Information Technology Glossary
I. INTRODUCTION
Hardly a day goes by that we aren’t affected by or don’t interact directly with computers in some way. The tremendous recent growth in the introduction to data processing course and all its relatives such as courses in computer literacy and microcomputer applications, is only one indicator of a society-wide computer revolution. The reader of this text may be fulfilling a requirement, satisfying curiosity about computers, looking for ways to use a newly purchased personal computer, or trying to keep up with the trend. Whatever his or her goal, my goals in writing this glossary are to present enough details about the actual workings of hardware and software to dispel the mystery without overwhelming the reader with more technical detail than is needed for competency.
My approach to this text and package has been one of learning and application. In order to succeed with that approach, I have brought a unique variety of perspectives to this glossary.
As you can see, the table of contents lends itself to a wide range of course typed – from those that deal only lightly with programming to the programming-intensive, from hands-on applications courses to more traditional surveys, from the business-oriented to the technical.
Above all, the content of this glossary has been organized for maximal flexibility.
Throughout the development of the text and its glossary, I have aimed to create a total package that would be interesting, easy to use, and well integrated.
BACKGROUND
To be an educated citizen today, you must be acquainted not only with computers themselves, but also with what computers do, how they are put to work, and the impact of their use on individuals and organizations in a society. An overview of all these topics is presented in this section.
People have always needed to add things up: how many mammoths killed in a season, how much grain to store for the winter, or how much fuel to get a rocket to the moon. In fact, a cave wall in Lascaux, France, may have been the first ‘adding machine’. About 16,000 years ago, anonymous hunters wanted to keep track of how many bison, deer, horses, and wild cattle were available in the region but lacked an abstract concept of numbers, so they drew a portrait of each animal. Later, because it was much easier to draw a little abstract shape than to paint a realistic picture of the individual animal, the Phoenicians used the symbol aleph (a triangle with horns) to represent a cow. Inverted, aleph later became the Greek alpha and subsequently the Roman letter A. The use of symbols for objects was a step in the right direction, but can you imagine a rancher drawing thousands of alephs every time someone asked him for a record of how many head of cattle he owned?
Computers are the logical end product of centuries of humanity’s pencil-breaking frustration with having to add things, subtract things, and perform other feats of arithmetic derring-do. ‘Make it easier; make it more accurate; make it faster!’ has been the universal cry and an ever-progressing technology has been the response. From portable notched bones (themselves a large technological leap forward from the bulky, hard-to-carry cave wall) to the abacus, from unwieldy mechanical adding machines to the silicon chip, from no numbers at all to magnetic spots on plastic disks, technological developments have answered the demand that computations be made faster, better and easier. It’s a long way from the cave wall to the silicon chip, but this section will trace the major steps that led from then to now.
The main thread of the story concerns the sequence of ever-improving calculating and computing machines created by a succession of inventive geniuses. Each of these inventors used the technology, that is, the parts and tools, available in his or her era. Frequently, the existing technology was the determining factor in whether or not an idea for a machine would actually work or could be built for a price anyone was willing to pay.
The origins. It’s obvious that the concept of number must have coincided with the earliest advances of civilization. At first, the concept covered no more than the distinction between one and many. Layer, one, two, and many were distinguished – a vital step forward. Then came the realization that there is a concept of ‘twoness’ that is the same whether it refers to two rabbits or two trees. Further generalization and application of this idea, over the millennia, gave rise to the words and symbols that enable us to record and communicate numbers.
The idea and the symbol came together with the first calculation – counting. The earliest surviving record unearthed by archaeologists are notched bones about 30.000 years old. Two notches in a bone or stick stood for two head of cattle; a third notch was added when a calf was born. This type of counting tool persisted for thousands of years, marked by a transition to counting in groups of five (the Romans) and then (in eastern India and Arabia) and the development of positional notation.
The first counting ‘machine’ was the counting board, dating back about 3000 years. More than a thousand years went by before the stones in a column of the counting board evolved into the ‘high-tech’ beads on the wires of the abacus. The origin of the first calculator is obscured in Chinese, Arabic, European, and Egyptian antiquity.
As the centuries passed, an influential merchant class arose in Europe, the sign of a growing international and even intercontinental commerce. The more complex social and economic system called for elaborate account keeping with calculations of interest and currency exchange. Science awakened to computation; mathematical theories concerning the motions of the earth, moon, planets, and sun used equations to compute planetary positions and daily variations in daylight and tides. Seasonal effects were estimated more accurately, increasing agricultural productivity and creating the food surplus necessary to feed a burgeoning urban population. Government clerks calculated tariffs and other taxes. In 1642, Galileo died, Newton was born, and the French mathematician Pascal built the first gear-driven mechanical calculator.
Early machines. Blaise Pascal, the son of a mathematically gifted tax official, spent long hours with his father adding columns of figures. He later became an entrepreneur who built and sold 50 from the far-from-perfect mechanical calculators he invented. Pascal’s calculator was digital: that is, like the abacus, it dealt with whole numbers and produced precise results. Another class of instruments and calculators, such as certain surveying and astronomical instruments, was analog: these machines, like the conventional mechanical wrist watch, gave only a visual depiction of the result, in contrast to the precise read-out of a digital watch.
Later in the seventeenth century, the German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716) built the first calculator designed to do multiplication and division as well as addition and subtraction. The complexity of this machine was, however, somewhat beyond what could be effectively built out of the contemporary mechanical gears and levers, and the machine, was not very reliable.
In the nineteenth century, the British inventor and mathematician Charles Babbage (1792-1872), who had very little practical success, achieved the intellectual triumph of clearly anticipating most of the logical principles on which the modern computer is based. Babbage designed his analytical engine as a result of his boredom with long calculations and his distress at the inherent errors they involved. He incorporated a mechanical memory in his design to store intermediate calculated results so they wouldn’t have to be copied onto paper and subsequently reentered – a process that was one of the principal sources of error. He also provided for the entry of both numbers, and calculation steps on punched cards. He adapted the idea from Joseph Jacquard (1752-1834), who, late in the eighteenth century in France, had built a weaving machine that used punched cards to select the threads to be incorporated into a pattern. However, Babbage’s steam-powered analytical engine proved too complex for him to build: his idea was ahead of the currently available technology.
It is largely due to the efforts of Ada Augusta, Countess of Lovelace (1816-1852), daughter of the romantic poet Lord Byron and now generally regarded as the first computer programmer, that we remember the work of Babbage’s mathematical prodigy, the Countess of Lovelace became interested in Babbage’s ideas, and in 1842, at the age of 27, she translated a description of Babbage’s machine from French into English. She added some of her ideas about programming to the translation and corrected Babbage’s errors. Ada Lovelace is credited with developing the programming loop, in which a sequence of operations is repeated within a program.
Not until 1886 did William Seward Burroughs (1855-1898) introduce the first commercially successful mechanical adding machine. A million Burroughs Adding and Listing machines were sold by 1926, and Henry Ford even produced a car, the Burroughs Special, with a rack designed to carry the popular device.
At about that time Burroughs was building his mechanical adder, another important development occurred in the United States. There had been a census in 1880, and manual tabulation of the data had taken seven years. Since the population was growing rapidly and more information was to be included on the census forms, it was clear that the data from the 1890 census wouldn’t be compiled before it was time to start on the 1900 census. Dr. Herman Hollerith (1860-1929) was an employee of the Census Office when he recognized this problem. He struck out on his own and developed the first electromechanical punched-car tabulator. Data were represented by the positions of the punches on cards that were fed into the tabulator. The tabulator then automatically totaled the data from selected parts of the card.
Hollerith took another major step. He recognized that the punched data could be ‘sorted’ to determine how many people had more than two children, or non-English-speaking family members, or any other attribute on which data had been collected. He built a sorting machine, powered by electricity rather than a muscle or steam, to do this automatically. As a result of Hollerith’s work, the tabulation of the 1890 census was completed in three years, and vastly improved analysis and use of the data had been made possible.
The Tabulating Machine Company, founded by Hollerith on the basis of his machines, proved to be a profitable venture. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. (1874-1956) joined this company in 1914. After an initial period of less-than-perfect harmony, the technical genius of the founder was subordinated to the business mastery of his successor. In 1924, with Watson as its president, it was renamed the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), and the Hollerith card became the IBM card. In 1914, the company had 1300 employees; today, more than 600.000 people work for the 40-billion-dollar-a-year firm. Watson’s commercial vision led to his sponsorship of another technical pioneer, Howard H. Aiken, whose work was instrumental in the development of the modern computer.
The Harvard Mark I. By the end of the 1930s, the production of punched card tabulating equipment based on Hollerith’s initial inventions had turned IVM into a large and profitable company. These machines served many routine business needs, with unmatched accuracy and speed. In 1939, Professor Howard H. Aiken (1900-1973) of Harvard University sought backing from Watson, who had established IBM’s policy of enlightened corporate self-interest and demonstrated it by generous gifts to universities. Aiken wanted to design and construct a computer that, like Babbage’s, could be programmed to execute
The glossary
III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES
Semantic fields
Concept map
Predictions
IV. GLOSSARY
V. CONCLUSIONS
The option of a glossary on Information Technology
Glossary content
Glossary development changes
VI. REFERENCES
I. INTRODUCTION
Hardly a day goes by that we aren’t affected by or don’t interact directly with computers in some way. The tremendous recent growth in the introduction to data processing course and all its relatives such as courses in computer literacy and microcomputer applications, is only one indicator of a society-wide computer revolution. The reader of this text may be fulfilling a requirement, satisfying curiosity about computers, looking for ways to use a newly purchased personal computer, or trying to keep up with the trend. Whatever his or her goal, my goals in writing this glossary are to present enough details about the actual workings of hardware and software to dispel the mystery without overwhelming the reader with more technical detail than is needed for competency.
My approach to this text and package has been one of learning and application. In order to succeed with that approach, I have brought a unique variety of perspectives to this glossary.
As you can see, the table of contents lends itself to a wide range of course typed – from those that deal only lightly with programming to the programming-intensive, from hands-on applications courses to more traditional surveys, from the business-oriented to the technical.
Above all, the content of this glossary has been organized for maximal flexibility.
Throughout the development of the text and its glossary, I have aimed to create a total package that would be interesting, easy to use, and well integrated.
BACKGROUND
To be an educated citizen today, you must be acquainted not only with computers themselves, but also with what computers do, how they are put to work, and the impact of their use on individuals and organizations in a society. An overview of all these topics is presented in this section.
People have always needed to add things up: how many mammoths killed in a season, how much grain to store for the winter, or how much fuel to get a rocket to the moon. In fact, a cave wall in Lascaux, France, may have been the first ‘adding machine’. About 16,000 years ago, anonymous hunters wanted to keep track of how many bison, deer, horses, and wild cattle were available in the region but lacked an abstract concept of numbers, so they drew a portrait of each animal. Later, because it was much easier to draw a little abstract shape than to paint a realistic picture of the individual animal, the Phoenicians used the symbol aleph (a triangle with horns) to represent a cow. Inverted, aleph later became the Greek alpha and subsequently the Roman letter A. The use of symbols for objects was a step in the right direction, but can you imagine a rancher drawing thousands of alephs every time someone asked him for a record of how many head of cattle he owned?
Computers are the logical end product of centuries of humanity’s pencil-breaking frustration with having to add things, subtract things, and perform other feats of arithmetic derring-do. ‘Make it easier; make it more accurate; make it faster!’ has been the universal cry and an ever-progressing technology has been the response. From portable notched bones (themselves a large technological leap forward from the bulky, hard-to-carry cave wall) to the abacus, from unwieldy mechanical adding machines to the silicon chip, from no numbers at all to magnetic spots on plastic disks, technological developments have answered the demand that computations be made faster, better and easier. It’s a long way from the cave wall to the silicon chip, but this section will trace the major steps that led from then to now.
The main thread of the story concerns the sequence of ever-improving calculating and computing machines created by a succession of inventive geniuses. Each of these inventors used the technology, that is, the parts and tools, available in his or her era. Frequently, the existing technology was the determining factor in whether or not an idea for a machine would actually work or could be built for a price anyone was willing to pay.
The origins. It’s obvious that the concept of number must have coincided with the earliest advances of civilization. At first, the concept covered no more than the distinction between one and many. Layer, one, two, and many were distinguished – a vital step forward. Then came the realization that there is a concept of ‘twoness’ that is the same whether it refers to two rabbits or two trees. Further generalization and application of this idea, over the millennia, gave rise to the words and symbols that enable us to record and communicate numbers.
The idea and the symbol came together with the first calculation – counting. The earliest surviving record unearthed by archaeologists are notched bones about 30.000 years old. Two notches in a bone or stick stood for two head of cattle; a third notch was added when a calf was born. This type of counting tool persisted for thousands of years, marked by a transition to counting in groups of five (the Romans) and then (in eastern India and Arabia) and the development of positional notation.
The first counting ‘machine’ was the counting board, dating back about 3000 years. More than a thousand years went by before the stones in a column of the counting board evolved into the ‘high-tech’ beads on the wires of the abacus. The origin of the first calculator is obscured in Chinese, Arabic, European, and Egyptian antiquity.
As the centuries passed, an influential merchant class arose in Europe, the sign of a growing international and even intercontinental commerce. The more complex social and economic system called for elaborate account keeping with calculations of interest and currency exchange. Science awakened to computation; mathematical theories concerning the motions of the earth, moon, planets, and sun used equations to compute planetary positions and daily variations in daylight and tides. Seasonal effects were estimated more accurately, increasing agricultural productivity and creating the food surplus necessary to feed a burgeoning urban population. Government clerks calculated tariffs and other taxes. In 1642, Galileo died, Newton was born, and the French mathematician Pascal built the first gear-driven mechanical calculator.
Early machines. Blaise Pascal, the son of a mathematically gifted tax official, spent long hours with his father adding columns of figures. He later became an entrepreneur who built and sold 50 from the far-from-perfect mechanical calculators he invented. Pascal’s calculator was digital: that is, like the abacus, it dealt with whole numbers and produced precise results. Another class of instruments and calculators, such as certain surveying and astronomical instruments, was analog: these machines, like the conventional mechanical wrist watch, gave only a visual depiction of the result, in contrast to the precise read-out of a digital watch.
Later in the seventeenth century, the German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716) built the first calculator designed to do multiplication and division as well as addition and subtraction. The complexity of this machine was, however, somewhat beyond what could be effectively built out of the contemporary mechanical gears and levers, and the machine, was not very reliable.
In the nineteenth century, the British inventor and mathematician Charles Babbage (1792-1872), who had very little practical success, achieved the intellectual triumph of clearly anticipating most of the logical principles on which the modern computer is based. Babbage designed his analytical engine as a result of his boredom with long calculations and his distress at the inherent errors they involved. He incorporated a mechanical memory in his design to store intermediate calculated results so they wouldn’t have to be copied onto paper and subsequently reentered – a process that was one of the principal sources of error. He also provided for the entry of both numbers, and calculation steps on punched cards. He adapted the idea from Joseph Jacquard (1752-1834), who, late in the eighteenth century in France, had built a weaving machine that used punched cards to select the threads to be incorporated into a pattern. However, Babbage’s steam-powered analytical engine proved too complex for him to build: his idea was ahead of the currently available technology.
It is largely due to the efforts of Ada Augusta, Countess of Lovelace (1816-1852), daughter of the romantic poet Lord Byron and now generally regarded as the first computer programmer, that we remember the work of Babbage’s mathematical prodigy, the Countess of Lovelace became interested in Babbage’s ideas, and in 1842, at the age of 27, she translated a description of Babbage’s machine from French into English. She added some of her ideas about programming to the translation and corrected Babbage’s errors. Ada Lovelace is credited with developing the programming loop, in which a sequence of operations is repeated within a program.
Not until 1886 did William Seward Burroughs (1855-1898) introduce the first commercially successful mechanical adding machine. A million Burroughs Adding and Listing machines were sold by 1926, and Henry Ford even produced a car, the Burroughs Special, with a rack designed to carry the popular device.
At about that time Burroughs was building his mechanical adder, another important development occurred in the United States. There had been a census in 1880, and manual tabulation of the data had taken seven years. Since the population was growing rapidly and more information was to be included on the census forms, it was clear that the data from the 1890 census wouldn’t be compiled before it was time to start on the 1900 census. Dr. Herman Hollerith (1860-1929) was an employee of the Census Office when he recognized this problem. He struck out on his own and developed the first electromechanical punched-car tabulator. Data were represented by the positions of the punches on cards that were fed into the tabulator. The tabulator then automatically totaled the data from selected parts of the card.
Hollerith took another major step. He recognized that the punched data could be ‘sorted’ to determine how many people had more than two children, or non-English-speaking family members, or any other attribute on which data had been collected. He built a sorting machine, powered by electricity rather than a muscle or steam, to do this automatically. As a result of Hollerith’s work, the tabulation of the 1890 census was completed in three years, and vastly improved analysis and use of the data had been made possible.
The Tabulating Machine Company, founded by Hollerith on the basis of his machines, proved to be a profitable venture. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. (1874-1956) joined this company in 1914. After an initial period of less-than-perfect harmony, the technical genius of the founder was subordinated to the business mastery of his successor. In 1924, with Watson as its president, it was renamed the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), and the Hollerith card became the IBM card. In 1914, the company had 1300 employees; today, more than 600.000 people work for the 40-billion-dollar-a-year firm. Watson’s commercial vision led to his sponsorship of another technical pioneer, Howard H. Aiken, whose work was instrumental in the development of the modern computer.
The Harvard Mark I. By the end of the 1930s, the production of punched card tabulating equipment based on Hollerith’s initial inventions had turned IVM into a large and profitable company. These machines served many routine business needs, with unmatched accuracy and speed. In 1939, Professor Howard H. Aiken (1900-1973) of Harvard University sought backing from Watson, who had established IBM’s policy of enlightened corporate self-interest and demonstrated it by generous gifts to universities. Aiken wanted to design and construct a computer that, like Babbage’s, could be programmed to execute an entire sequence of instructions automatically. Watson responded with financial support of nearly a million dollars and the assistance of some of IBM’s best technical people.
The Harvard Mark I, as the computer came to be known, became operational in 1944. It employed new electromechanical devices called relays, which consisted of an electromagnet and a switch. Hollerith had already used electricity rather than muscle power to move the mechanical parts in his machines. The relay was the next big step in the advance of early twentieth century computing technology; it soon entirely replaced the gear.
Harvard Mark I’s relays were much quicker than mechanical gears; each switch took only a few thousandths of a second to open or close. This seemed like a very short time indeed, but three seconds had elapsed by the time all of the thousands of relays required to multiply two numbers had operated. The process was held up by the fact that some of the relax couldn’t start operating until others had finished. Some of the calculations performed by the Harvard Mark I involved many thousands of multiplications. There are 3600 seconds in an hour – enough time for the Harvard Mark I to do only 1200 multiplications – so the total time per calculation sometimes ran too many hours.
ENIAC. With its 51-foot length and 500 miles of wire, the Harvard Mark I was a significant accomplishment, but it was to be eclipsed in 1946 by the first of the totally electronic machines. Development of ENIAC began during World War II under Army sponsorship. It was designed to compute the numerical tables used to target artillery, that is, to calculate the ballistic trajectories of artillery shells and of the first generation of U.S. military rockets.
The principal designers of ENIAC were John Presper Eckert Jr. and John W. Mauchly of the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania. ENIAC wasn’t a general-purpose computer by our current standard; substantial manual set-up was required to vary even its rather narrow repertoire of calculations. But ENIAC started a revolution in arithmetic speed by doing away with the electro-mechanical relay together. Instead, ENIAC employed an electronic switch – the vacuum tube, which was used at that time in radio and radar equipment. The relay, in which an appreciable mass must move a finite distance, completes its task in milliseconds; the vacuum tube, in which only electrons move, operates in microseconds.
ENIAC was an enormous machine: it was 100 feet long, 10 feet high, and 3 feet deep, and weighted 30 tons. It contained 18.000 vacuum tubes, 70.000 resistors, and 6000 switches, and required 140 kilowatts of power to operate. But it carried out a multiplication operation in 3 milliseconds – a thousand times faster than the Mark I.
Assigning credit for initiating the electronic computer age to the designers of ENIAC is open to question. In 1941, two years before the start of the ENIAC project, Mauchly visited the laboratory of John V. Atanasoff at Iowa State University. Atanasoff had already built a specialised computer to solve systems of linear equations. Although Atanasoff’s computer employed vacuum tubes and was not as flexible or as powerful as ENIAC, nonetheless it was fundamentally a kind of electronic computer. Atanasoff sued Mauchly and his associates when they tried to patent what he claimed were his idea. A federal court finally decided in 1974 that his claim was valid. This controversy, however, had little impact on ENIAC’s development or its significance in the evolution of computer technology.
It must also be pointed out that in two important ways ENIAC itself did not qualify as a modern electronic computer: it worked with decimal rather than binary numbers, and its calculations could be varied only by tedious manual altering of its set-up rather than simply changing a numerically coded program. But all disclaimers aside, ENIAC was certainly of great historic importance. For one thing, the principals of the ENIAC project stayed in the forefront of the developing computer field. Eckert and Mauchly went on to found the company that built UNIVAC, the first commercial electronic computer. John von Neumann, one of the world’s leading scientists, was a consultant to the project, and he would later bring the computer age into full flower.
The IAS computer and the binary number system. John von Neumann (1903-1957), of Princeton’s celebrated Institute for Advanced Study (IAS), the academic home of Albert Einstein and many other great scientists, was a true scientific genius. He had a virtually photographic memory, was a prodigious mental calculator, and made broad and fundamental contributions to science. He was a consultant to the U.S. government and was actively involved in the World War II atomic weapons research at Los Alamos. Consulting on the ENIAC project was only the start of his work on computers. Before ENIAC was complete, von Neumann formulated plans with Eckert and Mauchly for a new computer, EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), which was to store program as well as data as numbers in memory, just as is done by computers today.
Also, von Neumann abandoned the decimal system, once and for all. He reasoned that the switches out of which computers were built had two states: on and off. Using such switches to represent decimal digits is somewhat inefficient and complicates the arithmetic circuitry as well. Rather naturally, von Neumann concluded that the binary system of notation, in which the digits indicate what powers of 2 a number contains, would be better suited to computers. In the binary system, since the base is 2, each digit can have a value of either 0 or 1. One binary digit is called a bit. The two possible values of a bit are represented by the two possible states of a switch.
In 1945, long before EDVAC’s completion in 1950, von Neumann went on to direct his own computer project. The machine this project produced at Princeton, the IAS computer, rather than the solely military EDVAC, was the immediate precipitant of the explosion of computers onto the commercial scene. At Princeton, von Neumann created not only a computer but an intellectual environment in which the application of computers was the focus of board and deep investigation.
Unlike its predecessors, the IAS computer possessed the hallmark of the truly general-purpose computer – the ability to turn instantly from one program to another, to solve equations of atmospheric motion one second and those describing nuclear detonations the next. The versatility of the IAS machine meant that it had more than one use. Although its major role was in the design of U.S. nuclear weapons, it ran hundreds of other pioneering written at Princeton, from the simulation of genetical processes to the firs electronic checker player.
After the IAS computer and EDVAC, things began to move quickly. In 1951, Eckert and Mauchly delivered UNIVAC I to the U.S. Bureau of the Census, and a year later IBM unveiled its first computer. The computer age had begun.
The first generation (1951-1958). The first generation began with Eckert and Mauchly’s UNIVAC I and IBM’s 701. These machines were the first computers to be used by businesses, mostly for accounting functions such as payroll and billing. Previous computers had been used mainly for military and scientific computation.
Many thousands of vacuum tubes were required to build a single first-generation CPU. Vacuum tubes were notoriously unreliable because of, among other factors, the heat generated in using them and the imperfection of the vacuum. The ageing go the seal between the glass body of the tube and its mental and plastic base accelerated this process. A dedicated maintenance effort, checking and replacing ageing tubes, was necessary to keep a first-generation computer operating.
Relatively few numbers could be stored using a vacuum tube to represent each binary digit. Although several other electronic storage techniques were used during the first generation, most of these have since become extinct. The abiding contribution of the first generation to computer technology was the use of magnetic storage media.
Magnetic drums were used as internal memory for many of the first-generation computers. Programs and data were usually first punched on IBM cards. Since reading and punching IBM cards is a slow process, the data were, upon input, transferred to a magnetic drum. The drum was the internal memory, or primary memory, sometimes also called the primary storage unit; that is, it was directly connected to the ALU and control unit and held to activate data and program. Intermediate results were written on and retrieved from the drum. No slow card punching and reading was necessary. Although magnetic drums were very slow by today’s standards, they were still much faster to access than punched cards, which were the first generation’s secondary storage. Secondary storage refers to memory with higher capacity but slower accessibility; data to be processed are transferred from secondary storage to the primary storage unit.
Even though they are represented an improvement in speed, drums did have a limited capacity; only a few thousands or tens of thousands of numbers could be held on a drum. To augment this capacity, secondary storage on magnetic tape was developed toward the end of the first generation. The amount of data can be stored on tapes is virtually limitless., but the price for this high capacity is paid in terms of the longer time it takes to access the data. If the data we want to use were recorded in the middle of the tape, we might have to wait several minutes until that spot unreels under the read head, where an electromagnet converts the magnetic spots on the tape into the electronic impulses handled by the processor. Like data on cards, specific data on magnetic tape secondary storage was transferred to a magnetic drum primary storage unit to be processed.
Keeping first-generation hardware running was tedious and exacting, but programming for it was even worse. The first programs were expressed in the ing strings of binary digits, zeros and ones, that the machines dealt with. Writing programs in machine language consisting of long sequences of instructions was error-prone, and checking page after page of ones and zeros tested many a programmer’s endurance.
The first big software breakthrough was the development of assembly language. An assembly language allowed programmers to use mnemonics for operations and symbols for variables. An assembly language instruction looked like this: ADD A AND B, where A and B are symbols representing variables. Programs were written in assembly language and punched on cards; then each instruction was converted by the computer itself into the string of zeros and ones that the machine could manipulate. Assembly language was a definite improvement over machine language, but it was still hard to work with.
The second generation (1959-1964). The second generation was defined by two advances the produced fundamental changes in the manufacture and use of computers: the invention of the transistor and the development of programming languages that were more like English.
At Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1948, three men changed the young world of computing. John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain and William B. Shockley invented a new electronic device, the transistor. In 1956 they were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize for the achievement. Transistors could be made of solid material and were consequently more mechanically rugged than the delicate assemblies of vacuum tubes. They were also small and lightweight, and employed no heater. Because of their cool operation, they had a long life. By 1959, when they were being produced in volume and thus at a relatively low price, transistors were the dominant component of the typical CPU.
Primary memory was also radically transformed during the second generation. Powdered magnetic material was pressed into tiny doughnut-shaped magnetic cores, which were strung together on wires. Each tiny core can store one bit. Memories built out of magnetic cores have a striking advantage over drums and tapes: the data are instantly available. There is no waiting for a part of a drum or tape to arrive under a read head. No physical motion at all is involved in the accessing of a magnetic core memory.
The magnetic tape of the first generation was joined in the second generation by the magnetic disk, a large, flat, stereo-record-like magnetic storage surface. With magnetic disk secondary storage, less time is required to move data into primary memory for processing. Disks rotate rapidly; each item on a disk passes under the read and write heads every 30 or 40 milliseconds – a great improvement over the many seconds, or even minutes, it could take for data on a tape to reach the heads.
During the second generation, computer hardware in general became smaller, more reliable, and more easily maintainable. Components were ‘packaged’ onto printed circuit boards, each of which could easily be removed and replaced with a non defective spare. While the faulty part on the removed board was located and replaced, the system went right on working. Diagnostic programs, which test the machine and locate faulty parts quickly were developed and improved during the second generation.
The second generation ushered high-level languages, programming languages that resemble written English in vocabulary and syntax. They were essential to the proliferation of computers in every walk of life.
The two earliest high-level languages were created for business use. In addition to making programming efforts far less strenuous, high-level languages had another impact on computer technology: they made possible the portability of programs among computers of different manufacturers. In other words, a single high-level language program or source program as it is called can be translated by different compilers into various object programs, or machine codes. Each compiler is designed to translate from a particular high-level language into a specific machine language.
At the beginning of the era of high-level languages, however, things weren’t that straightforward. Different manufacturers used their own dialects, or versions of a language, which meant there were difficulties in conversion. Different machines, then and now, work with numbers of different lengths. This, and the details of each machine’s handling of input/output, added to the difficulties. It wasn’t until later, with the establishment of industry-wide standards, that the promise or portability became a reality.
The third generation (1965-1971). The economy and reliability of transistors made computers available to entirely new classes of users. High-level languages made it easier to write programs for business users, enabling them to apply computers to their jobs. A period of explosive growth in the computer industry was taking place within a generally buoyant economy. It was becoming common for a business to buy a computer and then quickly outgrow its capacity. Buying a more powerful computer usually meant that many of the company’s existing programs had to be scrapped, all of the ones written in assembly language, for example, and perhaps even the high-level language source programs. The necessity for program conversion was definitely a negative factor to any organization looking to change computers.
IBM’s 360 product line started at its low end with a relatively small and economics computer and progressed through half a dozen others to a large, ultra-high-speed machine. The family possessed upward compatibility: any program written for one of these machines could be run, without change, on any larger machine in the series. IBM was offering users a means to cope with growth without having to convert most of their programs. The business of manufacturing computers was permanently changed. From this time on, companies built product lines rather than just a single model.
During the third generation, the manual assembling of the transistors and other components on printed circuit boards gave way to the mechanized manufacturing go small solid pieces of silicon that contained all these components, as well as all their necessary interconnections.
These new integrated circuits were much smaller, more efficient, more reliable, and ultimately far cheaper than their slower second-generation counterparts. The resulting increases in computing speed were also dramatic. It became necessary to think in terms of a new time unit, the nanosecond. Soon after, an even less comprehensible unit of time, the picosecond, had to be added to the general computer vocabulary.
Memory technology was transformed by integrated circuits. By 1969, approximately 1000 transistors could be built on a single piece of silicon, making the transistor primary memory, in which a transistor circuit is used to store each bit, more competitive in price with magnetic core memory. Magnetic core memory does have one advantage over transistor memory: it is nonvolatile; that is, the information remains stored even if the power is shut off. Even the most reliable electric power systems have momentary outages that, in the absence of special safeguards, will destroy the information in a transistor memory.
Integrated circuits and miniaturized core memories made low-cost minicomputers possible. These small, rugged machines are generally used for a single application, or at most a small set of applications, as opposed to the mainframes, or large computing center machines, which run hundreds or even thousands of different jobs every day.
The human user was linked more directly to the computer with the development of the terminal. Instead of punching cards on some off-line device, then giving them to an operator who would, sometime later, place them in a card reader for processing, programmers could now type their programs directly into computer memory, and check them on the printed output. Terminals were also perfect for data entry and the operation of minicomputers; they continue to play a large role in communications between humans and computers.
Magnetic disks represented an increased percentage of the volume memory market in the third generation. Disk packs became prevalent. These are like other rotating disks but with removable disk storage surfaces. This gives a disk unit the same ability as a tape unit to make rooms full of data accessible to the computer, while maintaining the speed advantages of the disk.
Software became more sophisticated during the third generation. The number of high-level languages continued to grow. Languages adapted to more specific applications began to make their appearance: Report Program Generator for generating business reports; Automatically Programmed Tools for fabricating parts on automatically controlled machine tools and Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code for easy programming.
The expanded power of the CPU and the increased quantity and variety of input/output equipment with which it was surrounded created a need for more efficient management of these complex and costly resources, some worth several million dollars. A new class of computer program, the operating system, answered this need. In the first and second generations, jobs were run successively under the supervision of a human operator. Great improvements in efficiency were made by placing the computer system’s resources under the control of an operating system, a program that could match the jobs that needed to be done with the equipment that was available. With an operating system, much more work can be accomplished by the same equipment.
A natural extension was time sharing of an operating system. The CPU is also fast that it can keep up with many users communicating with the system from a number of terminal keyboards. In fact, in time sharing, the operating system parcels out successive connection times of a few milliseconds’ duration to several users. Unless traffic is particularly heavy, each user has the illusion of having sole and immediate access to the computer.
The fourth generation (1971 – present). During the third generation, computers penetrated deeply and permanently into the fabric of industry, commerce, government, and higher education. In the fourth generation, computers have reached the common thread of all these institutions: the individual at work, school and home. Two innovations that enabled this extension of the technology are the microprocessor and user-friendly software.
In the early 1970s, integrated circuit technology, by which a dozen or so transistors were included on a single chip, was supplanted by the techniques of large-scale integration, which manufactured chips with a few thousand transistors. By the mid-1970s, very large-scale integration was used to produce a chip containing an entire microprocessor, or microcomputer CPU.
One consequence of VLSI was the virtual replacement of magnetic core memory with transistor memory. Single memory chips now contain up to a million bits, and an upper limit is still not in sight. The number of transistors on today’s VLSI chip is enough to build 20 ENIACs. The process used to make these ever-smaller patterns of transistors and their interconnections on a chip was originally based on photographic techniques. These techniques, which can produce features as small as a micron, have become too crude, and electron beams were used to create the patterns on the chip.
As long as I am on the subject of fourth-generation hardware, I should at least mention two larger-scale developments. First, secondary storage has grown to a large enough capacity to contain all the data needed to operate a big corporation or a major government agency. This has led to the development of special programming techniques and programs to manage such vast quantities of data. Second, each generation of computers has features its largest, fastest and generally scientifically oriented computers – the supercomputers. They have played a special role in a variety of fields.
The special software created to handle the huge quantities of data that fourth-generation systems are able to store is also capable of handling the communication function such as data bases serve. For example, in an airline reservation system, many geographically dispersed users were constantly referencing and modifying the data. The system must have been updated instantly when the status of a piece of the data changed. Selling the same seat on the same flight to three different people isn’t the way to keep the customers happy. Solving software problems of this magnitude was a labor-intensive job whose costs continued to rise. Since the cost of hardware has decreased regularly, software and operating costs now generally exceed hardware costs.
At the other end of the software spectrum are the numerous programs now available for the personal computer that has been built around the microprocessor chip. This software, designed for inexperienced users, makes every attempt to guide the user by containing built-in instruction and answers the questions; in other words, it is designed to be user-friendly.
The growing scope and complexity of programming efforts have meant that greater and greater intellectual discipline and organization have had to be imposed on frequently large programming teams, whose efforts must mesh together perfectly. A set of techniques called structured programming has made an important contribution to the standardization of such efforts. It is a vital underpinning of the complex fourth-generation software.
The fourth generation is not the end of the story. Following a Japanese initiative, a worldwide effort was underway to develop a radically different fifth generation of computers. This effort centers on work in a field called artificial intelligence.
HARDWARE
Computer hardware – the physical parts of a computer system – varies widely in performance, prince, size and appearance. The structure and function of the central processing unit, the numerous peripheral devices, and the various media for the input, storage, and output of data are of primary importance to our understanding of data processing.
Central Processor Concepts, Codes and Components
Thirty years or so ago. it was common for people unfamiliar with computers to refer to them as ‘electronic brains’. Today, people are most sophisticated about computers, and no longer astonished by their computational abilities. Most of us know that they have to be programmed in order to do anything and that there are limitations on what they can and can’t do.
The labeling of computers as ‘brains’ is based on a certain limited similarity between the two complex entities, one organic and the other electronic. The comparison is faulty at best – like comparing apples with oranges because both are round and both are fruit. So the analogy is rather a weak one, drawn from certain superficial similarities between brains and computers: a computer’s central processing unit resembles a brain insofar as both are places where input is transformed into output and where the control of the peripheral equipment is centered. Also, without a brain or a CPU, a body or a computer is useless.
Primary Storage Concepts
The CPU in any contemporary computer system deals only with the zeros and ones of the binary system, which correspond to the on and off states of an electronic switch. People, however, find data more readable when they’re presented as alphanumeric characters. This difference raises the problem of how to get from the alphanumeric representations that are convenient for people to the binary ones and zeros that are necessary for computers.
The CPU and Numbers Data Representation
Various number systems and coding schemes have been employed to address this problem. I’ll first examine the most common ones in use today. Then I’ll discuss the fundamental data units of computers: bits, bytes and words.
Binary Numbers
The number system we are most familiar with, the decimal system, uses 10 symbols to represent numerical quantities; single digits represent quantities smaller than 10, and groups of two or more digits represent quantities larger than 9. A digit’s position in a group and its value contribute to the overall value of the group. Since each position stands for a certain power of 10, the decimal system is said to have a base of 10.
The binary system, with a base of 2, uses the symbols 0 and 1 to represent values less than 2, in the same way that the decimal system uses 0 through 9 for values less than 10. Quantities larger than 1 are represented by groups of zeros and ones. The digit positions in these groups represent successive powers of 2, rather than powers of 10.
Fixed-Point and Floating-Point Numbers
A fixed-point number is one whose point is in a fixed place in relation to the digits. For example, both integers and fractions can be represented as fixed-point numbers. For integers, the point is fixed at the extreme right; for fractions, the point is fixed at the extreme left. Since the point position is fixed and predefined, it does not have to be stored in memory with the value.
A floating-point number, in contrast, can be used to represent a mixed number. One number is used for the fractional part, called the mantissa, and another number is used for the power of the base, or the exponent.
Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers
The octal system uses eight symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Since 23 is equal to 8, the octal system in a convenient shorthand for binary; each octal digit is equivalent to three binary digits.
The hexadecimal number system uses 16 symbols. Although using letters as number might seem strange, it is necessary in order to have a single character to represent each values from 10 through 15, for instance. Since each hexadecimal digit is equivalent to four binary digits, the hexadecimal system is also a shorthand way to express binary systems.
Coding Systems to Represent Alphanumeric Characters
In order to store and represent text in a computer, some scheme must be employed to convert letters punctuation marks, and special characters to binary numbers. In fact, one way to think of octal numbers is a as a set of 3-bit codes that represent the characters 0 through 7. Similarly, the hexadecimal system can be thought of as a 4-bit system for representing the characters 0 through 9 and A through F. These codes can only represent decimal and binary values, however. To represent more than 16 characters, some scheme is required that uses codes of more than 4 bits. Various coding systems have been developed over the years using 6-bit, 7-bit and 8-bit codes. Of these, three are common today: BCD, EBCDIC and ASCII.
The Two Basic Functions of Primary Storage
One basic function of primary storage is to hold the program that is being executed. What this means is that a program, which is nothing more than a sequence of instructions, is just a list of numbers than can be stored in the primary storage unit as if it were a list of prices or any other data. The instructions, of course, are used by the commuter in a totally different way than data are used: the instructions determine what the computer does with data to produce the desired results.
The other basic function of primary storage is to hold the input data that are required by the program being executed. In an extensive calculation, the results of carrying out the instructions using the input data are usually twofold: there are some intermediate results, which are used in subsequent calculations; and there are final results, which are to be output. Primary storage thus includes working storage as well as space for data and the final results.
The Logical Structure of Primary Storage
In a mainframe computer system at a given time, many programs may be in secondary storage, together with their data, awaiting the availability of the CPU and space un the primary storage unit. One feature of primary storage that distinguishes it from secondary storage is that its contents can be transmitted very rapidly to the ALU for processing. Also, its physical size is small compared to that of secondary storage since it must be both close to the main control unit and ALU and built out of the fastest memory chips in the system. For these reasons, the overall capacity of the primary storage unit remains limited compared to the slower secondary storage.
For a variety of historical reasons, the number 1024, or 210, has become the basic measure of memory size. It was the total size of some early computer memories and was later the number of bits on a single LSI memory chip. The memory size 1024 bits is somewhat imprecisely called IK. When we refer to a 4K word memory, we don’t mean it hold 4000 computer words, we mean 4 times 1024, or 4096. This is the number of different words that can be specified in an address space of 12 bits. In other words, 12 bits are required to specify 4096 different addresses.
Storage Computers in the CPU
Just as bulk memory mediates between primary and secondary storage, cache memory bridges the gap between primary storage and certain faster circuits in the CPU. The CPU con taints a relatively small quantity of memory even faster than primary memory. Each word of this special memory is called a register. Registers are special storage locations directly connected to the main control unit and to the ALU, where the actual manipulation of the data is done. With the help of the cache memory and its elaborate controls, the primary storage unit is made to appear faster to the ALU and main control unit, which in fact communicate only with the cache memory, rather than with the primary storage unit. The cache memory communicates with the primary storage unit when the main control unit and the ALU are busy and have no immediate need for new information. As a result of this communication, the cache memory acquires the data or program steps that will be needed for processing text. The size and speed of cache memory and the number of registers and their operating speed are limiting factors in the overall performance achievable by a CPU.
The Arithmetic and Logic Unit
Babbage called the place in his analytical engine where the input was transformed into results ‘the mill’. Similarly, today’s computers are sometimes irreverently referred to as ‘number crunchers’. The arithmetic and logic unit is the part of the CPU where mathematical and logical operations are carried out. The data values to be used in the arithmetic and logical operations are transferred to the ALU, where the operations are performed.
Registers and Accumulators
The data are transmitted from registers to the ALU, and the result of an operation is transmitted from the ALU to a special register called an accumulator. As its name suggests, an accumulator is a location in the CPU used to hold, or accumulate, the results of ALU operations.
Once an operand is in a register, its journey from an input device has nearly ended. This journey included brief stopovers in at least some of the following: secondary storage, bulk memory, primary storage and cache memory. Now, finally, the ALU circuits perform an arithmetic or logical operation on the operands and transmit the result to an accumulator in the CPU. The accumulator, in turn, communicates with other registers and the results start on the journey to an output device.
Types of Arithmetic and Logic Units
Different types of ALUs are designed to do arithmetic operations at different speeds. The simplest type of ALU does operations involving a single pair of bits at a time, one from each operand. It adds two multidigit numbers, for example, much as we do manually, beginning with the two digits in the least significant position of the numbers and proceeding to the most significant position, adding in the carried values along the way. Such an ALU is called a serial-by-bit ALU.
Calculations can be performed faster if more transistors are included in the ALU’s arithmetic circuits, to process all of the digits in the operands simultaneously. Am ALU that has the transistors necessary to do this simultaneous processing is called a parallel ALU.
While keeping track of the binary point is not difficult, this task can be a more complex one. In fact, it represented a major programming challenge before the advent of elaborate floating-point software, written for early machines, which lifted this burden from the programmer. The price of this software solution to the problem was, and is, slower speeds: the time to execute a significant program is the time required for a single ALU operation.
Logical Operations
To exercise their full power in applications, computers must be able not only to calculate the values of algebraic expressions, but also to deal somehow with the occurrence of conditions and events. For example, if a computer is used to control an office building’s heating and cooling system, it might be programmed to turn on the air conditioning when the temperature exceeds 80oF and the humidity exceeds 70%. The computer in that case would have to be programmed to recognize when the event had occurred. The computer might also be programmed to turn the system off if either it was not a weekday or the temperature was between 60oF and 80oF. Both of these situations represent conditions that can be described as logical expressions: statements constructed by connecting simpler statements with the logical connectives and, not and or. The truth or falsity of the overall statement can be determined from the truth or falsity of its component statements.
Comparisons are the basic means for controlling a program’s flow In a payroll program, the condition that the hours worked exceed 40 will steer the program to a path that takes into account the payment of an overtime premium and multiplies the differences by a number of times the regular hourly pay rate. Since the income tax rate differs depending on the payer’s tax bracket, an income tax program must perform comparisons to determine in what numerical range of values the net income lies.
Executing Stored Instructions
The main control unit is a collection of circuits that orchestrates the functioning of all of the computer system’s components. Based on program instructions it takes from the primary storage unit, the main control unit causes required data to be transmitted back and forth between ALU, primary storage, secondary storage, and input/output device and tells the ALU what operations are to be performed. The main control unit is the part of a computer system that makes it a system – like the captain of a drill team, it gets a collection of individual units to perform their various roles in a precise and constructive way.
Executing an Instruction
To be executed, the instruction at a given address is transferred to a special register in the main control unit called the instruction register.
An instruction consists of two parts: an operation and an address. The address specifies the memory location of a data value; the operation specifies what’s to be done with that value.
Decoding Operations: Microcode and Read-Only Memory
The operation portion of the instruction is a pattern of binary digits. Each pattern corresponds to a difficult operation; a unique set of signals must be sent to the ALU to cause the operation to be executed. All these sets of signals are stored in a special memory called the operation decoder. An address for this memory is the bit pattern representing an operation. The memory contents for each such bit pattern are the proper sequence of signals, called microcode, that cause the ALU to execute that operation. The bit pattern or sequence of signals is unvarying. If everything is working right, a five operation will always be executed by the same sequence of signals. Thus, the operation decoder is an example of a type of memory that is only written into once; after being written into, it is only read. For this reason, it is called a read-only memory (ROM).
