Impacts Of New Technologies In The Structural Forms Of Organisation
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UNIVERSITY OF BUCHAREST
SPECIALIZATION: MASTER BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
GRADUATION THESIS
Scientific coordinator,
Professor
Name Surname
Student:
Name Surname
2018
THIS PAGE WAS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
UNIVERSITY OF BUCHAREST
SPECIALIZATION: MASTER BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
“Impacts of new technologies in the structural forms of organisation”
Scientific coordinator,
Professor
Name Surname
Student:
Name Surname
2018
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………5
Chapter 1 – Fundamentals of organizational structure ………………………………………….8
Organisational structure …………………………………………………..…………8
The advantage and evolution of technology in the organizational structure……11
Chapter 2 – The new technologies……………………………………………………………………….28
2.1. Artificial intelligence …………………………………………………………………………………….30
2.2. Robotics ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..31
2.3. Virtual reality ……………………………………………………………………………………………….32
2.4. Augmented reality …………………………………………………………………………………………34
2.5. Internet of things …………………………………………………………………………………………..35
2.6. Drones ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….38
2.7. 3D printing ……………………………………………………………………………………………………39
2.8. Blockchain ……………………………………………………………………………………………………41
Chapter 3 Structures……………………………………………………………………..47
Chapter 4 Model development…………………………………………………………..47
4.1. Elements of the analysis………………………………………………………….….49
4.2.The model used……………………………………………………………………….52
Chapter 5. Findings and discussion…………………………………………………….52
5.1.Results of the analysis………………………………………………………………..52
5.2. Discussion/ interpretation……………………………………………………….…..68
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………..71
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………………75
“Impacts of new technologies in the structural forms of organisation”
Introduction
The current business environment is perpetually changing. This Brownian movement is an effect of starting the process of internationalization of local businesses, which has led to the emergence of international management. International managers, though having the essence of local activity, gain a special status due to a variety of different tasks and a set of situations they will have to deal with. Among these new challenges is the issue of efficiency. Over the past decade, international corporations have struggled to become more efficient, and this global competition frenzy also has a flaw of weakness: the struggle for efficiency strikes the barrier of superficiality and self-sufficiency, businesses being not only "better "But different. The difference is in the ability to innovate: "Innovation is based on a continuous stream of fresh and fresh ideas coming from a diverse range of employees Since today the number of employees in services and offices exceeds that of the workers in production, there is a greater need to improve the organizational structure because more collaboration between colleagues and hierarchical levels is needed and teamwork has become generalized can not be effective without a good collaboration between all team members.
The Case Study is a document made and published to illustrate the way in which a situation has been analyzed and evaluated in order to develop and implement decisions aimed at solving one or more problems within a generally profitable organization. The case study is not an advertising document for informational manipulation of potential / real clients of the developer who develops the case study (for example through commercial propaganda messages based on unsupported ratings, self-overestimation of some initiatives or results, denigration of competitors, etc.) Although not an advertising document, the intrinsic credibility of the facts, the logical arguments of the presented decisions, the case study is one of the most effective and effective tools marketing it. Based on a case study, consultative discussions can be conducted, usually to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of the solutions presented, and to identify alternative solutions (with assessment of their potential effects). The scientific case study is designed by scientific scholars in an applied scientific research process to present the results of the investigations made in the first part of such a study, and the author presents the theoretical and conceptual aspects to be illustrated. Then are presented – as a rule, in chronological order – the facts to be analyzed and evaluated. It is preferable for this type of case study not to ask the user to develop a solution but to present the solutions actually set and implemented by the organization under consideration. the following are presented – compared to the concepts presented in the first part of the study – the events produced and the results obtained so that it can be determined whether the theory has been verified practically.
The research question is: How does the traditional organizational structure influence technological development?
Moreover, changes in technology have led to changes in the structure and activity of organizations. That is why communication practices and technologies have become increasingly important for all types of organizations. In addition to this, the manager's role in the organizational communication process is increased, he being the one who processes the internal and external information, and on the other hand, the manager communicates this information to the subordinates (in the position of disseminator) and to those outside the organization (he is in the position of spokesperson). In this context, the path of an organization towards greater efficiency is undergoing permanent management of internal and external communication in order to improve and improve it. The study of organizational communication is relatively new and has recently received more recognition as an academic domain, being included in the curriculum of many universities and business schools. The study of organizational communication clearly shows that the role of communication in an organization is more than the manager's ability to be a good speaker and to have good interpersonal communication skills. Communication is, along with motivation and professional competence, the key to efficiency in an organization. All members of a company spend most of their time communicating in one form or another, regardless of their position in the hierarchy. Moreover, it is shown that all types of organizations, not only companies, have communication needs and challenges in this area. The purpose of this research is to reiterate once again the importance of these aspects by presenting the theoretical references in the field, substantiating some basic concepts and their application in the study of managerial communication as well as in the study of the different forms and types of communication inside the structure of an organization. All these will then be detailed in presenting class and new case studies and presenting the results of applying questionnaires on this topic. The central idea to demonstrate is the importance of communication as a vital factor in achieving maximum organizational effectiveness and efficiency. The ultimate goal is to raise the awareness of the responsible actors in the field of the need for better training of current and potential managers in the field of communication and communication abilities both during the university and in the workplace, the same training being necessary for the employees of the companies local people who need to develop communication skills because their position or activity requires it. By researching specific communication problems that exist in Romanian companies or in foreign companies based in our country, we will seek to provide solutions for their solving and recommendations for improving the effectiveness of communication with implications on organizational performance. The elaboration of this research will start from an approach regarding the evolution of communication theories with an emphasis on organizational communication that will be based on the consultation of the specialized literature in the field. The same literature will also be used to present the functions and dynamics of organizational communication, where practical examples and case studies will be added, as well as the part dedicated to managerial communication and internal communication. Special emphasis will be placed on the organization and planning of structural tactics within the firm, on the need to develop communication strategies in large-scale organizations and on the importance of the department / staff responsible for internal communication. The assessment of internal communication is an essential prerequisite for determining its quality and its role in maximizing organizational performance. This is the basic way to identify good practices but also business communication problems and to analyze and propose solutions to solve them. The research will be completed by carrying out case studies on successful industrial firms where a model based on literature will be applied, on consultation with specialists in the field and on personal studies identifying the key directions for improving communication internal, positive and negative communication experiences, examples of good practice, all for the purpose of analyzing how internal communication is a determining factor for the effectiveness and efficiency of the organizational structure.
CHAPTER 1 – FUNDAMENTALS OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
Organisational structure
Within a company, there are two organizational structures, both formal and informal, both coexisting within the same company. The formal organizational structure is based on the hierarchical relations established within the firm, the creation and recording of the structural forms and components being accomplished by some norms, regulations and documents bearing the authority of the organization's top management authority. In this case, the information is transmitted both horizontally and vertically, according to established rules.
The informal organizational structure is represented by the group of inter-human groups and relationships, of a voluntary nature, characterized by relatively spontaneous socio-professional relations between the members of a firm in order to satisfy individual interests. Here we come across an informal but faster communication, often subject to the risk of distortion (Rodogno, 2015).
International organizational structures are specific to firms that are in the early stages of international business development. It is realized in structures with export department or structures with international division.
Structure with export department: Initially, the company in the commodity trade on the international market is shipping to the external beneficiary. In the case of sales expansion, an export department headed by a sales manager and a few sales agents is being organized. If sales continue to grow, some marketing services will be added to the department to help better supervise the business (Parker, 2011)..
Structure with international division: A company will engage in more business on the international market, creating a dedicated division to manage complex cross-border business. Here, external operations management is assigned to a specialized division located, as a rule, in the country of origin of the organization (where the registered office is located).
Global organizational structures are divided into three parts (van Wynsberghe, 2016).:
• The overall organizational structure per product; is recommended in the case of a large number of products or product groups;
• The functional global organizational structure; the managers of each functional department are also responsible for the international work in the field specific to the module they are running;
• the global geographical organizational structure; we find here the zonal parts. Their managers are responsible for the entire activity of the company in the geographical area, being subordinate to the general manager;
We also meet the mixed global organizational structure; is divided into three types: structures that mix between functional and product divisions, mixes between geographic dimension and product lines as well as structures based on geographic and functional dimensions.
Complex organizational structures: These structures are ways of adapting dynamically the organizational structures to increasing the complexity of the international business environment (Agre, P., & Rotenberg, 2007).
• Organizational matrix structures; their basic principle is to give up the control unit system by replacing it with two or three control channels. Thus, branch directors have subordinate relationships with several departments within the parent organization;
• organizational structures on strategic business units; this type of structure is more recent and involves the existence of people who support products and technologies that serve a certain market and compete with different competitors;
• the organizational structure of the network type; this type of structure implies the existence of a group of companies, often vertically integrated, which cooperate with each other to achieve a commonly agreed goal.
Planning is the set of processes, through which the organization's main goals are determined, as well as the resources and means to achieve it.
Planning is structured into three types:
• Strategic planning. It is the process that involves reviewing living conditions, customer needs, technological developments, and availability of resources. It implies a long-term vision of about 15-20 years, assuming the goal of achieving the best possible market position of the organization. Thus, the organization development plan, the innovation plan, the alliance plan (Scanlan and Keys, 1987);
• Tactical planning implies the development of plans to achieve strategic plans. The implementation deadline is average of about 1-3 years;
• Operational planning, also called operative scheduling, sets out the tasks to be performed on each workstation, usually referring to a single activity. It has a short application time of up to one year.
Developing strategic business plans involves taking business information and taking action missions of the organization, its objectives and strategies. The mission of the organization is the management's (management's) view of what the organization needs and what it wants to become in the long run. The process of defining the company's mission involves three elements:
• Company history
• Competencies and responsibilities of the organization's members
• The environment in which the organization operates. Departmentalization is the process by which business staff is grouped into services, services grouped in turn, and the latter are subordinated to divisions (Andriesson and Roe, 1994). It is intended that the structure thus created should respond as closely as possible to the principles of goal unity (staff involved in achieving objectives) and efficiency (achieving goals with minimal effort and expense). The department is an organizational component of the firm that includes all the persons carrying out homogeneous and / or complementary activities in order to achieve the same derived objectives and directly subordinated to a manager. Delegation of authority is a process by which the management of the organization establishes a "command unit" (so that each employee has subordination relationships with a single manager) and obtains a scalar organization (the existence of a single command line, starting from the level the highest and stopping at the top hierarchical level within the organization, along which decisions and feed-backs circulate). Authority is a certain formal legitimate power of the company.
The process mapping method has been developed in the field of quality management, outlining the techniques of the flow chart. This methodology dates back to the 1980s and 1990s as a result of the "reorganization" trend in Europe and the US, which had as its motto the imperative statement: "even if it is not broken, repaire it!" (Even if it is not broken, repair it !) – an improvement in the processes of companies was sought through the mapping diagram: processes are sets of events that transform the company's input into outputs that meet customer needs. Entries = Human, Physical, Knowledge, Technology Outputs = Products, Services, Information , semiproducts, semifabicate.Harta proceselor = diagram showing, according to its precision, the activity of a company and its mode of deployment. The internationalization of business is the process of expanding the productive, commercial and financial activities of the companies to the borders of the countries of origin, exploiting some competitive advantages. . The dimensions of internationalization are represented by the operating method in foreign markets, the subject of sales, the target markets and the organizational capacity of the firm. The mechanisms of the company's internationalization include: • The product life cycle theory, with three phases – launch and growth (export from the home country), growth and maturity (production start in the importing country), actual maturity (import from the importing country) (internationalization, initial implantation in the host country, multinationalization and globalization), the explanatory model in seven stages of the company's international development (the answer to external order, active export, direct export, branch and trading branch, assembling abroad, production abroad, integration of foreign subsidiaries); Motivations of the internationalization of the firm may be reactive or proactive.
Reactive motivations are the pressure of competition, falling domestic sales, overcapacity, overproduction and closeness to customers. Proactive motivations include access to resources, cost reduction, technology advancement, managerial engagement, and the development of the information and telecommunication network. The necessary steps to start an optimal strategy for internationalization of the company are the determination of the main phases of the internationalization strategy, the strategic analysis of the international orientation and the strategic alternatives, as well as the decision to internationalize the society.
The advantage and evolution of technology in the organizational structure
A specific aspect of productivity in services occurs when a large share of staff and not distribution facilities or networks, when in many enterprises the specific weight of office activities is higher, or when the majority of businesses increase the share of intellectual – intensive work. The so-called "white collar" productivity has a special character in immaterial services. Intellectual work, immaterial work, ideas and information is the most qualitative, the hardest to quantify. The results not only cannot be quantified, but are different from one benefit to another, from one case to another, disproportionate to the time consumed, to the effort deployed, regardless of the forms in which it has occurred, regardless of its forms of expression. Finally, when it comes to technology (robots, AI and other inventions), we have to admit that it is inevitable that it will continue to develop. However, the utility of the human factor cannot be eliminated. Management still involves managing people, setting tasks and achieving goals, execution. Moreover, one needs to make sure that employees are happy at work and the examples can continue.
The first industrial robot was introduced in the US in 1960. Since then, their manufacturing technology has continually improved and as a result, industrial robot applications have expanded considerably. These cover "beach" from the High Tech industry (nano-fabrication, aerospace) to computerized medicine; from manufacturing to CNC machining centers to manufacturing by 3D printing. By using robots in industry, important benefits are gained from productivity, operating safety, cost and productivity. Idea "automaton / automata" has its origins in the mythologies of different cultures of the world. Engineers and inventors of ancient civilizations (China, Greece, and Egypt) have tried to build independent / independent machines, some of which have the likeness of humans and animals. The oldest descriptions of the "automaton" refer to: the artificial birds of Mozi and Ban; the automaton that speaks, Hero of Alexndria; Philo's washing machine in Byzantium. In the sec. IV, that is, the Greek mathematician Archytas of Tarentum projected a steamed steamed mechanical bird called The Pigeon. Another automaton is the hourglass made in the year 250, i.e. by Ctesibius of Alexandria, a physicist and inventor of Ptolemaic Egypt. Taking the information from Homer's Iliad, Aristotle speculated in the "Politicians" (322 BC, book 1, part 4) that those "automakers" could one day serve the concept of equality between men by enabling the abolition of the scale.
