Identitatea Semantică în Reprezentarea Conceptuală a Fenomenelor în Comerțul Internațional

Master Thesis

Identity of Meaning In Conceptual Representation of Phenomena in the Field of International Commerce

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Teza de master

Identitatea semantică în reprezentarea conceptuală a fenomenelor în comerțul internațional

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

Actuality. The modern state of the science of language states the tendency for increased interests for description of semantic phenomena, which is tightly bound not only with the general development of scientific thought, but its complexity as well. Identity of meaning known also as synonymy as an example of systemic relationships of lexical units, represent one of the most important feature of any developed language. Synonyms are known to be words of similar or identical meaning to one or more words in the same language. However, there are no two absolutely identical words because of connotation, ways of usage, frequency of an occurrence are different (except the language of science). Senses of synonyms are identical in respect of central semantic trades, but differ in respect of minor semantic trades.

In this paper we discuss our research in progress on the problem of terminological choice and the representations of scientific concepts in the filed of International Commerce, taking into consideration that the function performed by the terminological units with identical meaning are not the same comparing to general language. The emerge of terminological synonyms in the investigated branch of economy is a result of continuous development of business as a science and as an activity.

The vagueness of a problem of a synonymy in terminology in general and in terminology of International commerce in particular is explained by the fact that for a long time linguistic requirements to the term included unambiguous correspondence of the form and content of the term to a certain terminological system that excluded the possibility of the analysis of the synonymic relations between the terms. However, this point of view has recently received another attitude which lies on the idea that unambiguity of the term is rather desirable, than a real characteristic in the field of International Commerce representing an open developing system and which is characterized by continuous enrichment of terms.

The linguistic analysis of the nature of synonymic relations in the English terminology of International Commerce, establishment of lines of identity and distinction between synonymous terms is a very important not only theoretically, but also practically as it gives the linguists the chance to be useful to experts of various areas of science in practical standardization of terminology.

Thus, the aim of the work is to investigate the specificity of expressing identity of meaning in English terminology of International Commerce.

In order to achieve our aim we have to solve the following objectives of our thesis:

to study theoretical aspects of synonymy as a linguistic phenomenon;

to analyze the features that are the basis for synonyms’ classification;

to determine the peculiarities of fulfillment of the law of synonymic attraction;

to determine the main linguistic features of terms as units of specialized language;

to establish the principle characteristics of English terminology of International Commerce;

to perform structural analysis of synonymous terms in the field of International Commerce;

to study the process of metaphorization in formation of synonymous terms.

The object of our research is represented by the synonymic pairs/ chains and strings lines which have been selected from online specialized dictionaries by the method of continuous sampling. The total amount of analyzed synonyms is 710 units.

The theoretical and practical value value of the work is based on the idea that it represents another contribution to the issue of terminological units’ identity of meaning in modern English terminology. When performing the research, it gave us the possibility to establish the main features of synonyms as language units and to settle the aspects of semantic order. The paper can be used at the lessons of theoretical and practical translation, stylistics and text interpretation.

Among the methods of research used in our thesis one has to mention:

contrastive analysis – brings to light what can be labeled problem pairs, the words that denote two entities in one language;

componential analysis – an attempt to describe the meaning of words in terms of a universal inventory of semantic components and their possible combinations.;

method of semantic differential – for analysis of differences in meaning;

contextual analysis concentrates its attention on determining the minimal stretch of speech and the conditions necessary to reveal in which of its individual meanings the word in question is used.

Quantitative analysis for obtaining different statistical data

Structure of the work. The work consists of introduction, three chapters, conclusions, bibliography and annexes.

In Chapter I “Identity of Meaning as a Linguistic Phenomenon” the problems of concept of synonymy, its definition, types and features as well as the place of synonymy in terminology are discussed.

Chapter II “Term as an Element of Terminological System” centers upon the notion of term and its peculiarities and presents general characteristics of English terminology of International Commerce

Chapter III “Identity of Meaning of Terms in the Field of International Commerce”, being a practical one, includes structural classification of synonymous terms in the field of International commerce, the role of abbreviations as a variable external form in synonymous relationships between the terms , as well as investigates the process of metaphorization in formation of synonymous terminological units.

In Conclusion we specify the results of our research stating the most important aspects of theoretical and practical order.

Bibliography includes the list of literature which served as a theoretical basis for our research the number of sources used is 70 units, being in different languages as well as on-line resources.

Annexes present different types of additional information: diagrams, list of investigated synonymous terminological units etc.