The Instruction Counter and Branching
A special register in the main control unit called the instruction counter contains the address of the instruction that is just about to be executed.
When writing a program, a programmer assigns consecutive addresses to its instructions. The instructions are executed sequentially, in the order of their assigned addresses. That is, execution of a program starts with the address of its first instruction in the instruction counter. After that instruction has been executed, the instruction at the next consecutive address is executed, and so on, until all of the program’s instructions have been executed.
Data Entry
Computers can only process numbers; in fact, they can only process numbers represented by patterns of electrical signals. Somehow raw data, the collected facts and figures that are to be processed, must be converted into this machine-readable form before the computer can accept and manipulate them. Data entry is the process of gathering a specific type of factual material, converting it to machine-readable form, and either storing it temporarily or presenting it directly to the CPU.
Given the wide range of the tasks performed by computers, it isn’t surprising that input data come from an equally wide variety of sources. In the business world, data are collected from sales, inventory and payroll records, customer orders or market research reports. Data used by scientific research organizations often consist of instrument measurements collected during experiments. Educational institutions gather data about their students in the form of attendance records, grade reports and personal histories. Data collected by government agencies such as the IRS are taken from forms filled out by individuals and corporations.
Regardless of the source, the facts and figures must be correctly transcribed and transmitted or the results of processing them will be useless.
Basic Concepts
Unfortunately, even computers aren’t perfect; computer errors do occur. For example, a bit of data can be lost or altered during transmission within or between computers. Such losses, although rate in relation to the enormous numbers of computations and data transfers that take place, happen often enough to be of concern. Dust, moisture, magnetic fields, and equipment failures are the most frequent causes of machine errors.
Hardware Checks on the Accuracy of Data
The parity bit is an extra bit that is added to a machine code for error-detecting purposes. For example, with the ASCII 7-bit code for the letter A (1000001), the parity bit is added for the leftmost position, result in in an 8-bit code. If a computer uses even parity, the added bit is whichever bit produces an even number of ones in the 8-bit code. Similarly, odd parity, used by some computers, adds the binary digit that makes the total number of ones odd. With odd parity, the 8-bit code for A is 11000001. With even parity, the correct 8-bit code for A is 01000001. The zero added in the leftmost position results in an even number of ones; if a one had been added, the code would have had three.
The parity check employs one redundant bit per word, the parity bit. Redundancy codes use additional redundant digits. To give a simple example, storing a given 3-bit code for a one and another 3-bit code for a zero provides some powerful error-detection capabilities. It might seem wasteful to store 3 bits for every angle bit of input data, but in fact it pays off handsomely.
Hamming codes, the most frequently used redundancy codes, actually use much less redundancy. They are a very powerful method for detecting and correcting random errors.
Software Checks on the Accuracy of Data
Even perfectly functioning computer hardware is limited by the reliability of what is input. Given correct data and programming, computer processing is predictable and reliable. But computers cannot evaluate the quality of the data they’re given. For all their technological sophistication, if we provide them with inaccurate data, they will produce erroneous results.
There are two main typed of input errors: those due to the incorrect collection or recording data; and those due to mistakes in entering or keying in the data. Quite a few techniques for detecting input errors have been developed. Although often performed manually, these checks are most successful if they are programmed into the software that controls data input. Because the computer is well suited to the repetitive task of checking details, it can play a major role in the process of ensuring the accuracy of its own input data.
Input Media and Devices for Sequential Processing
Many different approaches have been developed to deal with the problem of getting data into a computer. Batch input methods involve collecting, or batching data before entry into the computer. This usually means waiting until enough data have been collected to form a batch, and it requires the use of some medium for storing the data during collection, either cards, tapes or disks. Source data input methods represent an attempt to reduce human errors by taking data right from the source and inputting them directly into the computer via some type of scanning device. Finally, on-line input methods are used to enter and process individual pieces of data as they become available. This type of input method relies on a terminal, scanner graphic device, touch panel, or even the user’s voice.
Batch Input Methods
Batch input methods typically capture data from source documents, such as inventory list, employee payroll forms, income tax returns, sale receipts, or customer invoices. Data can be gathered directly from the source if they are in machine-readable form. In any case, the distinguishing characteristic of batch methods is that input data are temporarily stored until large quantities, or batches, are collected. At scheduled intervals, these accumulated batches are sorted into some convenient processing order, input into the computer, and processed. Batch input media, such as punched cards, paper tape; magnetic tape or magnetic disks are used to hold the input data during processing intervals. Devices that enable raw data to be recorded on these media include keypunches and key-to-tape or key-to-disk devices.
Source Data Input Methods
The batch input media and devices require human operators to key data from source documents into a machine that records them on some input medium. Humans make errors as they transcribe data. Source data input methods eliminate this type of human error by allowing data to be input directly into the computer from the source.
I discuss these methods here, between the discussions of batch and on-line input methods, because source data input methods can really be classified as subcategories of both. Some source data input methods, such as optical input, are basically on-line methods, while magnetic ink character recognition, for example, is used predominantly with batched data.
On-Line Input Methods
On-line input, in contrast to batch input, is processed by the computer immediately, whiteout being temporarily held on some intermediate storage medium. The entering or updating of any piece of data, often called a transaction, is handled when it occurs, without waiting for other similar occurrences. On-line input methods and devices are used wherever the data to be in out require some immediate response or other action, for example, bank account updating, and hotel, car rental and airline reservation handling.
Secondary Storage and Output
Computers perform more than 25 trillion calculations a day just in the United States. The federal government holds dozens of computer files on every individual. In business, medicine, education, finance – in practically any field – people constantly create new data for computers to analyses.
There are a variety of media in which to store data. Once the data are stored, there are a number of methods for organizing them into useful, quickly accessible pieces of information. The choice of organizing method depends in large part on the storage medium being used. And the choice of a storage medium is based on a careful analysis of how quickly and how often the data need to be accessed how frequently they will be changed, whether or not copies are necessary – in other words, how the data should be filed.
Secondary Storage
Secondary storage, also called auxiliary storage, supplements primary memory by providing a place to keep programs and data when the computer isn’t processing them. Secondary storage may be either on-line or off-line. Since accessing secondary storage usually involves some mechanical operation such as threading tape mounting disk packs or waiting for tape to wind or for read/write heads to move, it is much slower than accessing primary memory, which involves no moving parts.
The magnetic disk is the most popular on-line secondary storage medium for microcomputers, minicomputers and mainframes. Superficially, disks look like phonograph records: they have the same shape and they rotate on a spindle in the disk drive. However, a phonograph record has a spiraling groove that starts at the outside edge and ends near the center, and a magnetic disk stores data in separate concentric rings or tracks, of magnetic spots. Both types of magnetic disks are used for storage of data.
Although magnetic tapes and disks are the most common, there are some other types of secondary storage we should know about. There is either being used currently on promise to become important in the near future.
The access time for magnetic disk storage is somewhere between that for primary memory and that for sequentially accessed magnetic types. On high-performance computers, the difference between the access time for primary memory and that for high-speed disks constitutes an opening for another type of storage called bulk memory, which can be accessed faster than disks but as much as ten times slower than primary memory. Bulk memory is often accessible only in blocks, rather than as individual bytes. The data transfer time between bulk memory and primary memory is about the same as that for accessing the fastest disks. The difference is that accessing bulk memory involves no seek time or rotational delay. Also, data transfers from most disk drives must start at a sector boundary and there is no way to transfer only part of a sector to the CPU.
Bulk memory is sometimes configured as cache memory. In other words, when access to a particular disk sector is called for, the entire track or cylinder on which the sector resides is transferred into bulk memory as a cache.
Mass storage is one of those computer terms that had had many meanings, but it currently refers to a particular class of secondary storage devices. Such devices hold enormous quantities of data, as much as hundreds of billions of bytes, but their access times may be measured in tens of seconds. Although this is very slow compared to magnetic disks, the large storage capacity makes up for the lack of speed.
Magnetic bubble storage utilizes thousands of tiny floating magnetized areas induced in chips of synthetic garnet. The presence of a bubble indicates a binary one and its absence a zero. The magnetic bubbles can be moved across the chip to be read, written or erased.
A ROM cartridge consists of one or more ROM chips mounted on a small printed circuit board inside a plastic case, with an edge connector at one end so the case can be plugged into a slot in a computer. Many inexpensive personal computers have one or more slots that can accept a ROM cartridge.
Optical storage is promising as a means for storing massive amounts of data inexpensively. The optical disk, also known as the laser disk is a circular platter covered with a thin metallic film beneath a layer of glass or plastic. Optical disks are very durable and reliable because the metallic film is protected by the glass or plastic and isn’t as easily damaged by extremes of temperature or humidity, scratches or dust. Compared to magnetic media, optical media are almost indestructible; they can easily last ten years or more.
The optical card or laser card, as it is sometimes called, consists of a laser-encoded metallic strip on an inexpensive rectangle of plastic. This strip, which is written to and read from in much the same way as an optical disk is, can store fairly complex programs. Optical cards are easy to handle and transport and the data they hold can be loaded into a computer by means of a reading device that is simpler and less expensive than a floppy disk drive.
Computer Output
What goes up eventually comes down and what is input somehow becomes output. Output is whatever is produced when the computer does what it is instructed to do with the data it is given. Output isn’t always words or numbers on paper. It can also be an image on a screen or a series of sounds. Output can be formed of light or ink or dancing bits of phosphorus.
Information Output
A large number of specialized machines have been developed to convey the results of data processing to users. The factors that determine which particular output device for a given situation depend, of course, on the demands that will be made of it, the type of computer it will be connected to, and the type or format of output desired. These considerations can vary widely from user to user, but there are six basic qualities that must be considered when evaluating any output device: speed, quality, efficiency, lifetime, reliability, and cost.
Paper Output
Paper is by far the most popular permanent medium for computer output. Also called hard copy, paper output is produced using many different kinds of paper and is presented in many ways. Text, tables, reports, graphs, charts and drawings are some of the typical formats of paper output. Three major types of devices are used to produce paper output: printers, printing terminals and plotters.
Printers
A printer is a machine that outputs human-readable alphanumeric characters on paper. There is wide variation in the size, speed, cost, and operation of the devices classified as printers. For example, speeds range from 3 cps for character printers to more than 60,000 cps for the most advanced laser printers. Printers are usually categorized according to how much they print at one time and how they produce characters.
Daisy wheel printers have a printing mechanism with solid, raised characters embossed on the ends of arms that are arranged like the spooked of a wheel or the petals of a daisy. As the wheel spins, a tiny hammer strikes the back of the proper character as it passes.
Dot matrix printers are cheaper and faster than daisy wheel printers. The print quality, however, isn’t nearly as good. The dot matrix print head constructs the character images by means of a vertical column of from seven to nine pins that is struck repeatedly against the ribbon and paper.
Inkjet printers have a mechanism that shoots tiny, electrically charged droplet of ink out of a nozzle; the droplets are guided to their proper positions by electrically charged deflection plates.
Thermal printers use heat to produce characters that resemble dot matrix ones on special heat-sensitive paper. The printing mechanism resembles that go a dot matrix printer, except that the pins produce the columns of dots by heating up near the paper instead of actually striking it.
Electrostatic printer, on the other hand, use static electrical sparks to burn away aluminum from special aluminum-coated, black-backed paper.
Wheel printers can print up to 150 lines a minute. The mechanism features a series of print wheels, one for each position in a line. Each print wheel has 48 characters, including alphanumeric and special characters, embossed around its outside circumference.
Drum printers are similar to wheel printers, except that instead of a series of print wheels, a drum printer has a solid metal cylinder embossed across its outside surface with rows of characters – as many as there are character positions in a line.
Band printers have a printing mechanism consisting of a scalloped steel band with five sections of 48 characters each and an array of hammers, one hammer for each position in the line. As the band moves at high speed, the hammers are timed to hit the paper and ribbon against the proper characters as they pass by.
Chain printers are similar to band printers, except that the characters are embossed on small pieces of metal joined as links in a looped chain. A chain printer operates just like a band printer and at the same speed.
Page printers, which print entire pages at a time, ate the most sophisticated and expensive of the paper output devices. Their very high-speed, nonimpact printing methods are based on either xerographic or laser terminology. Such printers are necessary equipment at installations where large volumes of paper output must be produced every day. Xerographic printers utilize photocopier techniques enhanced by microprocessor technology to print up 4000 lines per minute. Laser printers represent the most advanced printing technology; they are generally faster than xerographic printers and have built-in microprocessors to control the printing process.
Printing Terminals
Printing terminals are specialized computer terminals that produce output on paper instead of displaying it on a screen. A printing terminal consists of a keyboard, a print mechanism, a paper-feed mechanism and the necessary circuitry to link it with a computer. This output device is essentially a character printer with an attached keyboard. The print mechanism may be a daisy wheel, a dot matrix print head, or a traditional typewriter mechanism.
Plotters
Plotters are computer-controlled drawing machines used to produce paper output in the form of maps, graphs, charts or illustrations.
Graphic output from plotters can be used to clarify complicated statistics or to make dry material more interesting.
Inkjet plotters produce images by spraying droplets of different-color inks paper rolled over a rotating drum. The computer to which the inlet plotter is connected controls the movement of both the drum and the ink jets, which are mounted on a carriage above it.
Pen plotters produce images in a way similar to manual drawing – a pen or pens move across the paper’s surface. Useful for graphing, charting and diagraming, pen plotters are often used to present statistical data in graphic form. They are most often found in engineering and manufacturing applications, but many medical and research organisations employ them as well. There are two basic types of pen plotters: flatbed and drum.
Flatbed plotters have a pen or pens suspended from a carriage above a horizontal surface. A sheet of paper remains stationary on the flatbed while the computer-controlled carriage moves the pens forward and backward, left and right, and on and off the surface.
In drum plotters, a continuous sheet of paper rolls over a cylinder beneath one or more pens. The drum can move the paper forward and backward by rotating in either direction, while the pen or pens can move back and forth perpendicular to the paper’s motion and can also be retracted from the paper’s surface.
Microfilm and Microfiche Output
Sometimes paper isn’t the most desirable medium for output. In large quantities, it is heavy and bulky, taking up a lot of file cabinet or shelf space. It is rather expensive, and individual sheets are often defaced, lost, or destroyed. Fortunately, there is an alternative medium for situations in which these disadvantages are significant.
Computer output microfilm is either rolls or sheets of thin plastic film on which output text is reproduced photographically at greatly reduced size. Computer output microfilm is a much more sensible form than paper output for organizations that handle very large quantities of information.
Display Output
Computer display screens, which output text and other images, are by far the most widely used computer output devices. As with most equipment in the ever-changing world of computer hardware, there are many variations in the types and uses of display screen. As we know, a terminal is a unit that has a keyboard and a display screen. A unit consisting solely of a display screen is called a monitor.
The technology of the liquid crystal display has been used in watches, calculators, and other small electronic devices for years. More recently, LCDs have been used in tiny television sets and many portable computers. These displays are made of a thin layer of a liquid crystalline material between two polarized sheets of glass, in which are embedded thin wires.
Voice Output
Computer-generated voice output, like graphic displays, has been growing in popularity in recent years. Voice output capabilities are now incorporated into many general-purpose computer systems and are available as an option for most home computers
Voice output devices convert data into spoken words using either prerecorded speech samples or computer-synthesized sounds. The technology behind such devices is not that complicated, and so they are relatively inexpensive and widely applied.
SYSTEMS AND SOFTWARE
Many data communications systems consist of remote terminals connected via channels to a central host computer. Such systems, with one computer and many distant terminals, are often called teleprocessing systems. Teleprocessing systems operate under either a time-sharing or a batching scheme. Time sharing involves dividing the host computer’s capacity among many users. In remote job entry systems, the host computer receives tasks to be processed from distant terminals and batches them. Both of these types of systems have problems, however, which led to the development and rapid growth of distributed data processing networks.
Data Communication Systems and Distributed Data Processing Networks
Instead of a single computer and many remote terminals, distributed data processing networks have several widely dispersed computers that are interconnected to form a data communications system. Thus, there is not one host computer, but several computers with independent processing capabilities. Although DDP networks may have a computer that is designated as the central computer to do generalize processing, each of the outlying computers can do much of its own processing.
There are many examples of private and public organizations that use DDP networks. Hewlett-Packard has a worldwide network consisting of 10 mainframes, 195 minicomputers and at least 2500 terminals, linking over 100 manufacturing sites and sale offices to corporate centers in California and Switzerland.
Applications of Data Communications
Applications of the principles and technology of data communications are rapidly transforming society. Let’s look at some of the many ways data communications is being used today.
Information Services
Information services offer interactive networking to users who have an inexpensive terminal or a personal computer. These services are easy to use and can be accessed with most types of microcomputers. Customers can choose from a multitude of services including: information retrieval, electronic mail, computing, telemonitoring, home shopping and banking.
Electronic Mail and Bulletin Boards
Electronic mail is a data communications service that employs computers and telecommunications line to store and send messages that would otherwise take the form of a memo, telephone call or letter. Such services are offered independently as well as being an option of some videotext systems.
Similar communications services, known as electronic bulletin boards have become quite popular among home computer users and hobbyist. These systems provide a means or their users to exchange messages, programming tips, advice, comments and software. To access an electronic bulletin board, all one needs is a microcomputer and a modestly priced communications device.
Electronic Funds Transfer
Electronic funds transfer is the electronic movement of money into, out of, and between bank accounts. EFT systems are a very important application of data communications. One of the most obvious signs of the growth of EFT has been the proliferation of the automated teller machine. Operating 24 hours a data, ATMs re programmed to perform many of the functions of human tellers – to dispense cash, receive deposits and report account balance.
Computer Conferencing
Data communications can be applied in ways that eliminate the need for a certain amount of travel. The result can be significant savings in travel costs and time. Computer conferencing involves the use of a link joining distant computers and terminals so that users can exchange information or messages directly and immediately, in effect, to have a meeting.
Telecommuting
Enormous amounts of energy and time are spent every day by people commuting to work. Almost two-thirds of the employees and the vast majority of the commuters in the United States are white collar workers. The combination of microcomputers, data communication networks and compute conferencing techniques makes telecommuting, or working at home using a computer, a feasible alternative to traditional work patterns.
Components of Data Communication Systems
Video display terminals and printing terminals are both widely utilized in data communications systems, as are other input/output devices.
Interface units are the hardware components that enable data to be transmitted over communications lines. They include such devices as modems and data communication interface units.
Communication channels are the means by which data are sent to and from a computer. They include telephone lines, various types of cables and microwave and satellite systems.
Computers, ranging from microcomputers to supercomputers, are an essential element of data communications systems. A system may have one large central computer, a number of small scattered computers, or both.
Communication software consists of the programs used by the computers in data communication systems to control, coordinate and monitor the data transmissions.
Communications Hardware
The equipment that makes up the hardware of a data communications system includes various types of terminals, modems, interface units and computers.
Terminals
All types of terminals are used in data communications systems: dumb, smart and intelligent terminals; video display and printing terminals. In fact, any input/output device can be used in a data communications system. Card readers, printers, plotters and even voice input/output devices may be part of such a system. When used in this context, such devices are called terminals since they are at the ends of communication lines. This usage of the label terminal can be extended even further to encompass other computer systems. A small computer system can act as a terminal when it transmits data to and receives data from another system like itself or a larger, centrally located computer. Data communications systems that empty full-fledged computers as terminals have, by definition, the ability to do local processing at the terminal sites.
Modems
A modem is an interface unit that enables a computer or terminal to transmit and receive data over telephone lines. Both computers and terminals employ digital signals consisting of discrete low and high voltages that represent zeros and ones. Ordinary telephone lines, however, are designed to carry analog signals with continuous voltage ranges which represent the sounds of human voices. Digital signals must be converted to analog signals before they can be sent over phone lines. Such conversion is called modulation. At the other end, where the data transmission is received, the analog signals must be converted back into digital signals. This is called demodulation.
Interface Units
Many data communications systems employ interface units that coordinate various aspects of data transmission and reception. These units greatly increase the overall efficiency of the systems in which they are used. Such devices include multiplexers, concentrators, message switchers and front-end processors.
A multiplexer is a device that combines the signals from several terminals into a single transmission that can be carried by one communications channel. Since communications line almost always has a greater capacity than can be filled by transmission from a single terminal, the use of a multiplexer ensures that this carrying capacity isn’t wasted. In essence, a multiplexer treats a high-speed communications line as if it were multiple lower-speed lines, resulting in much more economical use of these expensive channels.
Communications Software
Communication software consists of the programs that enable the host computer and/or front-end processor to establish, coordinate, monitor and control the flow of data through data communications systems.
Physical Structure
Communications channels can consist of wire cables, microwave systems, or fiber optic cables.
Ordinary telephone lines are cables consisting of bundles of twisted copper wires that carry information in the form of analog electrical signals and are widely used for data communications. Since a worldwide network of these lines already exists, they have the advantages of economy and accessibility. The telephone system, however, was intended to handle voice transmission and isn’t the ideal medium for transmission of digital signals. Its analog nature and its susceptibility to electromagnetic interference limit the transmission speeds that can be achieved.
Invented in 1929, coaxial cables are efficient transmission lines developed primarily to combat crosstalk. They consist of a central cable completely surrounded by, but insulated from, a ‘tube’ of outer wires. This outer layer of wires shields the inner cable and thus helps to reduce electromagnetic interference. Coaxial cables are widely used in data communications systems because they allow signals to be sent faster and with less interference than do ordinary twisted wire cables. Coaxial cables can be laid underground and underwater. They are often used in local area networks. Microwaves are radio signals with high frequencies that can be used to transmit any kind of data. Microwave systems transmit data over the earth’s surface by transferring them to and from relay stations on tall buildings, towers and mountains. Such stations must be located every 30 kilometers or so because microwave transmissions are line-of-sight signals – they won’t bend to follow the earth’s curvature. Microwave systems may also utilize communications satellites, which relay microwave transmissions they receive from one earth station back to another earth station at some distance from the first.
Fiber optic cables are used throughout the world to transmit voice, television and data signals. A fiber optic consists of very thin glass filaments that transmit light. Lasers generate the off-and-on pulses of light that carry binary data over fiber optic cables. Instead of electrons moving through metallic wires to carry signals, light waves travel through tiny glass fibers to accomplish the same purpose.
Transmission Speed
The transmission speed of a channel refers to how much data can be sent over that channel in a given time. This rate is dependent on the bandwidth of the channel, the range of frequencies that can be transmitted. The greater the bandwidth, the greater the number of frequencies at which information can be transmitted.
Transmission Direction
Channels can be classified according to the direction in which they allow transmission. There are three directional classifications: simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Simplex channels allow transmission in one direction only. Devices connected by simplex channels can either send or receive, but not both. Even though they are inexpensive, simplex channels are rarely used for data communications. They are found only in a few one-way applications such as weather and news wire service teletype lines.
Half-duplex channels allow transmission in either direction, but not simultaneously. Devices connected by half-duplex channels can send or receive, nut not at the same time. A pair of walkie-talkies is a good analogy to a half-duplex channel; although both users can talk and listen, only one can talk at a time. Half-duplex channels are commonly used to connect terminals, modems, printers and other peripheral devices to computers. Because the receiving unit must wait until the transmitting unit has finished sending and then switch over to its transmitting status to send a reply, these channels are characterized by a certain amount of delay between the transmission of a message and the reception of a reply.
Full-duplex channels allow transmissions in both directions, simultaneously. A full-duplex channel is very efficient since signals can flow in two directions at the same time. This ability to carry a constant two-way ‘traffic’ means that full-duplex channels are ideal for high-speed, high-volume computer-to-computer communications.
Transmission Mode
Channels can be classified according to the way in which data are transmitted over them. Inside computers and terminals, data are handled in parallel fashion, that is., a byte at a time. Over communications channels, however, data must be transmitted in a serial fashion or one bit after another. Two common modes of serializing data for transmission are called asynchronous and synchronous.
Asynchronous transmission involves the sending of one character at a time. In order to separate the characters, start bits and stop bits are added to each end of the individual 8-bit character codes. This means that for each character 12 bits are actually sent. The start bits are a signal to the interface unit that a character is coming next; the stop bits signal the end of a character.
Synchronous transmission involves the rapid sending of blocks of characters, sometimes called frames or packets. These groups of characters are sent without start and stop bits. Instead, the transmissions are carefully timed so that interface units ‘know; where the first character begins.
Line Configuration
Point-to-point lines connect each terminal directly to the computer by a separate lune. Because point-to-point line configurations are expensive, their use is generally limited to situations in which each terminal must have uninterrupted access to a computer or a small computer system is acting as a terminal.
Multidrop lines, on the other hand, connect several terminals to the computer via a single channel. Such a configuration is more economical because communications channels and interface units are shared by more than one terminal. Although multidrop lines allow several terminals to receive data simultaneously, only one terminal at a time can send data.
Leased Versus Switched Lines
Finally, some channels can be classified according to whether they are leased or switched. Leased lines connect a computer to fixed destinations. A switched line, in contrast, is one that can connect a computer through switching centers to any of a number of destinations. This type is like an ordinary telephone line.
Protocols
In a move toward standardization, various national, international and industrial groups have attempted to set up guidelines to which data communications hardware and software should conform. One result has been the establishment of several protocols or sets of rules and procedures spelling how to initiate and maintain data communications. These protocols are intended to enable the components of data communications systems to work together harmoniously.
A necessary function of protocols is to define the rules by which receivers can properly interpret transmitted messages. Without protocols to guide the orderly exchange of data between components of communication systems, messages would be impossible to decode. Protocols determine who transmits when, how transmissions are made, how errors are detected and handled, and how received messages are interpreted and decoded. Protocols establish operating standards for data communications systems and have greatly increased the efficiency with which messages can be sent and received.
Distributed Data Processing Network
Many data communications systems consist of remote terminals connected via channels to a central host computer. Such systems, with one computer and many distant terminals are often called teleprocessing systems. Teleprocessing systems operate under either time-sharing or a batching scheme.
Instead of a single computer and many remote terminals, distributed data processing networks have several widely dispersed computers that are interconnected to form a data communications system. Thus, there is not one host computer, but several computers with independent processing capabilities. Although DDP networks may have a computer that is designated as the central computer to do generalize processing, each of the outlying computers can do much of its own processing.
Network Configurations
Three basic designs are used for distributed data-processing networks, each with its own advantages. These configurations are commonly known as the star network, the ring network and the hierarchical network.
The star network consists of several computers connected to a central computer. This central computer, usually located at an organization’s headquarters, controls the communications to and from the outlying computers.
In a ring network, several computers are connected directly to each other; there is no central, dominant computer. This type of network is often used in organizations in which there is no need for central control of the distributed processing sites. Ring networks are somewhat more reliable than star networks because their functioning doesn’t depend on a central coordinating computer. Although more expensive to implement, ring networks are less vulnerable than star networks because the failure of a single link still leaves an alternate communication path; that is, the malfunction of any one computer doesn’t disable the entire network. In a star network, on the other hand, the failure of the central computer effectively crashes the whole network.
The hierarchical network reflects the chain-of-command type of management structure found in many organizations. Computers are connected together in a pyramid like arrangement, reflecting their relative levels of importance. The root computer at the top of the hierarchy exercises control over all of its immediate subordinates. This highest-level computer communicates with computers on the level beneath it, which in turn communicate with computers on the level beneath them.
Local Area Networks
A local area network basically consists of two or more microcomputers physically connected together with some type of wire or cable that forms a data path over which data are transmitted. Once established, a local area network enables all of its users to exchange programs, data and essential information at high speeds. In addition, local area networks allow expensive equipment such as large-capacity hard disk drives and letter-quality printers to be shared more efficiently by users within the same organization. This can promote greater productivity, as well as encourage individuals to use available computer resources more effectively.
Most local area networks connect a number of microcomputers together, but there has been a great deal of recent interest in micro-to-mainframe links, which are LANs that enable microcomputer users to take advantage of local mainframe resources.
System Software Packages: Operating Systems and Data Base Management Systems
The operating system is easily the most important software a computer has. In most cases, the operating system is the first program executed when a computer is turned on and the last program executed before it’s shut down. Programmers have a lot of names for this indispensable set of programs, for example: ‘the traffic cop’, ‘the boss’, ‘the bandleader’ and ‘virtualized interface’. No matter what it’s called, the operating system is of prime importance.
Operating Systems
Operating systems are used on all typed of general-purpose computers, from microcomputers to supercomputers. They have become such an integral part of the computer that every user should have at least a general understanding of their functions. An operating system can be defined as a set of programs that controls, supervises and supports a computer system’s hardware. The fundamental task of an operating system is to manage the hardware carefully, in order to achieve the best possible performance. This task is accomplished by the operating system’s controlling and coordinating such resources as the CPU, other processing units, both primary memory and secondary storage, and all input/output devices. The hardware provides the raw computing power, and the operating system makes this power conveniently accessible to the user.
Functions of Operating Systems
The operating system functions as an interface on two levels. First, the operating system interfaces software with hardware. Programs call the operating system to handle most of the detailed concerned with controlling the computer hardware. This means that programs can utilize the services offered by the operating system without compromising its role as a resource manager. Second, the operating system interface users with the computer system.
A Short History of Operating Systems
Although primitive operating systems did exist before, they didn’t become a dominant force until the mid-1960s. The earliest computer systems had no operating systems; users had access to computer resources only via machine language programs. Programs were run once at a time by computer operators who manually entered the commands to initiate and complete each one. This pattern of usage wasted a great deal of computer time, since the CPU remained idle between the completion of one task and the initiation of the next.
The 1950s were marked by the development of rudimentary operating systems designed to smooth the transitions between jobs. This was the start of batch processing, in which programs to be executed were grouped into batches. While a particular program was running, it had total control of the computer. When it finished, however, control was returned to the operating system, which handled any necessary finalizations and read in and started up the next job. By letting the computer handle the transition between one job and the exit instead of having it done manually, less time was taken up and the CPU was more efficiently utilized.
During the 1960s, operating systems became much more sophisticated, leading up to the development of shared systems. These multiprogramming, time-sharing and multiprocessing systems allowed several user programs to be run on a single computer system, seemingly at the same time. Additionally, these systems were the first to allow usage to take place in interactive or conversational mode, in which the user communicates directly with the computer, rather than submitting jobs and passively waiting for their completion. These developments made computer systems more widely accessible and easier to use. Instead of waiting for hours or even days for results from the batch processing of programs, users could get responses from the computer in seconds or minutes. This enhancement was a boon to programmers, who could more quickly locate and correct errors in their programs.
Real-time systems also emerged during the 1960s. These operating systems enabled computers to be used to control systems characterized by the need for immediate response, such as wagons systems or industrial plants.
In the late 1960s and the early 1970s, there was a trend toward general-purpose operating systems. These systems tried to be all things to all users. Often called multimode systems, some of them simultaneously supported batch processing, time sharing, real time processing and multiprocessing. They were large, expensive and difficult to develop and maintain, but they helped sell a lot of computers. The prime example of this type of operating system was the one offered with the IBM System 36- family of computers first introduced in 1964. To get one to these monsters to perform even the simplest task, users had to learnt a complex job control language and employ it to specify how their programs were to be run and what resources they would need. Although these systems represented a great step forward, they reached no heights of user-friendliness.
The operating systems from the mid-1970s to the present cannot be characterized by a single, all-encompassing feature. The development of microcomputers and of simple, easy-to-use, single-user operating systems has had a profound effect on the newest systems being developed for all types of computers. The features most in demand are a huge degree of user-friendliness and a computing environment that is menu-driven. Also, operating systems that support on-line processing are the latest word. Modern operating system create a virtual machine, an interface that relieves the user of any need to be concerned about most of the physical details of the computer system or network being accessed. The virtual machine presented by the operating system lets users concentrate on getting done what they need, without having to be familiar with the internal functioning of the actual hardware.
Components of Operating Systems
An operating system consists of an integrated set of programs, each of which performs specific tasks. These component programs are expressly designed to work together as a team and can generally be categorized as either control programs or processing programs. Control programs direct the operations of the computer system and perform such tasks as allocating resources, scheduling jobs, and resolving interrupts, sending messages to users and managing the fundamental workings of input, output and secondary storage. Processing programs perform functions that aid programmers in the preparation and execution of system and application software.
The collection of programs that makes up an operating system is kept in secondary storage on what is known as the system residence device, which is the permanent home of the operating system. The control and processing programs are stored here, ready to be loaded into primary memory and executed whenever they are called on to perform their jobs.
Types of Operating Systems
Operating systems can be classified in a number of ways: by how they organize primary memory, by how many different programs they can execute concurrently, by what kind of secondary storage devices they use for work areas, by the setting in which they are to be used, or by the basic design of their components.
Serial Batch-Processing Operating Systems
A serial batch-processing operating system is characterized by its ability to run only one user program at a time. That single program has access to all of the computer system’s resources and, once initiated, generally runs to completion before the next program begins. The earliest operating systems for mainframes running in batch mode are of this type, as are many of the current operating systems for microcomputers. Because of their simplicity, familiarity and natural adaptation to personal computers, serial batch-processing operating systems are the most widespread type. The current popularity of these systems may be waning, however, with the appearance of more complex operating systems for use on the ever more powerful new microcomputers.
Although these operating systems are simple and to some extent do ‘waste’ CPU time, they offer significant advantages when used on single-user computers. Being less complex, a serial batch-processing system is not likely to encounter problems that will immobilize the computer in which it is installed. Since there is only one user at a time, there is no possibility that multiple programs will deadlock the system by requiring the same resource at the same time. Another advantage of this type of operating system is that it allows a computer to be dedicated to a specific use. For example, because the computer has nothing else to do, there’s no reason why it cannot be programmed as a powerful calculator, constantly ready for user input. Although the CPU will be idle at times, there are no other demands being placed on it by other users, so the ‘waste’ is in fact irrelevant. Therefore, for many small computer systems, serial batch-processing operating systems are an ideal choice. Furthermore, their simplicity makes them easy for beginners and occasional computer users to work with.
Multiprogramming Operating Systems
Multiprogramming operating systems exhibit a characteristic known as concurrency, which means that several programs can be executed by the computer system seemingly at the same time. Multiprogramming is similar to what a chef does in the preparation of a multi course meal. First, one dish is worked on, then it is set aside while another is attended to, and so on until the entire meal is ready at the same time.
The primary reason multiprogramming operating systems were developed and the reason they are popular, is that they enable the CPU to be utilized more efficiently. If the operating system can quickly switch the CPU to another task whenever the one being worked on requires relatively slow input, output or storage operations, then the CPU is not allowed to stand idle. This means that more can be accomplished during a given amount of time. For example, if a particular program needs to read data from a tape or disk drive, that task can be delegated to a channel and the CPU can be put to work on another program while the data are being read in. Multiprogramming is thus an effective way to keep the fast-working CPU busy with computations while slower input, output and storage operations are being carried out.
An operating system that supports multiprogramming is necessarily more complex than one that supports serial batch processing because it must recognize events within programs that signal appropriate times to switch jobs. In addition, a multiprogramming operating system must keep track of all the jobs it is concurrently running.
Time-Sharing Operating Systems
Time-sharing operating systems function similarly to multiprogramming ones, but they switch among several user programs at fixed intervals of time. Time sharing allows multiple users to interact with a single computer – each user is rapidly serviced in turn. Time sharing is a popular feature for computer systems that must interactively serve numerous user. Access to the CPU is given to each active program for a fixed time slice, so that many users can run their programs concurrently. Because the CPU is so much faster than a computer terminal’s input and output, the time-sharing operating system gives each user the impression that he or she has the computer’s total attention. As long as a computer system isn’t saddled with more users that it can handle, its response time is quick enough to maintain this illusion. If, however, too many users are active at once, each one will be serviced less frequently, and a noticeable time lag will occur between the entering of a request and the computer’s response.
The primary difference between time-sharing and multiprogramming operating systems is the criterion that is applied for switching between jobs. Multiprogramming systems are described as being event-driven and time-sharing systems are time-driven. In other words, a multiprogramming system switches from one program to another on the basis of some event. A time-sharing system, on the other hand, switches to a different job when the clock says to.
Multiprocessing Operating Systems
Multiprocessing operating systems are used with computer systems that contain more than one CPU. Multiprocessing is the execution of several instructions in parallel fashion on a single computer system having several central processing units. Multiprogramming and time-sharing systems run jobs concurrently, but multiprocessing systems truly run jobs simultaneously. The main advantage to multiprocessing systems is speed; since more than one CPU is available, jobs can be processed faster than they can with only one CPU. Multiprocessing systems are high-performance operating systems, implemented almost exclusively on mainframes and supercomputers.
Virtual Storage Operating Systems
Virtual storage is a memory management tactic that employs an area of rapidly accessible secondary storage as an extension of primary memory. Portions of programs are swapped into real storage from virtual storage as needed. This gives users the illusion that more primary memory is available than is actually he case. Since this memory management is automatically taken care of by the operating system, users are freed from having to worry about how much memory their programs will require.
Operating systems usually implement virtual storage by making use of segmentation, paging or a combination of both. Segmentation is the process of dividing up a program that is to be run into a number of chunks of different sizes and placing these chunks in virtual memory wherever they fit.
The process of paging is similar to segmentation except that the program chunks are all of the same, fixed size. This means that programs are divided into equal-length pages with no regard for the program logic. As with segmentation, the operating system keeps tracks of page locations by constructing a page table. Because of pages’ fixed size, the use of paging can result in less waste of real storage space. Since segments can be of different sizes, swapping in new segments from virtual storage can leave little fragments of unused space in real memory. By making all program pierces the same size, paging eliminates this type of waste. However, some memory may still be wasted because not every program is exactly divisible into fixed-length pages. The last page may not be completely filled – the program may end before the page does. The unfilled page will still take up as much space in memory as a full page.
In an effort to combat the inefficiency inherent in both of these processes, a combination of segmentation and paging is frequently used to minimize the amount of wasted space in memory. In this combined process, a program is first broken into segments, and then the segments are broken into pages. Both segment and page tables are needed to keep track of the various program pieces, which increases the complexity with which the operating system must deal. The result, however, is that fewer and smaller pieces of primary memory are left unused, thus increasing the overall efficiency of storage use.
Real-Time Operating Systems
Real-time operating system control computers that inexact with their environments to perform work. There are two major types of real-time operating systems: those that control processes and those that merely monitor processes. Process control systems take input data from sensors, analyses them, and then cause actions to occur that change the processes that they control. Process monitor systems also take input data from sensors, but they merely report this data without actually affecting the processes that they are monitoring.
Examples of Operating Systems
Like most of the hardware and software available to consumers, these are quite a few operating systems to choose from for most computers. Some of those on the market are generic operating systems – that is, they can be installed in various kinds of computers. Others are specifically designed for a single type of computer.
Microsoft Windows 8 is the dominant operating system. Windows 8 has become the overall industry standard and is by far the most popular operating system in the United States for personal computers.
The Apple MacOS X has its roots in the Smalltalk programming language developed at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center in 1970s. The main idea behind Macintosh operating system is that the computer should adapt to the user instead of the other way around. It has a user interface that is exceptional in the way it allows the user to perform many tasks quickly and easily.
UNIX Fedora 15 is a multiuser, multiprogramming operating system. It isn’t particularly easy to learn, although it is flexible enough that the use interface can be modified to make the system more user-friendly.
Data Base Management Systems
The more computers are used and the less expensive it becomes to accumulate data in secondary storage media, the greater will be the opportunity for organizations to stockpile vast quantities of data in electronic repositories. Useful as these data may be, they are all too often stored in a disorganized, poorly planned way that may actually cause efficiency to decrease as a result of poor utilization of these resources. Understandably, lowered efficiency is not a desirable state of affairs for any organization. Therefore, it has become necessary to find ways to organize, maintain and access the various kinds of stored data. By using special software packages called data base management systems, random pieces of information can be transformed into convenient, easily accessible files.
The Data Base Philosophy
The data base philosophy is a view of data processing that proposes the use of a single data base for all related information. This data base is controlled by a single software package, rather than having scattered collections of computer files maintained by individual groups of users. The ideals of the data base philosophy are that each piece of information is entered and stored just once and that every authorized user has quick and easy access to any of the stored data. The data are entered, maintained, updated and accessed in ways that are not dependent on any particular application program.
Data Models
A data base system can be designed in many different ways. Computer scientists have devoted whole careers to developing data base theories, and programmers have written hundreds of data base management packages. All data base systems are characterized by the way they structure, organize and manipulate data items and by the relationships among the items. These design elements are reflected differently in the various data models, of which three are currently the most popular. Most modern data base systems are structured according to the hierarchical model, the network model, or the relational model. Which if these three us the best is a fiercely debated issue. In fact, it depends on the situation, and, in practice, most system combine features from each of the basic approaches.
The Hierarchical Model
The hierarchical model was developed in the 1960s and has been used almost exclusively for data base systems for large mainframe computer installations. It works best with data that fall naturally into some hierarchy; that is, groups of data items that can be arranged according to some ranking, as in the organization chart of a company. In a hierarchical data base system, such as the IBM Information Management System, information is expressed as a series of one-to-many relationships. Each item can have many subordinate items but at most only one item directly above it in the hierarchy. Subordinate items are often called children, superior items are called parents, and parents of parents are called ancestors.
The hierarchical model has the advantage of being relatively simple to implement, understand and use, but it’s not very flexible. Applications that aren’t strictly hierarchical may be awkward to represent or may result in duplication of data. For instance, if a supplier is the source for more than one part, a supplier record will be required for each part furnished. Furthermore, because of the strict hierarchical ordering of the data, certain types of queries aren’t handled very efficiently. Since every record can only be accessed through its parent, such activities as finding out the total number of parts shipped by all suppliers, in this case, would require going through every record in the data base.
The Network Model
The more general network model for data base system consists of a set of records and the links, or associations, between those records. It is most applicable if there are many-to-many relationships among the record in a data base . The lines that represent links not only lead from parent to child, as they do in the hierarchical model, but also connect any two records in any direction. In other words, a given record may have any number of immediate superiors as well as any number of immediate subordinates. When drawn out, the record and their links form network, or a interconnected system of nodes.
A common restricted form of the general network model, called the CODASYL model, is based on a set of standards established in 1971 by the Conference on Data System Languages, a group of computer industry and academic professionals that has been studying data base management systems since the late 1960s.
Network data base systems have been used extensively with mainframes and minicomputers but rarely with microcomputers. Since a hierarchical data base can be thought of as a restricted network with only single links between parents and children, the hierarchical model is often seen as being a special case of the network model.
Although more complex than the hierarchical model has the advantage of also being more general and thus applicable to a wider range of situations.
Although the interconnecting links in a network data base allow quick and fairly flexible access to information, insertion and deletion of record are somewhat complicated by the fact that any new or broken links must be correctly updated. This means that network data base systems are best used when the relationships between record will remain relatively stable. For example, data bases for inventory and order entry are typically accessed in pretty much the same ways over a period of years. Because the data items and the relationships between them are well defined from the start, there will be few occasions when the network structure will need to be changed.
The Relational Model
The relational model was developed by E. F. Codd, a mathematician working at IBM, in the early 1970s and was slow to gain popularity. Only a few relational data base systems were implemented during the 1970s in mainframe computers. However, by the early 1980s, relational data base systems for microcomputers is based on the relational model, and the model is also being increasingly applied to systems for minicomputers and mainframes.
The relational model organizes all data into flat tables, each made up of rows and columns. The rows represent data records, and the columns represent fields within those records. These tables are manipulated by the DBMS in storing and accessing information. The operations performed by relational data base systems are all defined in strict mathematical terms, based in the theory proposed by Codd.
Using the Data Base
Every DBMS must obviously include some means for entering data. There are several different ways in which data entry can be accomplished. The most common method is direct entry from a terminal keyboard. Data base systems may have built-in text editors to facilitate the data entry. Or, after the data descriptions are complete, the system might successively prompt users for each field of the input record. Once all the fields have been filled with data, the entire record is usually displayed, giving the user a chance to correct any errors. When the user indicates that the record is correct and complete, it is entered into the data base and the same prompts appear for typing in the next record.
Data Entry and Updating
Many data base systems allow users to design their own formats for data entry. Such systems have procedures that enable users to set up blank forms, which appear on the screen and are filled in with data. User-created forms can smooth the data entry process by customizing the way input information is typed in and displayed on the screen.
Every DBMS must also allow users to reach a previously entered record and to update, or make changes to, any of its fields. In addition, some systems provide a method for simultaneously changing a certain field of selected records in the data base.