The first industrial robot, manufactured in 1938, had the appearance of a swing and a single drive engine. Remarkable is that he had five degrees of freedom. This robot could not be used for a wide variety of tasks but was able to place blocks / pieces of wood in blocks / stacks of well-defined shapes. In the 1980s, car industry companies made massive investments in robotics companies, although they have not always proven to achieve their goal. General Motors Corporation has spent more than $ 40 billion on technology, but unfortunately much of the investment has proven to be a failure. In 1988, the Hamtramck Michigan plant robots "ceded", that is, they broke the jams and dyed each other. Unfortunately, the premature introduction of robots into the industry has led to the creation of financial instability (Prejmerean, 2009). . The year 2010 induced an acceleration of demand for industrial robots, due to the continuous, innovative development and improvement of robot performance. By 2014, it recorded a 29% increase in global sales. Because robots have become more and more powerful in recent years, they have a computer-aided system for them. Robot Operating System, ROS, is a set of "open source" programs developed at Stanford University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Technical University of Munich. Asimov's Laws. SF writer Isaac Asimov created the fundamental laws of robots, laws that are also applied in our days. . These laws were introduced in 1942 in his short story, "Runaround" 14, and had already been outlined in previous stories. Asimov's laws form the basis of the philosophy of the emergence and development of robots, as outlined below. Law 1: A robot does not have to hurt a human being, or the lack of action must not allow a finite human to come to do harm. Law 2: A robot must obey orders given by human beings, except for those orders that conflict with the first law. Law 3: A robot must also protect the existing, as long as this protection does not conflict with the first law and the second law (Pleter, 2005). .
They provide quick clamping / dismounting of work pieces, positioning at the workstation, moving from one CNC equipment to another, etc. Noteworthy that when working in a "clean room / clean room" where the human operator's access is strict, the robot is the right means of operation Robots in research and education – for industrial applications. Research and education must represent two strategic areas, of great importance, for any modern responsible society. This approach is specific to several areas that deal with the design and realization of robots, or those who perform industrial developments (Chakraborty, 2018). The example highlighted in this paper is that of KUKA Group, which starts from the concept: "The future of learning begins today". The objective of KUKA is to maintain its leading role in innovation and technology.
The development of Kaizen has also favored the development of just-in-time production, which aims at zero stock, zero defects, zero deadlines. Here again, it is the operator who will indicate the type of product part to be manufactured. depending on the production constraints he encounters. It is he who will take the initiative to feed himself in pieces at the upstream station when he needs it, and "just" with the quantity he needs . The Japanese model has therefore replaced the American mass quantitative model to specialize in the production of small series and to differentiate through different products (Brătianu, Agapie, Orzea,. and Agoston, 2011). .
The Japanese method greatly favors the participation of operators and allows more autonomy, self-control, decision-making power and responsibilities. It has changed the role of managers who have "become the leaders of a production process involving people and teams, with a role of advisor, trainer, and coordinator-regulator. This conception of things draws its sources from values (notably collectivism) peculiar to Japanese society. Individuals are made aware of the company's philosophy and culture (manifested in a set of symbols and ceremonies). Decision-making is therefore naturally participatory because all those involved in the decision-making process are involved even when the decision affects a large number of people (van Wynsberghe, 2016). This model originated in automobile assembly plants, namely those of Volvo in Sweden. It was at the beginning of the 1970s that Volvo decided to break with a traditional production line production model and replace it with a new "modular" organization mode. The goal was to increase the efficiency of the workers. The practical implementation of these aims aims at adapting the requirements to the possibilities of man, in the idea of efficient use of the human resource and in the direction of increasing the productivity and quality of all activities (Parker, J., Vermeulen and Penders, 2010).
Figure no.1.Pobability of computerisation
Source: https://www.google.ro/search?q=robots+hr+chart&rlz=1C1AVUA_enRO753RO758&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi4t6KjvL_cAhVEIpoKHSkXDSAQ_AUICigB&biw=1280&bih=694#imgrc=uO26JZIsM0-iqM:
By using the proposed evaluation methodology, it is possible to make an appreciation of the activity performed by the employees as close as possible to reality. At the same time, the performance criteria specified in the evaluation sheet better reflect the specificity of the activity, highlighting the main features that a worker must possess, of which the most important would be the quality of the job fulfillment, the strict deadlines for solving and the behavior to colleagues and to clients. The proposed rating system may be based on the award of differentiated salaries based on the actual results of each employee. Data and algorithm recruitment can have a positive and significant impact on talent management strategies and business performance. Since technology is growing exponentially, Artificial Intelligence (AI) is beginning to have an increasing impact on employment decisions, being used by renowned organizations such as Facebook as an integral part of the evaluation of candidates. Changes in the field hiring a product of artificial intelligence are "machinery that can perform tasks in the place of people". This effect has been seen as a threat to the workforce, with the most drastic predictions suggesting that the unemployment rate will reach 50% in 30 years, but predictions are changing. Unlike the view that artificial intelligence will lead to a future without jobs, Stanford University's 2016 report – "100 Years of Study on Artificial Intelligence" Approximately 60% of the existing retail jobs present a" high chance "of automation until 2036, but a new e-commerce sector emerged in response to this change. According to Deloitte's studies, jobs with a higher risk of disappearing will be replaced by more creative ones. Stanford University's 2016 report concluded that the impact of artificial intelligence is not limited to middle-grade jobs but will have a impact on most sectors of activity and even on those that involve a high intellectual effort. The need of the human element The Influence of Artificial Intelligence does not come, however, without problems. Leaders in HR who position themselves against the AI received a justification for their hesitation to accept modern technology (Catlin-Legutko, C. and Klingler, 2012) .
When fully utilized in HR technologies, it improves the hiring process, from screening to onboarding, and allows HR to create the most effective talent management strategies. AI could be interpreted as a very robot "robot office worker" that allows people to handle more productive tasks. Technology and competitive advantage. Technology will become more and more important in the workplace by offering them employers who use it a definite competitive advantage. A study by Oxford Economics, entitled Leaders 2020, found that organizations using state-of-the-art technologies are far more successful than those that remain in traditional work methods (Parker and Penders, 2010). . The study also shows the following: The AI will become essential to any field of activity. It helps human resource specialists make the best decisions, improving the following: • Improving the recruitment process: The management of your company will be better informed and will be able to predict future employment needs, evaluate people more quickly, and successfully identify the employees' development needs • Personalization: The same algorithms that, based on past choices, can recommend where to go shopping or eat, can also be applied to trening employees (Snell, 2007). By analyzing all their reactions and their interactions, automated systems will be able to constantly improve training with better results. At present, technology has changed the world of work so quickly that a study by the World Economic , "Future of jobs," estimates that about 65% of primary school pupils will work in areas that currently do not exist. Many of these jobs will likely be related to the world of computers and predictive analysis (Vaivio & Sirén, 2010).
Figure no.2Probability for robots to take administrative jobs
Source: https://www.slideshare.net/MayaDrschler/hacking-the-future-of-hr-by-point-of-hr
The GR8PI platform uses state-of-the-art technology that enables organizations to manage the full life cycle of each employee in the company, ensuring optimum results for both the employee and the employer (Chanda, Sivarama Krishna, and Shen, 2007). . The productivity, engagement, wellbeing and employee retention rate are just a few of the aspects that can be considerably improved In this sense, artificial intelligence is a set of techniques and methods that allow the capture of human knowledge and its symbolic processing (cognitive engineering). Pragmatic – Natural reasoning is also regarded as a suite of states and mental processes that transform input data into output data but the artificial reasoning only attempts to simulate the symptoms of intelligence, to produce the same output data for the same input data (the concept of the "black box"), the way of obtaining them being different from the biological way. the first systems of artificial intelligence with a high degree of usefulness: the expert systems (Agre & Rotenberg, 1997). These are basically archives of human memory, I have a relatively weak organization, with imprecisions, white spots and even inconsistencies. have implemented the concept of 'black box1', try to make ab The new generations are more flexible, by adopting methods of cognitive orientation. Artificial Intelligence is that part of computer science that has the purpose of executing on the computer some tasks that man in a given context. it can do better than the car (Watson, 2017). As discussed in the chapter on HRM’s knowledge facilitation role, there are substantial connections between information technologies and a firms intellectual capital. Information technology is also an important enabler of speed, but the choice of technology solution needs to fit the situational requirements. This is where HRM can make a significant contribution (Chiru, 2014). . Some settings, such as Toyota’s use of the Internet to create a sense of community, collaboration, and loyalty within the firm and across the supply chain, requires very sophisticated information technology solutions based on high-level hardware and software. Other situations, such as Zap Courier’s hike messenger service, require a different mix. Zap couples sophisticated software with relatively low-tech two-way radios and field manager initiative to keep their delivery fleet peddling and get the job done quickly. An important aspect of effective HR deployment is an understanding of human behavior so that the integration of technology and people capitalizes on the differences rather than creates roadblocks out of them.
Figure no.5. Robotic process in HR
Source: http://www.neoops.com/robotic-automation/
Some of the most vivid examples of organizational failures to adequately consider human factors come from recent efforts to implement ERP systems. Westinghouse’s implementation of an integrated information system would work only if a fundamental culture change took place. Westinghouse was organized as a highly decentralized (Brewster, 2005).
Enterprise resource planning moved the firm to a centralized, shared environment that would increase organizational efficiency but dramatically alter decision-making independence. Not surprisingly, resistance to the change was formidable and quite effective, as managers argued over trivial details and responded slowly to requests for crucial information. The project was not turned around until Westinghouse realized that all stakeholders, not just direct users, must be convinced of the value and competitive necessity of change. Human resource management should play a pivotal role in managing the integration of people and techno logy for maximum competitive capability development(Bureau and Corsani, 2016). Technology will make information more accessible and join people together in different ways. What technologies can link people together? How do you train people to maximize the effectiveness of these technologies? How do you minimize communication failures? What dimensions of social capital are required to translate technology advances into competitive advantage? Human resource management may be able to capitalize on the structural links created by enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, for example, to enrich other forms of social capital. Human resource management must build networks and shared people communities around the strategic objectives of the business to ensure competitiveness. How do you persuasively communicate the organization’s strategic objectives? How do you build commitment to those objectives when much of your workforce has only a partial relationship with the organization? Kaplan and Norton (2001) suggest that HRM can use individual balanced scorecards to effectively communicate strategic themes and to gain commitment across diverse constituencies.
The HRM function will focus externally and internally and look more like operations management, dealing with vendors and managing the supply chain.
How do we gain the trust of other members of the supply chain?
What information do we share among members of the supply chain?
How do we maximize effectiveness and efficiency in the supply chain?
The rapid pace and constantly changing environment that many organizations and industries confront creates another new challenge and new role for HRM: the rapid deployment specialist. Competitive advantage gained by bringing new products to the market before competitors will be short-lived. Technology, and a variety of different ways to create value, will allow competitors to meet or exceed such advantages almost instantaneously. Rather than creating and sustaining a long-term competitive advantage that is defended over time, many organizations in the knowledge economy will instead opt for short-term, in-and-out, guerrilla-like tactics, which allow them to take advantage of fleeting opportunities in the marketplace. Once the advantage has been achieved, these organizations will move on to the next opportunity. Many whole companies will be intentionally ephemeral, formed to create new technologies or products only to be absorbed by sponsor companies when their missions are accomplished. Other firms will design their strategies around maneuverability to reflect their turbulent and unpredictable marketplaces(Costea and Patriche, 2002) .
Consequently, the HRM function will be required to rapidly assemble, concentrate, and deploy specific configurations of human capital to achieve mission-specific strategic goals, Organizations will use various combinations of HRM approaches (such as training, exporting work offshore, and looking for ways to “de-skill” certain jobs) while enriching others to accomplish these objective. Fortunately, improved information technologies are available,, or are being developed, to facilitate this. However, the challenge for HRM in the knowledge economy is substantial and significantly different from HRM in the twentieth century. Some of the challenges facing HR in this ro!e include the following. The new goal for HRM will be to manage the contributions individuals make to specific external markets, some of which will be rapidly changing markets. Increasingly, HRM will need to emphasize and understand events taking place beyond the borders of the firm. Human resource management will anticipate what rapidly changing product markets and business strategies will require by way of human capabilities and find ways to deliver it. How can you anticipate what human capabilities may be needed to enact business strategies? How can you prepare human capabilities when markets change rapidly? What mix of core and contingent workers provides maximum flexibility and maximum effectiveness? As Intel discovered, not only was it essential for its own employees to share technology advances among themselves, it was equally important for firms making the software and hardware that uses their microprocessors to incorporate new concepts into their products (Delgado, 2006). Cutting-edge technology allows employees in the lower levels of organizations to seize opportunities and get breakthrough ideas to the market first. Language barriers are eroding: Employees and freelancers anywhere in the world will soon be able to converse in numerous languages online without the need for translators. A new role for HRM is to facilitate organizational learning and knowledge sharing between employees, among departments, throughout the organization, and with external co-producers (Wessner, 1999) . HR professionals still do much of the traditional HR work, although some of that work has been outsourced {staffing, benefits, and so on) or digitized (for example, electronic HR). Furthermore, a substantial portion of conventional HRM work is now being done by line man* agers and professionals from other fields, such as information techno, or in other parts of the organization, such as the entrepreneurial units of ABB mentioned previously. In the knowledge economy, as HRM work expands, responsibility for HR will truly be jointly shared among HR managers, employees, and external vendors. In terms of conventional transactions, HR is being disinter mediated. However, technology promises to impact HR in ways far beyond simply automating clerical activities. Businesses face a new reality and many familiar sources of competitive advantage are eroding Substitutes for natural resources are being invented at a rapid rate, and those natural resources that remain essential are increasingly allocated through political mechanisms or entitlement.
National boundaries are less significant than corporate boundaries for defining the scope of business activities. There are fewer protected markets and more market communities. Product technologies provide a fleeting advantage due to short life cycles, leap-frog innovations, discontinuous technology thrusts, and diminishing production cycle times. Many process technologies are widely dispersed across firms and industries. Capital markets are global. Economies of scale have over the long term, most firms must excel at a variety or different kinds of value creation, ranging from insight into changing customer needs, to quick response to technology advances, to innovation and exceptional product design, to efficiency, to prompt response to problems. The need for versatility and excellence, they contend, has changed the logic of strategy from products and positions to a focus on the dynamics of a firm's behaviors (Arcidiacono and Antonello, 2017).. This means that an essential component of strategy is the processes that orchestrate resources and assets to create capabilities. As a corollary, successful firms make strategic investments in the infrastructure and processes that link together resources and transcend conventional functional partitions. The longer and more complicated the string of activities that transforms a bundle of resources into a capability, the more difficult it is for rivals to duplicate the resulting accomplishments. On the other hand, the more complex the capability, the more challenging it is to achieve or to transfer within the organization that developed it (Delgado, 2006). Artificial Intelligence is an IT technology that has developed on the basis of the study of human reasoning, on understanding the intelligence concept. Artificial intelligence lies at the confluence of the exact sciences with the humanities, with three main outlines of a methodological approach to artificial reasoning: Cognitive – Natural reasoning is regarded as a suite of states and mental processes that transform input into output data, and reasoning artificially attempts to reproduce these mental states and processes(Stewart and Boxall, 2014). . In other words, the artificial intelligence thus built up must reproduce the functioning of the human spirit, in this direction all the methods of modeling knowledge and reasoning are written, the modeling of the cognitive activity of the human being becomes an end in itself, leading the development of the studies on it, the viewpoint of psychology, psychiatry, anthropology, etc. In the cognitive artificial intelligence cognitive intelligence systems have been defined the knowledge base systems (SOBS) in this sense artificial intelligence is a set of techniques and methods that allow the capture human knowledge and their symbolic processing {cognitive engineering) .Pragmatic – Natural reasoning is also regarded as a suite of states and mental processes that transform input data into output data, but artificial reasoning only attempts to simulate signs of intelligence, produce the same output data for the same input data (the concept of "black box"), the way of obtaining them llind differently from the biological way. In this approach, the first systems of artificial intelligence with a high degree of usefulness were developed: the expert systems. These are basically archives of human memory with a relatively weak organization, with inaccuracies, white spots and even inconsistencies(Dima, Ameziane, and Dincă, 2012).