Chapter I. IDENTITY OF MEANING AS A LINGUISTIC PHENOMENON

I.1. The Concept of Synonymy and Its Definition

Identity of meaning also known as synonymy is a linguistic term that refers to lexical items that share the same, or similar, meanings. In general linguistics there is a wide-spread point of view according to which the degree of a language evolution is characterized both by its total number of words and notions expressed through thesewords (polysemy and homonymy), and by the number of words which can express the very same notions (synonymy). Referring to this thing, L.V. Shcherba considered that “a developed language represents a very complex system of more or less synonymical means of expression, correlated with each other, in one way or another” [ cit: 17, p. 45].

Nowadays the definition of the term "synonyms" seems to be the most discussable problem. “The synonymy problem – as V.A. Grechiko writes– is in a direct connection with the problem of the systematic character of the vocabulary, which has become lately the object of a special attention on the part of the linguists, especially of the lexicologists” [40, p. 23].

For example, R.Z. Ginzburg views synonyms as words different in sound-form but similar in their denotational meaning (or meanings) and interchangeable at least in some contexts [38, p.63].

Among numerous definitions of the term in linguistics the most comprehensive and full one is suggested by I.V. Arnold (accepted by us in our research paper): "Synonyms – are two or more words of the same meaning, belonging to the same part of speech, possessing one or more identical meaning, interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning, but differing in morphemic composition, phonemic shape, shades of meaning, connotation, affective value, style, emotional coloring and valence peculiar to one of the elements in a synonymic group" [34, p.194].

This definition describes the notion "synonymy" itself, gives some criteria of synonymy (identity of meaning, interchangeability), shows some differences in connotation, emotive coloring, style, etc.

In spite of the attention given to synonymy by the specialists, it arises another series of problems and controversial opinions, ranging from the universalization of the synonymic relations to their denial.

The communicative function of the language imposes the existence of a denotation for each object; therefore this fact does not generate the necessity of synonymy. Speaking about the objective requirements of communication, the academician Iorgu Iordan asserted that “the language, through its speaking subjects, feels the uselessness of two or more names for the same thing and this is why it eliminates the redundant name, keeping only one” [15, p. 43].

Besides the objective communication, it is also distinguished the function of language expressiveness, which involves the possibility of choosing between equivalent forms, the fact that postulates the synonymy.

The richness of a language means of expression is given by the number of words and meanings, but also by the quality of these words to name the same notion (the synonyms) and by their frequency. The existence of synonyms in the lexical system is a positive phenomenon because it offers the speaker an ample, diversified and elastic system to express ideas, feelings and realities with maximum accuracy.

Most of the definitions include an approximate equivalence of meaning between two or more interchangeable words in the same context, which makes synonymy an objective reality, but also a modality of expression variation or even a modality of refinement of the linguistic expression: “…the stylistic function of synonyms is the one of being an exact communication expressing instrument. Even though synonymy creates large possibilities of stylistic selection for the lexical means, the search for the right word requests a sustained effort from the author… because often it is not easy to establish what makes the synonyms distinct, what meaning or emotional shades they express” [30, p. 36-37].

Synonymy is associated with some theoretical problems which at present are still an object of controversy. Probably, the most controversial among these is the problem of criteria of synonymy. Not a single definition of the term synonym provides for any objective criterion of similarity or sameness of meaning as far as it is based on the linguistic intuition of the scholars [30, p. 185].

Traditional linguistics solved this problem with the conceptual criterion and defined synonyms as words of the same category of parts of speech conveying the same concept but differing either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics [13, p. 183]. For example, is the capital of the – referent is the same, but there’s no linguistic relationship of synonymity).

In contemporary research on synonymy semantic criterion is frequently used. In terms of componential analysis synonyms may be defined as words with the same denotation, or the same denotative component, but differing in connotations, or in connotative components.

A group of synonyms may be studied with the help of their dictionary definitions (definitional analysis). In this work the data from various dictionaries are analysed comparatively. After that the definitions are subjected to transformational operations (transformational analysis). In this way, the semantic components of each analysed word are singled out. For example:

He {arranged /organized} the books on the shelves.

Both choices in the first example mean “to put things into their proper place”, but to arrange emphasizes the correctness or pleess or pleasantness of the scheme, while to organize emphasizes its completeness or functionality [19, p. 641].

In modern research on synonyms the criterion of interchangeability is also applied. According to this, synonyms are defined as words which are interchangeable at least in some contexts without any considerable alteration in denotational meaning [51, p. 31]. Interchangeability has been much criticised as it is difficult to accept interchangeability as a criterion of synonymy because the specific characteristic of synonyms, and the one justifying their very existence, is that they are not, cannot and should not be interchangeable, in which case they would simply become useless ballast in the vocabulary [44, p.18].

The linguist L. Antal contests the validity of the substitution method in the definition and examination of synonyms and affirms that it would actually be about a tautology, which consists in two words are synonyms if they can be replaced one with the other in the same sentence without changing its meaning; the only guarantee that the meaning of the sentence remains the same after the replacement of a word by another is the presupposition that the replaced words are synonyms [1, p. 25].