Command and Query Languages
Once information has been entered into the date base, there must be some means for instructing the DBMS to perform manipulations, comparisons, and operations. A command language consists of all the procedures for issuing orders to the system. A query language is a subset of a command language and consists of rules for specifying the criteria by which to perform operations. Many modern data base systems employ nonprocedural command and query languages. Instead of giving step-by-step instructions to the DBMS on how to perform operations, the user tells it what to do by simply choosing items from a menu, typing in English like commands, or filling in blanks in response to prompts. Most data base systems for microcomputers make some use of menus, which are just lists of possible options from which to choose.
Data Manipulation Languages
A data manipulation language is an interface between a programming language and a data base management system. It allows application programmers to access data bases from within programs they write. Data manipulation languages are employed to write programs that work with data base management systems, but do not of so through the interactive command and query languages.
Typically, a DML consists of a set of commands that can be included in a user program to perform such common manipulations as creating, storing, accessing, language that is to be used, a different DML is usually necessary.
Report Generators
Finally, all data base management systems must include certain features for outputting information. After selecting, sorting, combining, comparing or otherwise manipulating items in a data base, a user frequently wants a printout of the result in an easy-to-understand format. Most data base systems provide a report generator that allows users to produce hard copy formatted according to their own design. Also, a report generator is often able to perform a few functions on its own, such as computing and printing out summary calculations.
PROGRAMMING
A computer programming language is a set of symbols and usage rules employed to direct the operations of a computer. Just like any human language, a programming language consists of a set of symbols; rules of syntax or grammar governing how those symbols are combined; and semantics, or meanings associated with certain symbol combinations. However, unlike human languages, programming languages have very limited vocabularies and very specific functions. Human languages are used to express the vast, rich world of human experience and thus are full of colorful, context-dependent words and ambiguous rules. The single purpose of programming languages is the construction of computer programs.
Although there are many different computer languages, most of them fall under one of only four broad categories. These groupings are also known as levels of language because they can be arranged hierarchically. The lowest level in the hierarchy is occupied by those that are closest to what computers use, which is binary zeros and ones. The highest level us occupied by languages that appear similar in many ways to English
APPLICATION PACKAGES
In the early days of computer use, companies and individuals had to produce their own software. As time passed and the number of computers grew, many users realised that they had common needs. Companies and individuals began to see that many of the problems they were using computers to solve were quite widespread. Entrepreneurial programmers also noted this fact and started independent software firms. The dazzling array of products offered by such vendors is now referred to by the all-encompassing label of application packages. An application package is a collection of related programs or subprograms designed to accomplish some specified set of tasks.
Types of Application Packages
Many new packages and completely new concepts in application software are continually being developed. The software industry is an extremely fast-moving, competitive and innovative environment, producing software for as many applications as we can imagine. Of course, we couldn’t possibly describe every type of useful application package on the market. What I’ll do instead is to examine some of the most important general classes of packages.
The importance of the varied array of application packages is substantial. Software availability and applicability have been major factors in making computers – especially microcomputers – useful and attractive to many people. Most owners of microcomputers are not professional programmers. Consequently, prewritten software is essential for these users to employ their computers effectively, and the market for such software packages is huge. Although packages are available for computer systems of all sizes, those used on personal computers attract perhaps the most attention. The availability of desirable application packages for a particular microcomputer may be the single most important factor in its marketability. If a computer can’t run the most popular software packages, people simply won’t buy it. Some consumer experts have been suggested that people in the market for a personal computer should first choose the software they want to run, then select a model that can execute that software.
Word-Processing Packages
Almost everyone who uses a computer – especially if it’s a microcomputer – uses a word-processing package of some kind. Over 90% of the microcomputer owners surveyed in the summer of 1984 by Venture Development Corporation, a market research group, said they owned a word-processing package. In fact, about 80% of them said they owned from note to five word-processing programs from various vendors. With total sales in excess, word-processing packages are clearly one of the most popular of all software applications.
Simply stated, word-processing packages make it very easy to enter, store, modify, format, copy and print text. Many of the tedious, times-consuming manual tasks associated with using a typewriter such as centering text, setting margins or tabs, performing carriage returns and even checking spelling, are done automatically by many word processors. What makes the word processor such a valuable tools is that it enables the computer to ‘capture’ and store keystrokes, in contrast to the typewriter, which merely converts keystrokes to mechanical movements of its hammers. Through this capturing of keystrokes as data to be stored, manipulated and output, word-processing packages put a tremendous power at a user’s fingertips. Word processors have been demonstrated to boot office workers’ productivity dramatically – by as much as 300%.
A wide variety of word-processing packages is available, and this diversity is reflected in the prices, which range from a few dollars to hundreds. The least expensive word-processing programs are basically computerized typewriters: the most complex and expensive can directly drive a typesetting machine.
Electronic Spreadsheets
The electronic spreadsheet is a type of application package thaw was first designed for and implemented on microcomputers, but became so popular and useful that it was later adapted to minicomputers and mainframes. In 1978, Dan Bricklin, an MIT graduate enrolled in Harvard Business School, decided that he was spending too much time laboring over the financial worksheets required for his accounting classes. He had only two alternatives at the time: do the many computations by hand with paper, pencil and pocket calculator; or make use of the school’s time-shared mainframe computer system. Neither of these alternatives suited him: the first was too time-consuming and error-prone, and the second was inconvenient. Small corrections or changes in a few places meant redoing the entire spreadsheet and it was often difficult to visualize what was happening when using the mainframe computer. So Bricklin invented the electronic, microcomputer-based spreadsheet. In 1979, along with fellow MIT alumni Bob Frankston and Daniel Flystra, Bricklin formed a company named Software Arts. They sold a program for Apple microcomputers called VisiCalc, which opened up previously unheard of possibilities, fulfilling needs that business-people didn’t even know they had. In addition, it paved the way for a whole new class of indispensable, user-friendly programs adaptable to many kinds of problems, not only business ones. Since it went on the market, more than 500,000 copies of VisiCalc have been sold.
An electronic spreadsheet is just like a conventional paper one in that it’s a table of columns and rows of numbers and text labels. For financial applications, a spreadsheet might have places for entering all the income sources and costs that must be considered when making a business decision. The most important part of a spreadsheet is the bottom line, because that represents the final outcome of the series of calculations, the result that will indicate what decision to make.
File Managers and Data Base Packages
In contrast to spreadsheet programs, file managers and data base packages were developed for and used on mainframe computers before they became available for microcomputers. This category really represents three major types of application packages: free-form indexing and filing program, file managers and full-fledged data base management systems. Here we will concentrate on the indexing and file management systems, and only briefly introduce data base management systems.
One of the major jobs of computers in our society is that of managing the data kept in huge secondary storage facilities. We often don’t want computers to actually compute anything – we just want them to store, sort, locate, print out, or otherwise manipulate information. A data base consists of one or more files of interrelated or interdependent data items stored together efficiently. A data base may serve one purpose or a number of different ones. For example, a data base containing information about a magazine’s subscribers may be used solely by the magazine for billing or copies of it may also be sold to other magazines and organizations for promotional or advertising uses. File mangers and data base packages enable users to manage easily data they have stored and are handy whenever a sizeable number of items must be kept track of. In business, such software can be used for inventory, accounts receivable, mailing list and personnel files, among other applications. In the home, it can be used for indexing and retrieving letters, recipes, personal property inventories, financial or tax information, exercise logs or any reasonably voluminous collection of information. Students, researchers, authors and other professionals can use these packages to organize a retrieve instantly their notes about any subject. In short, file managers and data base packages are invaluable tool for dealing with the ever-present information explosion.
Graphic Packages
The most eye-catching of all application packages are undoubtedly the ones that enable users to create pictures – that is, graphic packages. Computer-generated graphics can transform mundane data into attractive and informative visual images. If a picture is worth a thousand words, then a good graphic package is worth at least ten programs than output character only. Graphic packages are being marketed in ever increasing numbers, even though this software is greatly dependent on the memory and display hardware of the computer system it is run dependent on the memory and display hardware of the computer system it is run on. There are hundreds of graphic packages available just for microcomputers, and more come out every week. What’s more, the demand among users is just as great as the seemingly endless supply.
There are several categories of popular graphic packages. One of these consists of programs for producing business graphics, that is, all types of bar and line graphs and pie charts.
Another category encompasses the interactive drawing or painting programs, which enable users to explore their artistic talents by employing display screens and graphic input devices instead of canvas and paintbrushes. Yet another category of graphics software is made up of packages that resemble graphics programming languages. These provide programmers with prewritten subprograms that draw graphics primitives such as dots, lines, circles, boxes and other predefined shapes.
Mathematical and Statistical Packages
Modeling and simulation packages – some of the most interesting and educational software on the market – allow computer users to plat ‘let’s pretend’. A mathematical model is a simplified representation, expressed in mathematical terms, of a real process, device or concept. For example, economies and ecologies, airplanes and automobiles and the theories of maximizing profits and optimizing the use of resources can all be represented as mathematical models and the user of a computer makes such representations much easier to achieve. Although such models are necessarily simplification of what they represent, they can be very useful in that they isolate those features that are most important. A simulation is the representation of selected characteristics of a physical or abstract system by means of another system. For example, certain aspects of an airplane flight can be represented by a computer system consisting of a graphics input device, a computer, software and a graphics display screen.
In short, modeling and simulation packages allow the computer to assume the role of the ‘universal machine’ by enabling like almost any system imaginable, Computer capabilities for simulation and mathematical modeling originated primarily in connection with the physical sciences.
Modeling packages tend to be quite mathematically oriented. Computer software has been written to model everything from gravity to the weather, but the prewritten application packages available from software vendors are usually more general in their scope. A common example of modeling packages is those that perform linear programming. Linear programming is a technique for finding the best or most favorable solutions to certain types of mathematical problems. Its processes usually involve maxima zing some variable while keeping others within specified bounds.
Modeling packages, including those for linear programming, tend to be used on large computers, although a few simple packages are available for microcomputers.
Simulation software is quickly becoming a powerful force in both entertainment and education. The recent crop of simulation packages for microcomputers is so good that the effects the program produce often come startlingly close to real world experiences. Simulations can be used to mimic situations that would be too expensive, inconvenient, dangerous or nearly impossible to carry out in real life. A prime example is flight simulation. Microsoft’s Flight Simulator program reproduces the experience of flying a small, single-engine Cessna 182 airplane. This program approximates what it’s like to be in the cockpit controlling the actions of a plane. On the display screen, users can see the effects of their actions reflected in the passing landscape and on the control panel gauges. The software so realistically simulates navigation and the natural elements of flight that it has been seriously considered for inclusion in curricula for training people to fly small aircraft. Much more powerful and realistic flight simulation systems have been used for years in commercial and military aviation training. However, it hasn’t been until recently that the average owner of a modestly priced personal computer system could reap the benefits of similar software.
Business and Financial Packages
Accounting packages are concerned with managing financial information. They deal with the collection, storage analysis and presentation of data that represent all of a business’s financial transactions. They usually include subprograms to handle the ‘big four’. The computer is, of course, the ideal system to handle this multitude of numbers accurately.
Personal financial packages, to the disappointment of their developers and vendor, haven’t fared as well as accounting packages in the marketplace. By definition, this type of software is almost exclusively reserved to use on microcomputers, but this isn’t the real crux of the problem. Personal finance packages were the first serious application packages to appear for microcomputers and they have been cited in many advertisements as a major reason to buy a personal computer. Comprised primarily of budgeting, investment and tax programs, personal packages are accounting packages pared down for individuals and families. They can do all they are advertised to – if individuals spend the time and effort to learn how to use them and enter all their transactions into the computer, A check-book balancing program, for example, can’t balance our check book if we don’t provide the date, amount and recipient’s name for each check we write. This record-keeping discipline isn’t a problem in the business world, where it has been accepted as an unavoidable necessity. However, when this requirement of personal finance packages is made clear to private individuals, many of them rightly conclude that the benefits simply aren’t worth that much time and effort. When a check-book can be balanced faster and easier using a pen and pocket calculator than using a computer, the check-book balancing programs aren’t likely to sell well. This has been the fate of most home budgeting programs. Only users who are especially conscientious or who are running big estates can make effective use of home budgeting software. Most users find that spreadsheet program suffice for their occasional home budgeting needs.
Software for tax planning and tax preparation is another useful type of personal finance package. Computers can dramatically reduce the time it takes to prepare tax returns and can eliminate arithmetic errors. Tax programs enable users to calculate quickly and easily a variety of filling alternatives from which they can choose the option that will maximize their refund or minimize their payment. By playing ‘what if’ games like investors do, taxpayers can see, at any time during the year, the effects that salary raises, bonuses, stock options, pension plan participation and other financial decisions may have on their year-end tax situation.
Communication Software
Telecommunications in a real sense owes its existence to packaged software. Although modems link computers to telephone lines, it’s communications software that makes computer-to-computer interchanges possible. This type of software is so difficult to write and so tricky to make operate efficiently that most users leave all that to the experts by purchasing prewritten programs. Communications packages are available for every type of computer that can be part of data communications network. As it true for much of the software, communications packages being marketed for microcomputers are selling like hotcakes. Because they effectively shrink the world and bring it under personal computer owners’ fingertips, communications packages are high on the list of desirable and useful software.
PRIVACY, SECURITY AND OTHER CONCEPTS
Technology has always aroused controversy. In early nineteenth-century England, the Luddities tried to stop the Industrial Revolution by breaking into factories and smashing machines. They believed the new devices threatened their jobs, their health and their accustomed way of life. Later in that century, there were similar movements in the United States, as industrialization spread unchecked. Recent technological advances have stirred up similar fears and concerns.
A general computer-anxiety is evident everywhere. Newspaper and magazine articles warn of the alt hazards; best-selling books describe the computer’s threat to privacy; headlines announce the most recent outrageous computer crime.
This section will examine the most controversial questions raised by this new technology in order to encourage a health awareness of the dilemmas that face us.
Privacy
If we’re married, a marriage license bureau somewhere has a record of the occasion. If we’re not, we may be on file with a computer dating service. Our doctor may have our health and payment record on disk, and our hospital’s computer stories a history of our visit. Hotels and stores have our name, address and credit card numbers; telephone companies know whom we called and how long we talked; and mail-order houses use computers to send us innumerable one-time-only opportunities. If we pay taxes, drive a car, vote, own a gun or travel abroad, there are computer records about us. Little wonder that nearly half of all Romania citizens say they are concerned about violations of their personal privacy.
Protection Software
Two areas of software protection are discussed here: protection of software as it is stored in secondary storage in a computer configuration and protection of software as it is being executed by a computer. A feature of most computer operating systems is a facility called a library. Actually, there can be several libraries in which both programs and procedures are stored. There are libraries for programs in source form and for programs in object form. There are also libraries for procedures, operating instructions and other software components. Access to the elements stored in libraries is made through another operating system facility called a catalog. The catalog contains the name of the elements that are stored in the library and their addresses. Some libraries are stored in secondary storage. The address of the elements is either a primary storage location or a secondary storage location. Catalogs and libraries are not intended as security facilities per se. However, they do lend a degree of security that is not found in software contained in a deck of IBM cards stored in a file cabinet or in the desk drawer of some programmer.
The use of libraries in a large data-processing installation is a common practice. In the case of programming, for example, there may be several data sets within a library used to contain programs. One particular data set is used to hold production status programs, that is, programs used in day-to-day operations, as opposed to those same preproduction programs eventually, but an orderly procedure for moving them from test to production status is recommended. Since verbal communications sometimes break down or result in misunderstandings, a simple form, often called a transmittal, either in paper or on the computer itself can be used to facilitate transfers of programs from test to production status.
Protection of Data in On-Line Files
Increasing numbers of computer systems contain data that is on-line, that is, data that is directly accessible through the use of a terminal device. In addition to being accessible, there are also many environments in which this on-line data can be updated. In an on-line environment, when updating takes place, the data in a location prior to the update is overlaid. Changes may be made incorrectly, inadvertently or maliciously. Since the data that was in place before the change disappears, steps need to be taken to recover that data in the event that errors, mistakes or mischief are subsequently discovered.
To guard against the destruction of data in an on-line file or database, several practices can be instituted. One of the most basic of these practices is copying or backing up the file or database on a periodic basis. This involves nothing more than copying the file or database onto another device at some point in time. Files stored on magnetic disk can be copied to another disk and recopied in the event of destruction.
The practices of logging, backup, recovery/restart and back-out are forms of security used to maintain data integrity. As measures, they are applied to the databases and files to recover them after damage has been done. There are other forms of security that attempt to prevent damage. Included are: password, transaction and terminal security. Also there are some other things that can be done to prevent erroneous updating of files and databases. For instance, reasonableness checks can be made on data being used for updating purposes. An example might be a table of valid product codes against which an entry to update might be checked. If the entry contains a product code not on the table, it would be rejected as an error.
Within database and data communication systems, there is a concept that could be called segmentation that is able yo provide another level of data security. Essentially, in segmentation, data records are subdivided into components. Each of the components is in itself a retrievable entity. In simple form, a record might contain two segments. Application A might have need of one segment and application B might have need of the other. A set of specifications is made up by the database administrator describing each segment as a separate entity as well as the two segments as a complete record. Two application programs are written, with each requiring a different segment. Because of the specifications made by the DBA, each of the application programs only accesses that segment of the entire record that it needs. The other segment is not accessible to it. The segmentation process introduces a potential level of security that is not possible in non-database systems, where each program would have access to the entire data record.
Protection of Data in Batch-Processing Applications
In most batch systems, processing is sequential, and when updating is done, the entire file is recopied as part of the update process. To provide backup, a copy of the file before updating must be kept together with the activity file tat updated it. In this way, if a file is damaged and cannot be processed, a rerun of the job that created the file can create it again. It is generally assumed to be safe if two generations of the updated file are kept. This technical is known as ‘father, grandfather file’ or as generation data sets.
Another type of security in batch systems is the use of batch control totals. In most batch systems, a batch of information is submitted to be processed. The most commonly known example is a batch of employee time cards submitted for processing in a payroll system. When submitted, they are accompanied with an adding machine tape containing a total of all the hours worked for all the employee time cards in the batch. Often, there is also a count of the number of time cards in batch. When the data is entered into a computer system, one of the first jobs run produces control totals. The totals include the number of time cards and total hours. The total from the computer run should be equal to the totals on the adding machine tape. If so, processing continues on the reminder of the payroll. If not, steps are taken to determine where the error was made. Once corrected, the total balancing job is rerun to make sure it has been corrected properly. Once it is correct, the rest of the payroll processing commences.
Security Products
Computer software security products that gave been developed for the sale purpose of protecting either data or other software are available in the marketplace. Some products can be used to protect certain types of data sets and program libraries from unauthorized access and have features permitting reports to be produced that show all authorized as well as unauthorized attempts to access data in protected data sets and libraries. Other packages have security features as part of a repertoire of functions. For instance, they might have control over program libraries and restrict access to those libraries. Reports can be produced by these products that facilitate auditing of program usage, permit evaluation of operational effectiveness of programs and allow predictions of future resource requirements to be made.
More comprehensive software products devoted to security are known as access control facilities. There are basically two types, and they are fundamentally different. One type enables the protection of data sets by exception, that is, the user of the product picks the data sets to be protected; while with the other type, protection is by default, that is, all data sets are automatically protected and the user makes up ‘rules’ so that the restricted data sets can be accessed.
Computer Crimes
There are those against whom the laws and protections set up to secure privacy have little effect. The average computer crime – that is, the unauthorized manipulation of programs, computer programs or data for inappropriate or unlawful purposes – nets its perpetrator.
Methods
There are four common procedures used for committing a computer crime. The trapdoor is a set of program instructions that allow the perpetrator to bypass the computers; normal internal security systems. The Trojan horse is named fit the hollow wooden horse in which invading Greek warriors hid. The perpetrator, usually a computer programmer, develops a useful program which is installed in the system and used by other employees to conduct legitimate operations, for example, a program that computes interest for a bank.
A variant of the Trojan horse is the time bomb, used by computer criminals not so much for personal gain as to damage data or to cover their tracks. A time bomb is a coded section of a program that initiates some event C after other events A and B has occurred.
A slower, less direct method of committing computer crime is via the salami slice, in which small amounts of money are diverted during normal processing to a separate place; for example, fractions are ‘sliced; off all the accounts in a bank file every tome interest is compounded.
Industrial Espionage
There is another sort of computer crime, in which a computer or software manufacturer, rather than an individual, is the victim. Industrial espionage, the cloak-and-dagger spying activities between corporations intent on stealing one another’s ideas, designs or trade secrets, is becoming more common as the computer and software industries become not only more lucrative but also more fiercely competitive.
Software Piracy
With no clear-cut legislation on their side, software makers have had to be more creative in protecting their intellectual property against theft. One way they do this is by ‘hiding’ essential program segments in unpredictable locations on a disk-placing sector 305 in the middle of sectors 1 through 7, for example. Another protection is to use software licensing, rather than selling the product outright. That is, the disks are sealed in plastic, with labels stating that ounce the seal is broken, the purchaser has entered into a legal and binding contract that gives the purchaser alone the right to use the software. If copies are made, a contract has been broken, and the user can be sued in court.
Computer Vandalism
Most computer crimes that get publicity are not robberies or espionage but rather are a serious sort of high-tech vandalism. Four 13-year-old students in New York tapped into the Telnet data network and accessed the data bases of 19 different Canadian companies in an attempt to have a few free cases of Pepsi delivered to their school. At one company alone 20% of its data were destroyed. A 17-year-old student in California gained access to U.S. Leasing’s computer system and filled the files with obscenities, which came streaming out of printers every time inventory was called up. And recently, a reporter for Newsweek magazine found out that his credit card number, as well as his address, phone number and wife’s name, had been stolen from a credit company computer and his telephone and power service were tampered with by young hackers across the country who’d been annoyed by an article he’d written exposing their antics. Once they’d managed to get access to his credit card and utility account numbers and post them on electronic bulletin boards, there was virtually no limit to the damage they ciyld do to his credit rating, finances and peace of mind.
Securing the System
Computers themselves are not without defenses against theft and vandalism, to keep vital personal information from being stolen or destroyed. There are a number of measures that can be taken to ensure the engirt of computer systems and protect them from improper access.
Controlling Personnel
Since many invasions of data files and abuses of computer systems are performed by the people who are employed to work with them, limiting access to a few carefully screened and authorized individuals is one measure that can improve security. If programmers are also computer operators, then they can not only write illegitimate programs but conveniently run them as well. If programmers work in their offices and operators in the computer room, and management knows who’s where and what they’re up to, opportunities for covert electronic embezzlement decrease significantly. Such separation of functions is, of course, easy for a firm with a large data-processing staff but may be impossible for a small company with only two or three computer professionals, who must each handle several overlapping jobs. In any case, careful screening of job applicants – checking their references and looking closely at their backgrounds – is vital to any system’s security. Needless to say, if someone lies on a resume or has a history of committing computer crimes, that person is definitely not a good risk.
Passwords
Passwords and access logs are two means of ensuring that all users are identified before they can enter the system. Supplying the correct password gets a user into the system, and an access log keeps track of who ‘passed’ in, when they entered and when they left. Frequent examination of programs and access logs by professional auditors is another commonly used security method. If there has been a great deal of activity on the computer system during what should be off-hours, an auditor who simply inspects the logy thoroughly may be able to stop a computer crime before it starts.
The idea behind the use of passwords or account numbers is to provide access to the computer only to authorized users. If Sam, a bona fide computer user, can gain access to the system by simply entering his name, there is nothing to stop an unauthorized person who knows Sam has access from keying in SAM and entering the system. Instead, Sam can use something like his dog’s name, or part of his license plate number: they’re easy for him to remember, and it’s unlikely that another person will guess them.
Cryptography
Cryptography is the practice of transcribing a message from its plaintext, or original form, into a secret code or cipher from which the original meaning can supposedly be recovered only by an authorized recipient who holds the key, or system of transcription. With a code, some predetermined substitution is made for words, phrases or other meaningful parts of a sentence. A cipher, on the other hand, makes a substitution for each letter. That is, each letter in the plaintext is replaced by a different letter or symbol.
SUMMARY
System software represents the first step taken in realizing the potential of information system with EDP technology. A computer by itself is nothing but raw processing speed, but even that is only potential. Some basic programming is necessary to get the computer going. The operating system or control program is the most fundamental program or set of programs in any computer. It is the operating system that has the capability of allocating the resources of a computer equipment configuration among the activities that require those resources. The resources are primary storage, secondary storage, input devices, output devices, and channels or buses. The activities requiring the resources are programs, data records and data elements and transactions and messages.
Integral to or integrated with an operating system are the access methods, those programs which excite the data transfers between primary storage and secondary storage and between a communications control computer and primary storage. It is these programs that read records and segments to primary storage from files and databases on secondary storage devices or that write records and segments from primary storage to files and databases on secondary storage devices. They also read input transactions into primary storage from the front end and write output transactions to the front end from primary storage.
The next element of system software that we encounter is the database / data communication system. It interfaces with the access methods to store and retrieve data from complex structures. Database / data communications systems have functional components that facilitate specification of complex structures and their compilation into computer-recognizable form. There are also facilities that interfere with access methods in the storage and retrieval of data. While it is the access methods that perform the physical data transfers, it is the database / data communications software that extracts specific data from retrieved records or segments, or that combines records or segments into complex structures.
II. TERMINOLOGY
DEFINITION
Terms such as information technology are often used in English-speaking countries. The word commonly used is the more practical IT, computers field. This is because such words, have unclear associations for most English-speaking people, and are used more by professional journalists, usually in very ideological ways in the matter of computers field, to applaud the activity of currently successful or well-known IT specialists. It is important to understand this usage of the words so as to avoid misinterpretation and misunderstanding.
To clarify this, it is helpful to look at authoritative formal definitions, present in the introduction of this glossary.
THE TECHNICAL TERMINOLOGY
A problem may be defined as anything that stands between us and our goal. In other words, a problem is the difference between what something is and what we would like it to be. If we are runners, for instance, getting ourselves from the starting point to the finish line faster than anyone else is our problem; if we have no money and we have several bills to pay, getting money is our problem; if we want a job interview and the prospective employer has asked us first to submit a resume, creating an effective resume is our problem. In the retail store situation, finding a convenient time for our customer to receive service is our problem.
The fact to recognize here is that communication always involves problems. But, the problems are not necessarily only about things that need to be corrected or resolved. A problem can be anything that blocks us in what we want to achieve.
We will be able to solve problems more easily if we know their characteristics. We should be aware that problems are personal, singular, unique, infinite and dynamic. Each of these characteristics is explained in the following paragraphs.
Problems are personal. This statement means that if something does not affect us in any way, it cannot possibly be a problem to us. Only something that affects us, especially something that we must do, can be a problem.
In computer situations where we must use communication to solve problems, we must be sure whether we are solving our own problem or someone else’s. Therefore, one of the first questions to ask ourselves might be: Are we solving this problem for ourselves, or has it been delegated to me? The answer is crucial in supervisor-employee relationships. If our boss has asked us to solve a problem, we must try to solve it from the boss’s point of view. Since the problem was experienced by our boss, we will have to adjust our perspective and perhaps use different techniques from those we would use if we were solving it for ourselves. Not only do we have to deal with this problem, but our task is further complicated because we will also have to play the role of someone else in resolving it.
Unfortunately, the potential complications do not stop here. We also have to ask ourselves: Who will be affected by the way we resolve the problem? In other words, we have to consider who is going to receive the message we write to resolve the problem. The receiver will not perceive the problem in the same way that we do or that our boss does. In fact, the receiver may not perceive the problem at all.
Therefore, as noted earlier, one of the main characteristics of problems is that they are personal. A problem exists because someone experiences it. And it is experienced in different ways by different people – we who must resolve the problem, our boss who feels it only enough to get us to resolve it, and all the people who will be affected by what we do. To be a wise communicator, we have to learn to resolve problems so that everyone will be satisfied, including us.
Problems are singular. When we experience a problem, to solve it we must isolate it. Often, several problems can blur together, although they cannot be solved together. Each one should be approached individually because each is different and can be solved only by recognizing its special characteristics. On the one hand, we must isolate each problem and treat it separately; on the other hand, we must also realize that no problem can exist purely in a vacuum. Problems do indeed affect one another. But the only way we are going to learn how to solve them is by first learning how to isolate them and to deal with them singly.
Any communication problem can be divided into several component problems, each of which should be dealt with separately.
Problems are unique. Let’s keep in mind that, although problems are often similar, they are never exactly the same. It is easy to fall into the trap of treating one problem like another, and in some cases, this may work satisfactorily. However, much time we can solve a problem easily if we try to find what makes it unique.
Some of the characteristics of a problem that make it different from earlier or similar problems are differences in the people involved, in time, and in circumstances. For example, a sales message may have different results with a Chinese-American and an African-American.
Problems are infinite. All problems are bigger than they might seem. But we don’t have to explore the fullest extent of a problem to resolve it. If we can get to the core of a problem, our knowledge should be sufficient to enable us to resolve the entire problem.
To solve a problem, we will have to learn what we need to know about it and what we need not bother with in order to solve it. This is very important because, if we spend time on what we do not need to know, we are probably on the wrong track to a solution, and we are definitely wasting time and energy.
Problems are dynamic. As time passes, the conditions that cause a problem are most likely changing. It is important for us to be aware of this fact because the conditions can change to the point that the problem either ceases to exist or resolves itself. We should also know that the conditions may change so much that an entirely different problem is at hand while we are still working on the original problem, which no longer exists. For example, if we are working on a letter telling customers about high interest rates and those rates suddenly drop, the problem has resolved itself and we can stop working on our letter.
When we begin to solve a problem, we will need to know at least three types of information: information about existing conditions, information about conditions we want to achieve, and information about how to proceed from existing conditions to achieve the desired conditions.
Existing conditions are conditions present in the environment surrounding the problem. For example, a customer writes to us demanding that we allow her to return her home computer for a full refund because she is not satisfied with its performance. Our store allows people to return home computers within ninety days if they are not satisfied with their performance. She claims that the computer she purchased four months ago does not have the capacity for some of her work. She tells us that the reason she has waited so long to return the computer is that she had to take that long to learn how to use it.
Desired conditions are those we want to achieve because, when we achieve them, we will have resolved the problem. For example, we want to keep the woman who purchased the home computer pleased with the way in which we handle her complaint (even though the computer’s failure to perform the way she expected is really her problem). We want her continued patronage, and we want her to recommend our store to her friends. We want her to understand that there is a limited warranty that has expired. And we want to handle this particular situation in such a way that we set the right precedents for future problems with similar conditions.
In many situations, our supervisor tells us whether we should handle a problem in an interview, through a telephone call, or by writing a memorandum, a report, or a letter; by calling a meeting; or by a combination of different forms of communication. In other situations, precedent, economic conditions, or communications sense may tell us which forms of communication we should use to solve the problem.
A systematic approach is simply an orderly way of analyzing a problem and evaluating ways of solving it. The approach is a logical sequence of steps, designed to produce efficient solutions to problems, especially communication problems.
There are seven steps in the systematic approach, each of which will be discussed separately here. These seven steps are: recognizing that a problem exists; defining the problem; gathering relevant data; generating possible solutions; evaluating each possible solution; selecting and implementing one solution; determining the effectiveness of the selected solution.
Not all these steps may be necessary for every problem, nor may the systematic approach be appropriate for all problems. In some cases, the solution may be readily visible; in others, instinct may serve better than the sequence of steps. However, when we are not quite sure about how to handle a problem, the systematic approach will increase the likelihood of our success.
THE GLOSSARY
The communication of facts and ideas in any field is dependent on a mutual understanding of the words used. The purpose of the glossary in this study, is to present definitions for some of the terms that are often used in the field of computers and data processing.
III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES
SEMANTIC FIELD
In order to define in a clear manner the field of study of formational Technology, it is necessary to have an idea of how language works, i.e. the range of activities involved in speaking and interpreting various utterances.
The most general statement that can be made about language is that it uses sound to convey meaning. The linguist’s task in fact is precisely to find out how sound is associated with meaning so as to be used as a means of human communication.
The first distinction that has to be made in between language as a body of internalized knowledge about sounds, meanings and the way they can be related to one another, and speech as the concrete use of language, the actual production of specific utterances. Not only are speech and language not synonymous, quite often, due to intervening external or internal factors (fatigue, distractions, noise, misunderstandings) the knowledge of a language that any speaker possesses subconsciously is not reflected accurately in the use he makes of it.
Hence the distinction made by linguists between linguistic competence as the internalised knowledge about sounds, meanings and the way they are interrelated, possessed by the speakers of a language, and linguistic performance, as actual language behavior, the use of language in everyday situations.
Since linguistic competence is a mental reality, it is not directly observable; all the information that can be inferred about it has to be derived from the observation of its concrete, physical manifestation, i.e. from linguistic performance. Until quite recently it was believed that any progress in the study of language depends on sorting competence from all the additional and linguistically irrelevant factors involved in linguistic performance. It is becoming more and more obvious however that the study of performance is a proper field of study in its own weight, that a theory of performance is as important as a theory of competence.
The semantic field for the English and Romanian terms are as follows: I.D. language / limba vedetei, entry / vedeta, I.D. country / I.D. țară, the standard definition field / definiție standard, the definition source field / sursa definiției, the context field / contexte, the context source / sursa contextului, commentary / comentariu, the grammatical category / categorie gramaticală, the generic concept field / conceptual generic, the synonym field / sinonime, the antonym field / antonime, the hyperonym field / hiperonime, the use area / aplicare, the designation status / statutul desemnării.
The standard definition field concentrates on a very technical and coincide manner of drawing the meaning of the lexical unit.
The context field significantly reveals statements in which the term makes use of its semantic features.
The definition and context sources quotes the reference from which the definition and contexts were interpreted.
The commentary field reveals the term’s etymology or abbreviation.
The generic concept field describes the general term associated with the term that is about to be described.
The synonym, antonym and hyperonym fields identifies the synonyms, antonyms and hyperonyms associated with the term. Synonyms are different words with identical meanings. Antonyms are different word with different meanings. Hyperonyms are generic words associated with the term.
The use area designates the informational technology field in which the term is used.
The designation status field, in this glossary is official or unofficial.
CONCEPT MAP
Words have certain origins. For example, countless computer terms derive from ancient Greek and Latin prefixes, roots and suffixes. Knowing their meaning makes it easier to understand the medical terms correctly. For example, the word diagnosis comes from the Greek word gnosis meaning knowledge and the prefix dia- meaning complete. As a result, diagnosis has something to do with complete knowledge. Similarly, in prognosis, pro- is a prefix meaning before, so prognosis refers to knowing something in advance. The issue of origin and original meaning can sometimes clarify correct usage as well – e.g. dis- and dys-, two prefixes frequently used in computer terms. While dis- originally means apart, dys- means painful or bad, not working properly. Thus, it is correct to write disarticulation and dysfunction, but not the other way around. Moreover, Greek and Latin have made their way into some of the most commonly used words, e.g. in television, telo- is a Greek prefix referring to distance or end, thus, television means seeing from a distance.
Certain words are appropriate in certain situations, formal or informal, written or spoken etc. For instance, we would never use nevertheless on the phone with our mother to express disagreement, we would use but. Nevertheless is appropriate in formal, written texts or academic lectures. Similarly, we use stuff and something all the time in informal speech, but in more serious writing we need to replace them with words such as material, component, element, depending on the case.
As a result of the diversity and complexity in which words can be combined into clauses and clauses into sentences, different types of problems are bound to occur. Here are the most frequent ones which are relevant to academic writings.
Sentence fragments. What appears in text as an incomplete sentence not containing at least one independent clause is a sentence fragment. When in the middle of writing, it is possible to forget that we have not finished one idea before going to the next. Therefore, it is important to check out texts for sentence fragments. One give-away of such fragments is the fact that they often start with words introducing subordinate clauses – because, if, although, but this is not always the case.
Illogical coordination or subordination. Normally, ideas or events are ordered in what represents a logical sequence according to the reality of a situation. However, it sometimes happens that we lose track of that logic and link together ideas in ways which do not reflect reality or what we want to say.
Run-on sentences and comma splices. A run-on sentence is in fact two independent clauses between which there is no punctuation signalling their separation. A similar case is the comma splice, when two independent clauses are separated by a comma, which in English does not separate independent clauses.
Limited range of sentence types. A balance between different types of sentences is ideal, depending also on the writer’s awareness, intuition or ability. Two less fortunate cases are when texts are written using choppy sentences or, on the contrary, stringy ones. The solution to improve choppy texts is to combine some of the sentences and introduce some variety in sentence structure and length.
PREDICTIONS
In most computer related writing situations, the texts to be written have to be longer than one paragraph, covering topics at a certain required depth. Although the general principles of paragraph writing remain equally valuable guidelines for longer texts, different paragraphs in a longer text will have to perform different functions in relation to the reader’s needs and expectations.
Introductory paragraphs are especially important because of the responsibility they carry in relation to the effect on the reader. Usually, it takes about thirty seconds for a reader to get a first impression, feel interested or demotivated to continue reading, and develop expectations about the text to follow.
Consequently, the general rule says that introductory paragraphs will start with more general statements on the topic and then narrow it down with relevant explanations to the more specific thesis statement, the main idea of the text. While all the statements in the introduction are important because they can attract or lose the reader, the thesis statement is the critical one. The thesis statement is basically where the writer states the specific aspects to be discussed about the topic, often the method in which to do it as well, along with how the text is organized. In the light of this, effective thesis statements mostly come at the end of the introductory paragraphs.
Arguably just as important as introductions, conclusions can make or break the effectiveness of a text. With a well-written conclusion, a writer enables the reader to regain perspective over the thesis statement in the introduction in light of the ideas developed in the body of the text.
IV. GLOSSARY
ABORT
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: ABORT
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: To stop a program or function before it has finished naturally. The term abort refers to both requested and unexpected terminations. For example, many applications let you abort a search or a print job by pressing a specified abort key. On the other hand, programs can abort unexpectedly for any of the following reasons: bugs in the software, unexpected input that the program cannot handle, hardware malfunction. When a program aborts, you are usually returned to the operating system shell level. Contrast abort with crash, which makes the entire system, including the operating system, unusable.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/A/abort.html
CONTEXT 1: abort does not return control to the calling process. By default, it checks for an abort signal handler and raises SIGABRT if one is set. Then abort terminates the current process and returns an exit code to the parent process.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/k089yyh0.aspx
CONTEXT 2: This function causes an abnormal program termination and returns control to the host environment. No dumps are issued for entry control block (ECB) states that are not valid such as having a hold on a file address, having a general tape open or assigned, or having issued a PAUSC macro to place the system in a uniprocessor environment (these conditions are cleared by exit processing). If the abort function is called and the user has a handler for SIGABRT, then SIGABRT is raised; however, SIGABRT is raised again with the default handler if the user's handler returns, even if it has set another SIGABRT handler. The code path only passes through a user handler once, even if the handler is reset. Abnormal termination also occurs if SIGABRT is ignored.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://pic.dhe.ibm.com/infocenter/tpfhelp/current/index.jsp?topic=%2 Fcom.ibm.ztpf-ztpfdf.doc_put.cur%2Fgtpc2%2Fcpp_abort.html
COMMENTARY: lat. abortus
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: verb
GENERIC CONCEPT: interrupt
CORRESPONDENT RO: (a) anula
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: cancel
ANTONYM: engage
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
(A) ANULA
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: (A) ANULA
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: A anula un program sau o comandă în timpul desfășurării sale
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://vsh.ro/tutorial/161/dictionar-de-termeni-din-domeniul-it/
CONTEXT 1: Pentru a salva memorie și a spori viteza programului Word, se recomandă să anulați încărcarea șabloanelor și a programelor de completare pe care nu le utilizați des. Când anulați încărcarea unui șablon sau a unui program de completare amplasat în folderul Lansare în execuție, Word anulează încărcarea șablonului pentru sesiunea Word curentă, dar îl reîncarcă automat următoarea dată când porniți programul Word. Când anulați încărcarea unui șablon sau a unui program de completare amplasat în oricare alt folder, acesta rămâne indisponibil până când îl reîncărcați.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://office.microsoft.com/ro-ro/word-help/incarcarea-sau-anula rea-incarcarii-unui-sablon-sau-a-unui-program-de-completare-HA010105537.aspx
CONTEXT 2: Pentru a anula mai multe acțiuni simultan, faceți clic pe săgeata de lângă Anulare, selectați acțiunile din listă pe care doriți să le anulați, apoi faceți clic pe listă.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://office.microsoft.com/ro-ro/word-help/anularea-refacerea-sau-repetarea-unei-actiuni-HA102566168.aspx#_Toc285707989
COMENTARIU: lat. annullare
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: verb
CONCEPT GENERIC: (a) revoca
CORESPONDENT EN: abort
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: (a) revoca
ANTONIM: (a) numi
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: funcții calculatoare
ACCESS
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: ACCESS
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: To use. For example, programs can access memory, which means they read data from or write data to main memory. A user can access files, directories, computers, or peripheral devices. More specifically, access often means to read data from or write data to a mass storage device. The time it takes to locate a single byte of information on a mass-storage device is called the access time.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/A/access.html
CONTEXT 1: When you password protect your website with Website Access Manager, you’ve got some serious muscle on your side. Want your visitors to have to sign in to see your whole website, from the front page all the way down? We’ve got you covered. Same goes for specific areas of your site, or even individual webpages and files like images or MP3s. Website Access Manager is a full-featured .htaccess generator — a high-tech solution that protects your website and keeps unwanted visitors out.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.coffeecup.com/website-access-manager/
CONTEXT 2: The remote access account is different from the Oxford Single Sign-On (SSO) account. It's helpful to think of it as an account for verifying a hardware connection.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.oucs.ox.ac.uk/network/remote/index.xml?ID=body.1_div. 2
COMMENTARY: lat. accede
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: verb
GENERIC CONCEPT: regain
CORRESPONDENT RO: (a) accesa
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: retrive
ANTONYM: eject
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
(A) ACCESSA
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: (A) ACCESA
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: A apela date sau informații; a face funcțional; a intra într-o rețea, într-un program.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://dexonline.ro/definitie/accesa
CONTEXT 1: Avertismentele de securitate apar atunci când un program încearcă să accese informațiile persoanelor de contact în Agendă sau încearcă să trimită poștă electronică în numele dvs. În mod implicit, singurele programe de încredere sunt programele de completare COM și programele sigure.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://office.microsoft.com/ro-ro/outlook-help/primesc-avertis mente-despre-faptul-ca-un-program-acceseaza-informatiile-adreselor-de-posta-electronica-si-trimite-mesaje-de-posta-electronica-in-numele-meu-HA001229943.aspx
CONTEXT 2: Google utilizează software cunoscut cu numele de „crawlere web” pentru a descoperi pagini web disponibile public. Cel mai cunoscut crawler se numește „Googlebot”. Crawlerele accesează paginile web și urmăresc linkuri din paginile respective, asemenea unei persoane care ar naviga pe web. Acestea merg din link în link pentru a returna serverelor Google date despre respectivele pagini web.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.google.com/intl/ro_ALL/insidesearch/howsearch work s/crawling-indexing.html
COMENTARIU: fr. acces
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: verb
CONCEPT GENERIC: (a) apela
CORESPONDENT EN: access
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: (a) apela
ANTONIM: (a) neglija
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: funcții calculatoare
ACCESS POINT
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: ACCESS POINT
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: An access point provides wireless access to a network. Devices connected to an access point can communicate with other devices on the network. They may also connect to the Internet if the access point is linked to an Internet connection, which is commonly the case. Access points that use Wi-Fi are also called based stations.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://pc.net/glossary/definition/accesspoint
CONTEXT 1: Access points (also called base stations) provide wireless access to a wired Ethernet network. An access point plugs into a hub, switch, or wired router and sends out wireless signals. This enables computers and devices to connect to a wired network wirelessly. Access points act a lot like cellular phone towers: you can move from one location to another and continue to have wireless access to a network. When you connect to the Internet wirelessly using a public wireless network in an airport, coffee shop, or hotel, you are usually connecting through an access point. If you want to connect your computers wirelessly and you have a router that provides wireless capability, you don't need an access point. Access points don't have built-in technology for sharing Internet connections. To share an Internet connection, you must plug an access point into a router or a modem with a built-in router.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://windows.microsoft.com/is-is/windows/hubs-switches-routers-access-points-differ#1TC=windows-7
CONTEXT 2: The physical setup for a wireless access point is pretty simple: You take it out of the box, put it on a shelf or on top of a bookcase near a network jack and a power outlet, plug in the power cable, and plug in the network cable.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/configuring-a-wireless-access-point.html
COMMENTARY: lat. accessus; pungere
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: AP
CORRESPONDENT RO: access point
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: node
ANTONYM: antinode
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
ACCESS POINT
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: ACCESS POINT
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Access point-ul este nodul central al rețelei wireless. De obicei acesta este legat la internet (printr-un router sau direct); la acest nod central se vor conecta toate celelalte dispozitive wireless din rețea (calculatoare, laptop-uri, imprimante etc).
