop next door and the kids can go to a game shop or a music shop. They're all nearby and they can find each other easily. We've found this cuts down on a lot of family rows and makes Redsands a great day out for everyone.
I:
And what of the future, Will?
W P:
Well, we're now looking at ways of making shopping less tiring. You know, a day at the shops wears people out and we considered a number of ideas. Carrying shopping around is very tiring and we looked at ways to avoid that. We thought of hiring out small electrically-driven cars tho shopper, but we came up against problems of space-there just isn't enough room. We also thought about those moving walkways like the ones you see at airports where people have to walk long distances. We decided against them however, because they'd involve a major redesign of the whole centre. What we've actually come up with is a new technology where you buy what you want and then just leave it in the shop. That way you don't need to carry your heavy shopping around with you all day. When you want to go home, our computer system automatically sends everything you've bought to your exit point, and you pick it up there.
I:
Remarkable. Will Payne,thank you.
W P:
My pleasure.
Recording script lesson plan 1
T: Now, just a few words, especially for new students. First, you’re expected to attend all your tutorials once a week and do the assignments which your tutors give you. If for any reasons you can’t make it to a tutorial, try to let your tutor know. If your tutor has to cancel a tutorial or put it off, he or she’ll try to tell you the week beforehand. Also, please remember that this course is a largely practical and you have to do one piece of original research during the year. You’re allowed to do it in groups, and if you work with other students, you’ll probably find it easier. Your tutors will organize you into groups and suggest research unless you prefer working alone.
Recording script lesson plan 2
You’d think that hippos are quite easy to run away from with their big barrel-like bodies and shortish legs, but they can move surprisingly fast. I was on holiday in South Africa and walking along a river bank when suddenly there was a crashing noise in the grass beside me and a hippo rushed at me. Fortunately, I was able to leap to one side and run. If I hadn’t reacted quickly, the hippo would have killed me, for sure!
Later, at the hotel, I was told how they get nervous if someone walks between them and the river, which is their natural habitat. Apparently more people are killed by hippos in Africa every year than by any other animal. And for that reason: they get between them and the water.
Recording script Pre-test
Interviewer:
Now I’m standing outside the rather unusual house of crime-writer Jeff Bowen. It’s large and very old and has views of some of the most beautiful countryside in the west of England. Jeff, how long have you been living here?
Jeff:
We’ve been here for about seven years now. We came here from Hollywood, where I’ve been working on a film script. We house-hunted for about six months and couldn’t find anything we really liked. Then finally we saw this place and my wife just fell in love with it immediately, so we bought it.
I:
I believe it’s rather unusual, isn’t it? Can you tell us about it?
J:
Sure. You know, I’m fairly convinced that this house is haunted by ghosts and I’m not joking. A lot of people have had some very strange experiences here.
I:
Such as?
J:
Well, a few months ago, we were having a family party in the house. We’d just had lunch and were relaxing with coffee when my mother-in-law went white as a sheet and dropped her coffee cup. I asked her what the matter was, thinking she’d been taken ill or something. She said she’d just seen a group of men dressed up as medieval soldiers go past the window. We ran outside to look but there was nobody there. But she could describe their appearance in quite a lot of detail, so she wasn’t just making it up.
I:
Rather alarming I should think.
J:
And that’s not all. A week or two later quite a different visitor, a friend of mine from London was reading in the library when a desk began to move. Apparently it floated from one side of the room to the other and then back again. He sat watching it, too frightened to move.
I:
Have you personally had any experience of supernatural phenomena?
J:
Nothing as direct as the things I’ve just mentioned. Just a feeling really; when I’m in my study working, I’ve occasionally felt the hair on the back of my neck stand on end as if there’s someone standing behind me. When I’ve turned round, there’s been no one there, but as you can imagine it doesn’t help my work concentration.
I:
So what have you done about this?
J:
First I decided to change my workplace. I got the builders in and I had a bedroom turned into a study. I hoped I’d be able to work in there without being interrupted by these uninvited visitors. Then I called in a specialist in supernatural phenomena, someone I’d met while I was working on films and I had the whole house checked.