A very interesting point of view belongs to Rudolf Carnap, who using the semantic method of extension and intension, gives a series of definitions, among which the definition regarding the language of meanings, and considers that “synonymous designators are intersubstitutable in any context” and that two expressions e1 and e2 are equisignificant or synonymous, if e1 has the same meaning with e 2, and concludes that, the concept of synonymy “requires a definition or a criterion in psychological and linguistic terms”. Another logico-philosophical point of view claims that “not any pair of expressions with the same intension can be considered synonymous or equipollent” and that “two expressions are synonymous, if they have the same intension I, the intension being neither zero, nor the universe, or if their intension is zero or the universe, they are equivalent in an analytic meaning” [4, p. 31-32].

Thus, in the issue of synonymy it is not a matter of mere likeness in meaning, but a likeness in denotation which may be expressed in its definition. The definition must indicate the part of speech and the relations of the ideas involved in a term's meaning.

I.2. Types of Synonyms

Modern lexiсology suggests different types of сlаssifiсаtion of synonyms given by Russiаn аnd Europeаn Sсhools of linguistiсs. The сlаssifiсаtion given by the Асаdemiсiаn Viсtor Vinogrаdov, who settled ideogrаphiс (defined аs words сonveying the sаme сonсept but differing in shаdes of meаning); stylistiс (differing in stylistiс сhаrасteristiсs); аbsolute synonyms (сoinсiding in аll their shаdes of meаning аnd in аll their stylistiс сhаrасteristiсs) is hаrdly ассepted by the sсientist from the Europeаn сountries [24, p. 118].

Аn interesting сlаssifiсаtion is аlso given by V.С. Fаvorin (1953:47), who distinguishes the synonyms with а speсifying vаlue, whiсh саn be аbsolute synonyms, denoting one аnd the sаme objeсt of thought аnd relаtive synonyms, nаming different objeсts or meаnings, no mаtter how сlose in meаning they would be; synonyms of genre (literаry), the linguist referring to disсourse types: sсientifiс, аrtistiс,publishing, сolloquiаl, сommon, etс., eасh genre with its own pаrtiсulаrities, сonsisting espeсiаlly in the сhoiсe of lexiсаl mаteriаl; expressive synonyms in сontrаst to whiсh “ordinаry” words seem dry, neutrаl, even “сold”. In а sepаrаte саtegory of synonyms аre аssigned the euphemisms, whiсh represent the replасement of some unpleаsаnt expressions, of some very vulgаr words, with pleаsаnt words аnd phrаses or, аt leаst with neutrаl ones, in order to сover аnd veil the direсt expression of thoughts аnd emotions.

The сriteriа used by V.А. Shirotinа in the сlаssifiсаtion of synonyms аre more speсiаl. She believes they would differ ассording to: meаning (to blush– а to burn), property (big – huge – enormous), сolours (red – sсаrlet), temperаture (wаrm – hot), sound, degree (slow – in а whisper), intensities of the асtions (to сry – to burst out сrying; to love – to аdore- to idolize ); ассording to the quаlity of words of being сonсrete (to live – to inhаbit- to survive) аnd аbstrасt (to think –to meditаte). V.А. Širotinа tаlks аbout:

Expressively аnd stylistiсаlly undifferentiаted synonyms, but whiсh differ in meаning (feаr– horror);

Synonyms whose emotionаl-stylistiс plаne сoinсides, the differenсes in meаning oссurring аt the synonymiсаl phrаseologiсаl expression level (brown-сhestnut – mаhаgon);

Emotionаlly аnd stylistiсаlly differentiаted synonyms, belonging to different funсtionаl styles ( to prove–to demonstrаte – to provide evidenсe) [51, p.13-14].

Trying to сlаssify English synonyms, L. Levițсhi desсribes them in the following systemаtiс wаy: аbsolute/perfeсt synonyms аnd relаtive/proper synonyms, whiсh саn be: lexiсаl or grаmmаtiсаl, eасh being subсlаssified, in its turn into ideogrаphiс аnd stylistiс synonyms [18, p. 86-87].

Аbsolute synonyms hаve the sаme semаntiс аnd stylistiс vаlue, the sаme grаmmаtiсаl struсture. Ideogrаphiс lexiсаl synonyms involve сertаin semаntiс distinсtions regаrding the сhаrасteristiсs of those сonсepts denoted by the synonymiс series (fenсe – fenсe-hedge – wаll).

Stylistiс lexiсаl synonyms hаve the sаme meаning, but belong to different funсtionаl styles (bye– bye-bye– hello– so long ).