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://wifimag.ro/documentatie/airos5/access-point
CONTEXT 1: Diferit de modul Acces Point, modul Client wireless este utilizat pentru a conecta un dispozitiv la un access point / router wireless setat în modul AP (access point), dar la acest dispozitiv nu puteți conecta alte dispozitive wireles care sunt setate în modul AP-Client via wireless.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.tp-link.ro/article/?id=288
CONTEXT 2: Un access point în comparație cu o placă de rețea wireless ne oferă o stabilitate a semnalului mult mai bună.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://videotutorial.ro/configurare-legatura-wireless-dintre-un-router-si-un-access-point-tutorial-video/
COMENTARIU: lat. accessus; pungere
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: AP
CORESPONDENT EN: access point
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: nod de rețea
ANTONIM: antinod de rețea
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
ALERT
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: ALERT
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A function of many Internet search engines that lets users specify keywords, phrases or tags pertaining to any topic that you would like to be notified of when new search results are available. Most alerts are delivered by e-mail or by RSS feed. Users can set alerts matching their own industry or their name or business name to be notified when it is mentioned somewhere online.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/A/alerts.html
CONTEXT 1: With rapid development of computer networks, users need a new solution for network security management, aiming at integration. This paper focuses on context-aware alert analysis, which is one of its key functionalities.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5223087&url =http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fiel5%2F5222859%2F5222860%2F05223087.pdf%3Farnumber%3D5223087
CONTEXT 2: Alert correlation is a process that analyzes the alerts produced by one or more intrusion detection systems and provides a more succinct and high-level view of occurring or attempted intrusions. Several alert correlation systems use pairwise alert correlation in which each new alert is checked with a number of previously received alerts to find its possible correlations with them. An alert selection policy defines the way in which this checking is done.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.mecs-press.org/ijcnis/ijcnis-v5-n11/v5n11-2.html
COMMENTARY: fr. alerte
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: verb
GENERIC CONCEPT: warn
CORRESPONDENT RO: (a) alerta
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: alarm
ANTONYM: neglect
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
(A) ALERTA
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: (A) ALERTA
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Anunțare a unei primejdii sau calamități care amenință populația.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://dexonline.ro/definitie/alarma
CONTEXT 1: Când utilizați Windows Defender, este important să aveți definiții actualizate. Definițiile sunt fișiere care se comportă ca o enciclopedie care se mărește continuu cu potențialele amenințări software. Windows Defender utilizează definiții pentru a vă alerta despre riscurile posibile, dacă stabilește că software-ul detectat este un program spion sau alt tip de software potențial nedorit.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/using-defender#1 TC=windows-7
CONTEXT 2: Un nou atac informatic descoperit pe site-urile chinezesti are drept țintă PC-urile cu Windows, iar singurul mod de a preveni o infectare este descărcarea celui mai recent update de securitate. Computerele afectate vor da "ecran albastru" și e posibil ca cei care au creat virusul să se folosească de ele pentru a răspândi un vierme care să se împrăștie rapid prin Internet. Experții în securitate de la firma Sophos spun că toate calculatoarele cu Windows trebuie să fie în alertă "cod roșu".
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://stirileprotv.ro/stiri/mobile2012/alerta-cod-rosu-pentru-calculatoarele-cu-windows-pc-urile-sunt-pur-si-simplu-distruse.html
COMENTARIU: fr. alerter
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: verb
CONCEPT GENERIC: (a) alarma
CORESPONDENT EN: alert
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: (a) alarma
ANTONIM: (a) pacienta
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: funcții calculatoare
ALIGNMENT
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: ALIGNMENT
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: When used to describe text, the arrangement of text or graphics relative to a margin. Flush left alignment means that text is lined up along the left margin. Flush right alignment lines up text along the right margin. Centered alignment means that text is aligned around a midpoint. Justified alignment means that text lines up along both margins. When used to describe text, the arrangement of text or graphics relative to a margin. Flush left alignment means that text is lined up along the left margin. Flush right alignment lines up text along the right margin. Centered alignment means that text is aligned around a midpoint. Justified alignment means that text lines up along both margins.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/A/alignment.html
CONTEXT 1: To align HTML5 Canvas text, we can use the textAlign property of the canvas context, which can be set to start, end, left, center, or right. The alignment is relative to an imaginary vertical line at the x position of the text defind by fillText() or strokeText().The text is aligned to the left when the textAlign property is set to left, when it's set to start and the document direction is ltr (left to right), or when it's set to end and the document direction is rtl (right to left). The text is aligned to the right when the textAlign property is set to right, when it's set to end and the document direction is ltr, or when it's set to start and the document direction is rtl. Unless otherwise specified, the textAlign property is defaulted to start.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.html5canvastutorials.com/tutorials/html5-canvas-text-align/
CONTEXT 2: Template-based modeling, including homology modeling and protein threading, is the most reliable method for protein 3D structure prediction. However, alignment errors and template selection are still the main bottleneck for current template-base modeling methods, especially when proteins under consideration are distantly related.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://bioinformatics.oxfordjournals.org/content/29/13/i257.full
COMMENTARY: fr. alignement
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: adjustment
CORRESPONDENT RO: aliniere
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: arrangement
ANTONYM: nonalignment
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
ALINIERE
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: ALINIERE
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Procedeu de comparare a două sau mai multe secvențe prin căutarea caracterelor individuale sau a pattern-urilor cu ordine identică în secvențe.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://sorana.academicdirect.ro/pages/doc/ComputBiol/C07.pdf
CONTEXT 1: Word îți oferă câteva tipuri de aliniere a textului. Din oficiu alinierea textului se face la stânga.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.sepoate.com/calculatoare/word2003/word_l5_2.php
CONTEXT 2: Alinierea din Windows 7 vă permite să extindeți ferestrele deschise, să le faceți să umple ecranul sau să le vizualizați una lângă alta glisându-le pur și simplu pe desktop.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/search#q=aliniere
COMENTARIU: fr. alignement
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: înșirare
CORESPONDENT EN: alignment
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: înșirare
ANTONIM: deșirare
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: funcții calculatoare
ANCHOR
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: ANCHOR
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Either the starting point or the destination of a hyperlink (or link) within a document. Example: a highlighted word within an online help file may display additional information related to the word. This information is "anchored" to the highlighted word.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.bleepingcomputer.com/glossary/definition258.html
CONTEXT 1: Thus you can influence the outcome of your link baiting efforts by creating a badge that is small enough to fit in the sidebar but big enough not to be placed in the footer. Infographics often include an embed code. You could even run a script that randomly chooses one from several anchor text options.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://white.net/noise/link-building-link-context-and-anchor-text-optimisation/
CONTEXT 2: Most of the researchers have widely explored the use of link-context to determine the theme of target web-page. Link-context has been applied in areas such as search engines, focused crawlers, and automatic classification. Therefore, extraction of precise link-context may be considered as an important parameter for extracting more relevant information from the web-page. In this paper, we have proposed a rule-based approach for the extraction of the link-context from anchor-text (AT) structure using bottom-up simple LR (SLR) parser. Here, we have considered only named entity (NE) anchor-text. In order to validate our proposed approach, we have considered a sample of 4 ATs. The results have shown that, the proposed LCEA has extracted 100% actual link-context of each considered AT.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-642-32063-7_28
COMMENTARY: lat. ancora
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: link
CORRESPONDENT RO: ancoră
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: link
ANTONYM: disjunction
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
ANCORĂ
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: ANCORĂ
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: O ancoră este echivalentă cu un link intern într-un document. Spre exemplu, o ancoră poate să redirecționeze utilizatorul spre începutul documentului (de exemplu, butonul de top din acest document).
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php
CONTEXT 1: O legătură către o pagină aflată în același director se formează cu ajutorul etichetei <a> (de la „anchor” = ancoră). Pentru a preciza pagina indicată de legătură se utilizează un atribut al etichetei <a> numit href, care ia valoare numele fișierului HTML aflat în același director. Zona activă care devine sensibilă la apăsarea butonului stâng al mouse-ului este formată din textul cuprins între etichetele <a>…</a>.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://invatahtmlake.3x.ro/legaturi.html
CONTEXT 2: În HTML definirea unei hiperlegături se face utilizând elementul A (Anchor = Ancoră). În funcție de atributul utilizat, o ancoră poate defini o legătură către un alt document HTML sau poate defini un anumit loc din cadrul unui document HTML, loc în care dorim să puncteze o legătură.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.horax.home.ro/tutorial/inceput/pagina%209.htm
COMENTARIU: fr. áncore
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: legătură
CORESPONDENT EN: anchor
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: legătură
ANTONIM: izolare
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
ANIMATION
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: ANIMATION
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A simulation of movement created by displaying a series of pictures, or frames. Cartoons on television is one example of animation. Animation on computers is one of the chief ingredients of multimedia presentations. There are many software applications that enable you to create animations that you can display on a computer monitor.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/A/animation.html
CONTEXT 1: Flash Animation is a form of animation regularly employed to create short, simple shows on the Internet. It has developed in recent years and is now a far more interactive and widely used form of website design. There are a number of sites on the Internet constructed entirely from Flash animation.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.ehow.com/about_6320386_definition-flash-animation_. html
CONTEXT 2: Adobe Flash Professional CS5.5 offers several ways to include animation in your projects. The Animation Learning Guide for Flash explains how to use all of these animation types in Flash Professional, including the improved way of creating and editing motion tweens using the Timeline and Motion Editor.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.adobe.com/devnet/flash/learning_guide/animation.html
COMMENTARY: lat. animationem
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: motion
CORRESPONDENT RO: animație computerizată
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: motion
ANONYM: inaction
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
ANIMAȚIE COMPUTERIZATĂ
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: ANIMAȚIE
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Animația computerizată (imaginile generate computerizat) reprezintă o formă de grafică animată care a înlocuit animația clasică a stop-cadrelor cu păpuși realizate la scară redusă sau cu desene. Eforturile depuse în scopul diminuării eforturilor de realizare și a costurilor de producție au dus la simplificare și computerizare. Calculatoarele pot fi folosite în orice etapă a realizării de animații complexe – de exemplu, pentru a automatiza mișcarea camerei în platou sau pentru a furniza desene intermediare în scopul realizării animației complete. Când o imagine tridimensională este tradusă în limbaj computerizat (digitalizată), calculatorul poate genera și afișa o succesiune de imagini care dau impresia că obiectul se deplasează sau se rotește în spațiu. Astfel, animația computerizată poate simula mișcări foarte complexe, utile în domeniul cercetării medicale, în alte tipuri de cercetare științifică, precum și în realizarea filmelor artistice.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.crispedia.ro/Animatie_computerizata
CONTEXT 1: Animatia computerizatã a luat amploare în ultimii ani începînd cu "Toy Story" care a fãcut istorie ca fiind primul lung-metraj de animatie realizat în întregime pe computer.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.cinemagia.ro/stiri/animatia-pe-calculator-o-munca-imensa-cu-rezultate-pe-masura-i-488/
CONTEXT 2: Dezvoltarea animației computerizate ușurează oarecum procesul de creare a unui film de animație. Dar atât la animația clasică cât și la cea computerizată este nevoie de mult talent și creativitate.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://bookspot.ro/post/2010/10/25/Animatia.aspx
COMENTARIU: lat. animationem
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: grafică animată
CORESPONDENT EN: animation
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: grafică statică
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: funcții calculatoare
ANTIVIRUS
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: ANTIVIRUS
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A utility that searches a hard disk for viruses and removes any that are found. Most antivirus programs include an auto-update feature that enables the program to download profiles of new viruses so that it can check for the new viruses as soon as they are discovered.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/A/antivirus_program.html
CONTEXT 1: Since new viruses are constantly being created by computer hackers, antivirus programs must keep an updated database of virus types. This database includes a list of "virus definitions" that the antivirus software references when scanning files.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/antivirus
CONTEXT 2: To help prevent the most current viruses, you must update your antivirus software regularly. You can set up most types of antivirus software to update automatically.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.microsoft.com/security/resources/antivirus-whatis.aspx
COMMENTARY: lat. anti; virus
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: protection software
CORRESPONDENT RO: antivirus
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer security
ANTIVIRUS
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: ANTIVIRUS
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Programele antivirus contribuie la protejarea computerelor împotriva virușilor, precum și a altor "invadatori" care pot “ataca” un computer. În esență, un program antivirus are rolul de a scana, detecta și elimina virușii de calculator și alte programe nocive.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://suport.romtelecom.ro/app/answers/detail/a_id/387
CONTEXT 1: Eficiența unui virus depinde, în esență, de doi factori: 1. vulnerabilitățile softurilor, din ce în ce mai complexe și cu multe bug-uri (erori de programare) și 2. elementul de noutate al codului nociv.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.scientia.ro/tehnologie/34-cum-functioneaza-calculator ul/672-cum-functioneaza-un-program-antivirus.html
CONTEXT 2: Testele efectuate de catre institutul german AV-TEST a clasat antivirusul Bitdefender Internet Security 2013 din România pe primul loc în lume, în clasamentul celor mai bune soft-uri de securitate pentru PC-uri.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.ziare.com/articole/programe+antivirus
COMENTARIU: lat. anti; virus
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: protecție
CORESPONDENT EN: antivirus
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: securitate
APU
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: APU
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: An APU is a processor that includes both the CPU and GPU on a single chip. The name “APU” was coined by AMD, which released the first APU in January, 2011.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.techterms.com/definition/apu
CONTEXT 1: AMD APUs (Accelerated Processing Units) allow you to configure small-form-factor, long-battery-life PCs that consumers crave, while enabling the powerful, next-generation visual experiences that can set you apart and help create a competitive advantage in a hyper-competitive market.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.amd.com/us/products/technologies/apu/Pages/apu.aspx
CONTEXT 2: With improved performance levels the APUs now can be considered a more mainstream product, you'll notice a decent speed improvement on the processor side and a significant increase on the GPU side of the APU. The big distinction here is that the CPU and GPU really have been merged, sharing the very same memory pool and they can address each other; making this a much more efficient design compared to previous architectures. Combined together, they offer a nice amount of processor performance, especially with OpenCL and GPU assisted applications.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.guru3d.com/articles_pages/amd_a8_7600_apu_review,1. html
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: units
CORRESPONDENT RO: UPA (unitate de procesare accelerată)
HYPERONYM: Accelerated Process Unit
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: hardware
UPA (UNITATE DE PROCESARE ACCELERATĂ)
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: UPA
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Unitatea de procesare accelerată (APU) este combinația unică de tehnologii de calcul CPU și GPU. Este concepută pentru a îmbunătăți enorm Internetul de astăzi, procesarea video, redarea și experiențele de gaming.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.asrock.com/mb/AMD/A75%20Pro4-M/index.ro.asp
CONTEXT 1: Familia unităților de procesare accelerată AMD Fusion reprezintă o schimbare majoră pentru arhitectura și capabilitățile procesorului, prin combinarea procesării seriale ultra-performante și a nucleelor grafice de procesare paralelă într-un singur chip, totul pentru a îmbunătăți sarcinile vizuale, intensive, omniprezente în mediile de calcul actuale.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://wasd.ro/news/amd-a-prezentat-la-computex-2010-primele-unitati-de-procesare-accelerata-fusion
CONTEXT 2: Cei de la AMD deschid un nou drum spre relația CPU-GPU cu inițiativa numită APU (Accelerated Processing Unit – Unitate de Procesare Accelerată) ce combină nucleele convenționale din CPU x86 cu cele din GPU. Aceasta ar putea permite componentelor CPU și GPU să funcționeze împreună și să mărească performanța sistemelor limitate de spațiul componentelor separate. Pe măsură ce tehnologia continuă să avanseze, vom putea fi martorii unei convergențe a sistemelor separate. Totuși, multe sarcini efectuate de sistemele de operare și de aplicațiile PC sunt convenabile încă pentru CPU-uri, fiind nevoie de multă muncă pentru a accelera un program în cazul GPU-urilor. De vreme ce majoritatea software-ului folosește arhitectura x86 și pentru că GPU-urile impun tehnici diferite de programare și duc lipsă de proprietăți importante cerute de sistemele de operare, o tranziție generală de la CPU la GPU pentru computerele pentru uz casnic este extrem de dificilă.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.scientia.ro/tehnologie/34-cum-functioneaza-calculator ul/4285-de-ce-nu-folosim-gpu-in-loc-de-cpu.html
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: unitate
CORESPONDENT EN: APU
HIPERONIM: Unitate de Procesare Accelerată
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: hardware
ARCHIVE
ID LANGUGE: EN
ENTRY: ARCHIVE
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: To copy files to a long-term storage medium for backup. Large computer systems often have two layers of backup, the first of which is a disk drive. Periodically, the computer operator will archive files on the disk to a second storage device, usually a tape drive. On smaller systems, archiving is synonymous with backing up.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/A/archive.html
CONTEXT 1: Informatica Data Archive is highly scalable, full featured smart partitioning and data archiving software. It helps your IT organization significantly improve application performance and cost-effectively manage data growth in a range of enterprise business applications while lowering cost and risk.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.informatica.com/us/products/application-ilm/data-archive/
CONTEXT 2: Archiving is more than just a data retention tool, it’s fundamentally a business operation strategy. Archiving maximizes efficiency by moving less active data off expensive primary HDD storage and onto more cost-effective nearline and offline tiers that combine long-term preservation of data with easy, fast access to data when needed. The result is higher primary storage performance, greater scalability and lower overall storage costs..
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.imation.com/en-US/Scalable-Storage/Scalable-Storage-Solutions/Archiving/
COMMENTARY: lat. archivum
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: file
CORRESPONDENT RO: arhivă
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: depository
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
ARHIVĂ
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: ARHIVA
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: În mare putem vedea o arhivă drept un fișier care încapsulează unul sau mai multe fișiere de sine stătătoare. Arhivele dau bătăi de cap utilizatorilor neexperimentați pentru că aceștia așteaptă ca fișierul din fața lor să conțină informația în formă brută și nu arhivată.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://incepator.pinzaru.ro/software/ce-este-o-arhiva/
CONTEXT 1: WinRAR este un puternic manager de arhive. Utilitarul oferă un suport complet pentru tipurile de arhive RAR si ZIP, decomprimă însă și tipurile 7Z, ACE, ARJ, BZ2, CAB, GZ, ISO, JAR, LZH, TAR, UUE, Z. O parte din capabilitățile WinRAR sunt: compresie puternică, creare volume, criptare, modul auto-extractor și facilități pentru copii de siguranță.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://download.chip.eu/ro/WinRAR-4.11_39266.html
CONTEXT 2: În Linux se folosește comanda tar pentru arhivare, iar pentru comprimare gzip sau bzip2. Comanda gzip folosește codarea Lempel-Ziv (LZ77), iar bzip2 algoritmul de compresie Burrows-Wheeler și codarea Huffman, prin care se obține o comprimare mai bună decat cu codarea LZ77.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://vega.unitbv.ro/~jipa/ui/linux/arhivare.html
COMENTARIU: lat. archivum
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: arhivă
CORESPONDENT EN: archive
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: depozit
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: funcții calculatoare
ARRAY
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: ARRAY
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: In programming, a series of objects all of which are the same size and type. Each object in an array is called an array element. For example, you could have an array of integers or an array of characters or an array of anything that has a defined data type.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/A/array.html
CONTEXT 1: An array in C Programing Language can be defined as number of memory locations, each of which can store the same data type and which can be references through the same variable name.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.mycplus.com/tutorials/c-programming-tutorials/arrays/
CONTEXT 2: An array in C language is a collection of similar data-type, means an array can hold value of a particular data type for which it has been declared. Arrays can be created from any of the C data-types int, float, and char.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://rajkishor09.hubpages.com/hub/Array-in-C-programming–Programmers-view
COMMENTARY: fr. areer
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: order
CORRESPONDENT RO: șir
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: row
ANONYM: item
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: programming
ȘIR
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: SIR
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Grup, mulțime de ființe sau de lucruri dispuse în succesiune, desfășurate în linie (dreaptă)
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.dex.ro/sir
CONTEXT 1: O constantă de tip șir de caractere se declară între două caractere. În memoria internă, o constantă de acest tip este reținută sub forma unui vector de caractere. Fiecare componentă a șirului (începând cu cea de indice 0) reține codul ASCII al caracterului pe care îl memorează. Convenția este ca ultimul octet să rețină 0 (codul caracterului nul). Caracterul nul este memorat automat.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://infoscience.3x.ro/c++/siruridecaractere.htm
CONTEXT 2: Funcția strcat are rolul de a adăuga șirului de la adresa destinație șirul de la adresa sursă.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://89.121.249.92/2010-2011/Catedre/Informatica/11/Functii.p df
COMENTARIU: lat. series
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: rând
CORESPONDENT EN: array
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: grup
ANTONIM: item
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: programare
ASSIGN
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: ASSIGN
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: To give a value to a variable. In programming, you assign a value to a variable with a special symbol called an assignment operator. In many languages, the assignment operator is the equal sign (=).
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/A/assign.html
CONTEXT 1: If you have a dual-core or multiprocessor system, you can assign a process to a specific processor. But you can only do this after the process is already running.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/magazine/ee851672.aspx
CONTEXT 2: You can assign any of the scanner buttons to open one of the project programs in the EPSON Creativity Suite to make scanning your projects even quicker..
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: https://files.support.epson.com/htmldocs/pr449p/pr449pug/projs_9.h tm
COMMENTARY: fr. assiginer
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: verb
GENERIC CONCEPT: delegate
CORRESPONDENT RO: (a) atribui
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: designate
ANONYM: discharge
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: programming
(A) ATRIBUI
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: (A) ATRIBUI
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Atribuirea se calculează ca fiind valoarea expresiei scrisă în variabilă, peste vechea valoare, care se pierde.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://mchelariu.wordpress.com/2010/01/10/l8-atribuirea/
CONTEXT 1: Spre deosebire de alte limbaje în care atribuirea este o instrucție, în limbajul C se definește operatorul de atribuire. Aceste este binar și are o prioritate scăzută, mai mare doar decât a operatorului secvențial; regula de asociativitate este de la dreapta spre stânga, iar sintaxa este: variabila = expresie.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.timsoft.ro/aux/module/modul3.html
CONTEXT 2: Într-o variabilă de tipul șir de caractere putem memora un șir în două moduri: prin atribuire sau prin citire. Numărul de caractere ale șirului astfel memorat se numește lungimea sau dimensiunea efectiva a șirului, sau, pe scurt lungimea șirului. În urma declarării unei variabile de tipul șir de caractere, compilatorul C++ alocă memorie pentru variabila respectivă sub forma unui vector de caractere.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.worldit.info/articole/siruri-de-caractere-si-lucrul-cu-acestea-in-cc-partea-i/
COMENTARIU: lat. attributio
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: verb
CONCEPT GENERIC: (a) conferi
CORESPONDENT EN: assign
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: (a) conferi
ANTONIM: (a) deferi
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: programare
ATM
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: ATM
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Short for Asynchronous Transfer Mode, a network technology based on transferring data in cells or packets of a fixed size. The cell used with ATM is relatively small compared to units used with older technologies. The small, constant cell size allows ATM equipment to transmit video, audio, and computer data over the same network, and assure that no single type of data hogs the line.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/MAC_address.html
CONTEXT 1: Because the cells are so small, ATM equipment can transmit large amounts of data over a single connection while ensuring that no single transmission takes up all the bandwidth. It also allows Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to assign limited bandwidth to each customer. While this may seem like a downside for the customer, it actually improves the efficiency of the ISP's Internet connection, causing the overall speed of the connection to be faster for everybody.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/atm
CONTEXT 2: ATMs are scattered throughout cities, allowing customers easier access to their accounts. Anyone with a debit or credit card will be able to access most ATMs. Using a machine operated by your bank is usually free, but accessing funds through a unit owned by a competing bank will usually incur a small fee.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/atm.asp
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: asynchronous transmission
CORRESPONDENT RO: ATM
HYPERONYM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks technology
ATM
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: ATM
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Asynchronous Transfer Mode, standard internațional pentru transportul diferitelor servicii de rețea (video, voce, date) în celule de dimensiune fixă (53 de bytes).
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://vsh.ro/tutorial/161/dictionar-de-termeni-din-domeniul-it/
CONTEXT 1: ATM-ul reprezintă un terminal de date cu 2 input-uri (intrări) și 4 output-uri (ieșiri). El este în permanență conectat la un "host procesor", un provider de internet care permite utilizatorului să își vizualizeze pe ecran toate operațiunile permise.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.ele.ro/cariera/bani/ce-este-si-cum-functioneaza-un-atm-7775
CONTEXT 2: Serviciul ATM Hunter folosește tehnologiile de localizare ale platformei Android pentru a găsi cel mai apropiat bancomat. Utilizatorii pot personaliza căutarea în funcție de nevoi.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.4help.ro/afaceri-financiar/ce-este-atm-hunter-pentru-smartphone-urile-android-.html
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: terminal
CORESPONDENT EN: ATM
HIPERONIM: Mod de Transfer Asincronic
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: standard rețele calculatoare
AUTHENTICATION
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: AUTHENTICATION
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: The process of identifying an individual, usually based on a username and password. In security systems, authentication is distinct from authorization, which is the process of giving individuals acesss to system objects based on their identity. Authentication merely ensures that the individual is who he or she claims to be, but says nothing about the access rights of the individual.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/A/authentication.html
CONTEXT 1: As attackers adapt their methods and continue to steal mass batches of login credentials, static usernames and passwords provide little assurance of the true identity of the user behind the password. As a result, context-aware user authentication has become a necessary weapon in the battle to protect online identities. To be effective in today’s world, our authentication methods must be able to understand the context of a login attempt, analyze that context to determine risk, and adapt requirements accordingly. This is precisely the goal of risk-based authentication.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: https://blogs.rsa.com/risk-based-authentication-whats-context-got-to-do-with-it/
CONTEXT 2: Some authentication schemes and LDAP servers require some operation to be performed on the created DirContext instance for the actual authentication to occur. You should test and make sure how your server setup and authentication schemes behave; failure to do so might result in that users will be admitted into your system regardless of the DN/credentials supplied.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://docs.spring.io/spring-ldap/docs/1.3.x/reference/html/user-authentication.html
COMMENTARY: lat. authenticatus
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: certificate
CORRESPONDENT RO: autentificare
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: certificate
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer security
AUTENTIFICARE
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: BANNER
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: A face ca un act să devină autentic; a legaliza.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://dexonline.ro/definitie/autentificare
CONTEXT 1: O importanță deosebită capătă autentificarea și identificarea diverselor entități într-un sistem computerizat, operații fără de care nu se poate imagina accesul la distanță. Articolul de față își propune să investigheze diversele metode folosite în practică, pentru realizarea unei autentificări sigure și eficiente, și să ofere o privire de ansamblu asupra problematicii cu care se confruntă, în general, sistemele de autentificare.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://rria.ici.ro/ria2007_1/art05.html
CONTEXT 2: Autentificarea are loc o singură dată, la începerea sesiunii, când utilizatorul își introduce numele și parola. Identitatea utilizatorului este păstrată de sistem într-o zonă de memorie inaccesibilă utilizatorului. Identitatea utilizatorului este asociată proceselor lansate de utilizator, întrucât de fapt cererile de acces la fișiere sunt făcute întotdeauna de către un proces rulând din contul unui utilizator.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.cs.ubbcluj.ro/~rlupsa/edu/retele-2003/c6.html
COMENTARIU: fr. authentifier
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: acțiune
CORESPONDENT EN: authentication
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: certificare
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: securitate
AUTOSAVE
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: AUTOSAVE
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A feature supported by many applications in which the program automatically saves data files at predetermined intervals. This is an important feature because it reduces the amount of work you would lose if your system crashed. Usually, you can specify how often you want the application to save data.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/A/autosave.html
CONTEXT 1: Within Microsoft Word there is functionality to keep saving your changes periodically behind the scenes. This is a good thing because if your system crashes you will then be able to recover the last saved version of your Word document. Some people save infrequently and if there were no autosaves, they would lose a lot of data in the event of an application crash.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.word-2010.com/microsoft-word-autosave/
CONTEXT 2: Autosave, another new feature of Photoshop CS6, can help recover your file if your computer crashes before you’ve had a chance to save.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://blogs.adobe.com/jkost/2012/04/background-save-and-auto-save-features-in-photoshop-cs6.html
COMMENTARY: fr. sauf
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: rescue
CORRESPONDENT RO: (a) autosalva
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: rescue
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
(A) AUTOSALVA
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: (A) AUTOSALVA
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Salvare automată a datelor unei file aflate în prelucrare.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://muntealb.orgfree.com/Traduceri/dictionar-traducere.htm
CONTEXT 1: Microsoft Word are o funcție numită Autosave (Autosalvare) ce este activată automat. Astfel, la un anumit interval programul salvează documentul deschis din considerente de siguranță. Căderile de tensiune sau erorile de sistem pot duce la închiderea sistemului și la pierderea datelor. Activarea sau modificarea acestei funcții se face din meniul Tools (Instrumente), comanda Options (Opțiuni). În fereastra care apare, se selectează rubrica Save (Salvare).
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.dmsone.ro/Menu/Professional-PE
CONTEXT 2: Dezvoltarea sistemului are loc printr-o tehnologie cu standarde deschise. Aceasta oferă o securitate ridicată a dezvoltărilor ulterioare, și a întrebărilor de compatibilitate. Framework-ul propriu dezvoltat garantează că codul de sursă a sistemul nu este expus riscului de componente străine ale upgrade-urilor. Software-ul funcționează excelent în mediu de rețea. Datorită arhitecturii cu trei straturi, datele sunt stocate de obicei într-o bază de date centrală, care permite nu doar eliminarea redudanței datelor, ci și gestionarea acestora în siguranță prin funcția de auto-salvare.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.dmsone.ro/Menu/Professional-PE
COMENTARIU: fr. sauf
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: verb
CONCEPT GENERIC: salvare automată
CORESPONDENT EN: autosave
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: operatori calculatoare
BACKUP
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: BACKUP
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: To copy files to a second medium (a disk or tape) as a precaution in case the first medium fails. One of the cardinal rules in using computers is back up your files regularly
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/B/backup.html
CONTEXT 1: After you upgrade Windows, you will need to set up Windows Backup, even if you had a scheduled backup in the previous version of Windows. This is because there are several changes to the backup program. Instead of selecting file types to back up, you can have Windows back up data files saved in libraries, on the desktop, and in default Windows folders, or you can choose specific libraries and folders to be backed up. You can also create a system image of your computer.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://windows.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/back-up-files#1TC= windows-7
CONTEXT 2: You should perform regular backups of your system and keep multiple backups of important, irreplaceable files. Without multiple backup copies of your files, your files do not exist anywhere except on your Mac.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://support.apple.com/kb/ht1553
COMMENTARY: en. baec; proto-germ. upp
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: save
CORRESPONDENT RO: copie de siguranță
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: rescue
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
COPIE DE SIGURANȚĂ
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: COPIE DE REZERVĂ
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Copiile de siguranță (backup) sunt necesare pentru a permite recuperarea datelor și aplicațiilor în cazul unor evenimente cum ar fi: dezastre naturale, defecțiuni ale discurilor de sistem, spionaj, erori de introducere a datelor, erori de funcționare a sistemului etc.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://dcd.uaic.ro/?page_id=869
CONTEXT 1: Cu așa multe riscuri pe internet, backup-ul este mai mult decât un termen – este soluția la care trebuie să apeleze absolut toți webmasterii (administratorii de rețea).
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.prologue.ro/articole-web-design/de-ce-este-important-backup-ul-si-cum-se-face/
CONTEXT 2: Copia de siguranță completă este punctul de pornire pentru toate celelalte tipuri de backup și conține toate toate fișierele și directoarele care au fost selectate pentru a fi salvate. Deoarece copia de siguranță completă păstrează toate fișierele și directoarele, având mai multe salvări complete ale datelor, timpul de restabilire a datelor va fi mult mai scurt.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://ro.backup4all.com/resurse/copia-de-siguranta-completa.ht ml
COMENTARIU: lat. copia
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: backup
CORESPONDENT EN: backup
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: copie de rezervă
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: operatori calculatoare
BANDWIDTH
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: BANDWIDTH
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: The amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time. For digital devices, the bandwidth is usually expressed in bits per second (bps) or bytes per second. For analog devices, the bandwidth is expressed in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz).
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/B/bandwidth.html
CONTEXT 1: Bandwidth in computer networking refers to the data rate supported by a network connection or interface. Network bandwidth is not the only factor that contributes to the perceived speed of a network. A lesser known element of network performance – latency – also plays an important role.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://compnetworking.about.com/od/speedtests/a/network-speed.htm
CONTEXT 2: Bandwidth is the communication capacity of a network. When you use the Internet, you are using bandwidth. Bandwidth is used in both directions, i.e. for uploads and downloads.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://its.ucsc.edu/security/bandwidth.html
COMMENTARY: proto-germ. band; en. wið
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: transmission length
CORRESPONDENT RO: lărgime de bandă
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
LUNGIME DE BANDĂ
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: LUNGIME DE BANDĂ
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Lungimea de bandă este capacitatea de transmitere a tuturor datelor printr-o conexiune într-o perioadă dată de timp. Lungimea de bandă (bandwidth) este măsurată de obicei în BPS (biți per secundă).
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://vsh.ro/tutorial/161/dictionar-de-termeni-din-domeniul-it/
CONTEXT 1: Când datele sunt transmise într-o rețea de calculatoare, acestea sunt împărțite în bucăți mai mici numite pachete. Fiecare pachet conține un header. Headerul reprezintă informații adăugate la fiecare pachet, incluzând sursa și destinația pachetului. De asemenea conține informații care descriu modul în care vor fi rearanjate pachetele la destinație. Lungimea de bandă determină cantitatea de informație care poate fi transmisă.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.informatii-it.ro/2011/10/08/explicarea-conceptelor-de-latime-de-banda-si-transmisie-de-date/
CONTEXT 2: Lungimea de bandă se referă la cantitatea de informație permisă pentru a fi transferată înspre / dispre un un site pe Internet (capacitatea de transport a datelor).
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.epedia.ro/intrebari/calculatoare-internet/ce-este-latimea-de-banda-ce-este-traficul-bandwidth_8.html
COMENTARIU: proto-germ. band
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CORESPONDENT EN: bandwidth
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: lățime de bandă
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
BANKER TROJAN
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: BANKER TROJAN
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: In computer and network security terminology, a Banker Trojan-horse (commonly called Banker Trojan) is a malicious program used in an attempt to obtain confidential information about customers and clients using online banking and payment systems.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/B/Banker_Trojan.html
CONTEXT 1: Semantically speaking the problem with calling these things banking trojans, is that sometimes we catch them doing other bad stuff not related to the theft of financial information. It’s all very murky in the seedy underworld of cybercrime, but, semantics aside, each of these pieces of malicious software represents a real problem: they are damn good at stealing online and other banking information.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://blog.kaspersky.com/the-big-four-banking-trojans/
CONTEXT 2: Last month, a newly effective banking trojan has been discovered, targeting online banking users. This malware uses very reliable looking link addresses or domains which are related to trusted organizations to attract victims into running them. Even though this trojan has analogous functionality and goals like that of the ignominious Zeus and SpyEye, its architecture and way of implementation makes it fall in a new malware family. This banking trojan, regardless of being a new malware program, emerged as Win32/Spy.Hesperbot. The main aim of the offender is to obtain credentials giving access to the victim’s bank account and making them install a mobile component of the malware on smartphone platforms (Symbian, Android, and Blackberry).
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://resources.infosecinstitute.com/hesperbot-an-atrocious-banking-trojan/
COMMENTARY: lat. trojanus
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: trojan horse
CORRESPONDENT RO: cal troian bancar
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: trojan horse
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: security
CAL TROIAN BANCAR
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: CAL TROIAN BANCAR
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Troienii bancari reprezintă cel mai periculos tip de malware specializat. Infractorii folosesc troieni bancari cu ținte multiple, care pot afecta clienți ai diferitelor bănci și sisteme de plată, precum și troieni programați să atace clienții unei bănci specifice.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.ziare-pe-net.ro/stiri/pericol-ce-face-un-troian-bancar-odata-ce-a-ajuns-intr-un-calculator-3036881.html
CONTEXT 1: Troienii sunt alcătuiți din trei componente: programul Server: programul propriu-zis al troianului ce infectează calculatorul victimă; programul Client: folosit pentru conectarea la calculatorul infectat și pentru a trimite comenzi sau a primi informații; programul Build/Edit Server: folosit pentru editarea programului Server.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.securitatea-informatiilor.ro/tag/cal-troian/
CONTEXT 2: Caii troieni se mențin încă în topul amenințărilor informatice, deși cota lor a scăzut de la 80% la 70%, anunță producătorul de soluții de securitate Kaspersky Lab. Liderul clasamentului din luna august, Trojan.Win32.DNSChanger.ech, a dispărut complet din clasament, locul său fiind luat de Rootkit.Win32.Agent.cvx.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.emaramures.ro/stiri/16760/TOP-VIRUSI-Virusii-de-tip-cal-troian-raman-lideri-in-topul-amenintarilor-informatice-din-septembrie
COMENTARIU: lat. trojanus
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: virus
CORESPONDENT EN: bankar trojan
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: virus
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: securitate
BANNER
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: BANNER
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Also referred to as a banner ad, a banner is a typically rectangular advertisement placed on a Web site either above, below or on the sides of the Web site's main content and is linked to the advertiser's own Web site. In the early days of the Internet, banners were ads with text and graphic images.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/sgsearch/results?cx=partner-pub-876800 4398756183%3A6766915980&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=UTF-8&q=banner
CONTEXT 1: Placement of banners is one of the oldest and most often used ways of advertising in the Internet. Nevertheless, ordinary banners have become too costing and inefficient recently, and they re being replaced by context banners (media context).
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.webisgroup.com/services/internet-advertising/context-banner/
CONTEXT 2: Most banner ads are inserted into Web pages regardless of content, but recently Ford worked with Google to begin running display ads that varied depending on the nature of the site.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.adweek.com/news/advertising-branding/ford-google-put-banners-context-102235
COMMENTARY: fr. bannière
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: banner
CORRESPONDENT RO: banner
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: standard
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: advertising
BANNER
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: BANNER
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Bucată mare de pânză sau de material plastic, așezată pe o clădire sau deasupra unei străzi importante, pe care se află un slogan, o reclamă, un desen etc.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://dexonline.ro/definitie/banner
CONTEXT 1: Banner-ul mai este cunoscut și sub următoarele denumiri: frontlit-banner, vinyl banner, pvc banner, blockout banner, backlit banner și este un material plastic flexibil având numeroase utilizări în industria publicitară sau în construcții.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.headprint.ro/blog/ce-este-bannerul
CONTEXT 2: Un banner trebuie să fie placut ochiului pentru ca vizitatorul să acceseze acesta. Alege între un banner dinamic (animat) sau unul static (neanimat).
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.cwr.ro/threads/485-Ce-este-important-atunci-cand-creezi-un-banner!
COMENTARIU: en. banner
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CORESPONDENT EN: banner
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: publicitate
BIT
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: BIT
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Short for binary digit, the smallest unit of information on a machine. The term was first used in 1946 by John Tukey, a leading statistician and adviser to five presidents. A single bit can hold only one of two values: 0 or 1. More meaningful information is obtained by combining consecutive bits into larger units. For example, a byteis is composed of 8 consecutive bits.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/B/bit.html
CONTEXT 1: Groups of bits make up storage units in the computer, called "characters," "bytes," or "words," which are manipulated as a group. The most common is the byte, made up of eight bits and equivalent to one alphanumeric character. Measurements for storage components, such as disks, files and databases, are given in bytes rather than bits.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/38671/bit
CONTEXT 2: A bit (short for "binary digit") is the smallest unit of measurement used to quantify computer data. It contains a single binary value of 0 or 1.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.techterms.com/definition/bit
COMMENTARY: en. bite
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: binary digit
CORRESPONDENT RO: bit
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
BIT
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: BIT
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Un bit este unitatea indivizibilă pentru cantitatea de informație. Un bit poate lua valorile 0 sau 1. Un șir de 8 biți formează un byte.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php#N
CONTEXT 1: Cu cât numărul de biți folosit este mai mare cu atât numărul de valori reprezentabile crește. Dacă un bit poate reprezenta două valori (1 sau 0), 2 biți pot reprezenta 4 valori diferite, iar 8 biți pot reprezenta deja 256 de valori particulare.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://incepator.pinzaru.ro/software/ce-sunt-bitii-bit-vs-bait/
CONTEXT 2: În informatica clasică un bit poate avea două valori: 0 sau 1. În informatica cuantică, aceste stări 0 și 1 iau forma a doi vectori ortogonali.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: www.phys.tuiasi.ro/Studenti/Lucrari-laborator/AC/Laboratoare/ info.doc
COMENTARIU: en. bite
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: bit
CORESPONDENT EN: bit
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: operatori calculatoare
BLOG
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: BLOG
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Short for Web log, a blog is a Web page that serves as a publicly accessible personal journal for an individual. Typically updated daily, blogs often reflect the personality of the author.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/sgsearch/results?cx=partner-pub-876800 4398756183%3A6766915980&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=UTF-8&q=blog
CONTEXT 1: Blogs are a highly effective means of communicating the findings of our research quickly. We believe it is vital to share our knowledge and experience, within our client base and with the wider security community. Blog entries cover a wide range of topics and technologies, including more niche subjects of particular interest to companies or organisations in specific industry sectors, such as financial services, retail, legal and defence.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.contextis.com/research/blog/
CONTEXT 2: In a recent blog, Passive Management Does Not Equal Passive Investing, we showed how passively managed portfolios actually create an active investment in which volatility isn’t benign and risk exposures can vary wildly over time. So if we could fix the problem and reduce exposure to spikes in market volatility, would a passive portfolio deliver better result?
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://blog.alliancebernstein.com
COMMENTARY: en. blog
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: journal
CORRESPONDENT RO: blog
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: journal
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: advertising
BLOG
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: BLOG
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Cuvântul Blog este prescurtarea de la „weblog” și se referă la un jurnal online creat și postat de grupuri sau persoane individuale, articolele fiind afișate în ordine cronologică. Oricine își poate crea propriul blog, de la copii la adulți. În prezent, sunt peste 3 milioane de blog-uri active, cu o mare diversitate de teme.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://old.sigur.info/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=97
CONTEXT 1: Un blog este un site scris de obicei de un singur autor, subiectele fiind redactate în ordine cronologică dar apărând în ordine inversă. Blogurile oferă de obicei informații sau comentarii din anumite domenii de interes pentru autorul blogului. Un astfel de jurnal online poate să conțină text, imagine, video, linkuri spre alte bloguri sau pagini web. O caracteristică importantă a blogului o constituie interactivitatea, vizitatorii putând scrie comentarii pentru fiecare articol în parte. Fără feedback, un blog nu poate fi real și convingător, este opinia majoritara a specialiștilor în blogging.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://simplyxpress.wordpress.com/tag/definitie-blog/
CONTEXT 2: Blogul este scris de obicei de o singură persoana și updatat destul de des. De obicei blogurile se încadrează într-o anumită categorie (nișă), excepție făcând blogurile personale unde bloggerul (persoana care scrie pe blog, administrator) scrie despre ce vrea, conținutul blogului neîncadrându-se într-un tipar. Alte categorii de blog ar fi: fotografie, video blog, blog despre muzică, IT blog, blog politic și multe altele.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://bloggerajutor.robloguri.info/2009/04/ce-este-un-blog.html
COMENTARIU: en. blog
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: jurnal
CORESPONDENT EN: blog
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: jurnal
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: publicitate
BLUETOOTH
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: BLUETOOTH
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Bluetooth is defined as being a short-range radio technology (or wireless technology) aimed at simplifying communications among Internet devices and between devices and the Internet. It also aims to simplify data synchronisation between Internet devices and other computers.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/B/bluetooth.html
CONTEXT 1: Bluetooth takes care of all these limitations. Because the technology is based on radio waves, there can be objects or even walls placed between the communicating devices and the connection won't be disrupted.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/bluetooth
CONTEXT 2: When two Bluetooth enabled devices connect to each other, this is called pairing. The structure and the global acceptance of Bluetooth technology means any Bluetooth enabled device, almost everywhere in the world, can connect to other Bluetooth enabled devices located in proximity to one another.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.bluetooth.com/Pages/Basics.aspx
COMMENTARY: en. blue; en. tooth
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
CORRESPONDENT RO: bluetooth
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer technology
BLUETOOTH
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: BLUETOOTH
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Bluetooth este un set de specificații de comunicație (un protocol) care permite ca două echipamente să comunice între ele fără a fi conectate prin vreun cablu și fără a fi măcar îndreptate unul spre celălalt față în față așa cum se cere în comunicația prin infraroșu (IRDA).