I:
What did they come up with?
J:
She didn’t come up with anything very firm, but she checked the local history records and discovered that the house is actually located somewhere where a battle took place nine hundred years ago, so there could be quite a few dead people buried here.
I:
Really?
J:
Yes, and interestingly, a few months ago I was having the tennis court built in the garden. Anyway, one of the workmen, a lad of about 19, was on his own here one morning when he felt someone was watching him. He had the sort of feeling I had when working in my study. When he turned round, he saw something which literally made his hair stand on end: there was a man in ancient clothes standing there with a white shirt covered in blood. The lad shouted and the man just disappeared.
I:
But none of this discourages you from living here?
J:
Not at all. I don’t feel physically threatened. Anyway, I’m in London a lot of the week and we mostly come here at weekends, so I only feel haunted part-time!
I:
Jeff, tell me about the house itself. Apart from its spirit life, what other features attracted you to it?…
Recording script Post-test
Interviewer:
So, here I am at the Anona Biological Reserve in Costa Rica and I’m talking to Sylvia Welling, who’s a volunteer here. Sylvia, how did you come to work on this project?
Sylvia:
Well, it’s quite a long story. I’m studying Biochemistry at university back in England and I heard about this project from another student on the course. I’m just doing this in my summer vacation, so really I’ve only been here for a few weeks – since the beginning of July in fact. I’ll probably be here till the end of September, then I have to go back to university.
I:
So, what’s your role here? Are you here to protect the rainforest?
S:
No, not at all. This one’s already protected. No trees are being cut down here. It’s a really interesting and beautiful place as a matter of fact. It’s full of rare animals and plants and it’s incredibly peaceful. The main object of the project I’m on is to educate visitors and show them how special this place is. At the same time, I’m learning a lot about it too. Hopefully i’m going to work as a researcher when i finish my degree, so it seemed a good idea to come here while I had the chance.
I:
So you’re actually here to learn rather than work?
S:
Well, yes, partly, but as i was just saying I really came here to get some relevant work experience. I mean I want to be able to show future employers that I’ve been doing something connected with biochemistry in my free time. And also I hope in my own small way that I’m doing something useful.
I:
So, what’s your job here?
S:
I do whatever I’m asked to do. We spend part of our time maintaining paths through the forest so that the visitors can walk around it without getting lost and without doing much damage. It means I have a great time visiting really remote parts of the forest where the only things you hear are things like animals, the wind in the trees, and the rain. And it rains quite a lot here, believe me!
I:
So you know the forest quite well by now, do you?
S:
I’m getting to know it better and better because I also spend time acting as a guide for people who come to see the forest. I take them on a walk and point out special trees and animals and explain a bit of how the place works to them. Then hopefully they go home with a feeling of how wonderful and important rainforests are.
I:
And what do you see as the main dangers facing rainforests now and in the future?
S:
The main problem is that in other parts of the world forests like these are being cut down or burnt to create more farming land. As a result, plants and wildlife are becoming endangered or dying out. If things continue like this, by the year 2050, 70 per cent of the world’s rainforests will have disappeared. I think that’s pretty worrying.
I:
It is.
S:
And it’s going to have really drastic consequences for the rest of the planet. I mean, forests absorb carbon and this prevents global warming. If we carry on cutting down forests, climate change will become even more extreme, making the world warmer and leading to rising sea levels, and so on.
I:
But Sylvia, in spite of all these worries, what are the pleasures of coming to a place like this?
S:
For me, one of the greatest pleasures is seeing all the animals that live here, the frogs and birds and monkeys and insects and all the other creatures which are threatened with extinction. You know, the danger is that in forty or fifty years’ time these animals will only be living in zoos. They won’t exist in the wild and that will be a real shame.
I:
And what can visitors like myself do when we get home?
S:
Well, you could look closely before buying furniture – make sure it isn’t made of wood taken from the rainforests. And also tell your friends about these wonderful places and how important it is to protect them.
I:
Sylvia Welling. Thank you!
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