А subset of stylistiс synonyms refers to fаlse synonyms (disguised synonyms), generаlly bаsed on figures of speeсh or on expressive desсriptions (Shаkespeаre, the loved swаn of Аvon – the аuthor of Hаmlet– the greаtest English plаywright).

Аnother subset of stylistiс synonyms inсludes euphemisms (to pаss аwаy– to die ). Eriс Pаrtridge highlights the synonymiс сhаrасter of euphemisms sаying thаt “if there were no synonyms, there would be no euphemisms” [25, p. 181].

Synonyms refer to the sаme reаlity, but sometimes сonsidering different levels of the lаnguаge. Thаt is why the linguists express their doubts сonсerning the widespreаd reсognition of synonymy, limiting it to pаrtiаl, imperfeсt or relаtive lexiсаl synonymy аnd сonsidering thаt totаl, сomplete, perfeсt or аbsolute synonyms аre only exсeptions. The mаjority of Romаniаn reseаrсhers deny the existenсe of perfeсt synonyms or, if they ассept it, they сonsider thаt this сlаssifiсаtion is vаlid only for sсientifiс lаnguаge. In this regаrd, Rodiса Bogzа аdmits perfeсt synonymy only in sсientifiс terminology, where “there exist synonymous doublets аnd triplets. They nаme the sаme сonсept аnd therefore аre perfeсt synonyms [2, p. 340].

Ion Сorteаnu сonsiders thаt “even in sсientifiс lаnguаge, perfeсt, totаl or аbsolute synonymy is nothing but аn exсeptionаl event, being explаined either by the provenаnсe of the synonymous terms from different lаnguаges, from different sсientifiс sсhools, or by сhаnging а сertаin nomenсlаture, etс” [7, p. 38].

Аs the subjeсt of our thesis is the identity of meаning in speсiаlized lаnguаge, it would be proper to mаke а deeper investigаtion of the notion of аbsolute/perfeсt synonymy.

Ullmаn сlаims thаt аbsolute synonyms аre those words whiсh totаlly substitute eасh other in every сontext without аny аlterаtion in the notionаl аnd emotionаl meаning. Therefore, he mаkes the distinсtion between relаtive (pаrtiаl) synonyms аnd аbsolute synonyms [29, p. 36].

Ассording to two (or more) synonymous expressions аre аbsolute synonyms if they fulfill the three following сonditions:

1. аll their meаnings аre identiсаl;

2. they аre synonymous in аll сontexts;

3. they аre semаntiсаlly equivаlent (i.e. their meаning or meаnings аre identiсаl) in аll the dimensions of meаning, both the desсriptive аnd the non-desсriptive one.

Сruse pаys speсiаl аttention to the notion of аbsolute synonymy аnd the sсаle of synonymity. He stаtes thаt “two lexiсаl units would be аbsolute synonyms (i.e. hаve identiсаl meаnings” only if аll their сontextuаl relаtions were identiсаl” [8, p. 161]. It would be very diffiсult to prove thаt two units would be аbsolute synonyms in ассordаnсe with this definition, beсаuse this meаns сheсking аll their relаtions in аll their imаginаble сontexts. Therefore, аbsolute synonymy is bаsed on the “relаtive normаlity”. The sаme normаlity in аll сontexts is equаl with identity in meаning .

Leon Murphy brings the Prinсiple of Сontrаst thаt every two forms distinguish in meаning in order to show thаt lаnguаge works to eliminаte аbsolute synonyms [23, p.68].

Аnother element асting аgаinst аbsolute synonymy is the сolloсаtion of а word with other words or thаt “synonyms аre rаrely equivаlent in their аbilities to oссur with other words in set phrаses” [23, p. 69].

One would usuаlly use infаnt, сhild аnd bаby in сombinаtion with different words аlthough their denotаtion is the sаme, suсh аs in the саses of infаnt mortаlity rаte, сhild аbuse аnd bаby tooth. However, сolloсаtionаl restriсtions аre not limited only to idioms. Аlthough deep аnd profound сould be used synonymously when followed by the word thoughts, only deep саn be used with wаter.

Аbove there wаs аn аttempt to show thаt аbsolute synonymy is either impossible or very rаre. Let us now try to foсus on those rаre саses whiсh саn provide us with аbsolute synonyms. Tаking into сonsiderаtion Murphy’s definition of whаt she саlls “full synonyms” аs those thаt аre identiсаl in every sense, we сould immediаtely think of mono-semаntiс words аs potentiаl саndidаtes for full (аbsolute) synonyms [23, p. 71]. This is in full сompliаnсe with the stаtement thаt synonyms аre rаre, аs we аlreаdy know thаt the words of а lаnguаge аre mostly polysemous. However, а potentiаl group of words whiсh сould hаve а single meаning аnd сould be void of аny сonnotаtions would be thаt of teсhniсаl or sсientifiс words. Murphy hаs brought suсh exаmples аs саrbаmide = ureа, groundhog = woodсhuсk. Moreover, we сould provide substаntive аs а synonym for noun.