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.informatiiprofesionale.ro/informatica/definitii-din-lumea-itc
CONTEXT 1: În tehnologia Bluetooth, comunicația se face în radiofrecvență, fiind folosită o bandă de frecvențe de 2.4 gigahertz (mai exact între 2.402 GHz și 2.480 GHz ) care nu necesită licență și poate fi folosită astfel aproape oriunde în lume. Banda este divizată în 79 de canale radio, fiecare canal având o lărgime de bandă de 1 MHz
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.technogeek.ro/ce-este-bluetooth.html
CONTEXT 2: Programul de certificare Bluetooth garantează interoperabilitatea globală între dispozitive indiferent de producător sau de țara în sunt utilizate. Pe parcursul procedurii de testare prin care toate dispozitivele trebuie să treacă, se verifică dacă sunt îndeplinite cerințele cu privire la: calitatea legăturii radio, protocoalele straturilor joase, profiluri și informația specifică utilizatorului.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://telecom.etc.tuiasi.ro/telecom/staff/ccomsa/Lucru/_ Introducere_in_Bluetooth.pdf
COMENTARIU: en. blue; en. tooth
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CORESPONDENT EN: bluetooth
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: tehnologie digitală
BOOT
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: BOOT
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: To load the first piece of software that starts a computer. Because the operating system is essential for running all other programs, it is usually the first piece of software loaded during the boot process.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/B/boot.html
CONTEXT 1: Booting your computer is the process of powering it on and starting the operating system. This section will identify the steps in the boot process. Usually, you will not need to know too much about this process; you will power on your machine, and in a few minutes your computer will be ready to use.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://wclp.sourceforge.net/documentation/userguide/ch01s02.html
CONTEXT 2: When a computer is starting up, a user can access the boot menu by pressing one of several keyboard keys, including Esc, F10 or F12, depending on the manufacturer of the computer or motherboard. The specific key to press is usually specified on the computer's startup screen. The boot menu allows a user to select what device to load an operating system or application from as the computer is booting.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/b/boot_menu.htm
COMMENTARY: en. boot
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: startup
CORRESPONDENT RO: (a) boota
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: startup
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
(A) BOOTA
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: (A) BOOTA
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Denumim un dispozitiv de stocare bootabil atunci când acesta conține software ce permite instalarea sau încărcarea unui sistem de operare. Problema bootabilității se pune în special atunci când dorim să instalăm un sistem de operare – fie că avem un calculator nou fie că dorim să instalăm din nou sistemul de operare sau o versiune mai nouă a acestuia.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://pctroubleshooting.ro/topic/12920-ce-inseamna-bootabil/
CONTEXT 1: Pornirea propriu-zisă a unui computer este cunoscută în termeni de specialitate ca fiind "boot la rece". Astăzi există numeroase metode sau programe care scurtează semnificativ durata acestui proces. De exemplu, atunci când închideți capacul de la un laptop, acesta pătrunde într-un fel de stare de conservare "criogenică" (n.r.: producere artificială a unor temperaturi scăzute), care îi permite să repornească de unde a rămas. "Acum nu multă vreme, repornirea unei mașini de la această stare dura secole și implica multe riscuri – uneori, un computer Windows intra în modul "standby"(hibernare) și nu mai revenea niciodată", scrie Slate. În prezent, MacBookurile, Chromebook-urile și chiar computerele Windows au nevoie de foarte puțin timp pentru a-și reveni din hibernare.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.gandul.info/magazin/bootarea-un-proces-care-dureaza-din-ce-in-ce-mai-putin-de-la-cateva-minute-la-cateva-secunde-8610674
CONTEXT 2: Pentru a boota de pe CD-ROM este necesar ca BIOS-ul să suporte această opțiune. Daca BIOS-ul dumneavoastră nu știe să booteze după un CD-ROM bootabil, creați una sau mai multe dischete de boot. Orice BIOS suportă bootarea de pe floppy disk.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://ro.tldp.org/html/instalare/sistem/i2.html
COMENTARIU: en. boot
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: verb
CONCEPT GENERIC: (a) porni
CORESPONDENT EN: boot
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: (a se) inițializa
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: operatori calculatoare
BROADBAND
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: BROADBAND
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: The term broadband is used to describe a type of data transmission in which a single medium (wire) can carry several channels at once. Cable TV, for example, uses broadband transmission. In contrast, baseband transmission allows only one signal at a time
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/B/broadband.html
CONTEXT 1: Broadband Internet service truly is the most used form of Internet access because of its high access speeds; it is offered in four different forms, DSL (or Digital Subscriber Line), also fiber-optic, cable, and satellite. The old dial-up connection is the only non-broadband internet service available, and even though it is cheaper, most Internet users are moving towards the faster broadband Internet connection.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://whatismyipaddress.com/broadband
CONTEXT 2: Because of its multiple channel capacity, broadband has started to replace baseband, the single-channel technology originally used in most computer networks.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.techterms.com/definition/broadband
COMMENTARY: proto-germ. braithaz; bindan
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: high transmission
CORRESPONDENT RO: bandă largă
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: wideband
ANTONYM: lowband
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
BANDĂ LARGĂ
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: BANDĂ LARGĂ
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Broadband sau bandă largă este un termen general folosit pentru conexiunile la internet de mare viteză, precum DSL sau cablu.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php#N
CONTEXT 1: Serviciile de viteză mare sunt cunoscute ca servicii în bandă largă (broadband)
din cauza lățimii de bandă mari care este cerută pentru transmisie.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://revistaie.ase.ro/content/16/mlak.pdf
CONTEXT 2: În prezent, fiecare gospodărie din UE poate avea o conexiune în bandă largă de bază, datorită disponibilității la nivel paneuropean a serviciilor în bandă largă prin satelit.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://jurnalul.ro/it/tehnica/romania-este-conectata-in-proportie-de-87-la-internetul-in-banda-larga-653619.html
COMENTARIU: fr. bande
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: broadband
CORESPONDENT EN: broadband
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: broadband
ANTONIM: bandă scurtă
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
BROWSER
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: BROWSER
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Short for Web browser, a software application used to locate, retrieve and also display content on the World Wide Web, including Web pages, images, video and other files.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/sgsearch/results?cx=partner-pub-87680 04398756183%3A6766915980&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=UTF-8&q=BROWSER
CONTEXT 1: It is suggested that to avoid letting a page "hijack" the history navigation facilities of a UA by abusing pushState(), the UA provide the user with a way to jump back to the previous page (rather than just going back to the previous state). For example, the back button could have a drop down showing just the pages in the session history, and not showing any of the states. Similarly, an aural browser could have two "back" commands, one that goes back to the previous state, and one that jumps straight back to the previous page.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.w3.org/html/wg/drafts/html/master/browsers.html
CONTEXT 2: IExplore.exe is at the top level; it is a small application that is instantiated when Internet Explorer is loaded. This executable application uses Internet Explorer components to perform the navigation, history maintenance, favorites maintenance, HTML parsing and rendering, and so on, while it supplies the toolbar and frame for the stand-alone browser. IExplorer.exe directly hosts the Shdocvw.dll component.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa741313(v=vs.85).aspx
COMMENTARY: fr. broster
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: navigator
CORRESPONDENT RO: browser
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: navigator
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
BROWSER
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: BROWSER
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Un program care le permite utilizatorilor să acceseze site-uri pe Internet. Netscape Navigator și Microsoft Internet Explorer sunt exemple de browsere.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://old.sigur.info/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=97
CONTEXT 1: Deși uneori poate fi un program software foarte elaborat, in principiu acesta face un singur lucru: citește și interpretează un fișier text la care sunt adăugate un număr de comenzi (etichete sau marcaje HTML) care spun browserului cum să afișeze corect un text sau o imagine, ce fonturi sau ce culori trebuiesc folosite, etc.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.afaceri.net/Webdesign/Programare/browser-web.htm
CONTEXT 2: Când un server Web primește o cerere de la un browser (program de navigare), serverul este în măsură să utilizeze informația stocată anterior în cookies.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.ecomunitate.ro/upload/instruire/
COMENTARIU: en. browser
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: navigator
CORESPONDENT EN: browser
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: navigator
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: funcții calculatoare
BUG
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: BUG
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: An error or defect in software or hardware that causes a program to malfunction. Often a bug is caused by conflicts in software when applications try to run in tandem. According to folklore, the first computer bug was an actual bug. Discovered in 1945 at Harvard, a moth trapped between two electrical relays of the Mark II Aiken Relay Calculator caused the whole machine to shut down.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/B/bug.html
CONTEXT 1: Some bugs may only affect a program under specific circumstances. Others may be more serious and cause the program to be unstable or even unusable. A simple mistake in the software code can cause major problems. For example, if the programmer accidentally coded a program to multiply two numbers together when it should only add them, the rest of the program will give a faulty result.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/what-is-software-bug
CONTEXT 2: The term bug became popular in programming to save the egos of programmers who could not admit that their programs were full of errors. Instead, they preferred to say that their programs had bugs in them. Actually, the metaphor is apt: programming bugs are hard to find; and although a located bug is frequently easy to fix, it is difficult to ensure that all the bugs have been removed from a program.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~pattis/15-1XX/common/handouts/bugs.html
COMMENTARY: en. bug
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: error
CORRESPONDENT RO: eroare de programare
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: defect
ANTONYM: accuracy
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: programming
EROARE DE PROGRAMARE
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: EROARE DE PROGRAMARE
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Acest termen se referă la o eroare apărută într-un program, care la o primă vedere poate trece nesesizată, însă poate determina respectivul program să aibă în anumite situații comportări dintre cele mai ciudate. Uneori poate fi vorba de un simplu semn greșit pus într-o relație matematică din cadrul programului. În general companiile producătoare de software își angajeaza persoane care să le testeze programele înainte de a le lansa pe piață pentru a descoperi la timp aceste erori.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://webmateinfo.com/dictionar/info_definitie/52/Eroare_de_program are
CONTEXT 1: Trei sateliți rusești s-au prăbușit în zona Pacificului, după ce au fost lansați de pe cosmodromul Baikonur. Compania RKK Energiya, care a construit racheta de lansare Proton, a confirmat că aceasta nu a funcționat corect, trimițând cei trei sateliți Glonass și blocul propulsor pe o traiectorie deviată cu 8 grade. O sursă de la agenția rusească spațială a declarat pentru agenția de presă RIA Novosti că eșecul a fost cel mai probabil cauzat de o eroare de programare.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://itmoldova.com/2010/12/07/eroare-de-programare-trei-sateliti-rusesti-s-au-prabusit-in-pacific/
CONTEXT 2: Erorile de programare în software, așa-numitele bug-uri, au cauzat de-a lungul timpului pagube uriașe, de la pierderea de vieți omenești în aplicații militare până la milioane și miliarde de dolari pe bursă sau în misiuni de explorare a spațiului.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.mediafax.ro/economic/cat-costa-bug-urile-erorile-software-care-au-cauzat-pagube-de-miliarde-si-chiar-pierderi-de-vieti-9922625
COMENTARIU: lat. error
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: vulnerabilitate
CORESPONDENT EN: bug
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: vulnerabilitate
ANTONIM: adevăr de programare
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: programare
CACHE
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: CACHE
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Pronounced cash, a special high-speed storage mechanism. It can be either a reserved section of main memory or an independent high-speed storage device. Two types of caching are commonly used in personal computers: memory caching and disk caching.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/cache.html
CONTEXT 1: If you have been shopping for a computer, then you have heard the word "cache." Modern computers have both L1 and L2 caches, and many now also have L3 cache. You may also have gotten advice on the topic from well-meaning friends, perhaps something like "Don't buy that Celeron chip, it doesn't have any cache in it!"
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://computer.howstuffworks.com/cache.htm
CONTEXT 2: The cache is usually filled from main memory when instructions or data are fetched into the CPU. Often the main memory will supply a wider data word to the cache than the CPU requires, to fill the cache more rapidly.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://web.cs.mun.ca/~paul/cs3725/material/web/notes/node3.html
COMMENTARY: lat. coacticare
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: memory
CORRESPONDENT RO: memorie cache
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: segmented memory
ANTONYM: united memory
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: hardware
MEMORIE CACHE
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: MEMORIE CACHE
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Un mecanism de stocare a informației, o zonă rezevată de memorie din care aceasta poate fi preluată foarte repede.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://vsh.ro/tutorial/161/dictionar-de-termeni-din-domeniul-it/
CONTEXT 1: Cache-ul reține datele care au fost folosite recent de procesor și se evită întoarcerea datelor înapoi la memoria principală (care este mai lentă decât cea Cache) și astfel datele sunt procesate mult mai repede.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://pcassist.ro/ce-este-memoria-cache/
CONTEXT 2: Memoria cache conține o copie a unor părți din memoria principală. Atunci când UCP încearcă citirea unui cuvânt din memorie, se testează dacă respectivul cuvânt se află în memoria cache. În caz afirmativ, cuvântul este furnizat unității centrale. În caz contrar, se încarcă în memoria cache un bloc al memoriei principale, constând dintr-un număr fix de cuvinte, iar apoi cuvântul este returnat unității centrale.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://users.utcluj.ro/~baruch/book_ac/AC-Memoria-Cache.pdf
COMENTARIU: lat. coacticare
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: memorie
CORESPONDENT EN: cache
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: memorie segmentată
ANTONIM: memorie unită
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: hardware
CLUSTER
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: CLUSTER
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A group of disk sectors. The operating system assigns a unique number to each cluster and then keeps track of files according to which clusters they use. Occasionally, the operating system marks a cluster a being used even though it is not assigned to any file. This is called a lost cluster.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/cluster.html
CONTEXT 1: Clusters are typically used for high-end processing, such as performing scientific calculations or decrypting algorithms.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/cluster
CONTEXT 2: A computer cluster provides much faster processing speed, larger storage capacity, better data integrity, superior reliability and wider availability of resources. Computer clusters are, however, much more costly to implement and maintain. This results in much higher running overhead compared to a single computer.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.techopedia.com/definition/6581/computer-cluster
COMMENTARY: en. clyster
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: chunk
CORRESPONDENT RO: cluster
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: chunk
ANTONYM: item
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: hardware
CLUSTER
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: CLUSTER
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: În anumite sisteme de fisiere, cum ar fi FAT, NTFS, un cluster este unitatea de alocare a spațiului pentru fișiere și directoare.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://forum.softpedia.com/topic/111414-cluster-ce-reprezinta/
CONTEXT 1: Pentru ca sistemul cluster să poată migra procesele, sunt necesare să fie instalate o serie de binare în zona utilizator. Adițional, un server openMosix trebuie pornit pentru ca un nod să intre în cluster și să folosească capabilitățile openMosix.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.gentoo.org/doc/ro/openmosix-howto.xml
CONTEXT 2: Ganglia este un sistem de monitorizare dezvoltat de UC Berkely special pentru grupuri (clusters) și grilaje (grids) de mașini de calcul. Acesta poate fi folosit ușor pentru monitorizarea încărcării calculatoarelor.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://fii-liber.ro/monitorizarea-mai-multor-calculatoare-cu-ganglia-pe-debian-squeeze
COMENTARIU: en. clyster
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: spațiu
CORESPONDENT EN: cluster
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: spațiu
ANTONIM: item
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: hardware
CODE
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: CODE
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Code written by a programmer in a high-level language and readable by people but not computers. Source code must be converted to object code or machine language before a computer can read or execute the program.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Code+(computer+programming)
CONTEXT 1: The term code is somewhat colloquial. For example, a programmer might say: "I wrote a lot of code this morning" or "There's one piece of code that doesn't work."
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/code.html
CONTEXT 2: Source code and object code refer to the "before" and "after" versions of a computer program that is compiled before it is ready to run in a computer. The source code consists of the programming statements that are created by a programmer with a text editor or a visual programming tool and then saved in a file.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://searchsoa.techtarget.com/definition/source-code
COMMENTARY: lat. codex
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: cypher
CORRESPONDENT RO: cod
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: cypher
ANTONYM: decypher
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: programming
COD
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: COD
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Orice text scris într-un anumit limbaj de programare, destinat interpretării de către calculatoare.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php
CONTEXT 1: Cel mai des întâlnite coduri de eroare, sunt generate la pornirea sistemului dar doar o parte indică o problemă iremediabilă. De cele mai multe ori este vorba de o componentă (memorii, placă video, etc) ce s-a mișcat în slot.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://eranet.ro/utile/calculatoare/ghid-pc/coduri-de-eroare
CONTEXT 2: Programarea reprezinta procesul prin care aplicației i se construiește codul software. Este foarte important ca în această etapă, specificațiile de funcționalități să fie cât mai clare.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.webactiv.ro/programare+web
COMENTARIU: lat. codex
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: semn
CORESPONDENT EN: code
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: semn
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: programare
CPU
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: CPU
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Pronounced as separate letters, CPU is the abbreviation for central processing unit. Sometimes referred to simply as the central processor, but more commonly called processor, the CPU is the brains of the computer where most calculations take place. In terms of computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer system.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/C/CPU.html
CONTEXT 1: Any time something needs to be computed, it gets sent to the CPU. Every day, it's compute this, compute that – you'd think the CPU would need a break after a while. But no – it just keeps on processing. The CPU can also be referred to simply as the "processor."
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/cpu
CONTEXT 2: CPU scaling is a measure of how much workload can be driven when the CPU resources are increased. An increase of workload can occur when the number of total transactions or the transaction rate are increased.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://pic.dhe.ibm.com/infocenter/lnxinfo/v3r0m0/index.jsp?topic =%2Fliaag%2Fwp64bit%2Fl0wpbt00_cpu_scaling_study.htm
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: processor
CORRESPONDENT RO: microprocesor
SYNONYM: processor
HYPERONYM: Central Processing Unit
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: hardware
MICROPROCESOR
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: MICROPROCESOR
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Microprocesorul este o unitate centrală de prelucrare (Central Processing Unit – CPU) încorporată într-o capsulă de circuit integrat, el fiind coordonatorul tuturor operațiilor efectuate de către calculator. Are rolul de a citi instrucțiunile dintr-o zonă de memorie, de a decodifica și executa comenzile corespunzătoare.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://luky.xhost.ro/microprocesorul.htm-49528.html
CONTEXT 1: Microprocesoarele diferă între ele prin numărul de instrucțiuni pe care le pot executa, viteza de execuție și cantitatea de memorie pe care o pot folosi. Ele sunt caracterizate de tip, frecvență de lucru și lungimea cuvântului.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://luky.xhost.ro/microprocesorul.htm
CONTEXT 2: Primul microprocesor a fost creat de firma Intel în 1971. Numele său era Intel 4004, și era un procesor pe 4 biți. Apariția primului micorprocesor a fost un pas cu uriașe consecințe în evoluția ulterioară a sistemelor de calcul. Diferența între microprocesor și metodele îndeobște folosite era că procesorul strânge pe o singură pilulă de siliciu toate unitățile funcționale importante necesare executării programelor; fiind toate strâns integrate, comunicația între ele este rapidă și eficace, permițând dintr-o dată un salt calitativ.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~mihaib/articles/micro/micro-html.html
COMENTARIU: en. microprocessor
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: procesor
CORESPONDENT EN: CPU
SINONIM: procesor
HIPERONIM: Unitate de Procesare Centrală
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: hardware
DEFRAGMENT
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: DEFRAGMENT
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Disk defragmentation is the process of consolidating fragmented data on a volume (such as a hard disk or a storage device) so it will work more efficiently.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://windows.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/what-is-disk-defrag mentation#1TC=windows-7
CONTEXT 1: Defragmenting your hard disk is a great way to boost the performance of your computer. Though the term "defragment" sounds a little abrasive, it is actually a simple and helpful process. After all, a defragmented hard disk is a happy hard disk.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://pc.net/glossary/definition/defragment
CONTEXT 2: Adding and deleting files from your hard disk is a common task. Unfortunately, this process is not always done very efficiently. For example, when you delete a bunch of little files and add a new large file, the file may get broken up into mulitple sections on the hard disk. The computer will still read the newly added file as a single valid file, but the drive will have to scan multiple parts of the disk to read it. Because hard disk seek time is one of the most significant bottlenecks in a computer's performance, this can drag down your computer's speed quite a bit. If you have a ton of "fragmented" files on your hard disk, you might hear extra grinding, sputtering, and other weird noises coming from your computer.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.techterms.com/definition/defragment
COMMENTARY: lat. de; fragmentum
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: verb
GENERIC CONCEPT: consolidate
CORRESPONDENT RO: (a) defragmenta
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: consolidate
ANTONYM: deconcentrate
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
(A) DEFRAGMENTA
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: (A) DEFRAGMENTA
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Defragmentarea discului este procesul de unificare a datelor fragmentate dintr-un volum (cum ar fi un hard disk sau un dispozitiv de stocare) ca să funcționeze mai eficient.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/what-is-disk-defragment ation#1TC=windows-7
CONTEXT 1: Fragmentarea apare atunci când un fișier este împărțit în blocuri și aceste blocuri sunt depărtate unul de altul. Hard discului îi ia mai mult timp să „recompună” acest fișier deoarece trebuie să „viziteze” mai multe locuri de pe platan.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://descopera.info/ittech/ce-este-defragmentarea-chiar-am-nevoie-de-ea/
CONTEXT 2: Fragmentarea obligă hard diskul să lucreze suplimentar, încetinind computerul. Dispozitivele de stocare amovibilă cum ar fi unitățile flash pentru USB pot deveni totodată fragmentate. Programul defragmentare disc rearanjează datele fragmentate, astfel încât hard diskul și unitățile să funcționeze mai eficient.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/improve-perfor mance-defragmenting-hard-disk#1TC=windows-7
COMENTARIU: lat. de; fragmentum
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: verb
CONCEPT GENERIC: unificare
CORESPONDENT EN: defragment
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: (a) unifica
ANTONIM: (a) fragmenta
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: funcții calculatoare
DHCP
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: DHCP
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Short for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, a protocol for assigning dynamic IP addresses to devices on a network. With dynamic addressing, a device can have a different IP address every time it connects to the network.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/sgsearch/results?cx=partner-pub-876800 4398756183%3A6766915980&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=UTF-8&q=DHCP
CONTEXT 1: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a standard protocol defined by RFC 1541 (which is superseded by RFC 2131) that allows a server to dynamically distribute IP addressing and configuration information to clients.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://support.microsoft.com/kb/169289
CONTEXT 2: In the default and advanced options for dhcp-maint, if you choose to configure an existing user by using dhcp-maint, ensure that you provide the correct password for this user. A wrong/new password creates CASA store corruption for this user and causes DHCP server load failure.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.novell.com/documentation/oes2/ntwk_dnsdhcp_lx/data/ bcmxj4e.html
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: protocol
CORRESPONDENT RO: DHCP
HYPERNONYM: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
DHCP
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: DHCP
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: DHCP este abrevierea pentru Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, un protocol ce permite asignarea automată a unui IP unui client al serverului de DHCP. Astfel clientul nu trebuie să mai introducă setarile de IP, Gateway, DNS, ci ele sunt preluate automat de la un server din retea la care clientul are acces.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php
CONTEXT 1: Chiar și pentru serverele ale căror adrese se schimbă rareori, DHCP este setarea recomandată pentru adrese, astfel încțt la necesitatea schimbării de adresă, modificările necesare sunt foarte puține. Pentru dispozitive, așa cum sunt router-ele și firewall-urile, care nu ar trebui să utilizeze DHCP, acesta din urma poate fi util pentru a instala protocoalele TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) sau SSH pe același server ce rulează DHCP, în scopul centralizării de administrare.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.evomag.ro/vizualizare_cuvant.php?idcuvant=53
CONTEXT 2: Adresele DHCP sunt închiriate pentru un anumit timp, iar când se apropie momentul expirării închirierii, utilizatorul negociază reînnoirea acordului.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.dlsit.ro/articole/85_DHCP-server
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: protocol
CORESPONDENT EN: DHCP
HIPERONIM: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
DESTRUCTIVE TROJAN
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: DESTRUVTIVE TROJAN
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A type of Trojan horse designed to destroy and delete files, and is more like a virus than any other Trojan. It can often go undetected by antivirus software.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/D/Destructive_Trojan.html
CONTEXT 1: Unlike viruses, however, Trojan horses don't replicate themselves. Though it is possible for a Trojan horse to be attached to a virus file that spreads to multiple computers.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/trojanhorse
CONTEXT 2: Destructive Trojans may not be detected by antivirus software. Once a destructive Trojan infects a computer system, it randomly deletes files, folders, and registry entries, often resulting in OS failures. A destructive Trojan is usually in program form or manipulated to strike like a logic bomb programmed and specified by the attacker.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.techopedia.com/definition/53/destructive-trojan
COMMENTARY: lat. trojanus
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: virus
CORRESPONDENT RO: cal troian
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: virus
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer security
CAL TROIAN
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: CAL TROIAN
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Un program distructiv care pretinde a fi o aplicație utilă, dar, după ce este instalat, aduce daune calculatorului sau fură informații.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://reparatii-calculatoare-focsani.validsoftware.ro/ce-este-un-mall ware/
CONTEXT 1: Un cal troian, numit uneori simplu "troian", este un program care dă aparența că folosește pentru a realiza o funcție dorită de utilizator, dar în realitate execută funcții ascunse, nedorite și/sau dăunătoare. Numele provine de la legenda calului de lemn folosit de greci pentru a penetra apărarea Troiei.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.tititudorancea.ro/z/virusii_caii_troieni_viermii_ informatici_internetul.htm
CONTEXT 2: Programul "cal troian", care poate fi purtătorul multor acțiuni nocive, este metoda de bază utilizată pentru inserarea instrucțiunilor specifice altor de atac, cum ar fi bombele logice, atacurile prin tehnica pașilor mici și virușii.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: www.securitatea-informatiilor.ro/tag/cal-troian/
COMENTARIU: lat. trojanus
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: virus
CORESPONDENT EN: destructive trojan
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: virus
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: securitate
DIRECTORY
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: DIRECTORY
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: An organizational unit, or container, used to organize folders and files into a hierarchical structure. Directories contain bookkeeping information about files that are, figuratively speaking, beneath them in the hierarchy. You can think of a directory as a file cabinet that contains folders that contain files. Many graphical user interfaces use the term folder instead of directory.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/D/directory.html
CONTEXT 1: When you are browsing one directory and want to open the folder that contains the current directory, it is called "moving up a directory." As you move up directories, you will eventually move up to the root directory. In Windows, this may be your C:\ directory, while on the Mac it will be the name of your hard drive, such as "Macintosh HD."
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/directory
CONTEXT 2: A Web directory organizes Web sites by subject, and is usually maintained by humans instead of software. The searcher looks at sites organized in a series of categories and menus. These collections of links are usually much smaller than search engines' databases, since the sites are looked at by human eyes instead of by spiders.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://websearch.about.com/od/enginesanddirectories/a/subdirectory.h tm
COMMENTARY: lat. directorium
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: organizational unit
CORRESPONDENT RO: directoriu
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: folder
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
DIRECTORIU
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: DIRECTORIU
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Tip de fisier special care grupează mai multe fișiere la un loc și păstrează informații despre acestea: numele fișierelor, dimensiune, data creării, ș.a.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://vsh.ro/tutorial/161/dictionar-de-termeni-din-domeniul-it/
CONTEXT 1: Prin optiunea List din meniul View se obține conținutul directorului sub formă de listă, în care sunt afișate mai întâi directoarele apoi fișierele în ordine alfabetică.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.unitbv.ro/Portals/11/Anunturi/BIE.pdf
CONTEXT 2: Un director poate conține (în număr nelimitat) pe lângă fișiere și subdirectoare, adică directoare subordonate. În același director nu pot exista două fișiere sau subdirectoare având nume identice.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://civile.utcb.ro/cmat/cursrt/ii_uc.pdf
COMENTARIU: lat. directorium
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: dosar
CORESPONDENT EN: directory
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: dosar
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: funcții calculatoare
DNS
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: DNS
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Short for Domain Name System (or Service or Server), an Interne service that translates domain names into IP addresses. Because domain names are alphabetic, they're easier to remember. The Internet however, is really based on IP addresses. Every time you use a domain name, therefore, a DNS service must translate the name into the corresponding IP address.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/D/DNS.html
CONTEXT 1: The reason the Domain Name System is used is because Web sites are actually located by their IP addresses. For example, when you type in "http://www.adobe.com," the computer doesn't immediately know that it should look for Adobe's Web site. Instead, it sends a request to the nearest DNS server, which finds the correct IP address for "adobe.com."
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/dns
CONTEXT 2: DNS automatically converts the names we type in our Web browser address bar to the IP addresses of Web servers hosting those sites.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://compnetworking.about.com/od/dns_domainnamesystem/
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: server
CORRESPONDENT RO: DNS
HYPERONYM: Domain Name System
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
DNS
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: DNS
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Domain Name Server sau server de nume de domenii, este un serviciu/server Internet care transformă adresele/numele web în adrese IP.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://vsh.ro/tutorial/161/dictionar-de-termeni-din-domeniul-it/
CONTEXT 1: Site-urile Web au atât o adresă prietenoasă, numită URL, cât și o adresă IP. Oamenii utilizează URL-uri pentru a găsi site-uri Web, dar computerele utilizează adrese IP pentru găsi site-uri Web. DNS traduce URL-urile în adrese IP (și viceversa). De exemplu dacă tastați http://www.microsoft.com în bara de adrese din browserul Web, computerul trimite o solicitare unui server DNS. Serverul DNS traduce URL-ul într-o adresă IP, astfel încât computerul să poată găsi serverul Web Microsoft.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/domain-name-system-faq#1TC=windows-7
CONTEXT 2: DNS convertește adresele care folosesc nume de domenii în adrese IP numerice (www.usv.ro devine 80.96.120.6) sau invers; pe lângă aceasta, DNS mai reține diverse informații despre domenii.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://stud.usv.ro/TMC/lab5/
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: server
CORESPONDENT EN: DNS
HIPERONIM: Domain Name System
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
DUAL-CORE
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: DUAL-CORE
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Dual-core refers to a CPU that includes two complete execution cores per physical processor. It has combined two processors and their caches and cache controllers onto a single integrated circuit (silicon chip). Dual-core processors are well-suited for multitasking environments because there are two complete execution cores instead of one, each with an independent interface to the frontside bus. Since each core has its own cache, the operating system has sufficient resources to handle most compute intensive tasks in parallel.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/D/dual_core.html
CONTEXT 1: While a dual-core system has twice the processing power of a single-processor machine, it does not always perform twice as fast. This is because the software running on the machine may not be able to take full advantage or both processors.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/dualcore
CONTEXT 2: Pentium Dual-Core processor family is the latest Pentium-branded family of budget dual-core desktop and mobile microprocessors. The family was introduced in the first quarter of 2007 and includes 15 desktop and 15 mobile microprocessors. With the exception of one recently released Nehalem Pentium processor, all Pentium Dual-Cores are based on Core micro-architecture.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.cpu-world.com/CPUs/Pentium_Dual-Core/
COMMENTARY: lat. dual; fr. coeur
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: adjective
GENERIC CONCEPT: microprocessor
CORRESPONDENT RO: dual-core
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: paired core
ANTONYM: single core
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: hardware
DUAL CORE
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: DUAL CORE
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Un procesor multi-core este compus din două sau mai multe nuclee independente, fiecare capabil să proceseze instrucțiuni individuale. Un procesor dual-core contine două nuclee, un procesor quad-core conține patru nuclee și un procesor hexa-core conține șase nuclee.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.blasterzone.ro/i3-i5-i7-quad-core-dual-core-ce-inseamna-toate-acestea/
CONTEXT 1: Un procesor dual-core are două nuclee de execuție separate pe același cip care rulează la aceeași frecvență. Procesarea dual-core este una dintre metodele de a furniza performanță în timp ce se balansează cerințele de putere și constă în adăugarea mai multor resurse procesorului și nu în creșterea frecvenței acestuia.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://pctroubleshooting.ro/topic/7757-ce-este-un-procesor-dual-core/
CONTEXT 2: În termeni de frecvență, procesorul dual-core este mai lent decât cel single-core. Cel mai rapid dual-core Intel are frecvența de 3,2 GHz (3,6 este pe drum), pe când cel mai rapid single-core lucrează la 3,8 GHz.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.phantoms.ro/post10273.html?sid=754aa4644dd9d329 9c6720df842c9393
COMENTARIU: lat. dual; fr. coeur
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: adjectiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: microprocesor
CORESPONDENT EN: dual-core
SINOMIM: plurinucleu
ANTONIM: mononucleu
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: hardware
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: E-MAIL
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Short for electronic mail, the transmission of messages over communications networks. The messages can be notes entered from the keyboard or electronic files stored on disk. Most mainframes, minicomputers, and computer networks have an e-mail system. Some electronic-mail systems are confined to a single computer system or network, but others have gateways to other computer systems, enabling users to send electronic mail anywhere in the world. Companies that are fully computerized make extensive use of e-mail because it is fast, flexible, and reliable.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/E/e_mail.html
CONTEXT 1: Though e-mail was originally developed for sending simple text messages, it has become more robust in the last few years. Now, HTML-based e-mail can use the same code as Web pages to incorporate formatted text, colors, and images into the message.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/email
CONTEXT 2: Mention "etiquette", add "rules" for good measure, and it all sounds a lot more difficult than it really is. Email etiquette is easy enough, if you know a few simple, well, rules.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://email.about.com/od/getstartedwithemail/u/email_basics.htm
COMMENTARY: fr. male
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: electronic mail
CORRESPONDENT RO: poștă electronică
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: correspondence
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
POȘTĂ ELECTRONICĂ
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: POȘTĂ ELECTRONICĂ
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Sistem de transmitere a mesajelor prin rețele de calculatoare.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://vsh.ro/tutorial/161/dictionar-de-termeni-din-domeniul-it/
CONTEXT 1: Poșta electronică sau e-mail-ul face parte din aplicațiile consacrate ale rețelelor de calculatoare, fiind utilizatã de un numãr din ce în ce mai mare de persoane de aproape trei decenii. Poșta electronicã s-a dovedit curând mult mai eficientă decât cea clasică: mesajele electronice ajung foarte repede la destinație și, în plus, permit transmiterea unor informații de tipuri diverse.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://euro.ubbcluj.ro/~alina/cursuri/internet-teorie/6.htm
CONTEXT 2: Pentru a vedea o listă cu poșta electronică primită, faceți clic pe Inbox în lista Foldere. Mesajele de poștă electronică apar în lista de mesaje. Această listă arată cine a trimis mesajul, subiectul mesajului și când a fost primit.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/getting-started-email#getting-started-email=windows-vista
COMENTARIU: rus. počtă
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: e-mail
CORESPONDENT EN: e-mail
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: e-mail
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: funcții calculatoare
ENCRYPTION
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: ENCRYPTION
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: The translation of data into a secret code. Encryption is the most effective way to achieve data security. To read an encrypted file, you must have access to a secret key or password that enables you to decrypt it. Unencrypted data is called plaintext; encrypted data is referred to as cipher text.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/E/encryption.html
CONTEXT 1: Encryption is the coding or scrambling of information so that it can only be decoded and read by someone who has the correct decoding key. Encryption is used in secure Web sites as well as other mediums of data transfer. If a third party were to intercept the information you sent via an encrypted connection, they would not be able to read it. So if you are sending a message over the office network to your co-worker about how much you hate your job, your boss, and the whole dang company, it would be a good idea to make sure that you send it over an encrypted line.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/encryption
CONTEXT 2: WinZip's® encryption facility gives you a way to protect sensitive documents contained in your archives from unauthorized viewing. The contents of the files that you want to protect are encrypted by WinZip based on a password that you specify. In order for WinZip to later extract the original contents of the encrypted files, the correct password must again be supplied.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://kb.winzip.com/help/winzip/help_encryption.htm
COMMENTARY: gr. kryptos
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: coding
CORRESPONDENT RO: encriptare
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: coding
ANTONYM: decryption
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer security
ENCRIPTARE
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: ENCRIPTARE
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Encriptarea este procesul de codificare a datelor astfel încât originalul să nu poată fi extras din fișiere fără utilizarea codurilor secrete. Aceasta necesită un algoritm de codificare pentru criptarea și decriptarea datelor. De asemenea, este necesar un mecanism care să înmagazineze în siguranță codurile secrete pentru codificare. În plus, transferul codurilor secrete trebuie realizat în condiții de maximă siguranță.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://revistaie.ase.ro/content/24/Anghel.pdf
CONTEXT 1: Encriptarea, deși este un concept din ce în ce mai des folosit în foarte multe medii, reprezintă un domeniu care nu este foarte clar pentru cei mai mulți dintre noi. Având în vedere că Windows 8.1 vă va encripta hard disk-ul automat în mai multe scenarii, ar fi bine să înțelegeți foarte bine cum vă va afecta aceasta schimbare. Care vor fi avantajele și, mai ales care vor fi riscurile acestei tranziții. ,,Pervasive Device Encryption” este forma sub care vom vedea encriptarea introdusă în noua versiune de Windows. Deși integrează câteva similarități cu BitLocker, funcția inclusă în edițiile anterioare de Windows (Professional, Enterprise, Ultimate) funcționează un pic diferit. În principiu, o instalare de Windows 8.1 va face eforturi să vă encripteze hard disk-ul fără nici un fel de interventie din partea utilizatorului, existând câteva condiții care trebuie îndeplinite în ceea ce privește configurația hardware a PC-ului din dotare.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://playtech.ro/2013/windows-8-1-iti-encripteaza-hard-disk-ul-implicit-ce-trebuie-sa-stii/
CONTEXT 2: Cu ajutorul unui algoritm puternic de encriptare, Kaspersky vă ajută să protejați cele mai sensibile informații legate de afacerea dumneavoastră și în același timp reputația afacerii, în cazul în care datele sau aparatele ajung în mâinile nepotrivite. Spre deosebire de multe alte produse de encriptare a datelor care sunt greu de folosit și necesită o consolă de administrare separată, tehnologiile de encriptare Kaspersky pot fi controlate din aceeași consolă de administrare ușor de folosit. Cu ajutorul acesteia puteâi administra orice altă caracteristică Kaspersky.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.bestantivirus.ro/kaspersky_endpoint_security_for_ business_advanced-P105
COMENTARIU: gr. kryptos
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: codificare
CORESPONDENT EN: encryption
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: codificare
ANTONIM: decodificare
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: securitate
FILE
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: FILE
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A collection of data or information that has a name, called the filename. Almost all information stored in a computer must be in a file. There are many different types of files: data files, text files, program files, directory files, and so on. Different types of files store different types of information.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/F/file.html
CONTEXT 1: On systems running SELinux, all processes and files are labeled in a way that represents security-relevant information. This information is called the SELinux context.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: https://access.redhat.com/site/documentation/en-US/Red_Hat_ Enterprise_Linux/6/html/Security-Enhanced_Linux/sect-Security-Enhanced_Linux-Working_wi th_SELinux-SELinux_Contexts_Labeling_Files.html
CONTEXT 2: The Context File System (CFS) is a context-aware file system for Active Spaces. CFS enhances the traditional functionality of a file system for the Active Space environment by providing support for data organization and data transformation.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://gaia.cs.uiuc.edu/html/cfs.htm
COMMENTARY: fr. filer
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: cabinet
CORRESPONDENT RO: fișier
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: cabinet
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
FIȘIER
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: FIȘIER
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Unitate de bază pentru stocarea informației, care îi permite calculatorului să distingă un set de informații de altul.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.dex.ro/fișier
CONTEXT 1: Componentele unui fișier se numesc înregistrări (articole) și pot avea dimensiune fixă sau variabilă. Numărul de componente dintr-un fișier este variabil, fiind limitat doar de capacitatea de memorare a suportului utilizat. Sfârșitul unui fișier este uneori marcat printr-o componentă specială.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://vechi.upg-ploiesti.ro/curs_multimedia/conv9/1.htm
CONTEXT 2: Fișierele UNIX au rolul, ca și în alte sisteme de operare, de a memora informațiile (date sau programe). Totalitatea fișierelor UNIX alcătuiesc sistemul de fișiere. Pentru o manevrare mai convenabilă, evidența fișierelor se păstrează în structuri speciale, numite directoare sau cataloage; acestea pot conține, pe lângã fișiere, li alte cataloage.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://euro.ubbcluj.ro/~alina/cursuri/internet-practic/12-1.htm
COMENTARIU: fr. fichier
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: catalog
CORESPONDENT EN: file
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: catalog
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: funcții calculatoare
FIREWALL
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: FIREWALL
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network. Firewalls can be implemented in both hardware and software, or a combination of both.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/sgsearch/results?cx=partner-pub-87680 04398756183%3A6766915980&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=UTF-8&q=FIREWALL
CONTEXT 1: You can define multiple security "contexts" on a single security appliance. Each context operates as an independent virtual device, with its own security policy, interfaces and administrators. Multiple contexts are similar to having multiple stand-alone devices. Many features are supported in multiple-context mode, including routing tables, firewall features, IPS, and management. Some features are not supported; for example, VPN, multicast, and dynamic routing protocols; security contexts support only static routes; and you cannot enable OSPF or RIP in multiple-context mode. Also, some features are not directly managed by Cisco Security Manager, such as the IPS feature set for ASA and PIX devices.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/security/security_management/ cisco_security_manager/security_manager/4.1/user/guide/pxcontexts.html
CONTEXT 2: Firewalls have long operated on the model of providing deep packet inspection in order to protect IT assets. Deep packet inspection, however, has often lacked a key attribute: context awareness. Cisco is now advancing its context awareness agenda with the release of the ASA CX upgrade for its hardware firewall portfolio.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.enterprisenetworkingplanet.com/netsecur/cisco-expands-firewall-context.html
COMMENTARY: proto-germ.. fuir; old en. we all
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: mechanism
CORRESPONDENT RO: firewall
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer security
FIREWALL
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: FIREWALL
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Un mecanism folosit în cadrul unei rețele de calcularoare pentru a o proteja de intruși exteriori, cât și de accese neautoriazate din interior. Un firewall poate fi un dispozitiv hardware, un software sau un ansamblu format din ambele.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php
CONTEXT 1: Firewall-ul urmează reguli stricte în privința informațiilor acceptate și a celor respinse. Un firewall nu doar va bloca încercările de intruziune în sistem (rețea), dar va și camufla adresa IP sau va alerta administratorul.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.scientia.ro/tehnologie/34-cum-functioneaza-calculatorul/789-cum-functioneaza-un-firewall.html
CONTEXT 2: Un firewall blochează hackerii și alte tipuri de trafic neautorizat, permițând în același timp traficului autorizat să treacă. Caracteristica Windows Firewall monitorizează toate comunicațiile către computerul dvs. Totuși, Windows Firewall nu monitorizează comunicațiile de la computerul dvs. către Internet.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: https://support.norton.com/sp/ro/ro/home/current/solutions/ v1027911_NIS_OEM_2013_ro_ro
COMENTARIU: eng. firewall
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: mecanism
CORESPONDENT EN: firewall
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: zid
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: securitate
FTP
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: FTP
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Short for File Transfer Protocol, the protocol for exchanging files over the Internet. FTP works in the same way as HTTP for transferring Web pages from a server to a user's browser and SMTP for transferring electronic mail across the Internet in that, like these technologies, FTP uses the Internet’s TCP/IP protocols to enable data transfer.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/sgsearch/results?cx=partner-pub-876800 4398756183%3A6766915980&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=UTF-8&q=FTP
CONTEXT 1: The FTP proxy is a specialized program of Aker Firewall, designed to work with the FTP protocol, which is the protocol used for file transfers in the Internet. Its basic function is to allow the definition of commands that can be accepted and block, for example, the creation of new files or directories.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://aker.alpha.ru/Manual_FW/en50-23.htm
CONTEXT 2: Interesting to see that the FTP adapter doesn’t capture the full Uri of the file in its ReceivedFileName context property – instead it simply gives us the filename.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.modhul.com/2009/03/04/ftp-adapter-context-property-oddities/
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: protocol
CORRESPONDENT RO: FTP
HPERONYM: File Transfer Protocol
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
FTP
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: FTP
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: FTP (File Transfer Protocol) este cea mai răspândită metodă de a copia fișiere între două calculatoare legate la Internet (un client și un server).