Figure no.6. The value of artificial intelligence
The development of information technology has led to the inclusion of information as the sixth organizational resource alongside human resources, machinery, financial resources, materials and management. Even under the conditions of intangibility, information is a highly efficient and economical way to bring together other company resources. In addition, the information is used to assist the other five resources in coordinating organizational activities, as well as in planning, directing and controlling these activities. In this context, the building of competent IT systems to assist decision-making appears to be a priority for the new wave of managers. Under these conditions and taking into account the accelerated pace of business, there is a definite need to use an IT system to assist managers. The system should not impede the managers 'rational process, but they need to increase their capacity and become an extension of managers' rationality. The role of management information systems is to improve costs, increase business growth potential, and automate or assist decision-making. Assisting decision-making through IT tools began about 25 years ago and was initially warranted by errors due to typical human "weaknesses". According to Butler, concrete cases and laboratory experiments have highlighted five human characteristics that can lead to errors in decision-making: • people are more sensitive to negative consequences than positive ones, • fail to cope with low probability events • are more inclined to accept a negative result if presented as a cost than if presented as a loss • do not know how to recognize the random elements • do not know when to stop the cost issue.For the point of view of the decisions , the manager must identify and initiate change, resolve resource allocation, manipulate disruptions, and also act as negotiator. Generally, at operational levels, decisions are structured and there are well-known decision rules and clearly defined objectives (Robbins, Waters-Marsh and Millett, 2004).
These decisions are solved with the help of the SIM as part of the daily processing of transactions in an organization. Problem solving is dependent on the type of problem to be solved, which is ranked according to the type of decision. Thus, structured issues (certainty decisions) – are issues where all elements can be identified and quantified to find the right answer. Semi-structured issues (risk decisions) – are issues that contain structured and unstructured elements. Because these problems involve both computer use and human reasoning, it is important to build an appropriate human-computer interface. Unstructured issues (uncertainty decisions) – are issues where constituents can not be precisely identified (Bhattacharyya, 2009). . Human intuition and reasoning is required to solve them. In these cases it is not possible to use mathematical or statistical models, making the decision very much based on the decision of the decision-maker. Unstructured decisions exist at operational levels, but are more often found at higher levels. These decisions need to be taken by managers, but they need information to help them define the problem, assess the likely outcome of different alternatives, test the effects, etc.
The support provided by IT systems for management varies depending on the level of management and function of the type of decisions to which they are addressed. The boundaries between structured and unstructured decisions are constantly changing. As new techniques and systems develop, there is a tendency for more and more decisions to be dealt with using predefined procedures and rules. In order to prevent the effects that changes occurring in the user's requirements and in the knowledge necessary to meet these requirements, or in the external conditions in which the company operates, a solution in this sense was the creation of artificial intelligence systems (decision support systems and expert systems), which are being used on a wider scale, with the expansion of the use of computing techniques in management(Pollack, 2015). Thus, changes in organizations will influence only certain components of the IT system, without requiring a complete restructuring of the system. It is noted that the IT systems for the executive are most often used among all types of systems to assist decision-making, management levels. Information systems involved in decision-making are known as Decision Assistance Systems known in the international literature as Decision Support System with the acronym DSS. We identify today five types of decision support systems (depending on the dominant technology component): • data-based decision-support systems, ie data driven, with the main database technology component • decision-based decision support systems on models, ie driven by models with the main technological component a model base, of which the mathematical models of simulation and optimization are distinguished, • knowledge-based or expert-based decision-support systems – SSDEs having the main technological component a base • Decision-Based Assistive-Based Decision-Assisted Decision-Assisted Decision-Assisted Decision-Assisted Decision Making Systems – Computer Assisted Computing Based Assistants, these are used to assist with co-decision-making developed by several participants from the same or more organizations • document-based decision support systems whose decision-making component ensures the creation, review, and automatic view of different documents (Hersey, P., Blanchard, K. and Johnson, 2017).
Decision Support Systems (SSD) and Expert Systems (SE) address unstructured or semi-structured tasks and problems. An SSD provides information on a problem that requires a decision, information that is received and processed by the decision-maker and which helps him to make a decision. The SSD does not provide explanations on the reasoning or algorithm it applies to obtain the requested or required information and does not calculate a degree of certainty for the conclusions it formulates. Unlike SSD, SE successfully treats semi-structured problems and is based on symbolic processing. SE provides the manager with recommendations that no longer need other managerial interpretations. In addition, SE provides justification for the conclusions offered and associates the recommenders with a certain degree of decertitude. Some SEs can also be found at the level of middle management. Management / Information Systems (SIM) systems centralize and process data and information provided by Transaction Processing Systems (SPT) . The role of the SDS Decision-making systems, also called decision-support systems, are interactive computer systems that, through decision models and database-based databases, provide information to assist managers in unstructured or semi-structured decisions. This term was defined in the 1970s by M.S. Scott pointed out the SSD's objective to prepare the decision (Makarenko, 2001).. The basic features of SSD that differentiate them from other types of computer systems for leadership are as follows: • SSD assists decisions, especially for semistructured and unstructured situations, combining human knowledge and intuition with computer knowledge and speed • Assisting decisions can be made at • SSD can assist multiple interdependent and / or sequential decisions, given the fact that most decisions are interrelated in the economic practice • SSD is adaptable over time. The decision-maker must have a reactive behavior to use the SSD, notice the change of conditions, and adapt the system accordingly. • SSD supports all phases of the decision-making process and can be adapted to various stylesheets. Provides support for all stages of the decision-making process. The main requirement of the decision support system for the information stage is the ability to quickly and efficiently access the internal and external data sources of the organization. Also, decision support systems through modeling facilities can analyze data very quickly. The design phase of the decision-making process involves generating alternative directions of action, decisions on the selection criterion, and anticipating the future consequences of using alternatives. Some activities may use standard models provided by the SSD. A decision-support system can provide support in the decision-making process through "what-if" and "goal-seeking" analyzes. Managers use decision-support systems and in the process of implementing decision-making, namely in communication activities decision, explanation and justification. The decision-making process also includes additional activities, such as evaluation and control of the implemented solution. • An ad-hoc SSD can be easily defined by the user based on a flexible, flexible, powerful graphics capability and user-friendly interface. SSD promotes the learning and accumulation of new knowledge, leading to new requirements and refining the system. External data includes various marketing research, government regulations, macro-economic indicators, and private data may include specific rules for decision-makers. The database dictionary is a catalog of all data in the database containing its definitions, and it is the main function of providing information about their availability, source and exact meaning. The use of this catalog is indicated in the process of identifying and defining the decision making process by scanning data and identifying the areas and opportunities of the problem (Pollack, 2015).
Interrogation features are the key to accessing data. They accept requests for data from other SSD components, determine which of them can be solved, formulate detailed requests, and return results on the required subject. Interrogation features require a special query language.
Model Management Component: This component can be broken down into four elements: model base, model base management system, model dictionary, execution, integration and ordering of models.
The model database contains routines and quantitative models in the field of statistics, finance, management that offers analysis capabilities in an SSD. The management system is a software system with functions for creating and updating the model, using subroutines and other blocks, generating new routines and reports, manipulating data. The Modeling Dictionary is a catalog containing model definitions and provides information on their availability and capability. Controlling model execution and combining specific operations are controlled by model management. In order to accept and interpret the modeling, execution, or interpretation instructions, a model control processor is used. Dialogue Management Components (User Interface): This component covers all aspects of communication between the user and the decision support system, including both hard and soft and factors that facilitate ease of use, accessibility and interaction between the user and the decision support system. Knowledge Management Component (Hesselbein, Goldsmith & Beckhard, 2000): This component occurs when integrating the decision support system with an expert system to obtain an intelligent (expert) SSD. The module essentially contains the inference engine and the knowledge base. The inference engine will allow the system to simulate an expert's judgment based on the available data and knowledge, while the knowledge base will feed the inference mechanism in a way similar to the one in which the database feeds the statistical algorithms into the support systems decision. An essential aspect of building and using expert decision support systems is to achieve a synergic interaction between these elements, synergy translated on the one hand by passing control from one function to another within the system and, on the other hand, by transferring information between functions (subsystems)( Dudkina, 2015)..
The efficiency of using SSD in management
Undoubtedly, for most institutions in Romania SSDs are still costly decision-making tools. An effective decision is not, however, only one whose adoption and implementation involves the lowest costs, but also a complete and complex one based on a shorter time frame and having a positive effect on the system or aspect that it is targeting. In achieving these objectives of decision-making, the role of decision-support systems can not be challenged (Fitzgerald and Grazioli, 2002). . On the other hand, intelligent systems used in managerial activity are today one of the means to increase labor productivity. Automating the collection of data on the evolution of the different economic phenomena characteristic of the company and the environment or the external environment, the use of complex calculus models and their analysis lead to a real explosion of information at the disposal of the decision maker. Without the help of decision support systems, most of these data would be insufficiently used, even neglected. In such an informational-decision environment, the use of SSDs and intelligent systems can help decision makers not to lose sight of important factors of influence in the problem being analyzed, to be aware of the reasons for the reasons for decisions to enrich their own experience and knowledge base through access to the experience.
CHAPTER 2 –THE NEW TECHONOLOGIES
Christensen distinguishes between on the one hand the lower break that targets the customers who do not need all the performances of the higher market and on the other hand the rupture of new markets which is addressed to the customers who up to now were not served by established companies.
The lower break occurs when the rate at which the products improve exceeds the rate at which customers can learn and adopt the new performance. Thus, from a certain point in time, the product's performance will exceed the needs of certain segments of the customer base. From there, breakthrough technology can come on the market and offer products that have lower performance than products based on traditional technology but are sufficient to satisfy certain customers. This is how new technology enters the market.
The company in rupture will naturally try to improve its margins which are initially limited because bearing on products of convenience. Thus, it will innovate to satisfy the upper segments of the clientele. Established companies will not wage a price war against a simpler product and with lower production costs, so they will focus on the most demanding and attractive customer segments. Progressively traditional companies will see their market share shrink and when the breakthrough technology will be able to satisfy the most demanding segments of the market traditional technology will disappear.
Market failures occur when a product is lower by traditional performance measures but is suitable for an emerging segment of the market or a new market. In the storage disk industry, for example, newer generations of smaller floppies were more expensive and of less capacity than existing floppies. Since size was not an important factor for the first generations of computers, these new floppy drives looked less well in all respects. But with the development of personal computers and laptops size became an important criterion and these drives quickly dominated the market (Adler, 1986).
All disruptive technologies do not have lower performance. There are many cases where the technology is superior to the existing technology and yet is not adopted by the key players in the market. This happens when large amounts of capital are invested in traditional technology. To change, an existing player must not only invest in new technology but also replace existing infrastructure (decommissioning costs can be significant). It may be more interesting to write off investments already made while technology declines. New actors do not face such a choice.
Some examples of high performance failures:
• The development of container shipping and the development of Oakland Harbor in California while the port of San Francisco was not modernized.
• Mini-mills
Disruptive technology (also known as breakthrough innovation or technological breakthrough) is a technological innovation that focuses on a product or service and ends up replacing a dominant technology in a market.
This disappearance of the existing technology will be good although the technology of rupture is radically different and that it is often less performing originally according to the traditional criteria of measurement. Disruptive technology occurs and dominates an already existing market either by fulfilling a function that traditional technology could not fulfill for a particular application (as was the case for the initially smaller and smaller capacity floppies developed for laptops) or by progressively increasing market shares as performance increases, to the extent of replacing those established in the market (as was the case with digital photography).
In contrast to disruptive technologies, continuity or continuous improvement technologies do not create new markets: they proceed by gradual improvements and increments in the performance of current technology.
Market supporters are therefore in constant competition for the improvement of their products. Continuity technologies can be "discontinuous" 1 (transformational) or "continuous" (evolutionary).
Discontinuous technologies are not always disruptive technologies. For example, the automobile was a discontinuous (transformational) technology but did not constitute a breakthrough technology because early automobiles were products expensive luxury cars that did not replace vehicles pulled by horses. The means of transport remained more or less the same until the appearance of the Ford T2, a cheap car, in 1908. This mass-produced car was a disruptive technology because it really transformed the market and modes of transport.The term "disruptive technology" was introduced and argued by Clayton M. Christensen in a 1997 book The Innovator's Dilemma. In the rest of this book The Innovator's Solution Christensen uses the more generic term breakthrough innovation because he recognizes that few technologies are inherently disruptive or seamless. On the contrary, it is their strategic use that has a disruptive effect. This notion of "disruptive technology" is today the subject of many academic articles3, while judges remain reluctant to use it (Wade & Rigden, 2000).
2.1. Artificial intelligence
The term "artificial intelligence", created by John McCarthy, is often abbreviated as "AI" (or "AI" for Artificial Intelligence). It is defined by one of its creators, Marvin Lee Minsky, as "the construction of computer programs that perform tasks that are, for the moment, performed more satisfactorily by human beings because they require high level mental processes such as: perceptual learning, memory organization and critical reasoning "a, 4.
One of the origins of artificial intelligence is probably in Alan Turing's article "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" (Mind, October 1950) 6, where Turing explores the problem and proposes an experiment now known as Turing test in an attempt to define a standard for qualifying a machine as "conscious". He develops this idea in several forums, in the conference "The intelligence of the machine, a heretical idea" 7, in the lecture he gives to the BBC 3rd program on May 15, 1951 "Can digital calculators think? 8 or the discussion with Mr.H.A. Newman, Sir Geoffrey Jefferson and R.B. Braithwaite on January 14 and 23, 1952 on the theme "Can computers think? ". The other probable source is Warren Weaver's 1949 publication of his memorandum on automatic machine translation10 which suggests that a machine can do a task that is typically human intelligence.
Artificial intelligence, as a field of research, is considered to have been created at the conference held on the Dartmouth College campus in the summer of 195611, attended by those who will mark the discipline. Artificial intelligence then developed mainly in the United States at Stanford University under the leadership of John McCarthy, at MIT under Marvin Minsky, at Carnegie-Mellon University under Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, and at the University of Edinburgh under Donald Michie. In France, one of the pioneers is Jacques Pitrat.