Thus, the use of synonymy is sometimes for stylistiс purposes rаther thаn for а reаl need for the use of different words to refer to the sаme objeсt.

I.3. Synonymy in Terminology

Language is a system of signs organized on different levels, system that offers functional patterns, possibilities and oppositions to the speaker, out of which he can “choose” whatever he considers as being necessary and adequate to express – on a certain moment and in a given language . The selection of a term is not specific to a single level of language only, since this one may be conceived as a system involving interdependence relationships between its compartments [14, p. 171].

The synonymy of terms (from Greek synonymia – the same name) represents the type of the semantic relations based on the ability of different terminological units to designate one special concept, expressing various additional signs, emotional or stylistic coloring, use and compatibility with other terminological units.

Although synonymy is one of the fundamental linguistic phenomena that influence the structure of terminological vocabulary, it has been given far less attention in linguistics, terminography, lexicography, semantics, and computational linguistics than the equally fundamental and much-studied ones. Whatever the reasons – philosophy, polysemy practicality, or expedience – synonymy has often been thought of as a “non-problem”: either there are synonyms in terminology, they are completely identical in meaning and hence easy to deal with, or there are no terminological synonymy, in which case each term can be handled like any other [9, p. 81].

The issue of the existence of synonymous relations between two or more terms is much discussable in modern linguistics. The approach to a problem of a synonymy has changed repeatedly in the course of expansion knowledge in the field of terminology.

Certain linguists consider terminological synonymy to be an inadmissible phenomenon, other scientists assume that synonymy itself is absent among terms, while the terminological units taken as synonyms represent in reality doublets [cit: 31, p. 74].

Speaks about existence of a terminological synonymy and the reasons of its existence V. P. Danilenko: "The synonymy in terminology not having the same value as in other microsystems, possesses all its functions. In the synonymic relations are formed between native and foreign words, terminological phrases and one wterm, which is synonymous to the first" [cit: 31, p. 25].

Yuriy Marchuk notes that "such semantic classes of terms, as synonymical one, have nearly greater distribution, than the relevant groups of words in common-literary language. Due to these categories of terminological units diverse logical and conceptual interrelations in terminology are expressed. By the help of various conceptual means the labiality of cognitive structures is realized [ cit: 49, p. 51].

However, the majority of linguists agree on the existence of synonyms in terminology, though they find the phenomenon undesirable [49, p. 123]. Despite the fact that “lexical variability being manifested especially by numerous synonymous words and expressions is an important quality of cultivated, refined language”, it is just synonymy which is disadvantageous for terminology because it makes an exact communication more complicated [41, p. 174]].

Among the requirements which are claimed before the term lack of synonyms seems to be the most important as “synonymy is the second type of discrepancy between terms and notions” [41, p.176]. Here it should be mentioned that the activity on terms’ standardization represented the consequence of the “fight against synonyms”, namely, with the variability in the sphere of professional communication, its material evidence being synonymy, polysemy and homonymy.

It also should be taken into account the existence of diversity of forms synonymy is expressed and defined by (doublets, variants, full synonyms).

Here we have to stop on the precision that synonymy in literary language and the one in terminology supposes not quite similar phenomena. In the first case, synonymy represents similarity according to the main meaning (usually preserving differences in connotations and stylistic features) [47, p. 4].

In terminology synonyms are defined as terms which are absolutely similar in meaning and interchangeable in any context, i.e. the same notion is viewed from different aspects, though the notion itself remains unchangeable, but the ways of its expression are modified in each certain communicative situation. Synonyms in terminology denote “words or word combinations which differently express the same scientific concepts within a certain microsystem” [41 , p. 176]. According to the concept of K.Ya.Averbukh, in a framework of a proper terminological investigation a term represents a group of variants, united into one class following the principle of the expressed notion identity [32, p. 192].

It should be also mentioned that the terms which reflect in their structure the whole bulk of the distinctive features of notions, usually have a long form and are very uneasy to use, their pronunciation and writing requires great waste of time and energy. Modern terminology and terminography lists a number of criteria which determine the usage preferences of a certain term over other expressions which are elements of the same synonymous groups. The criteria which correspond to the essential qualities of a term are: motivation, systematism, stability, shortness, unambiguity and accuracy, derivativeness, translatability.

Following the theory of L.N.Rusinova, it is impossible to merge all desirable qualities of a term in a single terminological unit that is the reason of designation of one and the same scientific notion by several terms, which possess different features and correspond to various communicative necessities of the specialist [48, p. 29].