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php
CONTEXT 1: Clientul FTP este un soft adaptat pentru tranzacționarea de informații prin intermediul protocolului FTP – practic, reprezintă modalitatea prin care calculatorul dvs de acasă comunică direct cu serverul pe care se află website-ul dvs.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://ericpolec.ro/ce-este-si-cum-se-face-accesul-prin-ftp.html
CONTEXT 2: FTP lucrează pe principiul client/server. Un program client permite utilizatorului să interactioneze cu un server în scopul accesarii de informații și servicii de pe server.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://viorelandrei.wordpress.com/2011/04/20/despre-ftp/
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: protocol
CORESPONDENT EN: FTP
HIPERONIM: File Transfer Protocol
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
GATEWAY
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: GATEWAY
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A node on a network that serves as an entrance to another network. In enterprises, the gateway is the computer that routes the traffic from a workstation to the outside network that is serving the Web pages. In homes, the gateway is the ISP that connects the user to the internet.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/G/gateway.html
CONTEXT 1: In a completely unrelated story, Gateway is also the name of a popular direct-order PC manufacturer.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/gateway
CONTEXT 2: In the network for an enterprise, a computer server acting as a gateway node is often also acting as a proxy server and a firewall server. A gateway is often associated with both a router, which knows where to direct a given packet of data that arrives at the gateway, and a switch, which furnishes the actual path in and out of the gateway for a given packet.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/definition/gateway
COMMENTARY: en. geatweg
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: router
CORRESPONDENT RO: gateway
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: node
ANTONYM: exit
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
GATEWAY
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: GATEWAY
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Un dispozitiv de rețea care este poziționat de obicei între sisteme diferite, făcând conversia informațiilor dintr-unul într-altul și asigurând comunicarea între acestea. Poate fi privit ca un nod într-o rețea care servește ca intrare în altă rețea.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://vsh.ro/tutorial/161/dictionar-de-termeni-din-domeniul-it/
CONTEXT 1: Un gateway proxy este un modul SCA conținând o primitivă Gateway Endpoint Lookup.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www-01.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/?lang=ro#!/ SSFTDH_7.5.1.1/com.ibm.bspace.help.widg.wpsesb.doc/help_proxygroupwidget/help_learnaboutproxygateway.html ?cp=SSFTDH_7.5.1.1%2F3-2-2-0-4-5-0
CONTEXT 2: Doar un singur gateway se utilizează pentru toate destinațiile care nu sunt amplasate în subrețea, chiar atunci când configurați mai multe gateway-uri implicite. Un exemplu este dat de situația în care un computer se conectează atât la un intranet cu mai multe subrețele cât și la Internet. Cu un gateway implicit configurat pentru ambele adaptoare, aveți posibilitatea fie să comunicați cu toate computerele de pe Internet, fie cu toate computerele de pe intranet, dar nu cu ambele categorii.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/configuring-multiple-network-gateways#1TC=windows-7
COMENTARIU: en. geatweg
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: router
CORESPONDENT EN: gateway
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: nod de rețea
ANTONIM: antinod de rețea
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
GIGABYTE
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: GIGABYTE
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: 2 to the 30th power (1,073,741,824) bytes. One gigabyte is equal to 1,024 megabytes. Gigabyte is often abbreviated as G or GB.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/G/gigabyte.html
CONTEXT 1: Gigabytes, sometimes abbreviated "gigs," are often used to measure storage capacity. For example, a standard DVD can hold 4.7 gigabytes of data. An SSD might hold 256 GB, and a hard drive may have a storage capacity of 750 GB. Storage devices that hold 1,000 GB of data or more are typically measured in terabytes.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/gigabyte
CONTEXT 2: GB is short for 'Gigabyte', which is a chunk of data. Everything which is sent over the internet is made up of chunks of data, and that's whether it's a web page, an email, a music track, video clip or movie.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://help.virginmedia.com/system/selfservice.controller? CONFIGURATION=1001&PARTITION_ID=1&TIMEZONE_OFFSET&USERTYPE=1&VM_CUSTOMER_TYPE=National&CMD=VIEW_ARTICLE&ARTICLE_ID=3236
COMMENTARY: gr. gigas; en. bit
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: Gb
CORRESPONDENT RO: gigabyte
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
GIGABYTE
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: GIGABYTE
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Un gigabye înseamnă 1024 megabytes. Următoarea unitate de măsură ar fi un terabyte sau 1024 gigabytes apoi un petabyte care are 1024 de terrabytes și exabyte care are 1024 de petabytes.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://megahost.ro/clienti/knowledgebase/294/Ce-inseamna-gigabyte-megabyte-MB-GB.html
CONTEXT 1: 1024 Gigabytes = 1 Terabyte = 1,099,511,627,776 bytes
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.robintel.ro/blog/tech/unitati-de-masura-a-informatiei/
CONTEXT 2: 8 biți formează un byte – sau octet (8b = 1B). 1024 bytes = un kilobyte (1024B = 1KB); 1024 kilobytes = un megabyte (1024KB = 1MB); 1024 megabytes = un gigabyte (1024MB = 1GB); 1024 gigabytes = 1 terrabyte (1024GB = 1TB
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://proeco.uv.ro/lectii/tehnologii/1-4-1.htm
COMENTARIU: gr. gigas; en. bit
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: Gb
CORESPONDENT EN: Gigabyte
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: funcții calculatoare
GOOGLE DRIVE
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: GOOGLE DRIVE
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Google Drive is a service offered by Google that allows you to store and share files online. The service was launched on April 24, 2012 and provides 15 GB of free storage. Additional storage can be purchased for a monthly fee.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://pc.net/glossary/definition/google_drive
CONTEXT 1: The goal of Google Drive is to provide a central place to store your files online so that you can access them from anywhere. Additionally, you can access your Google Drive from multiple devices, since the software is available for Windows, Mac OS X, Android, and iOS platforms. The service also provides a web-based interface that allows you to organize your files and search for documents by filename or content.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/google_drive
CONTEXT 2: Google Drive, Gmail, and Google+ Photos give you 15 GB of storage space for free, so you can keep your files, emails, and photos accessible from any device, anywhere. To see how much storage you’re using and how much you have left, go to your Drive on the web and look in the bottom-left corner. If you hover over that message, a pop-up will appear that indicates your storage usage in Gmail, Drive, and Google+ Photos individually.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: https://support.google.com/drive/answer/2736257?hl=ro
COMMENTARY: proto-germ. dribanan
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
CORRESPONDENT RO: Google Drive
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
GOOGLE DRIVE
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: GOOGLE DRIVE
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Este un serviciu foarte util pentru cei care lucrează pe documente atât acasă cât și la birou. Desemenea le poți accesa/modifica de pe laptop, tabletă sau telefonul mobil. Un alt aspect pe care vreau sa îl menționez este faptul că editarea acestui fișier poate fi realizată de mai mulți utilizatori, în mod simultan.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.insemnari.ro/2012/04/ce-este-google-drive/
CONTEXT 1: Google Drive este un nou serviciu de cloud storage. Ce înseamnă exact acest lucru? În cazul Drive și Dropbox poți să creezi un folder special pe hard disk, copiezi în acesta fotografii, documente, clipuri video, iar acest fișiere sunt salvate în momentul sincronizării și pe serverele producătorului, în cloud. Poți accesa acele informații de oriunde, de pe orice sistem care are instalată aplicația dedicată și care are o conexiune la internet. O soluție perfectă pentru a înlocui un stick de memorie sau pentru a extinde capacitatea de stocare a unui telefon mobil.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.connect.ro/2012/04/25/google-drive-ce-este-cum-functioneaza-ce-ofera-fata-de-competitie/
CONTEXT 2: Google Drive poate fi accesat de pe PC, Mac sau de pe dispozitivul tău mobil (sau chiar prin browser) și este un loc în care ai mereu ultima versiune a fișierelor tale. Pe lângă orice tip de fișier vrei să stochezi, Google Docs vor fi tot aici.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://revevol.ro/google-drive/
COMENTARIU: proto-germ. dribanan
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CORESPONDENT EN: Google Drive
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
HACKER
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: HACKER
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A slang term for a computer enthusiast, i.e., a person who enjoys learning programming languages and computer systems and can often be considered an expert on the subject(s). Among professional programmers, depending on how it used, the term can be either complimentary or derogatory, although it is developing an increasingly derogatory connotation.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/H/hacker.html
CONTEXT 1: Hackers are the reason software manufacturers release periodic "security updates" to their programs. While it is unlikely that the average person will get "hacked," some large businesses and organizations receive multiple hacking attempts a day.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/hacker
CONTEXT 2: Many people who don't know anything about hacking believe that computer criminals are hackers. Reporters who call criminals "hackers" make us real hackers angry. Eric Raymond, author of “The New Hacker's Dictionary,” says, “Real hackers call these people ‘crackers’ and want nothing to do with them… being able to break security doesn’t make you a hacker any more than being able to hot wire cars makes you an automotive engineer.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.functionkeys.ca/FKCHackerInfo.html
COMMENTARY: dutch hakken
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: cyber-terrorist
CORRESPONDENT RO: hacker
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: cyber-terrorist
ANTONYM: computerphobe
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
HACKER
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: HACKER
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Marea majoritate trăiesc cu certitudinea că un hacker este un personaj negativ care nu vrea decât să atace calculatoare din diverse motive. De fapt și cei care studiază problemele de securitate fac același lucru. Există chiar și un fel de cod de conduită în acest sector, o data ce a fost descoperită o gaură de securitate într-un sistem, hackerul trebuind să-l anunțe pe cel care deține sistemul de vulnerabilitate înainte de a face publică descoperirea.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://blog.claudiupersoiu.ro/2008/09/28/ce-este-un-hacker/lang/en/
CONTEXT 1: Hackerii nu se aseamănă între ei. Fiecare are un stil propriu de acțiune. Unii acționează doar sub impulsul curiozității, vrând să afle cum funcționează un anumit program sau, pur și simplu, dorind să arunce o privire indiscretã asupra anumitor lucruri din "bucătăria" altuia. Acestea ar putea reprezinta cel mai mic "rău" pe care îl pot provoca, deși uneori, involuntar sau nu, hackerii pot chiar ajuta, contribuind la descoperirea unor bug-uri (erori) ale programelor.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://voodootutorials.3x.ro/tutorials/desprehacking.htm
CONTEXT 2: În urma infiltrării unui hacker într-un computer sau o rețea pot apărea următoarele categorii de probleme: a) cu efecte imediate și cu urmări grave, precum blocarea serviciilor ("total denial of service") b) cu efecte pe termen lung, cu schimbări subtile dar importante în bazele de date (de exemplu, cele financiare) pentru a submina integritatea sistemelor.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.acuz.net/html/Totul_despre_hacking_.html
COMENTARIU: ol. hakken
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: cyber-terrorist
CORESPONDENT EN: hacker
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: computerfil
ANTONIM: computerfob
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
HALF-DUPLEX
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: HALF-DUPLEX
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Refers to the transmission of data in just one direction at a time. For example, a walkie-talkie is a half-duplex device because only one party can talk at a time. In contrast, a telephone is a full-duplex device because both parties can talk simultaneously. Duplex modes often are used in reference to network data transmissions.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/H/half_duplex.html
CONTEXT 1: Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both directions on a signal carrier, but not at the same time. For example, on a local area network using a technology that has half-duplex transmission, one workstation can send data on the line and then immediately receive data on the line from the same direction in which data was just transmitted. Like full-duplex transmission, half-duplex transmission implies a bidirectional line (one that can carry data in both directions).
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/definition/half-duplex
CONTEXT 2: An example of a half-duplex device is a CB (citizens band) radio. The CB protocol, which is used by truckers, police officers, and other mobile personnel, allows users to communicate back and forth on a specific radio frequency. However, since the CB protocol only supports half-duplex communication, only person can speak at a time. This is why people communicating over two-way radios often say "over" at the end of each statement. It is a simple way of telling the recipient he or she can respond if necessary.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.techterms.com/definition/half-duplex
COMMENTARY: lat. duplex
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: adjective
GENERIC CONCEPT: data transmission
CORRESPONDENT RO: half-duplex
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
ANTONYM: full-duplex
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer technology
HALF-DUPLEX
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: HALF-DUPLEX
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: În cazul comunicațiilor, reprezintă un sistem compus din două dispozitive ce pot comunica unul cu celălalt în ambele sensuri, pe rând.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.garajuluimike.ro/interfoane/interfoane-know-how.htm
CONTEXT 1: Ratele de flux TCP cu direcție singulară (simplex) sunt rate care pot fi obținute prin trimiterea datelor de la o mașină la alta într-un test de memorie la memorie. Mediul full-duplex poate funcționa de obicei puțin mai bine decât mediul half-duplex deoarece pachetele de confirmare TCP pot circula fără a se lupta pentru același fir pe care circulă pachetele de date.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www-01.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/?lang=ro#!/ 8246-L1C/p7hb1l/iphb1_vios_planning_sea_adapter.htm
CONTEXT 2: Stațiile radio de emisie-recepție, cum ar fi cele ale poliției sau ale ambulanțelor, funcționează folosind transmisii half-duplex. Când apăsțti butonul microfonului pentru a transmite, nu auziți persoana de la celălalt capăt. Dacă ambele persoane încearcă să vorbească în același timp, nici o transmisie nu va ajunge la destinație.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://users.utcluj.ro/~rdanescu/pmp_c12.pdf
COMENTARIU: lat. duplex
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: transmisii rețea
CORESPONDENT EN: half-duplex
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
ANTONIM: full-duplex
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: tehnologie digitală
HDMI
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: HDMI
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Stands for "High-Definition Multimedia Interface." HDMI is a digital interface for transmitting audio and video data in a single cable. It is supported by most HDTVs and related components, such as DVS and Blu-ray players, cable boxes, and video game systems.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://pc.net/glossary/definition/hdmi
CONTEXT 1: HDMI cables are typically more expensive than analog cables, largely because they cost more to manufacture. But it is important to remember that with HDMI, you don't need to buy separate audio and video cables. Besides, the single all-purpose connection may alone be worth the difference to those who don't like dealing with confusing cables and connections. Just remember that before you buy an HDMI cable, make sure the devices you are connecting have HDMI connections available.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/hdmi
CONTEXT 2: There are five HDMI cable types to choose from, each designed to meet a particular performance standard. Here is an overview of the HDMI cable types, their capabilities, and how to tell them apart.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.hdmi.org/consumer/finding_right_cable.aspx
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
CORRESPONDENT RO: HDMI
HYPERONYM: High-Technical Multimedia Interface
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer technology
HDMI
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: HDMI
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: HDMI provine din High Definition Multimedia Interface. Pentru transferul semnalului video digital de la o sursă la un Tv, sursa trebuie să convertească semnalul digital în unul analog, în urma acestui proces existând o pierdere de informație.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://computers-security.forumgratuit.ro/t10-ce-este-hdmi
CONTEXT 1: Cablul HDMI poate fi folosit cu echipament audio și video precum Blu-Ray DVD sau televizoare HDTV. Deși seamănă foarte bine cu un cablu USB, acesta are în interior 19 fire. Ce este diferit la acest cablu, este faptul că poate transmite un conținut cu o lățime de bandă de 10.2 Gbps. Capacitatea sa este remarcabilă dacă ținem cont că este de două ori mai mult decât este necesar pentru a transmite canale-multiple audio sau video, iar concluzia la care ajungem este că, acest tip de cablu va fi folosit mult timp de acum inainte.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.1080p.ro/ce-inseamna-hdmi-si-cablul-hdmi/
CONTEXT 2: HDMI înseamnă High-Definition Multimedia Interface (interfață multimedia de înaltă definiție) și este o interfață audio-video pentru transferul necomprimat al datelor video și transferul comprimat sau nevomprimat al datelor audio în format digital de la un dispozitiv sursă (computer, Blu-ray player, tabletă, smartphone etc.) la un receptor compatibil (monitor de computer, videoproiector, TV sau dispozitiv audio digital). Pe 8 ianuarie 2013 am sărbătorit 10 ani de la lansarea primelor specificații tehnice ale standardului HDMI. Până la acea dată au fost livrate în toată lumea peste 3 miliarde de echipamente înzestrate cu HDMI.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://stiintasitehnica.com/asksst/ce-este-hdmi
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CORESPONDENT EN: HDMI
HIPERONIM: High Definition Multimedia Interface
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: tehnologie digitală
HEURISTIC
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: HEURISTIC
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A branch of artificial intelligence, which uses heuristics -common-sense rules drawn from experience – to solve problems. This is in contrast to algorithmic programming, which is based on mathematically provable procedures. Heuristic programming is characterized by programs that are self-learning; they get better with experience.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/H/heuristic_programming.html
CONTEXT 1: Algorithms evaluate all the possible fares simultaneously instead of employing heuristic shortcuts designed to use as little computing power as possible.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/heuristic
CONTEXT 2: Generally speaking, a heuristic is a "rule of thumb," or a good guide to follow when making decisions. In computer science, a heuristic has a similar meaning, but refers specifically to algorithms.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.techterms.com/definition/heuristic
COMMENTARY: gr. heuretikos
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: adjective
GENERIC CONCEPT: artificial inteligence
CORRESPONDENT RO: heuristic
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: nonalgorithmic
ANTONYM: algorithmic
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: programming
HEURISTIC
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: HEURISTIC
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Heuristic este un termen des utilizat în industria anti-malware. Un antivirus efectuează o scanare heuristică a fișierelor atunci când există posibilitatea infectării cu o tulpină malware necunoscută. În mod normal, un antivirus detectează fișierele infectate prin compararea acestora cu semnăturile existente într-o bază de date. Această metodă dă greș atunci când intervine o tulpină necunoscută și neclasificată.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://despretot.info/2012/10/ce-inseamna-heuristic/
CONTEXT 1: Dată Heuristic.Possible.MBR.Rootkit!E1 ajunge pe PC-ul utilizatorului, acesta va strica computerul prin adăugarea de fișiere malware și registru care permite, de asemenea, virusul a executa de fiecare dată când computerul pornește în sus. Se poate redirecționa aleatoriu browser-ul utilizatorului de site-uri nesigure.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.yac.mx/ro/guides/malware-guides/20131022-how-to-remove-Heuristic.Possible.MBR.Rootkit!E1-through-yac-virus-removal-tool.html
CONTEXT 2: Antivirusul heuristic poate găsi chiar și virușii necunoscuți. Programul include unelte de protecție pentru toate produsele MS Office.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://download.chip.eu/ro/Quick-Heal-Anti-Virus-8.0_64820. html
COMENTARIU: lat. heureticos
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: adjectiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: virus
CORESPONDENT EN: heuristic
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: nealgoritmic
ANTONIM: algoritmic
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: programare
HTML
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: HTML
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Short for Hyper Text Markup Language, the authoring language used to create documents on the World Wide Web. HTML is similar to SGML, although it is not a strict subset. HTML defines the structure and layout of a Web document by using a variety of tags and attributes.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/H/HTML.html
CONTEXT 1: Fortunately, the HTML language is relatively easy to learn. Even more fortunately (so much for good grammar), many Web development programs allow you to create Web pages using a graphical interface. These programs allow you to place objects and text on the page and the HTML code is written for you.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/html
CONTEXT 2: HTML is a subset of Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) and is specified by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.quackit.com/html/tutorial/introduction.cfm
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: protocol
CORRESPONDENT RO: HTML
HYPERONYM: Hyper Text Markup Language
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: programming
HTML
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: HTML
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Hyper Text Markup Language este un limbaj de descriere, structurare si formatare a paginilor web. Majoritatea paginilor de pe internet sunt scrise folosind HTML, de obicei împreună cu CSS, un limbaj de formatare.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php#M
CONTEXT 1: HTML se utilizează din 1990, cunoscând câteva versiuni de dezvoltare, fiecare dintre acestea îmbunătățind performanțele limbajului. Ultima variantă este HTML 5 ce include facilitățile versiunilor anterioare (tag-uri de marcare, tag-uri pentru hiperlegături, antete, paragrafe, liste, elemente de meniu, formatare caractere, imagini in-line și tag-uri pentru schimbul de date dinamic între utilizatori), adăugând facilități și extensii pentru numere, tabele și elemente de control.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.ghid-html.info/10-notiuni-generale-despre-html.html
CONTEXT 2: Documentele HTML sunt documente în format ASCII și prin urmare pot fi create cu orice editor de texte. Au fost însă dezvoltate editoare specializate care permit editarea într-un fel de WYSIWYG deși nu se poate vorbi de WYSIWYG atâta vreme cât navigatoarele afișează același document oarecum diferit, în funcție de platforma pe care rulează. Au fost de asemenea dezvoltate convertoare care permit formatarea HTML a documentelor generate (și formatate) cu alte editoare.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://virgil.3x.ro/history.html
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: protocol
CORESPONDENT EN: HTML
HIPERONIM: Hyper Text Markup Language
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: programare
HUB
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: HUB
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to connect segments of a LAN.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/sgsearch/results?cx=partner-pub-876800 4398756183%3A6766915980&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=UTF-8&q=HUB
CONTEXT 1: In addition to receiving and transmitting communication data, a hub may also server as a switch. For example, an airport acts much like a hub in the sense that passengers converge there and head out in many different directions. Suppose that an airline passenger arrives at the airport hub and is then called back home unexpectedly, or receives instructions to change his or her destination. The same may occur with a computing hub when it acts as a switch by preventing specific data packets from proceeding to a destination, while sending other data packets on a specific route. Where packets are sent depends on attributes (MAC addresses) within the data packets. A switch may also act as a hub.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techopedia.com/definition/3167/hub
CONTEXT 2: Hubs, switches, and routers are all devices that let you connect one or more computers to other computers, networked devices, or even other networks. Each has two or more connectors called ports into which you plug in the cables to make the connection. Varying degrees of magic happen inside the device and therein lies the difference. I often see the terms misused, so let’s clarify what each one really means.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://askleo.com/whats_the_difference_between_a_hub_a_ switch_and_a_router/
COMMENTARY: en. hub
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: link
CORRESPONDENT RO: nod
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: core
ANTONYM: division
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
NOD
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: NOD
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Un nod (într-o rețea) reprezintă orice dispozitiv conectat la acea rețea, capabil să comunice cu rețeaua și care are o adresă atribuită în cadrul rețelei.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php
CONTEXT 1: Comunicarea între douã calculatoare dintr-o rețea se poate realiza prin stabilirea unor legãturi fizice permanente între nodurile respective (rețea cu comutare de circuite, caz în care capacitatea de transfer este constantă, iar costul legăturii este fix, indiferent de rata de transfer a informației) sau a unor legături dinamice, prin intermediul altor noduri, în funcție de configurația rețelei și gradul de ocupare (rețea cu comutare de pachete).
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://euro.ubbcluj.ro/~alina/cursuri/internet-teorie/1.htm
CONTEXT 2: Semnalul se poate transmite fără perturbări pe cablu, la o anumită distanță maximă. În cazul în care distanța dintre noduri este mai mare decât cea maximă atunci semnalul se pierde; de aceea se folosește un repetor.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://pctroubleshooting.ro/topic/8398-ce-este-o-retea-de-calculatoare-componente-tipuri-de-retele/
COMENTARIU: fr. noeud
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: legătură
CORESPONDENT EN: hub
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
ANTONIM: izolare
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
IMAP
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: IMAP
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Short for Internet Message Access Protocol, a protocol for retrieving e-mail messages. The latest version, IMAP4, is similar to POP3 but supports some additional features.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/sgsearch/results?cx=partner-pub-87680 04398756183%3A6766915980&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=UTF-8&q=IMAP
CONTEXT 1: Most e-mail client programs such as Microsoft Outlook and Mac OS X Mail allow you to specify what kind of protocol your mail server uses. If you use your ISP's mail service, you should check with them to find out if their mail server uses IMAP or POP3 mail. If you enter the wrong protocol setting, your e-mail program will not be able to send or receive mail.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://pc.net/glossary/definition/imap
CONTEXT 2: As its name implies, IMAP allows you to access your email messages wherever you are; much of the time, it is accessed via the Internet. Basically, email messages are stored on servers. Whenever you check your inbox, your email client contacts the server to connect you with your messages. When you read an email message using IMAP, you aren't actually downloading or storing it on your computer; instead, you are reading it off of the server. As a result, it's possible to check your email from several different devices without missing a thing.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://whatismyipaddress.com/imap
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: protocol
CORRESPONDENT RO: IMAP
HYPERONYM: Internet Message Access Protocol
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
IMAP
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: IMAP
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: IMAP (Protocol care permite accesul la mesaje din fișierele de mail de server) este un protocol avansat pentru trimitere și primire e-mail-uri. Este o metodă de accesare a mesajelor stocate pe un server specializat pe e-mail-uri.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://faq.1and1.ro/e_mail/general_information_on_e_mails_/3.html
CONTEXT 1: În cazul în care contul de poștă electronică acceptă POP3 sau IMAP4, puteți alege dintre numeroase programe de poștă electronică diferite POP3 și IMAP4 pentru a vă conecta la cont. Caracteristicile acceptate de fiecare program de poștă electronică variază. Pentru informații despre caracteristicile oferite de programe de poștă electronică POP3 și IMAP4 specifice, consultați documentația inclusă cu fiecare program.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://help.outlook.com/ro-ro/140/cc875899.aspx
CONTEXT 2: IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) a fost dezvoltat inițial în 1986 ca o alternativă la POP. Diferența majoră dintre IMAP și POP este accea că mesajele sunt prelucrate direct pe server. Clientul de email aduce pe calculatorul sau terminalul inteligent o copie a mesajului, însă toate operațiunile (modificare, ștergere, organizare în foldere) sunt efectuate direct pe serverul IMAP. De aici și avantajul major: folosind protocolul IMAP, poți accesa mesajele de pe mai multe terminale (calculatorul de la birou, laptopul de acasă, tableta portabilă sau telefonul inteligent), fără grija pierderii unor mesaje importante. Păstrând mesajele pe server, dezavantajul tău este acela al spațiului scump (spațiul de stocare locat este mult mai ieftin decât spațiul pe serverul furnizorului). Acest dezavantaj este însă estompat de mai toate programele de email, care permit arhivarea sau backup-ul local al mesajelor.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.hangarhosting.net/customers/knowledgebase/54/ POP3-sau-IMAP-.html
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: protocol
CORESPONDENT EN: IMAP
HIPERONIM: Internet Meesage Access Protocol
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
INTERFACE
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: INTERFACE
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A boundary across which two independent systems meet and act on or communicate with each other. In computer technology, there are several types of interfaces: user interface – the keyboard, mouse, menus of a computer system; software interface – the languages and codes that the applications use to communicate with each other and with the hardware; hardware interface – the wires, plugs and sockets that hardware devices use to communicate with each other.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/I/interface.html
CONTEXT 1: Even the graphical user interface (GUI) has been around for a while – the first one to gain popularity in the consumer market was on the Macintosh in 1984. Considering the fact that computers are far more powerful today than they were 50 years ago, it's surprising that our basic interfaces haven't changed much.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://computer.howstuffworks.com/humans-interface-with-computer s.htm
CONTEXT 2: The granddaddy of all computer interfaces is the command line, which surfaced as a more effective way to control computers in the 1950s. Previously, commands had to be fed into a computer in batches, usually via a punch card or paper tape. Teletype machines, which were normally used for telegraph transmissions, were adapted as a way for users to change commands partway through a process, and receive feedback from a computer in near real time.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.technologyreview.com/news/412880/the-best-computer-interfaces-past-present-and-future/
COMMENTARY: lat. interfacial
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: link
CORRESPONDENT RO: interfață
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: bridge
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
INTERFAȚĂ
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: INTERFAȚĂ
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Punte de legătură între două sisteme sau dispozitive, care îndeplinește funcții specifice. De exemplu între un calculator și cablul de rețea este o interfață numită placă de rețea, sau între utilizatorul unui calculator și acesta se află interfața sistemului de operare, grafică sau linie de comandă (placa de rețea, CLI, GUI).
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://vsh.ro/tutorial/161/dictionar-de-termeni-din-domeniul-it/
CONTEXT 1: Orice sistem de operare deține o interfață prin intermediul căreia realizează comunicarea cu operatorul uman. Primele sisteme de operare aveau interfețe foarte simple, formate dintr-un set mic de comenzi de bază. Spre exemplu, CP/M, un sistem destinat microcalculatoarelor cu procesoare pe 8 biți (de exemplu Z80), avea aproximativ 5 comenzi. Odată cu trecerea timpului, interfețele dintre sistemele de operare și utilizator au devenit din ce în ce mai complexe, oferind mai multe facilități și ușurând munca de configurare și întreținere a calculatoarelor pe care le deservesc.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://labs.cs.upt.ro/labs/so/html/so1.html
CONTEXT 2: Pentru diverse stiluri de interacțiune avem ansambluri diferite de semne care constitue interfața. Aceste semne le putem clasifica dupa Peirce în iconi, indici și simboluri.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.leonties.com/articles/semioticainterfeteifull.pdf
COMENTARIU: lat. interfacial
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: bridge
CORESPONDENT EN: interface
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: bridge
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: funcții calculatoare
IP
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: IP
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: (pronounced as separate letters) Short for Internet Protocol. IP specifies the format of packets, also called datagrams, and the addressing scheme. Most networks combine IP with a higher-level protocol called Transmission Control Protocol, which establishes a virtual connection between a destination and a source.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/sgsearch/results?cx=partner-pub-876800 4398756183%3A6766915980&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=UTF-8&q=ip
CONTEXT 1: You can partition a single security appliance into multiple virtual devices, known as security contexts. Each context is an independent device, with its own security policy, interfaces, and administrators. Multiple contexts are similar to having multiple standalone devices. Many features are supported in multiple context mode, including routing tables, firewall features, IPS, and management. Some features are not supported, including VPN and dynamic routing protocols.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.cisco.com/en/US/docs/security/asa/asa70/configuration/ guide/contexts.html
CONTEXT 2: Internet security on your computer is probably the single most important security project you should undertake in order to prevent unauthorized access to your computer system. If you are relying solely upon a Norton or McAfee's firewall to secure your private information, this is not good enough. Whether you are on a network or a single computer, with DSL, Cable, or Dial-up, you should also be using a non-routable IP Address to secure your computer. This should be your first line of defense against Internet intruders.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.easydesksoftware.com/news/news28.htm
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: protocol
CORRESPONDENT RO: IP
HYPERONYM: Internet Protocol
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
IP
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: IP
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: IP – Internet Protocol, o adresă unică, asignata fiecărui calculator conectat la Internet, folosită pentru identificare. Adresele ip pot fi statice (nu se schimbaă) sau dinamice (se schimba la fiecare nouă conexiune). O adresă IP este formată din 4 numere cuprinse între 0 și 255, separate de punct. Spre exemplu, 127.0.0.1 este întodeauna adresa calculatorului curent (adresa de loopback).
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php
CONTEXT 1: Stiva de protocoale TCP/IP conține două protocoale de nivel rețea pentru a servi acest scop: ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) și RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol). ARP este protocolul ce va oferi adresa MAC a unui dispozitiv de rețea, dată fiind adresa sa IP.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://shannon.etc.upt.ro/laboratoare/pc/luc8/ARP.html
CONTEXT 2: IP este protocolul fără conexiune în ansamblul TCP/IP; protocolul TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) specifică modul în care două calculatoare conectate la Internet pot stabili o legătură de date sigură printr-un dialog de confirmare.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://dexonline.ro/definitie/ip
COMENTARIU: en. Internet Protocol
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: protocol
CORESPONDENT EN: IP
HIPERONIM: Internet Protocol
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
KEYLOGGER
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: KEYLOGGER
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A keylogger is a type of surveillance software (considered to be either software or spyware) that has the capability to record every keystroke you make to a log file, usually encrypted. A keylogger recorder can record instant messages, e-mail, and any information you type at any time using your keyboard. The log file created by the keylogger can then be sent to a specified receiver. Some keylogger programs will also record any e-mail addresses you use and web site URLs you visit.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/K/keylogger.html
CONTEXT 1: The best way to protect yourself from keylogger programs is to install anti-virus or security software that warns you when any new programs are being installed. You should also make sure no unauthorized people have access to your computer.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/keylogger
CONTEXT 2: You can not identify the presence of keylogger on your computer since it runs in background and also it is not listed in task manager or control panel. It can be used by parents to keep eye on their childrens or company owner to spy on their employes.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.coolhackingtrick.com/2011/11/what-is-keylogger.html
COMMENTARY: old en. cæg; log
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: spyware
CORRESPONDENT RO: keylogger
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: spyware
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer security
KEYLOGGER
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: KEYLOGGER
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Keylogger-ul realizează o acțiune de urmărire a tastelor apăsate de la tastatură, cu scopul de monitorizare și înregistrare a semnalelor trimise de la tastatură, astfel încât pesoana care utilizează tastatura nu are cunoștiință că acțiunile sale sunt supravegheate. Metodele cu ajutorul cărora are loc procesul de keylogging sunt hardware și software bazate pe acces, la cele de analiză electromagnetică și acustică.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.securitatea-informatiilor.ro/tipuri-de-atacuri-informatice/ce-este-un-keylogger/
CONTEXT 1: Keylogger – o altă metoda de spionat, însă mai dura. Genul acesta de aplicație reține într-un fișier tot ceea ce tastați. Conturi e-mail, conversații online, conținut documente. În general keylogger-ul este folosit de: firme pentru a-și spiona angajații, de soți, de părinți, de unii administratori de sistem, de "instituții", de băieții jucăuși de la sălile de net pentru a vă reține toate parolele și alte date. Nu folosiți un computer străin pentru a vă loga în conturile pe care le aveți sau pentru a efectua alte operații sensibile. Fie al unui prieten, de la vreo școală, de la o sală de net sau din altă parte. E la mare modă spionajul, iar aplicațiile gen keylogger se găsesc din abundență. Construcția tehnică a unei asemenea aplicații nu necesita cunoștiințe extrem de avansate de programare, astfel încât există foarte multe unele fiind mai bune, altele pline de erori.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://kraftwin.blogspot.ro/2008/01/keylogger.html
CONTEXT 2: Majoritatea keyloggerelor sunt ascunse "foarte bine", astfel nu vor apărea în Task Manager (ctrl+alt+delete).
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://patch-nr.com/board/viewtopic.php?f=49&t=12779
COMENTARIU: old en. cæg; log
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: program spion
CORESPONDENT EN: keylogger
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: spyware
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: securitate
LAN
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: LAN
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A local-area network (LAN) is a computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most LANs are confined to a single building or group of buildings, however, one LAN can be connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio waves. A system of LANs connected in this way is called a wide-area network (WAN).
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/L/local_area_network_LAN. html
CONTEXT 1: Most mid to large-sized businesses today use LANs, which makes it easy for employees to share information. Currently, the most common type of LANs are Ethernet-based and use software from Novell or Oracle. However, with the emergence of wireless networking, wireless LANs have become a popular alternative.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/lan
CONTEXT 2: The term LAN party refers to a multiplayer gaming event where participants bring their own computers and build a temporary LAN.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://compnetworking.about.com/cs/lanvlanwan/g/bldef_lan.htm
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: network
CORRESPONDENT RO: rețea locală
SYNONYM: Intranet
HYPERONYM: Local Area Network
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
REȚEA LOCALĂ
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: REȚEA LOCALĂ
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: O rețea de calculatoare locală, de dimensiuni restrânse, care cuprinde cel mult mai multe clădiri. Un LAN poate fi închis sau poate avea acces la Internet.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php
CONTEXT 1: Rețelele locale sau LAN-urile (Local Area Networks) sunt localizate într-o singurã clădire sau într-un campus de cel mult câțiva kilometri. Ele sunt frecvent utilizate pentru conectarea calculatoarelor personale dintr-o firmă, fabrică, departament sau instituție de educație etc. astfel încât să permită partajarea resurselor (imprimante, discuri de rețea, date sau programe) și schimbul de informații. Rețelele locale se deosebesc de alte tipuri de rețele prin caracteristici legate de: mărime, tehnologie de transmisie și topologie.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://euro.ubbcluj.ro/~alina/cursuri/internet-teorie/1-2-1.htm
CONTEXT 2: Rețelele locale tradiționale funcționează la viteze cuprinse între 10 și 100 Mbps, au întârzieri mici (zeci de microsecunde) și produc erori foarte puține. Rețelele locale mai noi pot opera la viteze mai mari, până la câteva sute de megabiți/sec.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.competentedigitale.ro/it/it10.html
COMENTARIU: lat. retella
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: Intranet
CORESPONDENT EN: LAN
SINONIM: Intranet
HIPERONIM: Rețea Locală
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
LINUX
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: LINUX
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A freely-distributable open source operating system that runs on a number of hardware platforms. The Linux kernel was developed mainly by Linus Torvalds and it is based on Unix. Because it's free, and because it runs on many platforms, including PCs and Macintoshes, Linux has become an extremely popular alternative to proprietary operating systems.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/L/Linux.html
CONTEXT 1: Since Linux is compatible with so many types of hardware, variations of the Linux operating system are used for several other electronic devices besides computers. Some examples include cell phones, cable boxes, and Sony's PS2 and PS3 gaming consoles.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/linux
CONTEXT 2: Linux is, in simplest terms, an operating system. It is the software on a computer that enables applications and the computer operator to access the devices on the computer to perform desired functions. The operating system (OS) relays instructions from an application to, for instance, the computer's processor. The processor performs the instructed task, then sends the results back to the application via the operating system.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.linux.com/learn/new-user-guides/376-linux-is-every where-an-overview-of-the-linux-operating-system
COMMENTARY: fin. Linus
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: operating system
CORRESPONDENT RO: Linux
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: operating systems
LINUX
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: LINUX
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Linux este un sistem de operare de tip Unix care a fost inițial creat de către Linus Torvalds, care mai apoi a fost ajutat de programatori din toată lumea. Linux denumește numai kernel-ul; existența sistemului de operare nu ar fi posibilă fără uneltele de bază care provin de la proiectul GNU, de unde și numele complet și corect GNU Linux (din comoditate deseori se folosește doar cuvântul Linux când se face o referință la sistemul de operare).
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://romikele.com/index.php?pagina=pag18
CONTEXT 1: Linux-ul este o clonă completă a UNIX-ului, potrivită pentru stațiile de lucru, dar și pentru zona de mijloc sau sectorul de vârf al serverelor. În zilele noastre, mulți jucători importanți de pe piața de dispozitive și programe au propriile echipe de dezvoltatori Linux..
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://tille.garrels.be/training/tldp/ITL-Romanian.pdf
CONTEXT 2: Aplicația tcpdump preia din rețea pachetele capturate prin intermediul interfeței OSI de nivel 2, corespunzătoare unei interfețe locale de rețea. Interfața aplicației tcpdump cu sistemul Linux este de tip API, fiind implementată prin intermediul bibliotecii de funcții de captură specializate, numită pcap [TDP].
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://discipline.elcom.pub.ro/apc/Lab/1.tcpdump.ping.pdf
COMENTARIU: fin. Linus
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: sistem de operare
CORESPONDENT EN: Linux
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: sisteme de operare
MAC ADDRESS
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: MAC ADDRESS
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Short for Media Access Control address, a hardware address that uniquely identifies each node of a network. In IEEE 802 networks, the Data Link Control (DLC) layer of the OSI Reference Model is divided into two sub-layers: the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer and the Media Access Control (MAC) layer. The MAC layer interfaces directly with the network medium. Consequently, each different type of network medium requires a different MAC layer.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/MAC_address.html
CONTEXT 1: Because there are millions of networkable devices in existence, and each device needs to have a unique MAC address, there must be a very wide range of possible addresses. For this reason, MAC addresses are made up of six two-digit hexadecimal numbers, separated by colons.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/macaddress
CONTEXT 2: The first half of a MAC address contains the ID number of the adapter manufacturer. These IDs are regulated by an Internet standards body (see sidebar). The second half of a MAC address represents the serial number assigned to the adapter by the manufacturer.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://compnetworking.about.com/od/networkprotocolsip/l/aa062202 a.htm
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: hardware address
CORRESPONDENT RO: adresă MAC
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
HYPERONYM: Media Access Control address
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
ADRESĂ MAC
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: ADRESĂ MAC
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Adresa MAC (Media Access Control address), cunoscută sub denumiri diverse precum Ethernet hardware address (adresă hardware Ethernet), adresă hardware, adresa adaptorului de rețea (adaptorul – sinonim pentru placa de rețea), BIA – built-in address sau adresa fizică este deci un identificator unic asignat plăcilor de rețea de către producători. Constă într-o secvență numerică formată din 6 grupuri de câte 2 cifre hexadecimale (în baza 16) de tipul 00-0A-E4-A6-78-FB. Primele 3 grupuri de câte două caractere (în acest caz 00-0A-E4) identifică întotdeauna producătorul plăcii de rețea (RealTek, Cisco, SUN Microsystems etc.), iar următorii 6 digiți identifică dispozitivul în sine
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.scientia.ro/tehnologie/34-cum-functioneaza-calculatorul/258-ce-reprezinta-adresa-mac.html
CONTEXT 1: Adresa MAC nu este utilă în rețele în care două echipamente au intefete legate fizic între ele în așa fel încât mesajul plecat din unul din echipamente nu poate ajunge decât la celălalt echipament (așa-zisele rețele “point-to-point “). De exemplu: două interfețe seriale ale unui router legate între ele printr-un cablu formează o rețea point-to-point: interfețelor nu li se atribuie adresa MAC deoarece nu este nevoie de un element de identificare a interfeței destinație.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.infoacademy.net/doc/CCNA1/extradoc/Adrese-MAC. pdf
CONTEXT 2: Numeroase lucrări indică adresele MAC ca adrese ce folosesc o schemă de adresare plată. Se poate spune chiar că adresele fizice sunt al doilea exemplu clasic de distribuție plată. Cum stau în realitate lucrurile? Instituția ce administrează adresele fizice este IEEE. Problema este că IEEE nu poate monitoriza direct atribuirea fiecărei adrese fizice, astfel încât distribuie producătorilor fâșii din spațiul de adrese, urmând ca aceștia la rândul lor să atribuie fiecărui dispozitiv de rețea nou creat una sau mai multe adrese fizice.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://shannon.etc.upt.ro/laboratoare/pc/luc5/adrese_MAC.html
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: adresă hardware
CORESPONDENT EN: MAC address
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
HIPERONIM: Adresa Media Access Control
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
MAC OS
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: MAC OS
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: The official name of the Macintosh operating system. Earlier versions were called System x.x, where x.x were the version numbers. With the release of Mac OS 8, however, Apple dropped the System moniker.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/Mac_OS.html
CONTEXT 1: Unlike earlier versions of the Mac OS, Mac OS X is based on the same kernel as Unix and has many advanced administrative features and utilities. Though the operating system is much more advanced than earlier versions of the Mac OS, it still has the same ease-of-use that people have come to expect from Apple software.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/macos
CONTEXT 2: There are many upgrade options for keeping a 2009, 2010, or 2012 Mac Pro on the performance fast track. After all, expandability is one of the features that makes the Mac Pro so popular.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://macs.about.com
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: operating system
CORRESPONDENT RO: Mac OS
HYPERONYM: Macintosh Operating System
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: operating systems
MAC OS
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: MAC OS
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Mac OS X (pronunție aproximativă: mæc) este un sistem de operare dezvoltat și comercializat de firma Apple pentru computerele sale de tip Macintosh ș.a. Începând din anul 2009, fiecare sistem Macintosh include preinstalată cea mai recentă versiune a acestui sistem de operare. Mac OS X este succesorul originalului sau "clasicului" Mac OS, care a fost sistemul de operare principal al companiei Apple Computers (astăzi: Apple), înca din 1984. Spre deosebire de predecesorii săi, Mac OS X este un sistem de operare pe bază de Unix, construit pe tehnologiile dezvoltate la compania NeXT între 1985 și începutul anului 1996, cand NeXT a fost achiziționat de către Apple. Versiunea 10.5, atunci când rulează pe procesoare Intel, deține certificatul "UNIX 03".