However, the subject of artificial intelligence is a subject whose limits can vary. For example, the search for a route was considered a problem of artificial intelligence in the 1950s, whereas since applications have algorithms to solve these questions the search for routes is no longer considered as artificial intelligence.
There is therefore the "artificial" side achieved by the use of computers or elaborate electronic processes and the "intelligence" side associated with its goal of imitating behavior. This imitation can be done in reasoning, for example in games or the practice of mathematics, in the understanding of natural languages, in perception: visual (interpretation of images and scenes), auditory (understanding of spoken language) or by other sensors, in the control of a robot in an unknown or hostile environment (Selke, 2016).
While they are broadly consistent with Minsky's definition, there are a number of different definitions of AI that vary in two fundamental ways:
• definitions that link the definition of AI to a human aspect of intelligence, and those that link it to an ideal model of intelligence, not necessarily human, called rationality;
• Definitions that insist that AI is intended to have all the appearances of intelligence (human or rational), and those that insist that the internal functioning of the AI system must also look like to that of the human being and be at least as rational.
Intelligent personal assistants are one of the concrete applications of artificial intelligence in the 2010s.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is "the set of theories and techniques used to create machines capable of simulating intelligence" 1. It corresponds to a set of concepts and technologies rather than to an autonomous discipline. Others, noting the unclear definition of AI, including the CNIL, define it as "the great myth of our time" .
Often classified in the cognitive sciences group, she uses computational neurobiology (particularly neural networks), mathematical logic (sub-discipline of mathematics and philosophy) and computer science. She is looking for problem-solving methods with high logic or algorithmic complexity. By extension it designates, in everyday language, devices imitating or replacing man in certain implementations of his cognitive functions3.
Its aims and development have always aroused many interpretations, fantasies or worries, expressed in both science fiction and science fiction narratives and films. years of philosophical essays.
2.2. Robotics
Regarding the future of work, it is important to consider how robots can replace or supplement and improve the work of humans. A future where we would continue to develop robots primarily for complementary purposes would be the least difficult scenario for society because humans would not be competing with robots and automata and traditional roles would be largely preserved. However, the economic and productivity pressures are likely to lead to a substitution approach where individuals and groups will be replaced at their workstation by robotics and automation. Overall, less labor will be needed for routine or clearly defined tasks because they can be provided by industrial and service robots. This will result in a relative increase in demand for highly skilled workers and a decline in the demand for lower-skilled workers, traditionally occupying jobs characterized by routine manual or cognitive tasks. This "erosion" of moderately skilled work could lead to the loss of about one third of all current jobs in the coming decades. The dilemma between complementarity and substitutability and the balance between preserving employment and unemployment caused by technological progress is a complex issue for policymakers, business and civil society at large (Schermerhorn, 2016). The broader implications of robotics' impact on the labor market, economy and society raise difficult social and political questions. The debate on intelligent machines and the impact of robotics and ubiquitous technology on society, the economy and employment has remained rather passive and few well-structured ideas have been developed on the limits of robotization and of the automation of the company.
The fear of seeing technological progress generate unemployment goes back at least to the 19th century with the uprising of English textile workers, the Luddites, who were protesting the loss of their jobs following the industrial revolution. But the fear that the development of technology will replace a large proportion of the workforce and lead to permanent structural unemployment has proved unjustified many times and for many economists this is a idea almost unthinkable. In fact, technological progress has generally resulted in an increase in wealth and number of jobs, at least in the long run, and new technologies and scientific inventions have often been viewed very positively. But the new era of robotics and artificial intelligence may imply a change of unprecedented scale; and in this scenario, the potential impact on the labor market, the destruction of jobs and the economy has been little discussed.
2.3. Virtual reality
There are certain health and safety considerations of virtual reality. A number of unwanted symptoms have been caused by prolonged use of virtual reality. For example, damage to the visual system (epileptic seizure, migraines, infrared light and ultraviolet light, etc.), auditory, dermatological damage (thermal, radiation, transmission of infectious agents between users, etc.) as well as physical damage.
In addition, there are social, conceptual and philosophical considerations with virtual reality. The term "virtual reality" is not unambiguous. In The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality by Michael R. Heim, seven different concepts of virtual reality are identified: simulation, interaction, artificiality, immersion, telepresence, body immersion. integer, and network communication. There has been growing interest in the potential social impact of these new technologies, such as virtual reality. In the book Infinite Reality: Avatars, Eternal Life, New Worlds, and the Dawn of the Virtual Revolution, Blascovich and Bailenson revisit and analyze the literature on psychology and sociology behind life in virtual reality (Salkowitz, 2008).
Virtual reality is a technology still young. There are therefore many limits that can not yet be overcome. However, it has the advantage of developing quickly and in all sectors of activity. Potential applications in the industry sector are product design, training, rapid prototyping, planning and control of manufacturing processes. Other alternative applications are offered by companies such as data visualization and flow. Thanks to all these opportunities, it is possible to significantly improve the quality of training of engineers or the reduction of costs for some prototypes. Not to mention the time saved by these approaches.
The first sees virtuality as an imperfect and approximate emulation of reality, sometimes going so far as to consider it as a potential danger. The second, radically opposed to the first, sees virtuality as a means of freeing oneself from the body and the space allowing the affirmation of communities that were previously potentially non-existent. These two approaches are however more and more criticized, especially since they tend to consider Community links mainly on the Network, whereas it is only part of the existing means of communication. The third approach considers reality and virtuality as a hybrid, considering them in relation and perpetual productive interaction.
In addition to these considerations of the correlation between reality and virtuality in the realm of "virtual communities," other research focuses more specifically on individuals and their behavior when in contact with a virtual world. Some argue that exposure to violence in entertainment media is often associated with aggressive, immediate and long-term violent behavior. Thus, participating in a violent virtual reality game in an immersive environment that returns haptic feedback may produce more aggressive thoughts than a conventional game. However, most studies conclude that there is little or no influence of cyber violence on player behavior in real life.Virtual reality could also change our practice of spirituality, allowing experimentation in a virtual world of what some sociologists call the '' religious supermarket'' (Norris, 2000).
Other research focuses more specifically on the field of "virtual cognition", which is defined as the particularization of cognition in a virtual environment. Indeed, virtual environments create unusual cognitive conditions that drive the adaptation of certain capabilities57.Studies show that people immersed in a virtual environment tend to follow the majority of social conventions of the real world through their avatar, such as that keep some distance with other individuals and move their avatar if someone violates their private space. However, they also testify new social norms that are created within the virtual environment but that can not be found outside. So when we ask a group of people to perform a simple task in a virtual world then in the real world, the person with the most advanced technical equipment will tend to take leadership in the virtual world but not in the real world58. The shape of the avatar also has a direct influence on user behavior.
2.4. Augmented reality
Augmented reality makes it possible to visualize in real time the storage capacity of the warehouse and to optimize the available space according to the inventories made. 2D and 3D technologies create a virtual warehouse plan to determine which locations are the most strategic in terms of space savings and cost savings. Warehousing operations account for a large share of the corporate budget (they amount to 20% of total expenses). To be effective, the organization of stored goods must be designed with the objective of profitability to facilitate the work of operators and minimize the risk of errors. Using real-time object recognition and barcode traceability (RFID) systems, Augmented Reality allows you to create multiple test cases and find the most advantageous options. .
Augmented reality refers to a virtualization technology, based on a 2D or 3D interface, capable of superimposing a large number of layers of digital information, such as graphics, GPS coordinates, textual data, or videos. These are likely to interact with a given user so as to transform the perception of his environment. This technology works through several tools and media: smartphone, tablet, headphones and glasses.
Appeared only a few years ago, the augmented reality market is growing exponentially, supported by major digital players such as Google and Apple. These companies are constantly developing new tools and projects to democratize them and facilitate their use. So much so that this market is expected to be worth $ 120 billion by 2020 (Morel-Guimaraes, Hosni & Khalil, 2005).
Augmented Reality, sometimes referred to as Augmented Reality (AR), can not only be used in entertainment, but also in almost all professional sectors, including marketing, architecture, and health. It makes it possible to develop virtual scenarios to improve decision-making while minimizing risks.
Professionals in the logistics sector can also benefit from the deployment of augmented reality technologies to manage all of its processes, from the implementation of the Supply Chain to warehouse management solutions, including transport of parcels. Here are some concrete examples of applications.
Order picking
Warehouse employees typically perform several actions when managing an order. They must locate the correct product, scan it and deliver it to the loading dock. However, emerging solutions of machine vision and machine learning can identify where a product is located and if it is the right product at a much faster rate than what could be achieved by a human. Virtual reality provides an average productivity gain of 25% for picking operations. Thanks to its connected glasses, like the Google Glasses, the operator is guided to find the fastest way to the product. All the information essential to the operational realization of his tasks is directly projected on the screen located in his field of vision. On the other hand, the glasses and virtual headsets include a camera capable of recording the serial numbers of the products. Thus, the operator is no longer forced to use a barcode reader before validating and confirming each of his actions, which saves him valuable time.
2.5. Internet of things
Each technology to win must develop globally and associate with various companies (computer manufacturer, operator of mobile networks and fixed Internet, search engines, computer companies). The network must allow sending (but also receiving in some cases) very small messages over long ranges without going through expensive systems of mobile networks and consuming little energy. Objects that communicate inside a building (Wi-Fi, GSM, Bluetooth, Z-Wave, ZigBee) or over long distances (GSM, 3G, GPRS, CDMA) are not part of the Internet of Things. objects. IoT through its unlicensed carrier and no expensive infrastructure communication technologies enables low-cost commercial offers. This low cost is relative to the appearance of a phone plan at € 2 per month without associated service (remote alarm, fire detection, fall alert).
A Recommendation General Overview of the Internet of Things (ITU-T Y.2060), June 2012, § 3.2.2 International Definition (by the International Telecommunication Union13) defines the Internet of Things as a "global infrastructure for information society, which provides advanced services by interconnecting objects (physical or virtual) with existing or evolving interoperable information and communication technologies "14. For the Union, by exploiting the capabilities of identification, data capture, processing and communication, IoT takes full advantage of the objects to provide services to all kinds of applications, while ensuring compliance with the requirements. security and confidentiality. Finally, it notes that, in a broader sense, the IoT can be considered as a concept with repercussions on technology and society (Hirsch-Kreinsen & Jacobson, 2008).
The IoT is therefore "a network of networks that allows, via standardized and unified electronic identification systems, and mobile wireless devices, to identify directly and unambiguously digital entities and physical objects and thus to be able to recover to store, transfer and process, without discontinuity between the physical and virtual worlds, the related data "16.
Other definitions emphasize the technical aspects of IoT ("objects with virtual identities and personalities, operating in intelligent spaces and using intelligent interfaces to connect and communicate in a variety of contexts of use" ), others deal with uses and functionalities ("the convergence of numerical identifiers" 18) noting that it becomes possible to uniquely identify digital information elements (addresses) and physical elements (a palette). in a warehouse, or an animal in a herd).
The explosion in the number of smartphones and connections has created a new market with almost infinite opportunities: in the 2010s, many reports such as that of McKinsey19 designate this market as one of the main sources of growth. In 2016, 5.5 million objects are connected every day in the world. A number that could quickly reach billions, by 202020. Gartner predicts that 26 billion objects will be installed in 2020, a significant increase compared to 0.9 billion units in 2001.
Other assessments consider that a human being would interact with 1,000 to 5,000 objects during a typical day22,23. At maturity, the market for connected objects could range between a few tens of billions and up to several thousand billion units24,25,1.
Companies like IBM, Intel and Google are rapidly entering the "connected transition," which involves profound transformations in production and management methods. Indeed, the permanent connection, in spite of the communications facilities it supposes, creates new obstacles related in particular to the safety of the products; the risk of hacking in particular forces significant investments that tend to transform the production chain. Beyond the opportunities offered and the radical transformation of our lives brought about by the democratization of the IoT, the latter is also combined with a reorientation of the production chain on the scale of that separating Taylorism and Toyotism (Helm, 2005).
2.6. Drones
Tonies had reasons on | campaigned for the increasing use of the dnones, which offered and still effectively offer combatants, whether on the ground, at sea or in the air, indisputable advantages, apart from any fascination with the "zero dead war" Thus, the infantryman sees in the dm not the right way to detect, without risk for him, what there is "behind the hill" or at the corner of the street, in these urban combats which one announces us with insistence the multiplication. The aviator, for his part, sees in the same drones the possibility, among other things, to monitor almost continuously what is happening "off", to detect targets and to measure the result of his attacks. As for the strategists, be they political or military, they have with the very long-range and long-endurance UAVs some "spy" vectors capable of detecting in times of peace – or rather of "non-war", for use terminology better adapted to current situations – near or distant threats without the risk of triggering major diplomatic incidents such as that provoked in 1960 by the capture of the US TU2 pilot shot down over the territory of the Soviet Union 1 In these circumstances not only has the number of UAVs increased rapidly in all the armies of the larger countries, but their capabilities have also covered a wider range of missions. To the drones of observation were added the rights of recognition, of electronic warfare, of detection, of attack and soon we promise combat drones .. each other evolving at low, average or at very high altitude with an autonomy ranging from a few hours to more than twenty hours, The permanence in the atmospheric space of aerial vehicles has become a reality. This is yet another revolution in air strategy, or even in military strategy, with consequences in the tactical field.
The use of drones is not limited to the military, The police, security companies, the national gendarmerie see drones, especially drones light, portable and adapted to observation, an excellent way of monitoring events, even areas where there are troublemakers, drones also able to detect trafficking in weapons or drugs.
The dron is certainly a means that contributes to the security and defense of a country. It can also be a threat, a threat to the military "across the street", in a confrontation between regular years, as well as a threat to potential terrorists. Curiously, these threats do not appear to be at the forefront of the current concerns. Since the end of the cold war, the forces of most of our partners and allies have been engaged in conflicts, within and without coalitions. The indispensable acquisition of air control has not been a problem (Kosovo, Gulf), the adversary having only few air and anti-aircraft means, or none as it was and as is still the case in Afghanistan. When we talk about drones. planes, satellites, it's ours or those of our partners. Only they are in licc. It would be dangerous to consider such a situation as definitive and everywhere (Hannemann, 2007).
It is therefore, today as yesterday, to consider all the hypotheses, and in particular that where we would have to engage our forces against an adversary with significant means in the third dimension, a modern aviation … and drones, short, medium and long range. We must
So think about the Ibis defending ourselves against foes and defending their own drones against the systems likely to be opposed to them during their missions. Defending against the drones of an adversary implies paying particular attention to the detection systems in fine as well as adapted ground-air means, as anti-aircraft artillery which can be formidable at least against the tactical rights, artillery whose endemic weakness in our armies is known. Defending against the rights of an adversary must lead us, among other things, to address the risks of intrusion, interference or interference against our data transmission networks necessary to guide our own vectors. This is a new aspect of a well-known war, electronic warfare. As for the terrorists, yes they already gave some evidence of the interest that they take to the drones. The threat on this side can only grow. The UAV market is indeed an open market that integrates into that of weapons … and in the market anyway! UAVs have already made their appearance in the civil field, especially for the spreading of products intended to protect recollects. Thus, at the threat of light aircraft and helicopters used by terrorists are now added to the drones, a threat that can be judged today minor without we can predict if it will remain tomorrow (Flavin, 2017).