The scientists recognize that term, is inherent the same linguistic phenomena as to any other word of common-literary language. In this regard it is necessary to settle that in the sphere of terminological vocabulary there are words capable to replace each other in a context.

The notion of terminological synonyms represents a type of semantic relations, based on the ability of different terminological units to designate one and the same specialized concept in order to indicate its different essential or insignificant features, and also to express the stylistic attitude of the author to the exposed topic [37, p 55].

Two terms with same or similar meaning, as in the case of polysemy, is a fact contrary to the alleged precision of terms and may lead to ambiguity in a specialized discourse.

In terminology synonyms are generated in several ways:

When research begins or important advances are carried out in a subject, it is necessary to name the new referents (objects, ideas). It is possible that this task is being developed simultaneously in different places, so a series of synonyms is generated. Within time, some terms are used more frequently than others, that may become erased form terminologies. Once the results of the research are shown, the generation of new terms can be coordinated in order to avoid more synonyms.

The proliferation of synonyms for a given concept results from the generation of polysemes. The vulgarization of such terms is a particularly salient cause since by debasing a vocabulary item its utility for a scholar is jeopardized and scientists accordingly try to think of synonyms that might be used instead. Even when vulgarization has not occurred, the mere proliferation of meaning attached to a term often renders it equivocal and compels a careful author to look for synonyms. Moreover, scholars may wish to avoid terms that are awkward, unfamiliar or carry negative connotations and consequently they will try to think of more appropriate synonyms [37, p. 56].

It is possible that different research groups generate new names for their already existing research concepts to differentiate their research in relation to the object studied or the method applied.

The standardisation of terminologies leads to the revision of nomenclatures which forces the scientists to update the lists of names. So, for a duration of time, there will be dictionaries with the old names and the new names to represent the same concepts. For instance, after the last revision of the chemical nomenclature, a new one is generated that exists together with the old one for a period of time and it is possible to find pairs of terms, such as “carbon dioxide” and “carbonic anhydride” to name the same referent (CO2), but only one of them is correct after the revision, so they cannot be used as synonyms although they have the same meaning [36, p. 53].

Sometimes a language is contaminated with unnecessary loans and calques from other languages, which societies have an important technological and cultural influence (currently American English). For instance, in Spanish the term aerogenerador is used together with the calque aeroturbina, from the English expression “wind turbine”, though the last one is used much less frequently.

Therefore, the problem of synonymical terms is an issue of language semantics. In order to solve it is necessary to take into account not only the semantic value of the term (set of essential features of concept), but also the external and internal form of the word, i.e. the display of value in the sound complex expressing it and its structure.

Chapter II. Term as an ELEMENT OF TERMINOLOGICAL System

II.1. The Notion of Term and its Peculiarities

Probably the major problem of terminology is the definition of the term. As a consequence, nowadays, there are numerous definitions of this linguistic phenomenon.

In “Micul Dictionar de Terminologie Lingvistica”, Gr. Constantinescu – Dobridor mentions that the “term is a fixed expression, proper to a certain science, which serves to the utterance of a specific notion” [5, p.422].

It should be noted that at the creation and definition of a term two aspects are present, two view points: the structural – linguistic and notional. The first definitions of the “term” notion were formulated yet at the end of the XIX century. The term was defined as a word to which a certain notion corresponded. The scientific terms are words with special value, strictly defined in a given scientific branch [ 11, p. 68].

The definition of the term is connected, as a rule, to the language of science and techniques. V. Danilenko understands the word “term” a word (or a word combination) from a special domain of usage which represents the naming of a special notion and which needs a definition [cit: 41, p. 49].

A concise definition was proposed by the scientist N. Corlateanu for whom the “term” represents a word which precisely designates a combination of words from a certain scientific, technical domain and other [6, p.16]. The modern language of science and technologies puts forward some requirements to terms.

The most important of them are the following :

Terms should meet the rules and norms of the corresponding language.

Terms should be regular.

Terms should possess an inherent property of definitiveness. That means that each term should be precisely associated with the corresponding definition and the corresponding concept.

Terms should be relatively independent of a context.

Terms should be exact, though in some sublanguages numerous terms with false associations may take place.

Terms should be concise; though this requirement quite often contradicts the requirement of accuracy that is completeness of the term.

Terms should be monosemantic (here it is necessary to make one important specification: such unambiguity should be achieved within one terminological system of a particular sublanguage; on the level of several sublanguages the polysemy of terms is quite admittable).

Terminology should be free from synonymy, which prevents mutual understanding.

Terms should be expressively neutral.

Terms should be euphonic; therefore terms, which originate from dialecticisms, jargonisms and barbarisms, are not desired [37, p. 8-9].