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://pctroubleshooting.ro/topic/8927-ce-este-mac-os-x-informatii-mac/
CONTEXT 1: Puteți conecta Mail for Mac OS X la contul de poștă electronică utilizând conectivitatea POP3 sau IMAP4. Acești pași se aplică pentru Mac OS 10.4 Tiger și Mac OS 10.5 Leopard.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://help.outlook.com/ro-ro/140/cc511390.aspx
CONTEXT 2: Sistemul de operare Mac OS X este imun la mii de viruși care afectează sistemele sub Windows. Și deși niciun computer conectat la Internet nu va fi vreodată complet ferit de toți virușii și programele spyware, sistemul de operare Mac OS X are protecție antivirus integrată, proiectată cu gândul la siguranța ta. Browserul web al computerului Mac, Safari, te avertizează de fiecare dată când descarci o aplicație – chiar dacă este deghizată sub forma unui fișier aparent nevinovat, de tip imagine sau film. Mai mult, Apple lucrează mereu la soluții de securitate actualizate, disponibile în mod gratuit tuturor posesorilor de Mac. Acestea se pot chiar descărca automat.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.apple.com/ro/why-mac/faq/
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: sistem de operare
CORESPONDENT EN: Mac OS
HIPERONIM: Sistemul de operare Macintosh
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: sisteme de operare
MAINFRAME
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: MAINFRAME
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/mainframe.html
CONTEXT 1: Yet a mainframe can usually execute many programs simultaneously at a high speed, whereas supercomputers are designed for a single process. Currently, the largest manufacturers of mainframes are IBM and Unisys.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/mainframe
CONTEXT 2: Mainframes are so called because the earliest ones were housed in large metal frames.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/mainframe-computer. html
COMMENTARY: en. mægen; framian
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: server
CORRESPONDENT RO: server central
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: server
ANTONYM: workstation
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
SERVER CENTRAL
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: SERVER CENTRAL
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Un computer care își oferă resursele (de exemplu, imprimante, fisiere) spre utilizare altor calculatoare din rețea.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://vsh.ro/tutorial/161/dictionar-de-termeni-din-domeniul-it/
CONTEXT 1: Calculatorul central (serverul) poate fi un calculator obișnuit pe care este instalat un sistem de operare pentru rețea: NetWare, Unix, Linux, OS/2, Windows NT/2000/Server 2003/2008. Acest calculator central controlează toate resursele comune (unități de discuri, imprimante, scanere, modemuri, fișiere, etc), asigură securitatea datelor și sistemului, realizează comunicații între stațiile de lucru.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.runceanu.ro/adrian/wp-content/cursuri/retele2013/ RC_C2_2013.pdf
CONTEXT 2: Rețelele peer-to-peer sunt relativ simple. Deoarece fiecare calculator funcționează și ca server și ca un client, nu este necesar un server central puternic sau componente necesare într-o rețea de mare capacitate. Rețelele peer-to-peer sunt mai ieftine decât rețelele client-server.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://rf-opto.etc.tuiasi.ro/docs/rc/RETELE%20DE%20CALC ULATOARE_1.pdf
COMENTARIU: en. server ; lat. centralis
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: server
CORESPONDENT EN: mainframe
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: server
ANTONIM: stație de lucru
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
MEMORY
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: MEMORY
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Internal storage areas in the computer. The term memory identifies data storage that comes in the form of chips, and the word storage is used for memory that exists on tapes or disks. Moreover, the term memory is usually used as a shorthand for physical memory, which refers to the actual chips capable of holding data. Some computers also use virtual memory, which expands physical memory onto a hard disk.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/memory.html
CONTEXT 1: While memory can refer to any medium of data storage, it usually refers to RAM, or random access memory. When your computer boots up, it loads the operating system into its memory, or RAM. This allows your computer to access system functions, such as handling mouse clicks and keystrokes, since the event handlers are all loaded into RAM. Whenever you open a program, the interface and functions used by that program are also loaded into RAM.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/memory
CONTEXT 2: When you think about it, it's amazing how many different types of electronic memory you encounter in daily life. Many of them have become an integral part of our vocabulary.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://computer.howstuffworks.com/computer-memory.htm
COMMENTARY: fr. memorie
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: internal storage
CORRESPONDENT RO: memorie
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: internal storage
ANTONYM: external storage
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: hardware
MEMORIE
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: MEMORIE
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Parte a calculatorului electronic în care se înregistrează instrucțiunile, cuvintele, valorile numerice etc. după o codificare prealabilă.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://dictionar.netul.ro/rezultate-dex.php?cuv=memorie&sursa=toate-dictionarele
CONTEXT 1: Memoria internă reprezintă cea mai costisitoare și importantă componentă fizică a unui calculator personal, prin intermediul căreia vom putea aprecia performanțele unui calculator. Aceasta este unitatea funcțională a calculatorului destinată păstrării permanente sau temporare a programelor și a datelor necesare utilizatorului și bineînțeles a sistemului de operare.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.competentedigitale.ro/it/it5.html
CONTEXT 2: Memoria internă conține atât datele brute care urmează să fie prelucrate, cât și rezultatele prelucrărilor, dar aceste informații sunt în cele mai multe cazuri temporare. Memoria poate funcționa și ca un canal de comunicații între microprocesor și dispozitivele perifence.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://vsh.ro/tutorial/160/memoria/
COMENTARIU: lat. memoria
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: memorie internă
CORESPONDENT EN: memory
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: hardware
MICROSOFT WINDOWS
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: MICROSOFT WINDOWS
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A family of operating systems for personal computers. Windows dominates the personal computer world, running, by some estimates, on 90% of all personal computers.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/Microsoft_Windows.html
CONTEXT 1: Microsoft's mobile operating system, Windows Phone, is designed specifically for smartphones and runs on several brands of phones, including HTC, Nokia, and Samsung.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/windows
CONTEXT 2: The first version of Microsoft Windows (Microsoft Windows 1.0) came out in November 1985. It had a graphical user interface, inspired by the user interface of the Apple computers of the time. Windows 1.0 was not successful with the public, and Microsoft Windows 2.0, launched December 9, 1987, did not do much better.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://en.kioskea.net/contents/822-introduction-to-microsoft-windows
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: operating system
CORRESPONDENT RO: Microsoft Windows
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: operating systems
MICROSOFT WINDOWS
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: MICROSOFT WINDOWS
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Windows este o linie de sisteme de operare dezvoltate de Microsoft pentru utilizarea pe calculatoare personale sau de business, laptopuri și centre media .
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/home
CONTEXT 1: Noul Windows este proiectat pentru a susține o nouă generație accesibilă și interesantă de PC-uri. Windows 8.1 nu este recomandat pentru instalare pe PC-uri care rulează Windows XP sau Windows Vista.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows-8/meet?ocid=GA8-1_O_WOL_Hero_Home_Meet81_Pos1_01
CONTEXT 2: Index experiență Windows este o măsurătoare care vă arată cât de bine funcționează PC-ul cu Windows și utilizează un scor de bază pentru a evalua experiența la care vă puteți aștepta. Un scor de bază mai mare înseamnă, de obicei, că PC-ul va fi mai rapid și va răspunde mai bine decât un PC cu un scor de bază mai mic.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/what-is-windows-experience-index#What-is-windows-experience-index=windows-8
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: sistem de operare
CORESPONDENT EN: Microsoft Windows
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: sisteme de operare
MODEM
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: MODEM
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Short for modulator-demodulator. A modem is a device or program that enables a computer to transmit data over, for example, telephone or cable lines. Computer information is stored digitally, whereas information transmitted over telephone lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A modem converts between these two forms.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/modem.html
CONTEXT 1: The original dial-up modems are becoming obsolete because of their slow speeds and are being replaced by the much faster cable and DSL modems.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/modem
CONTEXT 2: Short for MODulator/DEModulator, the first Modem was first released by AT&Y in 1960 when it introduced its dataphone it later became more common for home users when Dennis Hayes and Dale Heatherington released the 80-103A modem in 1977.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/m/modem.htm
COMMENTARY: lat. modulator
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: communications device
CORRESPONDENT RO: modem
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: communications device
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: hardware
MODEM
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: MODEM
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Un dispozitiv periferic intern sau extern care conectează computerul vostru la o linie telefonică, la un cablu TV, etc. la o companie (ISP) prin intermediul căreia ajungeti în Internet.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://vsh.ro/tutorial/161/dictionar-de-termeni-din-domeniul-it/
CONTEXT 1: Liniile telefonice sunt folosite, în general, pentru transmiterea sunetelor, a vocii umane. Modemurile au fost inventate pentru a converti informația digitală a computerului în impulsuri care să poată fi transportate prin rețelele telefonice către un alt calculator. Modemul de la celălalt capăt al liniei primește mesajul, îl decodeaza în sistem binar și îl transmite computerului. Astfel, se realizează o comunicare între două terminale de Internet, conectate prin dial-up.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.eva.ro/auto-tehno/feature/care-i-cel-mai-bun-modem-pentru-calculatorul-tau-articol-5048.html
CONTEXT 2: În modem, blocul de intrare – ieșire certifică faptul că datele au fost recepționate cu succes, le depune în memoria tampon și-i cere controlerului de magistrală să întrerupă accesul de scriere al PC-ului la magistrala modemului.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.robintel.ro/muzeul-de-informatica/notiuni-teoretice/ cum-functioneaza-un-modem/
COMENTARIU: lat. modulator
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: dispozitiv de comunicare
CORESPONDENT EN: modem
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: dispozitiv de comunicare
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: hardware
MULTIPLEX
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: MULTIPLEX
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: The combining of multiple signals (analog or digital) for transmission over a single line or media. A common type of multiplexing combines several low-speed signals for transmission over a single high-speed connection
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/multiplexing.html
CONTEXT 1: The input/output software philosophy must simplify wherever possible the design of a large-scale multiplex computer system and must adequately cope with the general communication and input/output problems discussed earlier.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.multicians.org/fjcc5.html
CONTEXT 2: In telecommunications the combined signals, analog or digital, are considered a single output higher speed signal transmitted on several communication channels by a particular multiplex method or technique.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.techopedia.com/definition/24124/multiplexer-mux
COMMENTARY: lat. multiplex
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: simultaneous transmission
CORRESPONDENT RO: multiplex
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: multiple signals
ANTONYM: single signal
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer technology
MULTIPLEX
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: MULTIPLEX
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Procedeu folosit în telecomunicații pentru transmiterea simultană a mai multor mesaje pe același circuit al unei linii electrice sau prin intermediul aceleiași unde electromagnetice.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.ce-inseamna.ro/cuvantul/multiplex/dictionar-explicativ-roma n/46384
CONTEXT 1: Scopul sistemului multiplex este de a pune la dispoziția calculatoarelor autoturismului un număr cât mai mare de informații într-un limbaj comun, utilizând cât mai puține legături filare.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.perfectionarimecanici.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/ 10/echipamentemoderne-III.pdf
CONTEXT 2: Comunicația telefonică, principalul serviciu de telecomunicații ghidate ('pe fir'), cunoaște o dezvoltare continuă, numărul posturilor telefonice conectate la rețeaua mondială depășind în prezent circa două miliarde. Legăturile telefonice la distanțe ce depășesc câteva zeci de kilometri pun o serie de probleme ce pot fi rezolvate numai prin utilizarea unor mijloace tehnice numite 'sisteme de transmisiuni multiplex'. Acestea permit transmisia semnalului telefonic – a cărui putere medie nu depășește câteva zecimi de miliwat – la distanțe de ordinul zecilor de mii de kilometri, asigurând totodată o folosire intensivă a liniilor, metalice sau dielectrice (fibra optică). Prin utilizare intensivă înțelegem realizarea unui anumit număr de transmisiuni simultane, independente, pe o linie dată. În tehnica transmisiunilor multiplex, transmisiunile numerice ocupă în prezent o poziție privilegiată.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://electronica07.curs.ncit.pub.ro/course/category.php?id=4
COMENTARIU: lat. multiplex
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: transmisie simultană
CORESPONDENT EN: multiplex
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: semnal multiplu
ANTONIM: semnal individual
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: tehnologie digitală
NETWORK
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: NETWORK
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A network is a group of two or more computer systems linked together.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/N/network.html
CONTEXT 1: Computer networks can be connected through cables, such as Ethernet cables or phone lines, or wirelessly, using wireless networking cards that send and receive data through the air.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/network
CONTEXT 2: The simplest kind of home network contains exactly two computers. You can use this kind of network to share files, a printer or another peripheral device, and even an Internet connection.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://compnetworking.about.com/od/homenetworking/a/connectt wocomp.htm
COMMENTARY: en. net; en. weorc
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: web
CORRESPONDENT RO: rețea
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: web
ANTONYM: individualist
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
REȚEA
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: REȚEA
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: 2 sau mai multe calculatoare conectate astfel încât pot comunica și partaja resurse. Internetul este o rețea de retele, la nivel global.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php#M
CONTEXT 1: Clasificarea rețelelor trebuie să ia in considerare două aspecte foarte importante: tehnologia de transmisie și scara la care operează rețeaua. Din punct de vedere al tehnologiei de transmisie, rețelele sunt de două feluri: rețele cu difuzare și rețele punct-la-punct. După mărimea rețelei, avem: rețele locale, rețele metropolitane și rețele larg răspândite geografic.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://shannon.etc.upt.ro/laboratoare/rcd/rcd_laborator.pdf
CONTEXT 2: Partajarea este scopul rețelei de calculatoare. Abilitatea de a partaja eficient resursele dă puterea și atractivitatea unei rețele. În acest sens, calculatoarele se asemănă cu oamenii.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://rf-opto.etc.tuiasi.ro/docs/rc/RETELE%20DE%20CALC ULATOARE_1.pdf
COMENTARIU: lat. retella
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: interconectare
CORESPONDENT EN: network
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: interconectare
ANTONIM: deconectare
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
PROXY TROJAN
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: PROXY TROJAN
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A type of Trojan horse designed to use the victim's computer as a proxy server. This gives the attacker the opportunity to do everything from your computer, including the possibility of conducting credit card fraud and other illegal activities, or even to use your system to launch malicious attacks against other networks.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/Proxy_Trojan.html
CONTEXT 1: Trojan-Proxies are often used by hackers to hide the location of the original host from any investigating authorities, as the connection can only be traced back to the computer where the trojan is installed.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.f-secure.com/v-descs/trojan-proxy_w32_trojan-proxy.sht ml
CONTEXT 2: Proxy Trojan can use PC as piece of a botnet to perfect spamming or attacks so it's required to have a seemly Proxy Trojan removal tool installed to remove Proxy Trojan. When not keeping a seemly Proxy Trojan removal tool your computer may suffer from installation of different third-party softwares (including malicious programs), so it is better to execute Proxy Trojan removal.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.securitystronghold.com/gates/proxy-trojan.html
COMMENTARY: lat. trojanus
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: trojan horse
CORRESPONDENT RO: proxy troian
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: trojan horse
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer security
PROXY TROIAN
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: PROXY TROIAN
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Trojan-Proxy.Win32.Delf este detectat ca un cal troian periculos care a atacat o mulțime de site-uri din întreaga lume. În cele mai multe cazuri, virusul alunecă în calculator cu atașament e-mail spam. Odată infectat, acesta se infiltrează în unitatea C și se ascunde prin utilizarea de tactici rootkit, făcând foarte dificilă identificarea acestuia.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.yac.mx/ro/guides/trojan-horse-guides/20131107-how-to-remove-Trojan-Proxy.Win32.Delf-through-yac-virus-removal-tool.html
CONTEXT 1: Denumit Backdoor.AndroidOS.Obad.a, troianul multifuncțional exploatează două vulnerabilități ale platformei Android care au fost necunoscute până acum. Instalarea inițială folosește o primă breșă de securitate în modul de declarare a structurii programului, componentă obligatorie a oricărei aplicații Android. După această etapă, troianul exploatează o a doua breșă de securitate și își alocă drepturi administrative fără a se înregistra însă în lista din meniul Settings/Security/Device Administrators, așa cum o fac alte aplicații de securitate, ceea ce, coroborat cu faptul că aplicația nu are pictogramă sau interfață, o face imposibil de înlăturat și foarte greu de detectat. Din momentul în care aplicația a preluat controlul telefonului și a reușit sa se conecteze la centru de comandă, aceasta poate fi folosită pentru diverse operațiuni, cum ar fi trimiterea de mesaje text la numere cu tarife speciale, copierea datelor personale, inclusiv a celor bancare, utilizarea ca server proxy, descărcarea și instalarea de cod nou sau executarea locală a comenzilor trimise de server. În plus, aplicația folosește tot felul de trucuri, cum ar fi blocarea ecranului atunci când execută anumite comenzi, ceea ce ar putea păcăli un utilizator neatent la astfel de detalii, sau decriptarea anumitor module software locale doar după autentificarea la centrul de comandă online.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.go4it.ro/software/backdoor.androidos.obad.a-cel-mai-avansat-troian-pentru-platforma-android-10940048/
CONTEXT 2: Virusul, denumit Worm.Win32.GetCodec.a, are capacitatea de a converti fișierele de tip mp3 în formatul Windows Media Audio (WMA), fără a schimba extensia ".mp3". Imediat după conversie, virusul adaugă structurii fișierului rezultat un link către o pagină web infectată care se deschide automat în momentul în care melodia se încarcă în playlist. Pagina de Internet Explorer deschisă va informa utilizatorul că trebuie să descarce un codec special pentru a putea asculta melodia respectivă. Dacă acesta aprobă instalarea codec-ului, un troian numit Trojan-Proxy.Win32.Agent.arp va fi descărcat și instalat în calculator, oferind posibilitatea unui hacker să controleze PC-ul respectiv.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://funky.monsterforum.net/t116-stiri-despre-virusi
COMENTARIU: lat. trojanus
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: cal troian
CORESPONDENT EN: proxy trojan
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: cal troian
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: securitate
NEWSLETTER
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: NEWSLETTER
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Shortened form of newspaper and informational letter. Generally used to describe a periodic publication distributed by e-mail to an opt-in list of subscribers. Newsletters are normally used by organizations or owners of a web site to communicate with their readers. Some companies may sell targeted ads within their newsletters.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/N/newsletter.html
CONTEXT 1: A newsletter is a great vehicle for introducing new products and services – and it has a much longer shelf life than ads. Instead of being tossed in the trash, newsletters often enjoy long lives in reception areas, offices and even homes.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.grapevinecom.com/newsletter-questions
CONTEXT 2: You can lay out text or a story in newsletters, brochures, and flyers by creating newsletter-style columns or linked text boxes.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://office.microsoft.com/en-gb/word-help/about-newsletter-style-layout-HP005235694.aspx
COMMENTARY: lat. nova; littera
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: eBulletin
CORRESPONDENT RO: buletin informativ
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: eBulletin
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
BULETIN INFORMATIV
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: BULETIN INFORMATIV
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Newsletter-ul online, în traducere scrisoare, este un e-mail trimis unei liste de abonați. Companiile folosesc newsletter-ul pentru a transmite informații unui public țintă. Există și newslettere offline. Acestea iau în general forma unor broșuri sau mici reviste.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://webbanneronline.com/design-poligrafic/item/124-ce-este-un-news letter-sau-e-mail-marketing
CONTEXT 1: Obiectivul buletinului nostru informativ este de a oferi clientilor si partenerilor nostri informații actualizate despre evenimentele importante ce au loc in domeniul fondurilor comunitare și naționale.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.otpconsulting.ro/ro/buletin-informativ.html
CONTEXT 2: Buletinul informativ este un e-mail periodic trimis clienților abonați la acest serviciu. Conține oferte speciale și alte date folositoare.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.televoxsa.ro/html/buletin.php
COMENTARIU: fr. bulletin; informatif
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: newsletter
CORESPONDENT EN: newsletter
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: newsletter
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
NTFS
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: NTFS
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: (pronounced as separate letters) Short for NT File System, one of the file system for the Windows NT operating system (Windows NT also supports the FAT file system). NTFS has features to improve reliability, such as transaction logs to help recover from disk failures. To control access to files, you can set permissions for directories and/or individual files.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/N/NTFS.html
CONTEXT 1: One major advantage of NTFS is that it includes features to improve reliablity. For exmaple, the new technology file system includes fault tolerance, which automatically repairs hard drive errors without displaying error messages. It also keeps detailed transaction logs, which tracks hard drive errors. This can help prevent hard disk failures and makes it possible to recover files if the hard drive does fail.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/ntfs
CONTEXT 2: NTFS is the primary file system used in Microsoft's Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, Windows 2000 and Windows NT operating systems. The Windows Server line of operating systems also primarily use NTFS.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://pcsupport.about.com/od/termsns/g/ntfs.htm
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: file system
CORRESPONDENT RO: NTFS
HYPERONYM: New Technology File System
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer file system
NTFS
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: NTFS
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Este prescurtarea de la New Technology File System și reprezintă un tip de sistem de fișiere, dezvoltat de către Microsoft și folosit ca sistem de fișiere implicit pentru sistemele de operare Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows 2003 Server, Windows 2008 Server, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7 și Windows 8.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://pctroubleshooting.ro/topic/12945-ce-inseamna-ntfs/
CONTEXT 1: Un sistem de fișiere este structura subiacentă utilizată de un computer pentru organizarea datelor pe hard disk. Dacă se instalează un hard disk nou, este nevoie de partiționarea și formatarea sa utilizând un sistem de fișiere, înainte de a începe stocarea de date sau programe. În Windows, cele trei opțiuni cu privire la sistemele de fișiere din care se alege sunt NTFS, FAT32 și FAT (cunoscut și ca FAT16), un sistem mai vechi și mai rar utilizat.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows-vista/comparing-ntfs-and-fat-file-systems
CONTEXT 2: O partiție NTFS este împărțită în 5 zone: Boot Record, MFT, spațiu liber, MFTMirr și restul de spațiu liber. Boot Record se află in primul sector al partiției (primii 512 bytes). MFT poate ocupa 12.5%, 25%, 37.5% sau 50% din partiție. MFTMirr se află exact în mijlocul partiției și conține o copie ai primilor 8KB din MFT.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.gratianlup.com/documents/ntfs_doc.pdf
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: sistem de fișiere
CORESPONDENT EN: NTFS
HIPERONIM: New Technology File System
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: sisteme de fișiere
OFFLINE
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: OFFLINE
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Not connected. For example, all printers have a switch that allows you to turn them offline. While the printer is offline, you can perform certain commands like advancing the paper (form feed), but you cannot print documents sent from the computer.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/O/offline.html
CONTEXT 1: Web browsers and e-mail programs, have an option to "Work Offline." This option disables the program's network connection, meaning no data can be transmitted to or from the computer. This option was more useful when most people used dial-up connections. They didn't want their computer automatically dialing their ISP whenever a program tried to access the Internet. However, since most people now have "always on" connections such as DSL and cable modems, there usually is no reason to work offline.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/offline
CONTEXT 2: If your account connects to Exchange, your messages are saved in your server's mailbox. When you are connected to the server and work online, you can use all of the functionality in Outlook, such as opening items, moving them between folders, and deleting items. However, when you work offline, you lose access to all items on the server. That is when offline folders, which are saved in an Offline Folder file (.ost) on your computer, are useful.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/outlook-help/switch-between-work ing-offline-and-online-HP001232960.aspx
COMMENTARY: lat. ex; linea
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: adjective
GENERIC CONCEPT: unconnected
CORRESPONDENT RO: off-line
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: unconnected
ANTONYM: online
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
OFF-LINE
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: OFF-LINE
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Un termen general ce se referă la orice dispozitiv sau fișier care este conectat fizic la o rețea, dar nu este capabil de a comunica cu alte dispozitive sau fișiere.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php#M
CONTEXT 1: Lucrul cu fișiere offline este simplu. Doar alegeți fișierele (sau folderele) din rețea pe care doriți să le faceți disponibile offline. Windows creează automat o copie a fiecărui fișier pe computerul dvs. Aceste copii sunt numite fișiere offline. Aveți posibilitatea să lucrați cu aceste fișiere chiar și când nu sunteți conectat la rețea, iar la următoarea conectare, Windows va sincroniza automat fișierele offline cu fișierele inițiale din folderul de rețea.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/understanding-offline-files#1TC=windows-7
CONTEXT 2: Când lucrați online cu Outlook și serverul de poștă electronică, primiți mesajele noi pe măsură ce sosesc, iar corespondența pe care o trimiteți este trimisă automat. Cu toate acestea, uneori nu este practic să se lucreze online. De exemplu, pot exista situații în care nu este disponibilă o conexiune la rețea din cauza locației. Alteori, chiar dacă o conexiune este disponibilă, poate nu doriți să o utilizați pentru a nu suporta costuri de conectare.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://office.microsoft.com/ro-ro/outlook-help/comutarea-intre-lucrul-offline-si-online-HP001232960.aspx
COMENTARIU: lat. ex; linea
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: adjectiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: neconectat
CORESPONDENT EN: offline
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: neconectat
ANTONIM: on-line
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
ONLINE
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: ONLINE
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Turned on and connected. For example, printers are online when they are ready to receive data from the computer. You can also turn a printer offline. While the printer is offline, you can perform certain tasks such as advancing the paper, but you cannot send data to it. Most printers have an online button you can press to turn the machine on- or offline.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/O/online.html
CONTEXT 1: Technically, computers that are on a network are online even if they are not connected to the Internet. But most networks are routed to a T1 line or other Internet connection anyway. When a computer or other device is not online, it is said to be offline.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/online
CONTEXT 2: When you are online, this means that a connection to the mail server is available, and Outlook sends and receives messages immediately for Exchange, IMAP, and HTTP e-mail accounts. For POP3 e-mail accounts, messages are sent immediately if the Send immediately when connected check box is selected on the Mail Setup tab (Tools menu, Options command).
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/outlook-help/switch-between-work ing-offline-and-online-HP001232960.aspx
COMMENTARY: lat. an; linea
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: adjective
GENERIC CONCEPT: connected
CORRESPONDENT RO: on-line
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: connected
ANTONYM: offline
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
ON-LINE
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: ON-LINE
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Un termen general ce se referă la orice dispozitiv sau fișier conectat și gata de comunicare în cadrul unei retele.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php#M
CONTEXT 1: Fișierele doar online, numite și fișiere inteligente, sunt un tip special de fișiere SkyDrive din Windows 8.1 și Windows RT 8.1. Le puteți răsfoi pe PC, dar conținutul fișierelor este, de fapt, în SkyDrive, astfel ca ele să nu ocupe mult spațiu pe disc. Fișierele doar online arată ca fișierele normale de pe PC, au toate informațiile tipice despre fișier (cum ar fi data modificării, tipul de fișier și dimensiunea) și se poate căuta în ele. Atunci când deschideți fișiere doar online din Explorer și din majoritatea aplicațiilor, conținutul fișierului este descărcat automat.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows-8/skydrive-online-available-offline
CONTEXT 2: Pentru a accesa fișierul online în orice moment, de pe orice dispozitiv, alegeți opțiunea Google Drive. Fișierul va fi descărcat în Google Drive, pe care îl puteți accesa de pe orice computer.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: https://support.google.com/chromebook/answer/1700055?hl=ro
COMENTARIU: lat. an; linea
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: adjectiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: conectat
CORESPONDENT EN: online
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: conectat
ANTONIM: off-line
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
PASSWORD
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: PASSWORD
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A secret series of characters that enables a user to access a file, computer, or program. On multi-user systems, each user must enter his or her password before the computer will respond to commands. The password helps ensure that unauthorized users do not access the computer. In addition, data files and programs may require a password.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/password.html
CONTEXT 1: Most passwords are comprised of several characters, which can typically include letters, numbers, and most symbols, but not spaces.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/password
CONTEXT 2: Whether the answer is one or hundreds, Password Safe allows you to safely and easily create a secured and encrypted user name/password list. With Password Safe all you have to do is create and remember a single "Master Password" of your choice in order to unlock and access your entire user name/password list.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://passwordsafe.sourceforge.net
COMMENTARY: lat. passare; germ. wort
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: credential
CORRESPONDENT RO: parolă
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: credential
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer security
PAROLĂ
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: PAROLĂ
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: O parolă este un șir de caractere pe care persoanele au posibilitatea să-l utilizeze pentru a face Log on pe un computer și pentru a accesa fișiere, programe și alte resurse. Parolele contribuie la asigurarea faptului că persoanele nu accesează computerul decât dacă au fost autorizate să facă acest lucru. În Windows, o parolă se poate alcătui din litere, cifre, simboluri și spații. De asemenea, parolele Windows diferențiază literele mari și mici.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows-vista/what-is-a-password
CONTEXT 1: Spargerea unei parole se face, de regulă, prin două metode. Una este simpla „ghicire”. O persoană care te cunoaște și vrea să intre pe unul din conturile tale va încerca prima oară cuvinte sau date care înseamnă ceva pentru tine. A doua metodă este atacul brut. Se folosesc în acest scop aplicații care încearcă, pe rând, toate combinațiile posibile. Cu cât este mai scurtă parola, cu atât mai repede este depistată de aceste programe.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.go4it.ro/internet/cum-alegi-o-parola-sigura-tot-ce-trebuie-sa-stii-despre-parole-5789165/
CONTEXT 2: Pentru a aduce mai multa sigurantă utilizatorilor, majoritatea site-urilor criptează parola înainte să o salveze în baza de date pe server. Criptarea este folosirea unui algoritm, care transformă parola într-un șir aleatoriu de text. Problema este atunci când această formula de criptare este salvată pe server, lângă baza de date J. Dacă serverul este spart de către un hacker, acestuia nu-i va fi greu să decripteze parolele.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://mystreet7.com/internet/cum-sunt-parolele-stocate-pe-internet-conteaza-parola-puternica.html
COMENTARIU: lat. parola
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: credențial
CORESPONDENT EN: password
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: securitate
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: PDF
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Short for Portable Document Format, a file format developed by Adobe Systems. PDF captures formatting information from a variety of desktop publishing applications, making it possible to send formatted documents and have them appear on the recipient’s monitor or printer as they were intended.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/sgsearch/results?cx=partner-pub-876800 4398756183%3A6766915980&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=UTF-8&q=PDF
CONTEXT 1: To view a PDF file, you need Adobe Reader, a free application program distributed by Adobe Systems. Adobe also makes an Acrobat Plug-in for Web browsers that enables PDF files to be viewed inside a browser window.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/pdf
CONTEXT 2: Invented by Adobe Systems and perfected over 20 years, Portable Document Format (PDF) is now an open standard for electronic document exchange maintained by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). When you convert documents, forms, graphics, and web pages to PDF, they look just like they would if printed. But unlike printed documents, PDF files can contain clickable links and buttons, form fields, video, and audio — as well as logic to help automate routine business processes. When you share a PDF file, virtually anyone can read it using free Adobe Reader® software or the Adobe Reader mobile app.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.adobe.com/ro/products/acrobat/adobepdf.html
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: file
CORRESPONDENT RO: PDF
HYPERONYM: Portable Document Format
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: file formats
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: PDF
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: PDF este un format de fișier care păstrează macheta și aspectul documentului intacte, astfel încât acesta arată exact cum a fost realizat și poate fi tipărit corect, oriunde și pe orice imprimantă. În industria tipografică, este folosit tot mai mult pentru a transfera date între diverse programe de tehnoredactare-DTP, fără a suferi nici o modificare.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.cnet.ro/2008/06/22/ce-inseamna-pdf/
CONTEXT 1: Formatul PDF este un format inventat in 1993 de Adobe Systems Inc., care acum este un standard deschis formal, menținut începând cu 1 iulie 2008 de Organizația Internațională pentru Standardizare (ISO).
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://codfiscal.net/7478/despre-pdf-portable-document-format
CONTEXT 2: Formatul PDF este prezent cam peste tot, atunci când este vorba de documente de orice fel și nu numai.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://asapteadimensiune.ro/din-nou-despre-pdf-uri.html
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: fișier
CORESPONDENT EN: PDF
HIPERONIM: Portable Document Format
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: formate fișier
PERIPHERAL DEVICE
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: PERIPHERAL DEVICE
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A computer device, such as a CD-ROM or printer, that is not part of the essential computer, i.e., the memory and microprocessor. Peripheral devices can be external – such as a mouse, keyboard, printer, monitor, external Zip drive or scanner – or internal, such as a CD-ROM drive, CD-R drive or internal modem. Internal peripheral devices are often referred to as integrated peripherals.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/peripheral_device.html
CONTEXT 1: Computer peripherals, or peripheral devices, are sometimes called "I/O devices" because they provide input and output for the computer. Some peripherals, such as external hard drives, provide both input and output for the computer.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/peripheral
CONTEXT 2: Proper maintenance of computer peripherals varies widely by type and should be performed as recommended by the manufacturer. This article provides information on the most frequently suggested and universally applicable tasks and practices recommended for maintaining peripheral devices.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.wikihow.com/Maintain-Computer-Peripherals
COMMENTARY: lat. periferia; fr. devis
GENERIC CONCEPT: external device
CORRESPONDENT RO: dispozitiv periferic
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: external device
ANTONYM: internal device
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: hardware
DISPOZITIV PERIFERIC
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: DISPOZITIV PERIFERIC
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Dispozitiv fizice conectat și folosit de un calculator. Tastatura, modem-ul, imprimanta, mouse-ul sunt toate dispozitive periferice.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://vsh.ro/tutorial/161/dictionar-de-termeni-din-domeniul-it/
CONTEXT 1: Dispozitivele periferice de intrare au rolul de a permite introducerea datelor în calculator.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://elearning.masterprof.ro/lectiile/informatica/lectie_01/ dispozitive_periferice_de_intrare.html
CONTEXT 2: Dispozitivele periferice de ieșire permit extragerea informațiilor dintr-un sistem de calcul.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://elearning.masterprof.ro/lectiile/informatica/lectie_01/ dispozitive_periferice_de_ieire.html
COMENTARIU: lat. periferia; fr. devis
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: dispozitiv extern
CORESPONDENT EN: peripheral device
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: dispozitiv extern
ANTONIM: dispozitiv intern
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: hardware
PIXEL
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: PIXEL
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Short for Picture Element, a pixel is a single point in a graphic image. Graphics monitors display pictures by dividing the display screen into thousands (or millions) of pixels, arranged in rows and columns. The pixels are so close together that they appear connected.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/pixel.html
CONTEXT 1: Each pixel can only be one color at a time. However, since they are so small, pixels often blend together to form various shades and blends of colors. The number of colors each pixel can be is determined by the number of bits used to represent it.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/pixel
CONTEXT 2: A computer screen is a coordinate plane in which each pixel is one unit. A typical computer screen measures 640 pixels horizontally and 480 pixels vertically. The origin of the plane is the upper left corner of the screen, so all x-coordinates are positive and all y-coordinates are negative.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.algebra.com/algebra/homework/Circles.faq.question.2006 17.html
COMMENTARY: sw. pyske; lat. elementem
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: picture element
CORRESPONDENT RO: pixel
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: picture element
ANTONYM: text element
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer graphics
PIXEL
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: PIXEL
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Cel mai mic element al unei imagini care poate fi procesat individual într-un sistem de afișaj video.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.ce-inseamna.ro/cuvantul/pixel/dictionar-explicativ-roman/ 383604
CONTEXT 1: Pixel Cryptor este un program care poate cripta fișiere sau dosare iar ceea ce îl deosebește de celelalte programe de acest fel este faptul că folosește o imagine pe post de parolă. Deși la prima vedere pare un program destul de minimalist, Pixel Cryptor folosește un algoritm de criptare foarte bun, ceea ce face ca datele să fie în siguranță.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.programepc.ro/criptare-fisiere/
CONTEXT 2: În imaginea digitală, pixelul (picture element) este cel mai mic component al informației dintr-o imagine. Pixelii sunt aranjați într-o rețea 2-dimensional și sunt reprezentați prin puncte sau pătrate. Fiecare pixel este o mică părticică din imaginea originală. Intensitatea unui pixel este variabilă; în sistemul colorimetric fiecare pixel are 4 componenți ca: roșu, verde și albastru (RGB) sau cyan, magenta, galben si negru (CMYK).
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.iasivezi.com/ce-este-pixelul/
COMENTARIU: elv. pyske
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CORESPONDENT EN: pixel
SINONIM: element pictorial
ANTONIM: element textual
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: grafică pe calculator
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Sometimes abbreviated PCB, a thin plate on which chips and other electronic components are placed. Computers consist of one or more boards, often called cards or adapters.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/printed_circuit_board.html
CONTEXT 1: While PCBs are often associated with computers, they are used in many other electronic devices besides PCs. Most TVs, radios, digital cameras, cellphones, and tablets include one or more printed circuit boards. While the PCBs found in mobile devices look similar to those found in desktop computers and large electronics, they are typically thinner and contain finer circuitry.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/pcb
CONTEXT 2: One of the key concepts in electronics is the printed circuit board or PCB. It’s so fundamental that people often forget to explain what a PCB is. This tutorial will breakdown what makes up a PCB and some of the common terms used in the PCB world.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/pcb-basics
COMMENTARY: old fr. preinte; circuit; proto-germ. burdam
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: cards
CORRESPONDENT RO: cablaj imprimat
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: hardware
CABLAJ IMPRIMAT
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: CABLAJ IMPRIMAT
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Cablajul imprimat este pentru un montaj electronic ceea ce este șasiul pentru o mașină sau scheletul osos pentru corpul tău. Așadar un cablaj imprimat este o componentă care pe de o parte susține mecanic componentele electronice (care altfel s-ar împrăștia haotic prin aparatul respectiv), iar pe de cealaltă parte realizează cea mai mare parte din conexiunile electrice dintre componente.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.hobbytronica.ro/ce-este-un-cablaj-imprimat/
CONTEXT 1: Cablajele imprimate (eng. PCB – Printed Circuit Board) sunt un element de bază în industria electronică și constituie suportul fizic al schemelor și componentelor electronice. Ele sunt constituite dintr-un substrat, uzual din sticlotextolit și o folie de câțiva microni grosime de cupru. Cablajul imprimat se găsește în comerț sub formă de plăci de diferite dimensiuni, cu o singură parte placată cu cupru (single-side) sau cu ambele fețe placate cu cupru (double-side). Industrial se folosesc mai multe straturi, de exemplu plăcile de bază ale calculatoarelor au până la 16 straturi, dar la nivel de amator două straturi sunt suficiente, uzual un singur strat pentru scheme nu foarte complexe.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://yo2kqk.kovacsfam.ro/concurs_pet/Amalia.Cucu.Palatul. Copiilor.Deva.pdf
CONTEXT 2: În cazul transpunerii imaginii cablajului imprimat de pe film pe semifabricatul placat, prin metoda fotografică principalele etape ale procesului tehnologic sunt: expunerea stratului de fotorezist la lumină, developarea și fixarea fotografică, faza de prelucrare a foliei de cupru.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://radio.ubm.ro/EA/Documente/Cursuri_Laboratoare/ Tehnologie/Laboratoare/Lab2.pdf
COMENTARIU: fr. imprime cablage
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: circuit imprimat
CORESPONDENT EN: printed circuit board
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: circuit imprimat
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: hardware
PSEUDOCODE
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: PSEUDOCODE
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: An outline of a program, written in a form that can easily be converted into real programming statements.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/pseudocode.html
CONTEXT 1: By describing a program in pseudocode, programmers of all types of languages can understand the function of a program.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/pseudocode
CONTEXT 2: It is not necessary in pseudocode to mention the need to declare variables. It is wise however to show the initialization of variables. You can use variable names in pseudocode but it is not necessary to be that specific.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.minich.com/education/wyo/stylesheets/pseudocode.htm
COMMENTARY: gr. pseudo; lat. codex
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: code
CORRESPONDENT RO: pseudocod
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: code
ANTONYM: decipher
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: programming
PSEUDOCOD
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: PSEUDOCOD
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Limbaj în proiectarea și documentarea programelor, prin grefarea unor reguli sintactice pe limbaj natural.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.ce-inseamna.ro/cuvantul/pseudocod/dictionar-explicativ-roman/485591
CONTEXT 1: Pseudocodul foloselte aceiași operatori și o exprimare relaxată față de un limbaj consacrat, care cere rigurozitate.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://mchelariu.wordpress.com/2009/08/09/l2-pseudocod/
CONTEXT 2: Un limbaj de tip pseudocod este un ansamblu de convenții, respectate în mod sistematic, care definesc operațiile permise (denumite și instrucțiuni) pentru reprezentarea algoritmilor.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://lumeaalgoritmilor.uv.ro/repr.htm
COMENTARIU: gr. pseudo; lat. codex
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: cod
CORESPONDENT EN: pseudocode
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: cifru
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: programare
RAM MEMORY
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: RAM MEMORY
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: RAM (pronounced ramm) is an abbreviation for random access memory, a type of computer memory that can be accessed randomly; that is, any byte of memory can be accessed without touching the preceding bytes. RAM is the most common type of memory found in computers and other devices, such as printers.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/R/RAM.html
CONTEXT 1: The more RAM your computer has, the more data can be loaded from the hard drive into the RAM, which can effectively speed up your computer. In fact, adding RAM can be more beneficial to your computer's performance than upgrading the CPU.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/ram
CONTEXT 2: If too many programs are open the computer will swap the data in the memory between the RAM and the hard disk drive.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/r/ram.htm
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: memory
CORRESPONDENT RO: memorie RAM
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: internal memory
ANTONYM: external memory
HYPERONYM: Random Access Memory
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: hardware
MEMORIE RAM
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: MEMORIE RAM
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Random Access Memory, tip de memorie a unui calculator folosită de software-ul de sistem pentru a păstra temporar programele și fișierele care sunt rulate.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://vsh.ro/tutorial/161/dictionar-de-termeni-din-domeniul-it/
CONTEXT 1: Memoria RAM îți ține datele și procesele cu care lucrezi pe moment și toate procesele funcționale atâta timp cât calculatorul este pornit. Când nu mai este curent se șterg din memorie.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://totuldesprecalculatoare.weebly.com/memoria-ram.html
CONTEXT 2: Indiferent de sistemul de operare instalat, utilizarea eficientă și cât mai completă a memoriei RAM este, contrar convingerilor multor utilizatori, un lucru bun. Printre altele, sistemele de operare moderne exploatează memoria RAM ca un spațiu volatil foarte rapid accesibil de stocare a fișierelor.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.windowsfaralimite.ro/windows/de-ce-este-ok-ca-ram-ul-pc-ului-sa-fie-folosit/
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: memorie
CORESPONDENT EN: RAM memory
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
HIPERONIM: Random Access Memory
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: hardware
RDI
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: DEBUG
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: The Remote Debug Interface (RDI) is an Application Programming Interface (API) that defines a standard set of data structures and functions that abstract hardware for debugging purposes.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/sgsearch/results?cx=partner-pub-876800 4398756183%3A6766915980&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=UTF-8&q=debug
CONTEXT 1: The Remote Debug Interface (RDI) is an ARM standard procedural interface between a debugger and the debug agent.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://infocenter.arm.com/help/index.jsp?topic=/com.arm.doc. dui006 6d/ch01s01s04.html
CONTEXT 2: Remote Debug interface that helps to instrument Chrome by providing a simple abstraction of the two main objects exposed by the protocol in a Node.js fashion,
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: https://npmjs.org/package/chrome-remote-interface
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: debug interface
CORRESPONDENT RO: RDI
HYPERONYM: Remote Debug Interface
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: programming
RDI
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: RDI
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Remote Debug Interface (RDI) este o interfață de programare, care definește un set standard de structuri de date și funcții pentru scopuri de depanare.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.webopedia.com/sgsearch/results?cx=partner-pub-876800 4398756183%3A6766915980&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=UTF-8&q=debug
CONTEXT 1: Ei bine, PyCharm vine cu suport pentru remote debugging pe aceste mașini. Practic, veți lansa o astfel de mașină direct din PyCharm cu Vagrant, instalați softurile de care aveți nevoie (Apache, Virtualenv, etc), astfel încât să aveți variantele de pachete dorite, puneți sursa pe mașina virtuală și când lansați o sesiune debug, acest cod va rula pe Linux, și vă asigurați că aveți o replică identică cu mașina de producție.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: https://groups.google.com/forum/#!topic/python-romania/bnGXa JAY76Y
CONTEXT 2: Dar ce ne facem dacă aplicația noastră web se află deja pe un server și vrem să facem debug la distanță? In cazul acesta putem să ne folosim de Msvsmon.exe. Această aplicație ne permite să activăm debugul la distanță. Se poate configura ca cel care se conectează să fie nevoit să se autentifice, ca să nu permitem oricărei persoane să se conecteze. Dezvoltatorul care doresșe să se conecteze remote trebuie să aibe Visual Studio activat. Din fereastra Attach To Process trebuie selectat Remote Debugging Monitor. Trebuie specificată adresa serverului și opțional credențialele.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://vunvulearadu.blogspot.ro/2010/11/cum-sa-facem-debug-si-sa-monitorizam-o.html
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: interfață erori de programare
CORESPONDENT EN: RDI
HIPERONIM: Remote Debug Interface
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: programare
ROM MEMORY
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: ROM MEMORY
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Pronounced rahm, abbreviation for read-only memory, computer memory on which data has been prerecorded. Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed and can only be read. Unlike main memory (RAM), ROM retains its contents even when the computer is turned off. ROM is referred to as being nonvolatile, whereas RAM is volatile.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/R/ROM.html
CONTEXT 1: ROM is memory containing hardwired instructions that the computer uses when it boots up, before the system software loads. In PCs, the instructions are read from a small program in the ROM, called the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System).