2.7. 3D printing
Three inputs are needed for additive manufacturing: materials, energy and the CAD model.
The base material may be mainly in the form of liquid, powder, tape or wire. This material can be present from the beginning of the manufacturing process or deposited as this process progresses.
The shaping of the material is done with a laser, an electron beam, a visible light, UV or IR rays or thanks to a source of heat.
The formatting process can be:
• physical:
• a merger followed by solidification,
• sintering; (Farhi, Lerner & Tirole, 2005)
• chemical (especially photochemical): polymerization (especially by photo-polymerization) or crosslinking (especially by photo-crosslinking).
Additive manufacturing describes technologies that can be used anywhere in the life cycle of a product from pre-production (rapid prototyping) to large-scale production and even tooling applications5. Additive manufacturing is economically suitable for the production of very small components in large quantities or for the production of parts with high geometric complexity.
Additive manufacturing refers to processes of manufacture by adding material, mostly computer-assisted. It is defined by ASTM as the process of shaping a workpiece by adding material, by stacking successive layers, as opposed to material removal processes, such as machining1. The term is synonymous with three-dimensional printing or 3D printing that are consumer names. Additive manufacturing is a terminology used in the industrial world.2,3,4 (3D printing).
2.8. Blockchain
Usually, biteoins may be obtained by buying them a Bitcoin exchange or vending macliine or as payment for goods and services. The block chain is a publicly accessible authoritative record of all transactions ever processed, allowing anyone to use Bitcoin software to verify the validity of a transaction. Transfers of bitcoins, or transactions, are broadcast to the entire network and are included onto the blockchain upon successful verification, so that spent bit coirs cannot be spent again. New transactions are checked against the blockchain to make sure dial the bitcains have not been already spent, thus solving the double-spending problem. In extensively uses public key cryptography to solve the double spending prob km. In public-key cryptography, each transaction lias a digital signature and contains a hash tint allows for easy tamper detection: However, Bitcoin is revolutionary because die double-spending problem can he solved without needing a third party (Conley, 2017).).The legal definition of what is an acceptable currency seems to he based on how it is legally interpreted as a way to transfer value. Money to he used for payments include euro banknotes and coins. Howevcer, bank money In curus or electronic money (e-money) in euros are considered legal Lender. Nevertheless, these forms of money are widely accepted for all kinds of payments by choice. The euro as a currency may therein re take the form of banknotes, coins, and electronic money. Profit performance therefore depended very much on fee-generating business. Under all such respects, top-notch, technologically advanced American banks enjoyed a number of structural advantages. As primary Eurodollar lakers and price makers, they could afford to bid for funds at lower rates than the rest of the participants in the market (Skinner, 2016). This was reflected in the multi-tier structure of the market itself, which assigned different risk premiums to different kind of banks—with the biggest American banks as top-rankers.. Eurobanking was a highly competitive business, with high product standardization and narrow spreads. Some authors incline to ascribe such results mainly to organizational and strategic uncertainties. However these factors account for only a partial explanation. In fact the findings gave evidence that, once compared to American banks with similar characteristics as to size, geographic coverage, and service diversification, clearing banks profit performance did not look too shabby at all. A more comprehensive explanation can be worked out in terms of structural features of Eurobanking, competitive advantages of American banks, and changing market conditions in the early 2000s. As profits originating from interest differentials were narrow, they were extremely sensitive to marginal variations in spreads and influenced by slight differences in economies of scale (the global volume of funds intermediated) and operating, transaction, and organizational costs.) If a banker employ only his real or invested capital, it is impossible he should ever, in the ordinary course of business, make any profits. Bankers can seldom attain more upon their advances than the market- rate of interest; and that may bo obtained upon real capital, without the expense of maintaining a banking establishment. If, after deducting the expenses, the profits amount to nothing more than the market-rate of interest upon the invested capital, the bank may be considered to have made no profits at all. The partners have received no higher dividend upon the capital invested in the bank than they would have received if the same money had been laid out in government securities. The profits of a banker are generally in proportion to the amount of his banking or borrowed capital. This will be done by the merchants and tradesmen. Another development has been the advent of the electronic age and the virtual elimination by the banks of notes and coins from circulation. Today 97% of money is electronic money, and this money is nothing more than numbers entered onto a computer screen. However, since the abolition of the gold standard during the course of the twentieth century our money is no longer backed by gold, but is instead fiat money, which is money issued by the decree of the issuer(Gupta, S., Lauppe, P. and Ravishankar, 2016).
CHAPTER 3. STRUCTURES
The massive influx of new technologies into workplaces during the eighties revived interest in impact studies, especially technology on the organization. Many researchers have committed themselves and are still engaged in this way, incidentally more or less ignoring the warnings of some peers as to the relevance of such an approach, somewhat marked by technological determinism. We think, as far as we are concerned, that it is always possible to be interested in this kind of research question – and therefore, that we should not abandon it – on the condition, however, to completely revise the concept of "impacts" of technology on the organization.
In this connection, some milestones have been proposed in this article, based on a critical synthesis and a selective integration of the various points of view that we have been able to identify in the literature with regard to the relationship technology / organization (technological determinism, technicosocial determinism, multiple determinism, social determinism, constructivism, strategic approach). Thus, in our view, there are "specific effects" of technology on the organization, referring to the "implicit organizational design" that accompanies technology in relation to the particular organization in question, and, more fundamentally, to the "organizational logic" (Dupret, 2017) conveyed by the technology (following the implicit and explicit choices made by the designers of the latter). However, these specific effects are seldom understood as they are, as most of the time they are "modulated" by the management of technological change, in particular by the organizational redesign concomitant with the technological change that those responsible for change can achieve according to their own spective. That said, the "organizational management" of technological change is not as free, indeterminate, as one might think: there is a "field of design" which it is improbable to cross the boundaries, these limits also referring to the organizational logic of technology.
Ultimately, the research work on the determination of the organization engendered by technology seems to us more to be undertaken than to close. In particular, it should be reoriented towards what the new technologies impose or allow in organizational terms when they are introduced into the organization, ie on the one hand the identification of the specific effects of these technologies on the organization, on the other hand the identification of the margins of maneuver and the limits in the organizational management of the corresponding technological change, knowing that the whole thing passes nodally by an unveiling of the organizational logic conveyed by the technologies in cause.
The eighties witnessed the blossoming of studies of the impact of technology on employment, work and organizations. A kind of renewed interest seems to have occurred in this field, which had its peak of intellectual glory in the fifties and sixties. Thus, in Quebec, we can note a proliferation of research around the middle of the decade This trend, which has spread from Western to Western countries, undoubtedly reflects the fact that "new technologies" based on microelectronics began to invade workplaces from the beginning of the eighties, just like the "New technologies" of automation had appeared in the industrial world after the Second World War, leading managers and analysts to question the new reality in construction (Bullinger, 2009).
Many of today's researches are quite similar to the work done twenty and thirty years earlier, although some believe that current approaches are more nuanced, more subtle than in the past (Adler, 1987). Which, in the end, is quite problematic, because it means that we have not really succeeded in overcoming the objections that were made, mainly during the seventies, to pioneering research. How, for example, can we still ask the question of the "impact" of office automation on the work of secretaries, today that it is clear that come into play in the changes surrounding the implementation of a new technology of the elements such as work organization, explicit and tacit know-how, methods of setting up new technologies, local social representations, power games between actors, etc., in short today that it is clear that office technology does not determine much in the evolution of secretarial work?
This research is intended as a contribution to try to unravel the issue at a level particular, that of the impacts of technology on the organization (structures and modes of operation). We think that, if the content is completely revised, it is always possible to take an interest in this kind of research question. While we must admit that the phenomena that are traditionally called "impacts" are not really so, we must also recognize that the tendency to see the implantation of new technologies as "an opportunity (Barley, 1986) to restructure the organization is just as suspicious. Like it or not, the introduction of new technolo¬gies is not without consequences for the organization. In other words, if technology does not determine much, it does not determine anything. Our starting point is the following: no technology is "neutral" (Ellul, 1954) when introduced into an organization . A certain type of organizational design accompanies "naturally" the technology in question. A certain structural logic is at work. For Child, for example: As the interdependencies are more visible through integrated contract Systems and shared data services, so the logic of teamwork and networks emerges the natural basis of organization or rather patterns of work and communication. Let us note in passing that there are hardly any detractors of techno-logical determinism to deny that such a logic exists, that technology in this case apparent to a "Trojan horse" . For example, it was took a stand against technological determinism, also comes to speak of the "logic of organization required by computers": The logic of the computer, however, aims to integral information transac¬tions, to eliminate contradictions and to introduce transparency in information management and decision making.
The disturbing efFect of the process of computerization on the managerial system of bureaucratic organizations is obvious and inescapable. It should be noted that, if the technology is not neutral on arrival in the organization, this is explained in particular by the fact that it "incorporates" the technical and social vision of its designers and producers, which are also part of the power relations and organizational cultures specific to the business community. research and development and innovation (Bondarouk & Olivas-Lujan, 2017). It has shown very well with numerical control machine tools, as for various other artifacts. In another register, we now realize that, more often than not, people enjoy working with a personal microcomputer. Today, today's microcomputer takes over roughly the design of the first commercial personal computer, which, coincidentally, was designed by Steven Jobs and Stephen Wozniak in San Francisco in 1976, in a playful context of counter-culture, of decentralization, imbued with the slogan "small is beautiful". The understanding of the explicit and implicit choices, which presided over the constitution of a technology does not necessarily make it possible to define from right through the organizational logic of the technology in question. For example, to know that the designers of a machine with automatic insertion of components, haunted by producti¬vity and playing the "game of capital", have opted for the manufacture of a hyper-fast machine, does not really allow to grasp what the logic of the speed of execution can mean for this or that organization. We believe that it is among others in this sense that one can read the remark of Noble: Although the evolution of a technology follows from the social choices that inform it, the choices which the social relations of production, it would be an To put it another way, if the "constitutive analysis" (Limoges, 1987) makes it possible to unveil the logic conveyed by technology, it can not suffice to apprehend the organizational constraints that this imposes in practice. Incidentally, it must be emphasized that the logic of a technology does not only translate into constraints: any technology also offers opportunities for the organization. For example, machines such as the one just mentioned have opened opportunities for coordination by mutual adjustment rather than direct supervision in the assembly company we have studied. We call "implicit organizational design" the concrete translation and specific to the organizational logic of technology. From this perspective, we found that the Shop Floor Control module of the MRP II production planning and control system delivered by a supplier to the above-mentioned assembly company required that the production workshop of this company be it is defined in terms of workstations, grouped into work centers (Baldry, 2002).
It also assumed the presence of supervisors whose function was to allocate work according to the scheduling communicated by the system, to control a fairly limited group of workers and to inform the system's databases rather than the presence of supervisors who manage a large group of workers and a large area of the shop floor in a broad, fuzzy and informal way – like what happened before. In sum, in the company in question, a certain Taylorization of the first-level management function was required by technology. That said, it must be mentioned that the logic embodied in a technology is not something fixed. once and for all. The organization that adopts a new technology is not systematically condemned to undergo the implicit organizational design accompanying the latter. Here we find one of the fundamental intuitions of the sociotechnical school, for which technology is far from inevitable (Davis and Taylor, 1976). Technological change makers may indeed require the provider of changes in the technology it delivers; they can also have this modified internally, in the course of implementation – joining, if necessary, in a certain way, the initial group of designers and producers of "non-neutral" technology. In particular, it is possible for them to "play" on the constraints and the organizational opportunities that constitute the implicit design carried by the technology. Please note that this kind of game on the constraints and the organizational opportunities of the technology is more possible today than in the past, since many of the new technologies are now reprogrammable as they incorporate one or more microprocessors. Technologies are more and more flexible, unlike those of the past, which consisted only of hardware. And some changes to the "software", sometimes combined with the addition of "hardware", can have an important meaning for the organization. For example, in the process company we studied, the supplier was required to supply an "interactive" process control system (the computer does not have to continually decide instead of the operator, but on the contrary, to allow the latter to start the process, to carry out verifications during the process, to take certain decisions at the level of the process – stop of operations included). This first intervention on technology was followed by a second, perhaps even more notable one: a few months after the new system came into operation, the software was remodeled. Since then, if the operator does not interact within a period of two minutes with his terminal when requested by him, the computer automati¬cally activates the required sequences. In other words, the operator has no respon¬sabilities on the control and control of the production process, as we had originally imagined. However, it should be noted that these specific effects are not necessarily identical. an organization to another vis-à-vis a "same" technology. This is easily explained from the distinction we made between organizational logic and implicit organizational design. The "organizational context" – whose elements (structure in place, volume of production, size of firm, prior technologies, style of management, etc.) may eventually exceed the traditional "contingent" factors – specifies the translation, in any particular organization, of the organizational logic carried by the techno¬logy, and thus the organizational changes caused by the logic in question. In other words, implicit organizational design a technology being related to the type of organization in which it is inserted, the effects by which it manifests themselves are relative, "specific" (Parker, Vermeulen and Penders, 2010). .
For example, the organizational changes mentioned above around automatic insertion machines are very relative, in fact, to the predominance of manual assembly in the considered enterprise ('). Here we resume, in a way, the point of view of multiple determinism. On the other hand, we must not deceive ourselves: the logic conveyed by technology is powerful; variations in effects related to organizational context are not so considerable – provided that we do not stray into the question of the organizational unit observing these effects .It must also be seen that the specific effects of a technology on the organizations are rarely seen as they are, insofar as they are "modulated" by the way in which technological change is managed, particularly through the "organizational management" of technological change. Indeed, the specific effects rarely remain "pure": they are deepened or lightened by the local choices of reorganization posed by those responsible for the change; thus, they become unbearable, enviable or insignificant. In other words, it is important to take into account, in organizational changes related to technological change, reorganizations directly induced by technology (specific effects), most often reactive, and organizational redesign concomitant to technological change. that, of a much more pro-active order (modulation of effects). As we will see, such a redesign can not ignore the constraints and organizational opportunities that technology brings. However, it refers to organizational changes that are thought out, decided and implemented in their own right, as well as technological change. That is why it can lead to organizational forms that overwhelm the effects that manifest the implicit organizational design of technology. Indeed, there are limits to the organizational choices that can be made to accompany a technological change. In other words, the logic carried by the technology does not only produce specific effects on the organization, it also sets limits, and correlatively margins of maneuver, to the modulation that can be made of these effects. . All sc passes as if, as seems to have taken Woodward ("the physical workflow did not so much determine organization as define limits to which it could be determined"), there was a "field of design" of the organization in relation to the technology that would be improper to cross the boundaries – this field being circumscribed by the organizational logic that technology conveys.In other words, if one wants to establish a type of organization that does not enter in the field of design relating to a technology, it is necessary to rethink the technology (present or future) at the base of the definition of this field. We are then able to invest a field of another nature, a new field of organizational design. Did not we "break" the chain at Volvo in Kalmar and Skovde to be able to set up semi-autonomous groups?