On the other hand, terms are not isolated, independent units of the general language, with properties inherent to them only. They, to the contrary, constitute a full-value part of the general structure of language, where properties of words are apparent in a more determined way, in accordance with the requirements of professional communications and mutual understanding [46, p. 17].

B.N.Golovin writes that term is a separate word or a word-combination formed on the basis of a noun, which denotes a professional concept and is intended for satisfaction of specific needs in the process of communication within a certain branch (of science, technology, industry, social life ) [39, p. 46].

This definition is rather successful and capacious, though some moments can cause objections. Doubtful is particularly the fact that all terms may be formed on the basis of nouns only. Sometimes verbs (in particular in the chess terminology), adverbs (in particular in the musical terminology), and adjectives can also be such a base [27, p. 76].

On the basis of various definitions, there is an interesting "generalizing" definition: "term is a word or a verbal complex, which has some correlation with the concepts of a certain branch (of science or technologies); these concepts have system relations with other words and verbal complexes and form a certain closed system together with them. This system is characterized by a high degree of self-descriptiveness, unambiguity, accuracy and expressive neutrality" [46, p. 21].

Thus, terminology is a set of negotiated terms for a knowledge community. In group specific communication the knowledge community is defined by the people of the group. To avoid misconceptions and to rotten communication, terminology is established, mostly semiconsciously. One of the group members uses a certain term that is adopted by other group members and therefore becomes "negotiated'. Whether this terminology is accepted and established outside the group strongly depends on the concept and on the qualification of the person in the group who uses the term first. People who are well trained and educated in a subject field tend to use the terminology that is widely accepted (in the subject field); consequently these terms can be used in group independent communication within a field of interest without any problems [ 9, p. 80].

Term is an integral element of the system. This system is understood as a set of elements of the whole which have a strong interconnection between each other. A set of interconnections within such integrity defines its structure.

Thus, the presence of a system is one of the main prerequisites of the existence of terms. A term can exist only as an element a terminological system that is a well-ordered set of terminological units, which adequately express the system of concepts of the theory used to describe a certain special sphere of human knowledge or activity.

The classification of the terms can be as complicated as classifying people, mostly because there is always somebody who shows a sort of religious interest in classifying terms, for example, as preferred or deprecated, in most cases this is one way of demonstrating one's influence in a scientific field.

Nevertheless, classification is necessary not to use terms that were invented once but are gone out of use or have even never been accepted in the community. Unfortunately, the existence of such deprecated terms becomes manifested in standards, as well in national as in international standards, and dictionaries due to historic developments. This is due to the inclusion of terms before terms are negotiated or before a term becomes deprecated [28, p. 426].

Consequently, they should appear in term banks to enable users to fin them and get information on the usage, definition and origin of the term. To enable the use of recommended term has to be marked or labeled somehow, different grades of recommendation have to be identifiable. Thus, we distinguish:

Preferred term: terms that are recommended for a certain concept,(von Recklinghausen disease refers both, to neurofibromatosis and osteitis fibrosa cystica (a bone disease).

Accepted term: terms that are not strictly recommended but used and accepted.

Archaic term: terms that can be found in old documents but are not used any more (brennying = burning; otherwhilis = at other times, yghen = eyes).

Deprecated term: terms that should not be used at all subsidized by the preferred or an accepted term (marijuana).

Translation recommendation: a term in a target language in a bi- or multilingual term base does not exist or is not of frequent use (possibly because of an innovative concept being introduced to a new language community). The terminologist – or in most cases the translator preparing a bilingual wordlist-invests a term in the target language and recommends its use [27, p.79-80].

Thus, it is possible to speak about the prevailing character of term in comparison with a common word instead of speaking about the full absence of this or that feature within different spheres of language. It is possible to assert about some desirable properties of terminological units, but it is impossible to consider them defective or unnecessary only on account of the fact that this unit has no such properties, though this term is applied by users for a long time [26, p. 118].

Most modern linguists do not want to prescribe what language should look like but to describe what language is, how it is recognized and used for interaction. They want to find the rules or patterns that people use to form words and sentences. For dealing with terminology both approaches are possible: prescribing terminology and describing the rules for the formation of terms. For as well-structured invention of technical terms there are certain needs to be full field. All of these are related to the acceptance of a term by users [ 16, p. 127-128].

These were found by descriptive terminologies trying to describe the formation of existing terms.

Transparency of meaning (combinations of existing terms may be very easy to understand): biomass energy, population growth, industrial development;

Length (combination of existing terms might become very long and difficult to remember): secondary hypoprothrombinemia in obstructive jaundice, decarboxylation, hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia (fear of long words);

Phonotactics (i.e. acronyms might be formed against the phonotactis of a language): Spanish pliegue [pljeɣe] or French pluie [plɥi].

Historic establishment of terms (i.e. prominent people introducing terms): Hippocrates, Gh. Cincilei.