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/rom
CONTEXT 2: ROM stores the program required to initially boot the computer. It only allows reading.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.diffen.com/difference/RAM_vs_ROM
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: memory
CORRESPONDENT RO: memorie ROM
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: internal memory
ANTONYM: external memory
HYPERNONYM: Read-Only Memory
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: hardware
MEMORIE ROM
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: MEMORIE ROM
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Read Only Memory, tip de memorie în care sunt păstrate permanent informații esențiale pentru funcționarea calculatorului
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://vsh.ro/tutorial/161/dictionar-de-termeni-din-domeniul-it/
CONTEXT 1: Memoria ROM (Read Only Memory) este tipul de memorie care poate fi doar citită, spre deosebire de RAM. Nu poate fi scrisă sau modificată (sau poate fi, dar în condiții foarte dificile).
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://totuldesprecalculatoare.weebly.com/memoria-rom.html
CONTEXT 2: Inițial, informația prezentă în memoriile ROM nu se modifică, nici în cazul unor operații de scriere accidentală în ele (operație nepermisă) dar nici la dispariția tensiunii de alimentare a acestora.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://aparate.elth.ucv.ro/IVANOV/Discipline%20predate/Sistem e%20cu%20microprocesoare/Curs/C6.pdf
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: memorie
CORESPONDENT EN: ROM memory
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
HIPERONIM: Read-Only Memory
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: hardware
SATA
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: SATA
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Stands for "Serial Advanced Technology Attachment," or "Serial ATA." It is an interface used to connect ATA hard drives to a computer's motherboard. SATA transfer rates start at 150MBps, which is significantly faster than even the fastest 100MBps ATA/100 drives. For this and other reasons, Serial ATA is likely to replace the previous standard, Parallel ATA (PATA), which has been around since the 1980s.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://pc.net/glossary/definition/sata
CONTEXT 1: SATA II is the next set of SATA specifications after the initial SATA specification was written. SATA II specifications provide additional enhancements to SATA, delivered in increments.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.webopedia.com/sgsearch/results?cx=partner-pub-87680 04398756183%3A6766915980&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=UTF-8&q=SATA
CONTEXT 2: In summary, Serial ATA is a better, more efficient interface than the dated PATA standard. If you are looking to buy a computer that will support fast hard drives for years to come, make sure it comes with a SATA interface.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.techterms.com/definition/sata
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: interface
CORRESPONDENT RO: SATA
HYPERONYM: Serial Advanced Technology Attachement
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: hardware
SATA
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: SATA
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Abreviere de la Serial Advanced Technology Attachment, termenul desemnează o interfață pentru dispozitivele care se conectează la calculator. Aceasta permite transferul de date la viteze de până la 150 MB/s, iar SATA II de până la 300 MB/s. SATA este succesorul interfeței PATA (cunoscut si ca IDE), încă folosit astăzi.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.it-area.ro/dictionar/SATA
CONTEXT 1: Din punctul de vedere a construcției conectorului, nu există nici o modificare semnificativă. Poți conecata dispozitivul SATA 3 la portul SATA 2, și invers, conecta SATA 2 la portul SATA 3. În primul caz dispozitivul cu viteză mai mare va înțelege că este conectat la un port mai lent și va rula în modul de compatibilitate cu o viteză mai mică. În al doilea caz, portul va oferi o capacitate mai mare pentru lățimea de bandă, care este necesară pentru unitate, care va lucra în plină forță.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://devicebox.ro/tehnologia/care-este-diferenta-dintre-sata-2-de-sata-3.html
CONTEXT 2: Hard disk-urile SATA se ocupă de mai multe comenzi prin procesarea acestora în ordinea în care comenzile sunt primite. Din păcate, procesarea comenzilor în ordinea în care au fost primite, nu este întotdeauna cel mai eficient mod de a proceda. NCQ sau Native Command Queuing, permite unei unități SATA II să recreeze comenzile, pentru a le executa în cel mai eficient mod posibil. NCQ crește performanța sistemului.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.blasterzone.ro/diferentele-dintre-sata-i-si-sata-ii/
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: interfață
CORESPONDENT EN: SATA
HIPERONIM: Serial Advanced Technology Attachment
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: hardware
SOFTWARE
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: SOFTWARE
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Software means computer instructions or data. Anything that can be stored electronically is software, in contrast to storage devices and display devices which are called hardware.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/S/software.html
CONTEXT 1: While at its most basic level, software consists of binary data, CD-ROMs, and other types of media that are used to distribute software can also be called software. Therefore, when you buy a software program, it often comes on a disc, which is a physical means of storing the software.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/software
CONTEXT 2: Practical computer systems divide software into three major classes: system software, programming software and application software, although the distinction is arbitrary, and often blurred.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/c/computer_software.htm
COMMENTARY: germ. sacht; en. wær
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: application
CORRESPONDENT RO: software
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: program
ANTONYM: hardware
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer functions
SOFTWARE
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: SOFTWARE
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Set de programe și rutine care lucrează împreună pentru îndeplinirea unui set de funcții.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php#M
CONTEXT 1: Software Liber este adesea numit "Open Source." Acesta este un rezultat al unei încercări a Open Source Initiative (OSI) pentru a crea o campanie de marketing pentru Software Liber.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://fsfe.org/documents/whyfs.ro.html
CONTEXT 2: Software-ul reprezintă un sistem de programe/aplicații pentru calculatoare incluzând procedurile lor de aplicare, sistem furnizat o dată cu calculatorul respectiv sau creat ulterior de către utilizator; mai exact partea logică a calculatorului care comandă hardware-ul prin intermediul unor programe.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://pctroubleshooting.ro/topic/11873-ce-este-software-ul/
COMENTARIU: germ. sacht; en. wær
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: aplicatie
CORESPONDENT EN: software
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: aplicatie
ANTONIM: hardware
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: funcții calculatoare
SPAM
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: SPAM
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Spam is most often considered to be electronic junk mail or junk newsgroup postings. Some people define spam even more generally as any unsolicited e-mail. However, if a long-lost brother finds your e-mail address and sends you a message, this could hardly be called spam, even though it is unsolicited. Real spam is generally email advertising for some product sent to a mailing list or newsgroup.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/S/spam.html
CONTEXT 1: Spamming other people is definitely not cool and is one of the most notorious violations of Internet etiquette (or "netiquette"). So if you ever get the urge to let thousands of people know about that hot new guaranteed way to make money on the Internet, please reconsider.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/spam
CONTEXT 2: Email spam targets individual users with direct mail messages. Email spam lists are often created by scanning Usenet postings, stealing Internet mailing lists, or searching the Web for addresses. Email spams typically cost users money out-of-pocket to receive. Many people – anyone with measured phone service – read or receive their mail while the meter is running, so to speak. Spam costs them additional money. On top of that, it costs money for ISPs and online services to transmit spam, and these costs are transmitted directly to subscribers.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://spam.abuse.net/overview/whatisspam.shtml
COMMENTARY: en. spiced; ham
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: junk mail
CORRESPONDENT RO: spam
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: junk mail
ANTONYM: good mail
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer security
SPAM
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: SPAM
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: SPAM este un mesaj de poștă electronică (e-mail) nesolicitat. În cele mai multe cazuri sunt mesaje comericiale (oferte, promotii, etc.) și intenția expeditorului este de a beneficia de publicitate la costuri foarte mici.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.spamalert.ro/centrul-de-informare.php?i=1
CONTEXT 1: E destul de greu de stabilit exact care din amenințările informatice sunt mai dăunătoare (luând în considerare aici spamul și diversele tipuri de malware). Însă este o certitudine că se ajută unele pe altele pentru a face un rău general mai mare. Se crează un lanț. De exemplu un worm (care e o formă de malware) poate aduce cu sine și un backdoor, care îi va permite să transforme sistemul utilizatorului într-un "computer zombie" care va face parte dintr-un botnet, controlat de autorul worm-ului. În felul acesta, sistemul – acum compromis – va primi comenzi și va trimite spamuri la diverse adrese de mail. Aceste spamuri pot la rândul lor să conțină fișiere infectate atașate, sau linkuri de download la executabile dăunătoare.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.go4it.ro/internet/despre-spam-si-cum-sa-te-protejezi-de-amenintarile-informatice-8099663/
CONTEXT 2: Orice mail cu conținut comercial (promovare, oferte, anunțuri, cupoane etc) pe care destinatarul nu l-a solicitat în prealabil sau pentru care nu și-a dat acordul prealabil reprezintă spam. Acele texte de la baza mailurilor care spun spre exemplu că adresa de mail a fost găsită în surse publice sau că primirea mailului nu implică financiar destinatarul (sau alte scuze similare) sunt doar praf în ochi. În cazul în care destinatarul și-a publicat adresa de mail într-un ghid de afaceri, a făcut-o într-un scop precis și poate fi contactat doar în sensul respectiv. În plus orice spam implică financiar destinatarul pentru că analizarea unui mail consumă timp, iar timpul înseamnă bani.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.redhost.ro/hosting/despre-spam/
COMENTARIU: en. spiced; ham
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: mesaj nedorit
CORESPONDENT EN: spam
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: mesaj nedorit
ANTONIM: mesaj dorit
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: securitate
UBUNTU
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: UBUNTU
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A community-developed Linux-based operating system that can be used on desktops, laptops and servers. The operating system includes a variety of applications including those for word processing, e-mail applications, Web server software and also programming tools. Ubuntu is free of charge, including enterprise releases and security updates. It also comes with full commercial support from Canonical. Ubuntu is available in both a desktop and server edition.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/U/Ubuntu.html
CONTEXT 1: Ubuntu, the leading OS for x86 and ARM hyperscale is partnering with HP to disrupt the server marketplace with HP Moonshot system.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.ubuntu.com/server
CONTEXT 2: The Ubuntu symbol in the official logo is called "Circle of Friends", and represents: freedom, collaboration, precision and reliability.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://xmodulo.com/2013/10/interesting-facts-ubuntu-linux.html
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: operating system
CORRESPONDENT RO: Ubuntu
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: operating systems
UBUNTU
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: UBUNTU
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Ubuntu este un sistem de operare realizat de o echipă globală de experți. Conține toate aplicațiile de care aveți nevoie: un navigator de Internet, o suită de birou, aplicații media, mesagerie instant și multe altele. Ubuntu este o alternativă liberă pentru Windows și soluțiile Office.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://ubuntu.ro/
CONTEXT 1: Spre deosebire de Windows, Ubuntu este un sistem de operare bazat pe Linux și dezvoltat de Canonical, în timp ce Windows-ul aparține celor de la Microsoft. Ambele au mai multe versiuni lansate la activ. În zilele noastre Microsoft a lansat Windows 8, iar Ubuntu versiunea 13.04.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://proiectromania.wordpress.com/2012/04/16/ubuntu-sau-windows78-care-merita-video/
CONTEXT 2: Intergața default cu care vine Ubuntu 13.04 – Unity, este mult mai îmbunătățită decât precedentele. O parte din iconițe sunt modificate și arată chiar foarte ok. Nautilus se dechide foarte repede și arată mult mai interesant decât în edițiile precedente. Un plus a fost adăugat și pentru Empathy. Iconița Ubuntu One apare și în system tray, colțul din dreapta sus. Meniul din dreapta sus – colț, este destul de schimbat. Butoanele pentru restart, shut down, log out, sunt foarte diferite, dar interesante. Ubuntu Software Center se încarcă foarte repede.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://mystreet7.com/linux/cateva-cuvinte-despre-ubuntu-13-04-galerie-foto.html
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: sistem de operare
CORESPONDENT EN: Ubuntu
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: sisteme de operare
UPC
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: UPC
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: (pronounced as separate letters) Short for Universal Product Code, a unique 12-digit number assigned to retail merchandise that identifies both the product and the vendor that sells the product. The UPC on a product typically appears adjacent to its bar code, the machine-readable representation of the UPC.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/U/UPC.html
CONTEXT 1: UPC not only identifies an item, it also provides real time information on quantity sold, store traffic pattern, and inventory and ordering information. Introduced by IBM in 1973 for use in electronic point-of-sale, it was supplanted by European Article Numbering (EAN) code in 1976.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/Universal-Product-Code-UPC.html
CONTEXT 2: UPC (Universal Product Code) is a numeric symbology used in retail applications. UPC has two variations, an 11 digit UPC Type A barcode and and 6 digit UPC Type E barcode. A check digit is automatically calculated by the barcode generation software in both UPC variations. Each can be appended with a 2 or 5 digit supplemental code.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.taltech.com/barcodesoftware/symbologies/upc
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: UPC
CORRESPONDENT RO: cod de bare
HYPERONYM: Universal Product Code
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer technology
COD DE BARE
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: COD DE BARE
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Reprezentare simbolică codificată, procedeu care permite identificarea rapidă a unui produs și a caracteristicilor sale (natura, originea, tipul, greutatea, prețul) prin folosirea unui cititor optic de coduri (scanner electronic), conectat la un computer. Avantajele inscripționării unice folosind codul de bare permite un control eficient al stocurilor (introducerea/scoaterea automată din gestiune a produselor, urmărirea numerelor de serie), selectarea automată a prețului, eliminarea erorilor generate de operarea umană, simplificarea operațiunilor de distribuție fizică, eliberarea imediată de bonuri complexe de către casele de marcat fiscale, cuprinzând informații detaliate pentru fiecare produs achiziționat, reducerea timpului de servire și de așteptare a cumpărătorilor etc. Utilizarea acestui sistem de inscripționare s-a extins la peste 90 la sută din produsele de larg consum. Codul sub formă de bare de diferite grosimi este tipărit pe ambalaj sau pe eticheta produsului și este format din 13 cifre.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.comunicatedepresa.ro/cod-de-bare/definitie/
CONTEXT 1: Codurile liniare de bare cele mai utilizate în practica internațională, standardizate la nivel european, preluate și în standardele românești sunt: UPC, EAN, codurile 39, 93, 128, codul 2 din 5, codul 2 din 5 înlănțuit și Codabar.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://blogevent.ro/2012/05/04/ce-este-codul-de-bare/
CONTEXT 2: Un cititor de coduri de bare folosește un senzor optic pentru a converti codul de bare într-un impuls electric pe măsură ce fascicolul trece pe deasupra codului. Apoi cititorul măsoară grosimile relative alte liniilor și spațiilor întâlnite, decodifică aceste secvențe, le transformă înapoi în caractere și le transmite la computer sau la un terminal portabil.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.coduridebare.com/intro.html
COMENTARIU: lat. codex; fr. barre
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: UPC
CORESPONDENT EN: UPC
HIPERONIM: Universal Product Cod
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: tehnologie digitală
USB
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: USB
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Short for Universal Serial Bus, an external bus standard that supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps. A single USB port can be used to connect up to 127 peripheral devices, such as mice, modems and keyboards. USB also supports Plug-and-Playinstallation and hot plugging.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/U/USB.html
CONTEXT 1: Though USB was introduced in 1997, the technology didn't really take off until the introduction of the Apple iMac (in late 1998) which used USB ports exclusively. It is somewhat ironic, considering USB was created and designed by Intel, Compaq, Digital, and IBM. Over the past few years, USB has become a widely-used cross-platform interface for both Macs and PCs.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/usb
CONTEXT 2: After USB was accepted as the new standard for computer devices, operating system designers like Microsoft and Macintosh went extra lengths to include drivers for as many devices as they could with their new systems. Thanks to their preparations, many USB devices now don’t even require installation CD’s or driver disks… just plug it in and the OS will find and install the driver for you.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.datapro.net/techinfo/usb_info.html
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: port
CORRESPONDENT RO: USB
HYPERONYM: Universal Serial Bus
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: hardware
USB
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: USB
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Este o metodă de conectare standard pentru a conecta diferitele periferice ale computerului la acesta, cu intenția de a înlocui multe varietăți de porturi seriale și paralele și a conecta diferitele dispozitive printr-un port unic. Astăzi putem conecta un mouse, o tastatură, cameră, gamepad-ul, telefonul mobil, imprimanta, flash drive, hard disk-ul extern, acestea fiind doar câteva exemple.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.usbshop.ro/usb-faq
CONTEXT 1: Dispozitivele USB se numără printre dispozitivele cel mai ușor de conectat la computer. Prima dată când conectați un dispozitiv care se conectează la un port USB, Windows identifică automat dispozitivul și instalează un driver pentru dispozitivul respectiv. Driverele permit computerului să comunice cu dispozitivele de hardware. Fără un driver, un dispozitiv USB pe care îl conectați la computer – de exemplu, un mouse sau o cameră Web – nu vor funcționa corect.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/install-usb-device #1TC=windows-7
CONTEXT 2: USB flash drive-urile sunt de obicei detașabile și reinscriptibile, și au o dimensiune mai redusă decât dischetele. Acestea au aceeași utilizare cum au avut la rândul lor dischetele sau CD ROM-urile, doar că reprezintă o variantă îmbunătățită și modernă. Sunt mai mici, mai rapide, cu o capacitate mai mare și mai durabile în timp deoarece nu au părți mobile. Unele USB-uri permit chiar 100,000 de cicluri de scriere/ștergere (în funcție de tipul de chip de memorie ce este utilizat) sau o durabilitate de stocare de până la 10 ani.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.printcd.ro/Noutati/Tot-ce-trebuie-sa-stii-despre-un-stick-USB–eID69.html
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: port
CORESPONDENT EN: USB
HIPERONIM: Universal Serial Bus
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: hardware
VGA
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: VGA
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Abbreviation of video graphics array, a graphics display system for PCs developed by IBM. VGA has become one of the de facto standards for PCs. In text mode, VGA systems provide a resolution of 720 by 400 pixels. In graphics mode, the resolution is either 640 by 480 (with 16 colors) or 320 by 200 (with 256 colors).
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/V/VGA.html
CONTEXT 1: The most common is Super VGA (SVGA), which allows for resolutions greater than 640×480, such as 800×600 or 1024×768. A standard VGA connection has 15 pins and is shaped like a trapezoid.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/vga
CONTEXT 2: The Video Graphics Array cables (VGA) has been used for a long time now. These cables are formerly exclusive for IBM computers but as time goes by many computer producers adopted with this kind of technology.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.slideshare.net/sandrasummer/things-you-need-to-know-about-vga-cables
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: VGA
CORRESPONDENT RO: VGA
HYPERONYM: Video Graphics Array
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: hardware
VGA
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: VGA
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Interfața VGA reprezenta tipul de conexiune nativ folosit de către monitoarele CRT, la rândul lor dispărute deja de ani buni de pe rafturile magazinelor.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.go4it.ro/monitoare/interfata-vga-este-pe-cale-de-disparitie-7826585/
CONTEXT 1: Cablurile pentru VGA, DVI și componenta video nu acceptă semnalele audio. Totuși, cablurile HDMI acceptă semnalele audio, dar nu toate plăcile video activate pentru HDMI acceptă și audio.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/connect-computer-tv#1TC=windows-7
CONTEXT 2: De obicei, cablurile ce dispun de un conector VGA sunt cele mai ieftine și mai ușor de găsit în magazinele de calculatoare. În cazul în care dorim să transmitem semnalul video printr-o astfel de mufă, vom avea nevoie de un cablu care să dispuna la un capăt de un astfel de conector.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.programecalculator.ro/cum-se-conecteaza-calculat orul-laptopul-la-tv-inclusiv-televizoare-hd/
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: interfață
CORESPONDENT EN: VGA
HIPERONIM: Video Graphics Array
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: hardware
WORM
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: WORM
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A program or algorithm that replicates itself over a computer network and usually performs malicious actions, such as using up the computer's resources and possibly shutting the system down.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/W/worm.html
CONTEXT 1: Worms are hard to detect because they are typically invisible files. They often go unnoticed until your computer begins to slow down or starts having other problems. Unlike viruses and Trojan horses, worms can replicate themselves and travel between systems without any action from the user.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/worm
CONTEXT 2: The spreading used is via instant messaging applications by sending links to infected websites to everyone on the local contact list. The only difference between these and email worms is the way chosen to send the links.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://virusall.com/computer%20worms/worms.php
COMMENTARY: en. wurm
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: malicious program
CORRESPONDENT RO: vierme cibernetic
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: replicator
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer security
VIERME
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: VIERME
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Un vierme este un program care are de asemenea abilitatea de a se replica rapid pe cât mai multe calculatoare conectate între ele, speculând așa numitele “găuri” de securitate ale anumitor aplicații sau ale sistemelor de operare. De exemplu viermele Slammer care a provocat mari necazuri în ianuarie 2003 a exploatat o problemă de securitate în aplicația SQL Server de la Microsoft.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.ctcluj.ro/faq.htm#worm
CONTEXT 1: Viermele Code Read era deosebit de virulent și complicat, atacând stații de lucru Sun și VAX care rulau sistemul de operare Unix de la Berkeley. Viermele folosea mai multe metode de propagare, exploatând mai multe slăbiciuni în configurarea calculatoarelor și implementarea programelor.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~mihaib/articole/codered/codered-html. html
CONTEXT 2: Viermii informatici sunt programe cu efecte distructive ce utilizează comunicarea între computere pentru a se răspândi. Viermii au trăsături comune atât cu virușii cât și cu troienii. Viermii informatici sunt capabili să se multiplice, asemenea virușilor, însă nu local, ci pe alte calculatoare. Folosesc rețelele de calculatoare pentru a se răspândi pe alte sisteme. Caracteristica comună cu a troienilor este faptul că viermii nu pot infecta un fișier; ei afectează sistemul. Conform RFC 1135, „un vierme este un program care poate rula independent, care consumă resursele gazdei pentru a se executa și care poate propaga o versiune funcțională a să către alte calculatoare”.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.securitatea-informatiilor.ro/tipuri-de-atacuri-informat ice/analiza-viermilor-informatici/
COMENTARIU: lat. viermis
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: virus
CORESPONDENT EN: worm
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: virus
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: securitate
WEBMASTER
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: WEBMASTER
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: The webmaster is the person in charge of maintaining a Web site. The jobs of a webmaster include writing HTML for Web pages, organizing the Web site's structure, responding to e-mails about the Web site, and keeping the site up-to-date. On some Web sites you might see a phrase that says, "send dead links and other Web site problems to [anonimizat]."
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.techterms.com/definition/webmaster
CONTEXT 1: The webmaster is basically the author, or the administrator of the website. The webmaster is designated the work of not only the designing and initial developing of the website but also the marketing and the long term maintenance associated with the webpage.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.yourmaindomain.com/web-articles/about-webmaster-work.asp
CONTEXT 2: As a Webmaster you have multiple options. You can customize your personal profile, add a co branded site with custom design and own 2nd level domain name, view detailed transactions reports, filter content for your website, update logo.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://joc56manual.jamoncam.com/joc-module/webmaster-manual/webmaster-description/
COMMENTARY: germ. gewebe; lat. magister
GRAMATICAL CATEGORY: noun
GENERIC CONCEPT: administrator
CORRESPONDENT RO: webmaster
CORRESPONDENT SOURCE: www.wordreference.com
SYNONYM: administrator
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: programming
WEBMASTER
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: WEBMASTER
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Webmaster sau „web master” este un cuvânt compus provenit din limba engleza și utilizat și pe românește exact în forma originală engleză, desemnând o persoană sau un grup de persoane care se îngrijește de editarea și menținerea actuală a unui website.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://mihai.amforum.net/t3-ce-este-un-webmaster
CONTEXT 1: La construirea unui website se depun multe eforturi pentru ca acesta să ajungă conform așteptărilor. După ce devii proprietarul unui site, trebuie să îți dai silința să fii cel mai bun webmaster posibil pentru siteul tău, îți datorezi ție și afacerii tale acest lucru. Un site nu ajunge să fie bine construit; ca să ajungă un succes trebuie administrat corespunzător.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.zooku.ro/blog/5-activitati-care-te-fac-un-webmaster-mai-bun/
CONTEXT 2: Google Webmaster Tools este un serviciu adresat administratorilor de site-uri, care ajută la optimizarea modului în care paginile web deținute sunt indexate de către motorul de căutare Google.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://cp.shopmania.ro/help/biz?topic=136
COMENTARIU: germ. gewebe; lat. magister
CATEGORIE GRAMATICALĂ: substantiv
CONCEPT GENERIC: administrator
CORESPONDENT EN: webmaster
SURSA CORESPONDENT: www.wordreference.com
SINONIM: administrator
DESEMNAREA STATUTULUI: oficial
APLICARE: programare
WWW
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: WWW
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: The WWW prefix (short for World Wide Web) that precedes URL addresses is an indication that the Web address exists on the vast network of the World Wide Web. Sometimes in a URL the "WWW" is followed by a number, such as "WWW1" or "WWW2." The number that follows the "WWW" indicates that the data being retrieved by the Web browser is gathering the information from a different Web server than the one that serves the typical "WWW" address.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/W/WWW1.html
CONTEXT 1: The reason "www." is often prepended to the addresses of web sites is that not all Internet domains used to actually have web sites. While this may come as a surprise today, Internet domains were originally used only for sending email, connecting to remote computer systems and transferring files.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://ascherconsulting.com/archive/page/what/does/www/stand/for
CONTEXT 2: WWW stands for world wide web. A computer network of internet sites that offer text, graphics, sound, and anitmation. It is a hypertexed communication and information system.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://answers.reference.com/information/terminology/what_does_w ww _stand_for
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: web
CORRESPONDENT RO: www
HYPERONYM: World Wide Web
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer networks
WWW
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: WWW
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: World Wide Web reprezinta un uriaș sistem de pagini stocate pe servere diferite și interconectate prin linkuri, conținând text, imagini, sunete, fișiere video, postcript, Flash și alte formate. Internet-ul este rețeaua mondială de calculatoare interconectate prin protocolul IP – Internet Protocol. Tim Berners-Lee – devenit cavaler în 2004 – este apreciat drept unul dintre cei mai importanți inventatori ai umanității. La propunerea sa, în 1994, a luat ființă World Wide Web Consortium – W3C, o organizație non-profit, care ordonează evoluția Web-ului. Ca și dată de apariție a Web-ului și HTML-ului se consideră ziua de 6 august 1991, când Tim Berners-Lee a creat prima pagină Web
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://www.cursuriweb.ro/ce-este-www/
CONTEXT 1: Fiecare pagină web este identificată printr-o adresa unică, care se mai numeste și URL (Uniform Resource Locator).
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://www.primulpas.ro/world_wide_web.htm
CONTEXT 2: Un nume de domeniu localizează un calculator (host) pe Internet. Un site web este o colecție de documente web (în format HTML) ce includ o pagină de intrare, de start numită home page. Site-ul web a unei persoane sau a unei firme poate fi accesată prin adresa "home page"-ului. De acolo dupa aceea se poate accesa restul site-ului. Practic "home page"-ul include și un nume de fișier, care în general este numit index.html sau index.htm (sau index.php, index.asp și alte câteva variante, dar cele menționate sunt cele mai des întâlnite), însă acesta nu trebuie specificat în adresă pentru că serverul web este setat să caute implicit unul din aceste nume de fișiere.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://vega.unitbv.ro/~jipa/ui/web/1-web.html
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: rețea
CORESPONDENT EN: www
HIPERONIM: World Wide Web
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: rețele calculatoare
XML
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: XML
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: Short for Extensible Markup Language, a specification developed by the W3C. XML is a pared-down version of SGML, designed especially for Web documents.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/sgsearch/results?cx=partner-pub-876800 4398756183%3A6766915980&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=UTF-8&q=XML
CONTEXT 1: Stands for "Extensible Markup Language." (Yes, technically it should be EML). XML is used to define documents with a standard format that can be read by any XML-compatible application. The language can be used with HTML pages, but XML itself is not a markup language. Instead, it is a "metalanguage" that can be used to create markup languages for specific applications. For example, it can describe items that may be accessed when a Web page loads. Basically, XML allows you to create a database of information without having an actual database. While it is commonly used in Web applications, many other programs can use XML documents as well.
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://www.techterms.com/definition/xml
CONTEXT 2: Maybe it is a little hard to understand, but XML does not DO anything. XML was created to structure, store, and transport information.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://www.w3schools.com/xml/xml_whatis.asp
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
CORRESPONDENT RO: XML
HYPERONYM: Extensible Markup Language
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: programming
XML
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: XML
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: XML (eXtensible Markup Language), descendent al SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language) este un meta-limbaj utilizat în activitatea de marcare structurală a documentelor, a cărei specificație a fost dezvoltată începând cu 1996 în cadrul Consorțiului World Wide Web (W3C), de un grup de cercetare condus de Jon Bosak de la Sun Microsystems, la care au aderat ulterior o serie de grupuri de experți din comunitățile academice (Text Encoding Initiative, NCSA, James Clark) și industriale (SUN, IBM, Netscape, Oracle, Adobe etc.). Prima versiune de XML a fost standardizată în februarie 1998; ulterior acest standard a mai fost revizuit de două ori.
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://inf.ucv.ro/~mihaiug/courses/xml/IntroducereInXML.html
CONTEXT 1: Documentele HTML și XML conțin date cuprinse între etichete, dar aici se termină asemănările între cele două limbaje. În HTML, etichetele definesc aspectul și stilul datelor, liniile de titlu sunt aici, paragraful începe aici și tot așa. În XML etichetele definesc structura și semnificația datelor, ceea ce înseamnă aceste date.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://office.microsoft.com/ro-ro/word-help/xml-pentru-incepatori -HA010034022.aspx
CONTEXT 2: Deși XML este un standard (adică exista reguli pentru a crea aceste fișiere) totuși pot apărea probleme, întrucât se pot crea structuri atât de diferite și totuși similare folosind descrieri cu XML schemă. Acest lucru a reprezentat la început o mare problemă, dar acum organizațiile încep să colaboreze (multe prin intermediul W3C) pentru a dezvolta și promova un singur standard XML pentru fiecare domeniu cu probleme.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://interfetewebas.blogspot.ro/2008/11/ce-este-xml-scurta-descriere.html
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CORESPONDENT EN: XML
HIPERONIM: Extensible Markup Language
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: programare
YUV
ID LANGUAGE: EN
ENTRY: YUV
ID COUNTRY: UK/US
STANDARD DEFINITION: A color encoding system used for analog television, such as NTSC and PAL. The YUV color model represents the human perception of color more closely than the standard RGB model used in computer graphics hardware. In YUV, Y is the luminance (brightness) component while U and V are the chrominance (color) components.
DEFINITION SOURCE: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/Y/YUV.html
CONTEXT 1: Technically speaking, saying “YUV” to describe YCbCr is not accurate at all, but the name stuck, and so now, most people who are talking about YCbCr use the term YUV incorrectly. It’s like calling an American football team that plays in New Jersey the “New York Giants.”
CONTEXT SOURCE 1: http://blogs.adobe.com/VideoRoad/2010/06/what_is_yuv.html
CONTEXT 2: Analog television uses YUV partly for historical reasons. Analog color television signals were designed to be backward compatible with black-and-white televisions. The color television signal carries the chroma information (U and V) superimposed onto the luma signal. Black-and-white televisions ignore the chroma and display the combined signal as a grayscale image. (The signal is designed so that the chroma does not significantly interfere with the luma signal.) Color televisions can extract the chroma and convert the signal back to RGB.
CONTEXT SOURCE 2: http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/bb530104 (v=vs.85).aspx
COMMENTARY: abbreviation
GENERIC CONCEPT: color encoding system
CORRESPONDENT RO: YUV
HYPERONYM: Luminance Bandwith Crominance
DESIGNATION STATUS: official
USE AREA: computer graphics
YUV
ID LIMBA: RO
VEDETA: YUV
ID ȚARA: RO
DEFINIȚIE STANDARD: Sistemul de reprezentare YUV este adesea folosit pentru compresia de imagini precum și pentru compresia video
SURSA DEFINIȚIEI: http://rft.forter.ro/2009_4_t/06-arm/04.htm
CONTEXT 1: O modalitate de reprezentare a imaginilor color, respectiv reprezentarea în coordonate YUV, se bazează pe componentele de luminanță și de crominanță ale imaginii. Rezolutia unui sistem de prelucrare a imaginilor se referă la capacitatea de a reda detaliile fine dintr-o imagine. O rezoluție ridicată necesită sisteme complexe pentru reprezentarea imaginilor în timp real. În cazul sistemelor de calcul, rezoluția este reprezentată de numărul de pixeli (spre exemplu, standardul VGA are o rezolutie de 640×480 pixeli). În sistemele video, rezoluția se referă, în general, la numărul de linii afișate pe ecranul monitorului într-un cadru și de numărul de cadre complete transmise într-o secundă.
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 1: http://ctmtc.utcluj.ro:8080/romana/Documente%20Discipline/ CCISV/Materiale%20curs/CAP2A%20-%20metode%20de%20compresie.pdf
CONTEXT 2: O schemă de culori acceptată în toată lumea, cunoscută sub denumirea de CCIR 601, folosește trei componente Y, Cb și Cr care se referă la luminozitate, albstreală și roșeață. Componenta Y poate fi utilizată direct ca fiind versiunea alb-negru a imaginii (uneori Cb și Cr sunt numite U și V, iar schema de culori este referită prin notația YUV, totusi în sens strict tehnic YUV nu este același lucru cu YCbCr).
SURSA CONTEXTULUI 2: http://www.byte.ro/byte95-01/jpe.html
COMENTARIU: formă abreviată
CONCEPT GENERIC: sistem de codare
CORESPONDENT EN: YUV
HIPERONIM: Luminance Bandwith Crominance
DESIGNATION STATUS: oficial
APLICARE: grafică pe calculator
V. CONCLUSIONS
THE OPTIONS OF A GLOSSARY ON INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Information Technology relies greatly on the endowment and expertise of groups of individuals who give their time to the cause of IT development. These individuals, serving as a Information Technology trustee are often called on the discuss of computer development issues. The Glossary on the domain of Information Technology was designed to help individuals to understand the everyday language of computers.
This Glossary, while mainly intended to familiarize Information Technology trustee with the language of computers, will be of value to anyone involved in the field of Information Technology. It serves as a quick read of ordinarily used computer terms and abbreviations.
The author encourages reference to the Glossary as a manner to better know and comprehend the meaning of today’s most pressing computer issues.
GLOSSARY CONTENT
The structure of the Information Technology Glossary is made of 180 entries, in the main 90 precise and genuine English constructs, and 90 of their Romanian translations. The entropy is although general, but precise and the terms I’ve search for a corespondent are mostly, nouns, verbs and adjectives.
The Glossary was designed in an easy-to-use extension. Users of the Glossary will find words and notions dealing with computers word, finance and management. It is not an all-inclusive computers dictionary, but rather a glossary of words, notions and acronyms usually used by professionals involved in Information Technology industry.
The Glossary includes coincise explanations of the words and terms, defined within the context of the computers world. Any ordinarily used acronyms and abbreviations for the words and terms are provided.
GLOSSARY DEVELOPMENT CHANGES
The language of computers has changed in a drastic manner over the past years. At one time, the language of computers was roughly exclusively within the domain of Information Technology. Now one must also be eloquent in the language of management, finance and computer technology.
The author thankfully acknowledges the expertise and support of the website mentioned in the References section of the Glossary in the development of this edition of the Glossary.
VI. REFERENCES
http://89.121.249.92/2010-2011/Catedre/Informatica/11/Functii.pdf
http://bioinformatics.oxfordjournals.org/content/29/13/i257.full
http://blog.kaspersky.com/the-big-four-banking-trojans/
http://blogs.adobe.com/jkost/2012/04/background-save-and-auto-save-features-in-photoshop-cs6.html
http://bookspot.ro/post/2010/10/25/Animatia.aspx
http://compnetworking.about.com/od/speedtests/a/network-speed.htm
http://dcd.uaic.ro/?page_id=869
http://dexonline.ro
http://docs.spring.io/spring-ldap/docs/1.3.x/reference/html/user-authentication.html
http://download.chip.eu/ro/WinRAR-4.11_39266.html
http://infoscience.3x.ro/c++/siruridecaractere.htm
http://invatahtmlake.3x.ro/legaturi.html
http://its.ucsc.edu/security/bandwidth.html
http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-642-32063-7_28
http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa741313(v=vs.85).aspx
http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/k089yyh0.aspx
http://office.microsoft.com/ro-ro/word-help/anularea-refacerea-sau-repetarea-unei-actiuni-HA102566168.aspx#_Toc285707989
http://office.microsoft.com/ro-ro/word-help/incarcarea-sau-anularea-incarcarii-unui-sablon-sau-a-unui-program-de-completare-HA010105537.aspx
http://pc.net/glossary/definition
http://rajkishor09.hubpages.com/hub/Array-in-C-programming–Programmers-view
http://revistaie.ase.ro/content/16/mlak.pdf
http://ro.backup4all.com/resurse/copia-de-siguranta-completa.html
http://sorana.academicdirect.ro/pages/doc/ComputBiol/C07.pdf
http://support.apple.com/kb/ht1553
http://support.microsoft.com/kb/169289
http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/magazine/ee851672.aspx
http://vega.unitbv.ro/~jipa/ui/linux/arhivare.html
http://videotutorial.ro/configurare-legatura-wireless-dintre-un-router-si-un-access-point-tutorial-video/
http://vsh.ro/tutorial/161/dictionar-de-termeni-din-domeniul-it/
http://wasd.ro/news/amd-a-prezentat-la-computex-2010-primele-unitati-de-procesare-accelerata-fusion
http://whatismyipaddress.com/broadband
http://white.net/noise/link-building-link-context-and-anchor-text-optimisation/
http://wifimag.ro/documentatie/airos5/access-point
http://windows.microsoft.com/is-is/windows/hubs-switches-routers-access-points-differ#1TC=windows-7
http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/search#q=aliniere
http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/using-defender#1 TC=windows-7
http://www.adobe.com/devnet/flash/learning_guide/animation.html
http://www.amd.com/us/products/technologies/apu/Pages/apu.aspx
http://www.asrock.com/mb/AMD/A75%20Pro4-M/index.ro.asp
http://www.bestantivirus.ro/kaspersky_endpoint_security_
http://www.bleepingcomputer.com/glossary/definition258.html
http://www.bluetooth.com/Pages/Basics.aspx
http://www.coffeecup.com/website-access-manager/
http://www.cpu-world.com/CPUs/Pentium_Dual-Core/
http://www.crispedia.ro/Animatie_computerizata
http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php
http://www.dex.ro/sir
http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/configuring-a-wireless-access-point.html
http://www.google.com/intl/ro_ALL/insidesearch/howsearch
http://www.guru3d.com/articles_pages/amd_a8_7600_apu_review,1.html
http://www.hdmi.org/consumer/finding_right_cable.aspx
http://www.headprint.ro/blog/ce-este-bannerul
http://www.horax.home.ro/tutorial/inceput/pagina%209.htm
http://www.html5canvastutorials.com/tutorials/html5-canvas-text-align/
http://www.imation.com/en-US/Scalable-Storage/Scalable-Storage-Solutions/Archiving/
http://www.informatica.com/us/products/application-ilm/data-archive/
http://www.informatiiprofesionale.ro/informatica/definitii-din-lumea-itc
http://www.informatii-it.ro/2011/10/08/explicarea-conceptelor-de-latime-de-banda-si-transmisie-de-date/
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/atm.asp
http://www.mecs-press.org/ijcnis/ijcnis-v5-n11/v5n11-2.html
http://www.microsoft.com/security/resources/antivirus-whatis.aspx
http://www.novell.com/documentation/oes2/ntwk_dnsdhcp_lx/data/bcmxj4e.html
http://www.oucs.ox.ac.uk/network/remote/index.xml?ID=body.1_div.2
http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/38671/bit
http://www.scientia.ro/tehnologie
http://www.securitatea-informatiilor.ro/tag/cal-troian/
http://www.technogeek.ro/ce-este-bluetooth.html
http://www.techopedia.com/definition/6581/computer-cluster
http://www.techterms.com
http://www.timsoft.ro/aux/module/modul3.html
http://www.tp-link.ro/article/?id=288
http://www.w3.org/html/wg/drafts/html/master/browsers.html
http://www.webactiv.ro/programare+web
http://www.webopedia.com
http://www.word-2010.com/microsoft-word-autosave/
http://www.worldit.info/articole/siruri-de-caractere-si-lucrul-cu-acestea-in-cc-partea-i/
https://blogs.rsa.com/risk-based-authentication-whats-context-got-to-do-with-it/
https://files.support.epson.com/htmldocs/pr449p/pr449pug/projs_9.htm
https://support.norton.com/sp/ro/ro/home/current/solutions/v1027911_NIS_OEM_2013_ro_ro
www.wordreference.com
REFERENCES
http://89.121.249.92/2010-2011/Catedre/Informatica/11/Functii.pdf
http://bioinformatics.oxfordjournals.org/content/29/13/i257.full
http://blog.kaspersky.com/the-big-four-banking-trojans/
http://blogs.adobe.com/jkost/2012/04/background-save-and-auto-save-features-in-photoshop-cs6.html
http://bookspot.ro/post/2010/10/25/Animatia.aspx
http://compnetworking.about.com/od/speedtests/a/network-speed.htm
http://dcd.uaic.ro/?page_id=869
http://dexonline.ro
http://docs.spring.io/spring-ldap/docs/1.3.x/reference/html/user-authentication.html
http://download.chip.eu/ro/WinRAR-4.11_39266.html
http://infoscience.3x.ro/c++/siruridecaractere.htm
http://invatahtmlake.3x.ro/legaturi.html
http://its.ucsc.edu/security/bandwidth.html
http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-642-32063-7_28
http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa741313(v=vs.85).aspx
http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/k089yyh0.aspx
http://office.microsoft.com/ro-ro/word-help/anularea-refacerea-sau-repetarea-unei-actiuni-HA102566168.aspx#_Toc285707989
http://office.microsoft.com/ro-ro/word-help/incarcarea-sau-anularea-incarcarii-unui-sablon-sau-a-unui-program-de-completare-HA010105537.aspx
http://pc.net/glossary/definition
http://rajkishor09.hubpages.com/hub/Array-in-C-programming–Programmers-view
http://revistaie.ase.ro/content/16/mlak.pdf
http://ro.backup4all.com/resurse/copia-de-siguranta-completa.html
http://sorana.academicdirect.ro/pages/doc/ComputBiol/C07.pdf
http://support.apple.com/kb/ht1553
http://support.microsoft.com/kb/169289
http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/magazine/ee851672.aspx
http://vega.unitbv.ro/~jipa/ui/linux/arhivare.html
http://videotutorial.ro/configurare-legatura-wireless-dintre-un-router-si-un-access-point-tutorial-video/
http://vsh.ro/tutorial/161/dictionar-de-termeni-din-domeniul-it/
http://wasd.ro/news/amd-a-prezentat-la-computex-2010-primele-unitati-de-procesare-accelerata-fusion
http://whatismyipaddress.com/broadband
http://white.net/noise/link-building-link-context-and-anchor-text-optimisation/
http://wifimag.ro/documentatie/airos5/access-point
http://windows.microsoft.com/is-is/windows/hubs-switches-routers-access-points-differ#1TC=windows-7
http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/search#q=aliniere
http://windows.microsoft.com/ro-ro/windows/using-defender#1 TC=windows-7
http://www.adobe.com/devnet/flash/learning_guide/animation.html
http://www.amd.com/us/products/technologies/apu/Pages/apu.aspx
http://www.asrock.com/mb/AMD/A75%20Pro4-M/index.ro.asp
http://www.bestantivirus.ro/kaspersky_endpoint_security_
http://www.bleepingcomputer.com/glossary/definition258.html
http://www.bluetooth.com/Pages/Basics.aspx
http://www.coffeecup.com/website-access-manager/
http://www.cpu-world.com/CPUs/Pentium_Dual-Core/
http://www.crispedia.ro/Animatie_computerizata
http://www.designlabs.ro/glosar-internet.php
http://www.dex.ro/sir
http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/configuring-a-wireless-access-point.html
http://www.google.com/intl/ro_ALL/insidesearch/howsearch
http://www.guru3d.com/articles_pages/amd_a8_7600_apu_review,1.html
http://www.hdmi.org/consumer/finding_right_cable.aspx
http://www.headprint.ro/blog/ce-este-bannerul
http://www.horax.home.ro/tutorial/inceput/pagina%209.htm
http://www.html5canvastutorials.com/tutorials/html5-canvas-text-align/
http://www.imation.com/en-US/Scalable-Storage/Scalable-Storage-Solutions/Archiving/
http://www.informatica.com/us/products/application-ilm/data-archive/
http://www.informatiiprofesionale.ro/informatica/definitii-din-lumea-itc
http://www.informatii-it.ro/2011/10/08/explicarea-conceptelor-de-latime-de-banda-si-transmisie-de-date/
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