Note that if the redesigned technology is not really compatible with another logic, it is very likely that there is no redefinition of the organizational field of maneuver. In this vein, the traditional adjustments of technology to the realities and peculiarities of the work process in a company are rarely to be taken for transformations introducing a different organizational logic, and therefore a new field of organizational design. There is a field of organizational design for any technology to follow those who question the compatibility and complementarity of the strategic choices that actors can make in terms of technology and organization (Morel-Guimaraes, Hosni,& Khalil, 2005). . Better, their idea of an optimization between the technology and the organization can be taken again: one can indeed see this optimization like the search for correspondence between the two spheres, the matching based on the compatibility between desired organizational redesign and design field delimited by technology. For example, in the process company mentioned, two types of technology (interactive control systems, fully automatic system) and two modes of organization (one under Taylorism, the other participative management) were considered in look at the operational center. If the almost complete automatization came at the same time as the traditional mod (taylorien) was readopted, it is interesting to note that the alternative experimented for a few months consisted in the coupling of interactive automation. with participative management.
CHAPTER 4 MODEL DEVELOPMENT
4.1. Elements of the analysis
Depending on the scale of the organizational change process, the problem of consolidation can be dealt with to varying degrees, ranging from a simple modification of indicators or dashboards to the revision of the internal grid. classification or partial or total overhaul of information systems. At the very least, the action on management instruments is downstream of the change, if only to ensure a minimum of coherence between the changes made and the tools in place. But for larger changes, the problem should be taken into account before the process, from the diagnostic phase. Prior reflection on management systems, especially decision-making systems and associated information systems, may be critical because it can avoid certain biases at different stages of the process. For example, since the choice of tools is closely linked to the possibilities of measuring activity, it is often necessary, at the time of the diagnosis, to prioritize the quantifiable at the expense of more qualitative data; On the other hand, tools and the way they are designed are never neutral and influence organizational choices. For example, we have seen companies set up flexible organizations to respond to artificial seasonal constraints: the creation of a direct link between end-consumers and the producer has made it possible to correct the multiplier effect linked to expectations of distribution intermediaries. The tools can therefore have perverse effects as early as the problem identification phase. In the scenario construction phase and, later, in the implementation of the change, the problem of instruments can arise in the following terms:
– What is the relevant information from the point of view of steering the organization, evaluation and performance monitoring?
– How and by whom can this information be captured, formalized and disseminated?
– How to articulate these new constraints with existing systems?
The answers are rarely simple to formulate. There are sometimes obstacles of a technical nature, often conflicts of skills, and always difficulties of formalization and diffusion (compatibility between the desired tool and the general information system of the company). Without generalizing, however, it would seem that the obstacles encountered are lower when the definition of relevant information is developed in a participatory manner and the tools are designed with the actors most directly concerned. This double precaution does not in itself guarantee full ownership by employees of management tools, an objective considered by many operational managers as essential for a "reactive" piloting of production; however, it reduces the risk of employee disinterest in dashboards that are essential for proper management and control of the functioning of the organization. Modifying management instrumentation is undoubtedly the most delicate phase of organizational change. First of all, because managers are reluctant: touching management systems, that is to say instruments to control, coordinate and control, is touching the heart of the operation of organizations.
The changes envisaged are often considered insufficient to challenge these systems, and in particular those related to the management and control of the firm. Differences can then appear between the actions carried out and their evaluation by the systems of measurement of the performance. This was clearly seen when companies sought to broaden the notion of performance to other indicators such as time, quality or responsiveness, while traditional management control continued to focus on direct costs of production. . Secondly, adaptation is difficult because management tools take part in representations that actors have of their activity and organization; however, the transformation of an organization does not necessarily follow the same rhythm as the changes in representations.
For example, in a few days, we can put production machines online and remove intermediate stocks to make just-in-time; however, it may take a long time for new performance indicators and incentive systems to work towards the desired objectives. It is frequently observed that changes in benchmarks (for example, from individual premiums to collective premiums) come up against the persistence of habits from the old organization that continue to strongly structure employee behavior. Finally, the difficulty of consolidation can come from the absence of an adequate instrument. The implications of changes in qualification and salary are sometimes considered insufficient by employees, not always because of bad management, but also because of the inadequacy of reference tools. The changes then give disappointing results because the employees will feel that their new contribution is not correctly evaluated. This is a problem that can be encountered in industries where the evolution of classification grids is lagging behind that of professional practices. For example, there is a desire to promote group work, whereas systems for assessing qualifications remain individual. We still do not know how to evaluate, or even to define clearly, collective competence, yet considered as a key factor for the success of new organizations based on cooperation and collective learning.
4.2.The model used
The different phases of the diagnosis prior to the implementation of a new organization (phases 1 to 3 of the generic model) make it possible to identify problems from their concrete manifestations, to assess the situation and to formulate proposals. The diagnostic work is therefore descriptive, analytical and prescriptive. That said, in reality, it is rarely conducted as sequentially as in the generic model. This is illustrated by the following diagram based on the current practices of organizational consultants. Schematically, the importance of the diagnostic phase finds, in more precise terms, the first three phases of the rational model of change management; but we see that, in reality, they are often more closely intertwined. We have tried to represent this articulation by crossing the different phases of the diagnosis (from the pre-diagnosis to the writing of the report) and the main types of activities (information gathering, analysis, synthesis). The more the analyst is experienced (the more he has "referents" in mind, that is to say, situations analyzed previously), the earlier the evocation of solutions occurs and the more the collection of information becomes targeted. Experience is therefore an asset but can also introduce biases (analogies between two "apparently" comparable situations, non-perception of differences, etc.) and lead to a standardization of diagnostic practices and the solutions envisaged, as we have seen during the massive implementation of the 35 hours.
Even if it is a question of analyzing a precise situation at a given moment, the diagnosis invites to take a broad and prospective look. In other words, the diagnosis has a triple dimension: global, predictive and educational. The notion of change in organizations is inseparable from that of performance. However, the latter, long restricted to the quality of the organization of production workshops and the adaptation of the principles of business administration, has gradually expanded to all dimensions of the firm. The reflection on the organization was indeed dominated for a long time by the works of the great organizers of the beginning of the century. By their complementarities, the Taylorist approach of rationalization by "the low" (the production workshops) and the rationalization by "the top" of Fayol (the principles of administration of the company) constituted the foundations of a model efficiency which has quickly and lastingly established itself as a benchmark for business organization. The so-called "American model" has influenced companies in all sectors by setting standards in terms of organization and performance. New theoretical approaches, the experimentation of new forms of organization, the emergence of alternative productive systems shook the foundations of the dominant model from the 1970s. Even economic theory, which for a long time ignored the organization, variable escaping to the optimization calculations of the productive combination, began to be interested. The efficiency factor "X" (2) (ie the organization) found in the 1980s a striking illustration when Japanese firms showed that performance depended less on the intrinsic characteristics of the factors of production. than the way they were arranged. The "theoretical" rehabilitation of the organization as a factor of production in its own right reflects the awareness within companies of the role of the organization in achieving performance. The socio-technical analysis, like the other schools claiming the theory of systems, offered then perspectives allowing to apprehend the complexity of the organizations.
The common point between these different approaches is to encourage a global analysis of the company and a simultaneous consideration of its different dimensions: technical, economic, social, political, organizational. As a result, the question of change is no longer limited to setting up the "better" organization of production and work; it affects all aspects of the business, from the implementation of equipment and the design of workstations to strategic orientations, the choice of structure, via the coordination, information, management and relations with partners and the business environment. It goes without saying that the complex and shifting character of the latter accentuates the need for change and encourages firms to seek greater flexibility to adapt to external constraints. The Rational Approach and the Tools of Change It is obvious that the magnitude of the choices to be made influences the processes of change management. Change strategic directions company, change the structure, reorganize a workshop or revise an administrative procedure mobilize different tools of analysis and treatment because the risk related to these decisions is of varying importance, because the information is more or less complete and reliable, more or less exogenous, because the decision-makers are different, the actors concerned more or less numerous, etc. These parameters have an influence on the methods of implementing the change (see below). Yet at the root of each decision is the same generic problem-solving model based on a rational approach to decision-making. All change initiatives are part of a logic of rationality that has inspired most models of reasoning in economics and management sciences. This rational generic model includes a succession of phases, from the diagnosis of the situation to the implementation and control of the actions:
Definition of the problem: it is an essential step which makes it possible to define the objectives that the company wishes achieve and the challenges of the change envisioned;
2- Evocation of solutions to the problem;
3- Choice of a solution after evaluation of the different possibilities (on the basis of the efficiency criteria corresponding to the objectives of the company);
4- Planning and implementation of planned actions; 5- Control of the implementation and possible adjustments. In theory, the result of such an approach is optimal under the restrictive assumptions of perfect rationality of the actors, perfect information and uniqueness of the decision maker (it is assumed that there is no conflict in the organization on objectives to be achieved). These hypotheses are far from being verified in reality, and they are all the less so since the change envisaged is important. Moreover, the rationality of the process can also be limited by the lack of reasoning of the actors involved in the process, what Schwenk calls "cognitive biases".
Hence the use of analytical tools designed to meet a triple constraint: streamline the process of change management, understand the growing complexity of organizations, provide the company's stakeholders with relevant analytical tools and quickly mobilized. The tools come in many forms: analysis grids, questionnaires, diagrams, diagrams, checklists, etc. Their abundance is justified by the importance and the variety of the topics to be treated, but also by the facilities opened by the development of information and communication technologies (ICT); their sophistication is explained by the often transversal nature of the analysis. For example, a reflection on the organization of working time raises problems of a different nature and mobilizes various tools relating to employment, qualifications, performance, working conditions, but also to relations with external partners. of the firm. Analysis tools appear and spread according to the dominant concerns of companies. However, they cannot be attributed more virtues than they actually have. Tools have market value (they are often designed by consultants) and their use is not always neutral in driving change (the choice of tool can influence organizational options). The field of strategic analysis is a good illustration of the multiplication and sophistication of tools produced by consulting firms, the commercial issues they raise and the implications for the choices made (the similarity of the tools proposed induces, in certain sectors of activity, a real "mimicry" in terms of strategy).
CHAPTER 5. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
5.1.Results of the analysis
Competition and cooperation are two inseparable aspects of the digital economy, taking into account the interaction between supply and demand, mentioned above. The forms of manifestation of competition between producers are radically changed by the priority given to a constantly changing consumer in terms of needs, tastes and requirements, so that it forces competitors to cooperate.
The digital economy implies a higher consumption of conception work, highly qualified, creating higher added value, new jobs, practically endless segments of business opportunities and creativity, through the existence of flexible and interconnected standards that facilitate the need for integration and / or individualization of different consumers. Hence the finding that the new economy is "science-intensive" and "art-intensive".
Reducing resource consumption, increasing innovative and entrepreneurial spirit, increasing labor productivity, speeding up and changing economic phenomena and processes, increasing added value are just a few of the economic effects that have imposed the digital economy as a superior form of the economy in general.
It is important to note that each of the principles of the new economy opens specific paradigms for economic science in general but especially for its various disciplines and specializations
The new economy is subject to the principle that "the more people get involved, the greater the benefit for each involved" (the more people involved the bigger benefit for everyone involved).
ICT has a complex impact not only on its economy and efficiency, but also on all aspects of people's lives (Ivan, 2004):
– the capacity to exercise democratic rights and civic responsibilities, the Internet providing conditions for a more informed and participative electorate with rationally motivated behavior;
– creating new interactions between government and citizens, through e-Governance and democracy (e-Democracy), which gives people the opportunity to be participants in self-government, deliberative and deliberative processes, consolidating the foundations of democratic and limiting the counterproductive deviations of political play, especially in an emerging market economy;
– citizens are deeply transforming their behaviors from "reactive" to "proactive" behaviors, being aware of, which increases their chances of creativity and innovation;
– Reconciliation, consensualisation, transparency, efficiency of partnership and social dialogue gain incomparably greater chances of achievement under the informational type of governance and democracy.
The new economy or the digital economy, resulting from the interaction of personal computers, telecommunications, the Internet and electronics, is characterized by a series of traits quite different from the traditional economy (Ivan, 2004).
First of all, it is about creating a new business model (e-business, e-commerce, e-banking, etc.) through the Internet and the Internet, which radically changes their efficiency in terms of cost reduction, including transactional , based on the business / business relationship (B2B), business / buyer (B2C), business / employee (B2E), business / government (B2G), government / business (G2B). Lately, e-commerce has gained the largest expansion as a concrete form of doing business, plus the outline of sui generis markets for scientific knowledge, driven by the unprecedented pace of development of the R & D sector (Ivan, 2004 ).
The new economy is at the forefront of demand, consumers' needs, increasingly involved in the conception, realization and use of goods and services, starting from the stage of their research and development.
From this point of view, the new economy has an interactive, participative character, making the interface between supply and demand in a volume and structure area, in space and time, much more rigorous. The role of the consumer grows especially in the sense that it can become an important source of innovative ideas for the producer or forcing innovation to maintain or expand the market, increase comfort or, sustainability of economic development.
The necessity of remodeling the information system in public institutions in Romania. We begin to approach the case study theme by presenting some general theoretical concepts as follows.
The information system of public institutions
Exercising the role of public institutions in the administration of a state implies the existence of information, circuits and information flows. They form an informational system.
The system is the set of data, information contained in documents, informational circuits, information flows and means of information processing, involved in the process of substantiating the decisions made by the bodies that are part of the public administration system and which contribute by their content to the satisfaction of the needs general population (Androniceanu, 2008). Information is a cognitive construction that also represents "knowledge and construction, conceptual organization of the world and the practice of fundamental knowledge. Semitic materials (words, images, gestures, drawings, etc.), respecting certain principles, in different procedures (operations, actions, movements, maneuvers, mechanisms, strategies) using means (languages, codes, subcodes) and specific tools (knowledge, concepts, categories) adapted to the purpose, between the earth (as a self-creation through feed-back) and heaven (as feed-forward anticipation), a cognitive structure, a cognitive construction: this is the information " ). At the level of common sense, the information currently provides any kind of data, news, descriptions, findings, prescriptions, or predictions about an object, phenomenon or event. Practically, information is the formulation in a language of any knowledge related to the structural, functional or functional organization or to the state of an event, object, phenomenon or person. It expresses a relationship between sides, dimensions of the same fact or between facts, events or objects. Given that Romania is a member of the European Union, the public administration must take its own measures of restructuring, modernization and even rethinking the role and the way of functioning, especially under the conditions imposed by the information society. For the information society to benefit everyone, it must develop in a national context that responds to local requirements, in conjunction with the national and international regional environment. In this respect, the public servants of the Romanian institutions are regularly trained in IT & C training courses. Such a project is called "Increasing Public Administration Accountability by Upgrading the Computer System for Reporting the Financial Statements of Public Institutions", SMIS 34952. On January 16, 2012, the Ministry of Public Finance and the Ministry of Administration and Interior signed the financing contract for this project. ("Increasing the accountability of the public administration by modernizing the IT system for the reporting of financial statements of public institutions"). The project is co-financed from the EUROPEAN SOCIAL FUND through the Operational Program "Development of Administrative Capacity 2013-2018" (http://discutii.mfinante.ro). The overall objective of the project is to increase the efficiency of central and local public administration and administrative transparency by making available to public institutions modern, standardized tools for reporting financial statements and publishing details of the use of public funds in accordance with the budget classification. The purpose of the project is to design a new form of reporting on budget execution and financial statements (including legal commitments) submitted monthly by each public institution in electronic, standardized and secure form. The project is carried out for a period of 21 months, between 16.01.2017 and 15.10.2018, and the implementation of the project aims at the following results: • creation of a unique synthetic form (SinFin) for the reporting of financial statements of public institutions, as well as collection and updating multiannual commitments and maturity • submitting electronic forms for SinFin, signed with an electronic signature on the MFP web site or via State Treasury units and keeping them in the electronic archive, respecting the rules in force; • reducing the number of reporting forms for financial statements and budget execution by public institutions, from 43 to 15-20 and aggregation times and indicators production from 45 to 10 days • providing multi-criteria reports and time series of data collected from stakeholders according to their attributions and competencies • eliminating intensive use of paper support for reporting forms. Given that any public institution seeks to achieve performance indicators and ensure competitive advantage, the entire process of collecting, processing, transmitting the various categories of data and information needs to take place quickly and efficiently. Achieving this goal is strongly conditioned by the structure and function the information system's systemability, as well as the degree to which it, as an interface between the management system and the management system, manages to ensure the optimal deployment of information activities. In the current conditions due to the use of electronic computing tools in public administration, the introduction of the information system becomes more and more related to the study of computer systems. As can be seen from the table below, the information system can be regarded as a grouping of the three technical levels associated with the functions the basic information system (Postelnicu, C., Ionescu).
Table no. 1
Public administration evolves along with the progress of society, making it more efficient by requiring the use of modern techniques and, above all, of computers.
Public administrations are the most important customers and users of information and communication technology, investing in increasing the performance of their own activities, but especially in diversifying and improving their relationships with citizens.
The development of an information society, based on the development of technical infrastructures, creates the necessary framework for ensuring that every citizen has access to information concerning him or which influences his working, study, life conditions.
The information system in general can be defined as a set of principles, concepts, rules and techniques used to collect, record and transmit data for processing in order to obtain the information that is the basis for decision-making.
The information system can also be perceived by its component elements, whether material, logical, human, and which must be in permanent co-ordination for the organization to function well. The instrument of this coordination is the information system, which has a dual linking role, allowing for the exchange of information within the same organization and the organization with the outside.
The main purpose of the information system is to provide each user, according to his responsibilities and duties, with all necessary information (Alexandru, 2006).
The information provided by the information system must be characterized by:
Accuracy and reality: the information provided must reflect reality as accurately as possible, through a fair assessment;
Concision: information must provide the added of knowledge to the subject, succinct, avoiding irrelevant elements;
Relevance: information must provide the added amount of knowledge the decision-maker needs to solve a problem.
consistency: the information must be dense, lacking any need for the studied subject;
Opportunity: Information must come to the user in a timely manner to serve to substantiate his decision;
appropriate presentation: information should be given to the user in a relevant manner so that he or she can receive it quickly and correctly;
Cost appropriate to its value.
Information is an essential resource in the development of a society, and the widespread use of information and communication technologies is vital to its future.
The unitary information system of public administration authorities needs to be examined through a set of information systems of state importance that interact with each other at the level of their own constituent elements.
Since the early 1990s, the rapid penetration of personal computers, the evolution of software technologies, the explosive development of data communications networks and Internet-based services have produced profound changes on a global scale. These developments were largely due both to technological advances and to the promotion of new policies on the privatization and promotion of competition in the ICT market, the new technical and legal regulations in the field, the new national and regional strategies for the development of the information society. All developed countries have developed and implemented sustained government policies on research, development and adoption of new technologies, strengthening national information infrastructures, training and attracting ICT specialists (including from other countries), adult population education, cooperation with the private sector, and encouraging investment in this new economic branch, promoting government projects to demonstrate the usefulness of information society services.
Any governmental policy, but especially policy on the development of the information society, involves the use of advanced technologies in the public and private sectors on a very large scale. Thus, the use of these advanced information technologies in the public administration presents a number of advantages and disadvantages in optimizing the functionality of the administrative system.
Benefits:
reducing costs for purchasing information;
Unification of information: quick access, unit language of users, centralized management of information;
Computing systems can process data much cheaper and more accurate than people;
automation of decisions;
ensuring economic efficiency by: reducing communication costs, avoiding travel to the territory, reducing decision-making times;
the operativeness of services of public interest in the territory;
increase the transparency of the processes at the level of the public administration;
increasing the interoperability of applications for public administration
developing the global market for ICT solutions dedicated to the public sector
interconnecting the data communication of all public, central or local public administration institutions
developing a unique portal for access to electronic public services
the implementation of e-services solutions
the provision of integrated electronic services
the reduction of the costs of improvement of the administrative staff
the efficiency of the self-training processes
the improvement of the efficiency of the services provided by the administrative system
the constant updating of the public information
the improvement of the information security at the level global and communication networks
reducing bureaucracy and corruption
relaxing the relationship between state institutions and citizens
implementing political decision in a very short time
effective communication
Increasing the accessibility of information and services for the citizen
Targeting the public administration towards the citizen as a beneficiary of the services rendered by it
The interconnection of the institutions involved through an integrated information system The reduction of the number of journeys made by the applicants
better monitoring of the quality of services provided
improving the image of public institutions
improving the existing legislative framework
high reliability through access to more alternative storage equipment
creating a strong communication environment for long-distance employees the others, favoring teamwork and strengthening the interpersonal relationships among the employees of the institution
support for a large number of users
prevention of informational overloading
ensuring information integrity
Increase of productivity and competitiveness
Restricted access to applications: authentication of users, certificates, security protocols
Interoperability between applications using protocols and open standards
Variety of working forms: text, graphics, sounds, video
Single user interface for all applications
Optimization of the decision-making process within the public administration
Development of dedicated software applications for the provision of electronic services;
the central role of the Internet as a source of public information.Disadvantages:
frequent changes in the legislation in the field
reduced financial resources for the necessary technical endowment
malfunctions of the informatics system
delays in the implementation of the integrated information system
staff resistance to change;
fluctuation of personnel
reduced number of specialized personnel
limited material resources (computing and communication equipment) large number of requested documents
lack of an integrated database to which each institution involved (with the right to access Differentiated access for each institution)
Circulation of poor documents
Insufficient working space with the public
Reduced media coverage of services and information provided by advanced technologies Failure of financial resources for professional development in the field of ICT
Unspecified implementation and the lack of coordination of advanced technologies
public administration sites are not audited in any way
the existence of bureaucratic barriers in the implementation of proiectelore-services
the diminution of the importance and frequency of traditional forms of meeting, based on verbal communication, such as the hearing .
After analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of information technology in the public administration, one can clearly see the high share of the advantages of disadvantages, which shows that the advanced technologies are an imperative for ensuring a competitive administration on the European Union market and to optimize its functionality according to the new requirements imposed by the information society. The main operating systems currently in use in public administration are: Windows (with Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows ME, Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows XP ) Linux (with Mandrake Linux, RedHat Linux, SuSE Linux, Salckware Linux, Caldera Linux, Corel Linux); Apple Macintosh – for Apple computers (with Mac OS 9, Mac OS 10), Unix – especially used for servers and computer networks. Application Apps (also called application programs) are installed within the operating system and allow for various tasks. Application programs are the top level of the software system, closest to the user, consisting of all the programs designed to solve specific programs. Computer programs can be used for a number of activities, making it easier for everyday work. They are easy working with large amounts of data, simplifying the processing and transfer of information, allowing for rapid connection of various kinds of information (text, image, sound, animation) and taking on a series of repetitive tasks.
Depending on the purpose for which they were designed, the computer programs used in the administrative system are divided into the following categories: a) Office applications: Text editors (Microsoft Word, Open Office Writer, Corel Word Perfect, Lotus Word Pro); Spreadsheet Calculation (Microsoft Excel, Open Office Calc, Quattro Pro, Lotus 1-2-3, Gnumeric, Kspread, FrameWork); Databases (Microsoft Access, FoxPro, Sql, Oracle); Presentations (Microsoft PowerPoint, Harvard Graphics, Open Office Impress); Agenda (Microsoft Outlook, IBM Lotus Organizer, Collabrio MyEvents, Marketcircle Daylite) b) File applications: Total Commander, Windows Explorer; Archiving (WinRar, WinAce, Win Zip); (Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Communicator, Mozilla FireFox 15, Avant Browser, Opera), E-mail (YahooMail !, HotMail, Eudora, IBM Lotus Notes, Netscape Messenger), Chat (Mirc, Yahoo Messenger, Meebo, Borg Chat), File Transfer (NetScape, Odc, Peerweb) d) Multimedia Applications: Audio (Winamp, AudioCatalyst, AtomicMp3), Graphics (CorelDraw, Adobe Photoshop, Macromedia Fireworks) Video (Bsplayer, VLC player, Windows Media Player) e) Programming applications: Assembler, Basic, Pascal, C ++, Java, PHP & MySQL f) Security applications: Antispysoft (Norton, Panda, Esset), Encryption (Verisign, Drivecrypt), g) System applications: (hardware and software) Performance (Everest, Sisoft Sandra) Up Utilities); Another very important aspect with regard to calculating programs The public administration is the issue of the license. The license is the document by which the computer software manufacturer regulates the user's rights and the conditions of use of the computer programs (http://www.dreptonline.com/resurse/programs.php). In other words, the license is the contract between the copyright holder and the legal user of a particular program and is the only legal proof of the right to use the product. The computer programs are strictly protected by Law no. 8/1996 on copyright and related rights, which guarantees copyright on any work of intellectual creation, including computer programs. According to this law, installing, storing, running or executing, displaying or transmitting a computer program on the network without the authorization of the copyright owner (unlicensed) is a crime and is punishable by imprisonment from 1 to 4 years or a fine from 10000 ron at 40000 ron (Article 142 of Law No. 8/1996 on copyright and neighboring rights). In addition to the proprietary software licensing system, which implies payment of the right to use the computer program, there are other types of software Licensing, in which products can be installed and used free of charge, freeware, permanent (abandonware, shareware) or for a fixed period (trial ware, demo). In the case of EU specialists, the concept of e-government defined as the use of information and communication technology in public institutions in parallel with making changes of nature organizational development and development of new skills in order to improve public services and democratic processes and to support the implementation of public policies (http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l24226b.htm).
E-Government systems evolution has been rapid, this being done with the shift from paper to database and from manual procedures to large IT systems. Then more and more civil servants started to use different computer systems, and so gradually they went to the ongoing process, namely to interact with the citizens and organizations in the territory served. The development of eGovernment has been determined in all countries and legislative measures on online public administration services coincided with the rapid evolution of Internet use. The first phase involved the presentation of information. The second was to offer the possibility of downloading necessary forms in interaction with the authorities after printing and completion are presented to the authorities by classical way. The third phase offered the possibility of completing online forms and making other transactions such as payments due to authorities. "M-government" is a subset of eGovernment and refers to tele technology mobile and / or wireless (wireless) mobile phones such as laptops and PDAs (personal digital assistants) connected to wireless local area networks. M-government is particularly useful in countries where internet access rates are low, but mobile penetration is growing fast, countries like Romania, at least nowadays. Besides m-government, another trend developing eGovernment is the eGovernment TV which involves presenting programs stored on site programs that are provided for a scheme monthly and covers a wide range of topics designed to help public officials understand and solve the various issues that arise in adapting to eGovernment.
Electronic governance is one of the important manifestations of the information society, as it involves state institutions, public and private organizations and especially the citizen, which it transforms into an e-citizen, directly, concretely and constructively involved in all areas of political, social life , cultural, civic and moral. Effective governance implies, among other things, participation, transparency, efficiency and equity in the broader context of promoting the rule of law. With the help of the tools provided through the project, these communities can have an online presence with all the resulting benefits In addition to the E-Administration project, we observe the existence of the National Public Administration Portal (www.administrație.ro), a portal that collects and publishes information about the most important institutions and persons in the Romanian public administration: the presidency, the parliament, the government, mayors, county and local councils, prefectures, other central and local public administration organizations (http://www.administratie.ro/sectiuni.php?sec_id=13).
Figure no. 9 National Public Administration Portal
In addition to this information, links (links) to all major public administration institutions as well as online administrative forms (www.e-guvernare.ro) are also distinguished. This makes it easy to observe the central position of this site and thus becomes the most important Romanian public administration portal. At the same time, through the website www.administrație.ro, you can get in touch with the editors of the National Public Administration Magazine, where information from the public administration can be requested, or information, topics or proposals for further materials can be provided.
Malfunctions in the implementation of these systems and programs
Before presenting a number of issues related to this area, I believe that it is necessary to keep in mind that the implementation of these technologies is a difficult, time-consuming and hard-to-accept process by the staff of public institutions. It implies, first of all, the elimination of bureaucratic processes and ensuring the interoperability and accessibility of information for all levels of central and local public administration. Moreover, it involves a series of structural and procedural organizational changes and, most importantly, organizational culture. For this very reason, specialists believe that, in parallel with the implementation of e-services, especially at the level of the back-office component, it is necessary to carry out a process of taking over some change management methods and techniques.
On the other hand, it should be mentioned that the competitive development of the e-services solutions at the level of the public administration will generate the accelerated increase of the complexity of the implementation problems that concern the compatibility, the standardization, the interaction and the synergy of all services, for each level of government involved.
In view of the above, I consider that our country's IT progress is significant, but it is not the same in the use of ICT in order to provide citizens with efficient public services such as the new information society and the quality of Romania to be part of the big family of the EU.
City Hall, taking complaints, suggestions or complaints from citizens about new plans or projects that the City Hall intends to develop. On the other hand, it provides relations on how to obtain various documents, opinions, approvals, which, according to the law, fall under the competence of the City Hall or Local Council, also providing services related to the processing of these documents for settlement, additional efforts. This center should be located both in the City Hall and in the city center, thus enhancing the functionality of the institution by electronic means.
Figure no. 7 Citizens Information Center
The third menu, the Local Council, provides information on its composition, the specialized committees formed, as well as the decisions and draft decisions taken during the sessions. We also find here the regulation of the organization and functioning of the Local Council.
As in the previous menu, the information is presented both through web pages that open at the request of the address, but also through pdf and doc documents that open through Adobe Reader and Microsoft Word programs that the citizen must have installed before accessing the Town Hall page. This way of displaying the information is an advantage for the citizen because these programs allow the saving of the information of interest to the computer, and then allow the processing and ultimately the listing.
Figure no. 8. Main attributions of the Local Council
The Fourth menu, Public Information, brings together all the public information the citizen has access to, such as approved budget, wealth statements etc. On the other hand, we also find online forms available through the http: // formulare.e-guvernare.ro/Forms/default.aspx. Besides these are also posted directly forms, forms for which the citizens do not have to go to the mayor's office and thus have the possibility to download them from the site. Apart from these forms, we also find in this menu the necessary documents for solving different problems. It is easier to work for a citizen who is no longer obliged to go to the mayor's office to find the necessary documents for changing the bulletin, for example, but he views them on the site and when he goes to the town hall he only deposits them and awaits the solution of the problem. Another option offered to the citizen is to fill in online forms and send them to the mayoralty by e-mail. This system reduces bureaucracy and offers increased comfort to the citizen who no longer has to go to the city hall.
A novelty item introduced by me is that module of online taxes and fees. The module on the site is functional only for one example, its implementation requires a lot of information and a collaboration with a bank in the city. In order to use this service you must be registered in the system register and you must have an account with a bank with which you have previously concluded an Internet Banking contract. The way of payment is relatively easy, assuming the payment amounts are viewed and a payment order is issued to the bank with whom you entered into the contract to pay the fees to the City Hall's account. This service is not implemented at the level of the City Hall, but I think it must be part of the e-administration system of any public institution taking into account the requirements of the society we live in.
Secondly, I would like to point out that although the model was originally created for the mayoralties, due to lack of information, the model has been improved and can be implemented at any city hall because it has the e-administration system, taxes online, etc.
So some information on the site is purely informative and untrustworthy, ensuring its functionality and providing an example of how information of that kind should be managed within the site.
From a technical point of view, this website is a set of data compiled through Hypertext Markup Language, CSS Cascading Style Sheets, PHP Hypertext Preprocessor, and Javascript. Like any other web site, it consists of web pages, databases, and other applications developed based on PHP, ASP, Flash, etc. The website is accessed through the HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) protocol, through which information is transferred to the browser server. "Browser" is a web service client through which a web page can be accessed. Thus, the citizen types the address of www.primăria X.ro in a web client (example: internet explorer) and this command searches for the IP address associated with the name. After identifying the server on which the site is found, the web client brings the site to the citizen's computer.
The site is dynamic, a Content Management System, whose content can be edited from a web administration interface, being written using Notepad ++, an advanced text editor. XamppLite, a packet of Apache, PHP and MySQL servers, was used to test the site.
There are two main PHP, index.php, and admin.php files in the root directory that serve the page content and the page management interface. They call some files in the inc directory to solve different tasks for rendering the complete page. Also in this directory is style.css, a file containing the page design information such as colors, fonts, spaces and meniu.js, a Javascript file responsible for animated menu display.
According to Law no. 161 / 19.04.2003 new or already functional websites of public authorities and institutions are registered in the National Electronic System. This site is not registered with the NES nor is it found on the World Wide Web. The site is a model for creating a web site for a public institution, a model that can be implemented at any public institution level. The site was not placed on the server because it does not have any reliable information and is not up to date with all the information regarding the city of X. To showcase its functionality, the Xampplite program, which simulates the existence of Apache, PHP and MySQL servers, was used.
In my opinion, through this site, a bridge is built into e City Hall of X and its citizens. The usefulness of making such a site is easy to understand because it offers citizens the opportunity to participate in the local government process, manages citizens' access to public information and, last but not least, provides for solving problems in a very short space of time. At the same time, I think that by creating such a site, the functionality of such a public institution has definitely been optimized. The processes that are carried out by electronic means replace the old activities and offer an increased efficiency of the public services provided by the institution. Considering the requirements of the society we are currently in, I consider that the implementation of websites at the level of public institutions is a primary process in ensuring efficient and citizen-oriented public administration. Communication by electronic means should be increased, ensuring that the governance process is carried out in an optimum manner at both local and central level. In conclusion, I consider that the initiation of a site model for the City Hall of X has proved to be beneficial in ensuring an efficient public administration at the local level and clearly optimized all the processes that ensured the functionality of the mayor's institution in X.
5.2. Discussion/ interpretation
Managing change in organizations is linked to a multitude of factors that determine not only the nature and magnitude of the changes envisioned, but also the way the process is conducted. The importance of the organizational model of reference and representations of performance among managers was emphasized here. The exhaustion of the Taylor-Ford model at the turn of the 1970s thus resulted in a broadening of the scope of transformations and in the diffusion of participatory approaches to change, particularly in the areas of the organization of production and labor. . However, we will be careful not to make participatory approaches a kind of "one best way" of change management. Even supposing that, in the absolute, they are intrinsically superior to the technocratic model, several elements forbid us to make it a dogma. First of all, as we have seen, the increasing complexity of management systems incorporating ICT places the technical dimension at the heart of change management processes: the mastery of new technologies would then play a role equivalent to that played by the "Science of organization". Secondly, change management seems increasingly constrained, not only because of the globalization of the economy and the ever more unstable characteristics of the general environment.
Participatory management of change requires room for maneuver that decision makers have less and less: inserted in economic sectors, logistics chains with integrated information systems, in multiple partnerships and / or networks more or less formalized, firms seem to have lost in autonomy of choice what they have gained in stability and efficiency. Finally, the interest of a participative conduct of change implicitly implies a minimum willingness to involve the employee in the organization. The Japanese model, where staff participation in change is "embedded" in the organization, works because of the culturally close connection of employees to their company. This link is traditionally looser in France, and it remains so despite attempts to strengthen incentive systems (participation and participation yesterday, employee share ownership and employee savings today), but also by the promotion of collective organizations of the job. It is even likely that this link will be further distended, under the joint pressure of the rise of individualism within society and the disengagement of individuals vis-à-vis large institutions. In this context, it would be simplistic to suggest that the coming years will be marked by the return of technocratic approaches to change. We will rather assume that the conduct of transformations within organizations will be dominated by the management of strategies of actors more and more individualistic even by the regulation of micro-corporatism’s management.
To ensure 100% site functionality and to improve a number of aspects of using an institution's website, we suggest: Make the most of the institution's web site because the Internet is one of the most useful and convenient formulas to involve citizens in the consultation / information process (the number of registered site visitors proves this); Establish a systematic and rapid dialogue, information and consultation system with stakeholders and civil society; Creating a mechanism to consult citizens, professional associations, elected officials, committees, non-governmental organizations, bodies responsible for the application and control of regulations, etc. on the web page; Identify / establish a way of associating citizens in drafting normative acts (consultation of a "sample" of citizens or on-line consultation, use of observations, etc.)
The process of informing citizens about the rights conferred by law must be permanently sustained; compliance with the minimum procedural rules of decisional transparency of public authorities; respect for the right to participate in the decision-making process of public interest as defining the notion of good governance; In addition to these proposals that specifically address public administration sites, a series of measures are also required at the general level of information and communication technology in public administration. In my opinion, these measures should concern: the development and issuance of an updated e-government strategy by:
– inventory of legislation in the field, abrogation of outdated normative acts, amendment of normative acts that can still be used, issuance of government decision.
– Establishing the prerequisites for the certification of e-government solutions – Identifying the basic services to be used in each type of administration
– Identifying the specialized structures of each type of administration and of the administrative-territorial unit – Identifying the existing databases at national, county, local level – creation of public administration communications network creation of names of unified Internet domains for public administration, approach to informatization of local public administration as a priority measure, county approach of e-government projects through a centralized architecture VPN networks of all local authorities in a county, standardization at the level of data structures, computational algorithms and reports Establishment at the level of county councils of a county management and coordination unit for the implementation of e-government system, the introduction of the e-government concept in the curriculum of the training courses for civil servants and the way it is a reform element for the public administration, the introduction of real quality indicators for measuring the performance of the e-government systems implementation, both at the level of the national and local projects, the urgency of the G2G services in the relationship between the central and the local administration and the introduction of the mandatory electronic institutional communication, the acceleration of the elaboration and adoption of the standards at the level of the public administration as well as the pro integration clues with the National Electronic System. In addition to these measures, they propose a greater openness of the civil servants to electronic means as well as the increase of the number of IT specialists from the public administration. Of course, these measures need to be implemented and directed only after the feed back from the citizen, feed back which is very important in the process of rebuilding or rethinking the services offered according to the requirements imposed by society. The solutions and measures proposed are many, but I think that the main issue is to raise the awareness of both citizens and the public administration of the fact that these electronic o make the governance process more efficient and can direct the administration to citizens by providing services in line with the information society requirements. It is important that the state ensures these technologies and that the public administration and the citizens benefit from the possibilities offered by them at all levels Finally, the final conclusion that governs the entire paper is that information technology means contribute significantly to the process of optimizing the functionality of public administration.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, we can state that the impact of new technologies on Romanian society is strong, radically changing the everyday life of the individual. So, due to the rapid application of inventions and innovations, increased labor productivity and affordable prices, almost anyone can access a telephone, radio, television, refrigerator, vacuum cleaner, computer, can purchase an air conditioner. If we were to list some of the most popular Internet facilities today, we could talk about e-mail, electronic newspapers, web pages, file transfer, real-time broadcasting of radio and TV programs, money transfers, shopping real time and the list could continue.
The Internet is "fully" involved in the development of modern society, the information society, and knowledge. Currently, we find it in most of the fields of economic and social life and are at the basis of technological developments that were not just a few years ago. The launch of the World Wide Web in 1991 allows communication between Internet users around the world. Regarding the subject addressed in the case study, it is reminded that the information system of a public institution represents the ensemble of data, information contained in documents, information circuits, information flows and means of information processing involved in the substantiation of the decisions made by the bodies that are part of the public administration system and which contribute by their content to the satisfaction of the general needs of the population (Androniceanu, 2008). And this informational system (in the light of the constant evolution of technology) is remodeled, updated, periodically, in order to increase the efficiency of central and local public administration and administrative transparency, by making available to public institutions modern tools for reporting financial statements and publishing information in detail.
With the accession of our country to the European Union, the public administration had to take its own measures of restructuring, modernization and even rethinking the role and the way of functioning, especially under the conditions demanded by this new information society. For the information society to benefit everyone, it must develop into a national framework that responds to local requirements in conjunction with the national and international regional environment. At a national level, the issue of the information society, with direct involvement in public administration, must be addressed on several levels, which influence and interrelate each other. Public administration is the main link and, implicitly, the most responsible component of society, called to provide a framework favorable to community development, to provide diversified and quality services for citizens and the private sector. The public administration must take measures to ensure the optimal framework for activities to meet the requirements of the actors involved. Under these circumstances, it is necessary to:Extend and modernize the national information infrastructure; development of applications and services based on the convergence of information technologies, communications with the media, allowing homogeneous and coordinated informatization of the institutions from the central and local public administration, improvement of the public services and realization of the interaction of the civil society with the administration by the appropriate electronic means. The extraordinary impact of ICT puts its mark on the entire economic, social and cultural life, practically ruling the modern world. The prefix highlights one of the most important facilities offered to humanity by the Internet: the ability to communicate across borders, time and space, ie to create so-called electronic communities / virtual communities. Information and communication technology represents for public administration an area in which the involvement of civil servants should be total given the advantages it offers to improve and streamline the governance process.
These advanced technologies ensure the development of the e-government system and enable citizens to participate in decision-making to ensure the functionality of the administrative system. In my opinion, the share of these technologies can make the difference between an efficient citizen-centered administrative system and an obsolete administrative system which the citizen's opinion does not matter and where the services offered do not meet the performance standards imposed by the new information society. In trying to synthesize the theoretical and practical experience gained during the elaboration and writing of this paper, I have taken a series of conclusions from which we propose to present only those considered by us to be more relevant. Thus, following the scientific approach undertaken, we have found the following: the higher the share of the advanced means of information technology used in public administration, the more it is ensured an increased functionality for it , the development of the e-government system presupposes the use of electronic means in the process of governance both at the central and local level, the use of information technology systems leads to the reduction of bureaucracy and corruption, by the use of these technologies the cost of information is reduced, by the development of advanced technologies a series of electronic services high quality for citizens and the private sector; In view of the above conclusions, I would like to emphasize that these are the general conclusions that I have learned from the study of the literature. Taking into account that in the application part I created a website model for a public institution I would like to continue to present a series of benefits, both for the public administration and for the citizens, which I have extracted along This should be taken into account by the public administration institutions. It is through their own websites that: maximize the advantages that the administration can obtain through the public consultation process; better knowledge of the needs, wishes of citizens and civil society regarding the local public services to be offered to them; prioritizing local public services according to needs, requirements and resources; increasing the confidence of the community towards local elected representatives and public administration in general; facilitating a direct contribution of citizens to the problem definition, identifying and implementing solutions, assessing the decisions taken and their effects; familiarizing citizens with the process of public decision-making in order to provide more and more informed help; Creating the means by which the citizen can participate in the management of public affairs. The main users of the site are community members.
They can benefit from the institution's web site through: the opportunity to participate actively in the decision-making process; the possibility to control and monitor the activity of the public authority; the possibility to evaluate the decisions of the public institutions; the opportunity to participate in a bidirectional, permanent dialogue between the local public administration, local NGOs and citizens; the chance to contribute to the development of the local community by improving information, collaboration and consultation among the various stakeholders; the chance to support other citizens in solving complex problems they face. As we can see, the benefits are both on the one hand and on the other, which shows that the implementation of the sites at the level of the public institutions is a primary process in ensuring the optimization of the public administration functionality.
The later problem is that of administering and updating information on the site. These processes are those levers by which site administrators manage to post that useful information when needed. Thus, all the public institutions' Internet pages, through which public information and services are offered through interfaces of the electronic means will be updated monthly or whenever necessary, the date of the last update being displayed for each page. The existence of a legal and formal framework ensuring decisional transparency does not exclude the inertial state that characterizes the plan of citizens' involvement by the authorities in taking decisions of general interest. In the same vein, with regard to the use of own sites, not all city halls are consistent in being up-to-date with the information posted. The more local public authorities are closer to the citizen, the more they need to be more active in informing, consulting and stimulating citizens. The citizen's involvement in the administrative decision, as its main beneficiary, is the clearest sign of transparency in the local and central administrative institutions.
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