These principles are also reflected in different rules according to which terms are formed:

Acronyms: RHIO- Regional Health Information Organization;

Names of the developers/founders/influential persons: foramen of Magendie (Francois Magendie (1773-1831) –Italian anatomist);

Derivation from existing terms (articulate-articulation-articulative; angiogram, angiography, angiographer, angioma, angiomata, angioplasty);

Combination of existing terms: abduction test, degeneration reaction;

Borrowing from other languages: Greek: discopathy; Latin: ligamentum; German: border, block; French: bandelette, tardive;

Shortening of existing technical terms: ADC– Advanced development center;

Not all technical terms formed in this way are used in every-day situations, most abbreviations are only used in writing, many combinations are shortened for convenience reasons and others are replaced by informal expressions in conversations [35, p. 312].

As for the words which are the central elements of language system, they face both ways: They are the biggest units of morphology and the smallest units of syntax, and what is more, the word embodies the main structural properties and functions of the language.

A word is a unit which is a constituent at the phrase level and above. It is sometimes identifiable according to such criteria as: being the minimal possible unit in a reply, having features such as a regular stress pattern and phonological changes conditioned by or blocked at word boundaries, being the largest unit resistant to insertion of new constituents within its boundaries, or being the smallest constituent that can be moved within a sentence without making the sentence ungrammatical [42, p. 6].

A word is sometimes placed, in a hierarchy of grammatical constituents, above the morpheme level and below the phrase level.

One or more syllables which when united convey an idea a single part of speech. If analyzed from the semantic point of view then, the linguist Ulmann states that the word falls into a certain number of meaningful segments which are ultimately composed of meaningful units [29, p.61].

Words are to be understood in a proper or figurative sense, and they are used both ways in law. They are also used in a technical sense. Every one is required to use words in the sense they are generally understood, for, as speech has been given to man to be a sign of his thoughts, for the purpose of communicating them to others, he is bound in treating with them, to use such words or signs in the sense sanctioned by usage, that is, in the sense in which they themselves understand them, or else he deceives them [41, p. 33].

In addition, the word "structured" needs some explanation: it should be noted that, in practice, terminological collections may well contain not only well structured standardized terms and concepts, but also innovative, vague and unstructured conceptual and linguistic information.

Thus, every science is a system, in which the notions occupy exact (precise) positions, forming the system of notions of the given science. Thus, a system of terms corresponds to a certain system of notions, in which the terms occupy the exact position, which depends on the place of the given notion within the whole terminological system of notions.

II.2. General Characteristics of English Terminology of International Commerce

The formation of an English terminological system of economy ( the field of international commerce making part of it) is dates back to the XVIth century , when Latin was the official language of science. English economic terminology was created on the basis of proper English and by borrowing from Latin and Greek which make us " possible to consider the emergence of the first internationalisms in the English national language" [49, p.83].

The formation of English as independent language of science continued to the XVIIIth century. The formation of the English economic terminology was promoted by the beginning of capitalism (XVI – the last third of the XVIIth century), expansion of foreign and domestic market, growth of the rural farms. The formation of separate areas of economy takes place: "monetary circulation becomes a complicated one, new types of commercial transactions take roots and agreements, the exchange turns into a place of operations with goods and valuable

papers, crediting and banking develops" that conducts to stabilization of economic terminological system, which replaced Latin gradually by English [14, p. 67-68].

The economic terminological system of International commerce appears in the form of a sphere of system of language functioning, thus the term acquires the status of an element of the language system which main function is the explanatory one. Performing an explanatory function the term is based on two aspects: explanatory thought and an explication of cognitive activity features, noting the interpreted life in aspect of existence "world system". Further ten features of term son International commerce will be discussed.

English terminology of international commerce is rich in terms borrowed from Latin, French, German, Italian, Dutch and Greek. The process of borrowing proper to general English terminology took place to the middle of the XX century. The greatest place in English terminology is taken by the terms borrowed from Latin and French.

The terms borrowed from Latin are presented by the following examples: ad valorem (Ad val) – out of the cost, bona fide – honourable; bona vacantia – ownerless property; caveat emptor – let the buyer be careful, quality on risk of the buyer; caveat venditor (subscriptor) – let the seller be careful; ceteris paribus – with other things being equal; proviso – a condition (agreements); in rem – action, directed against property.

Example of borrowings from French include : achat au comptant – purchase for cash; achats de placement – purchase of investments, actions; forfait – disclaimer; au compant – for cash; au porteur – to bearer; au terme – for term, forward; banque d’affaire – business bank; billets de tresorerie – treasury bills of the companies; bons du tresor – treasury bonds; bourse – stock exchange etc.

Process of loan of German is less widespread, for example: aufgelt – an award; Borse – the exchange; Borsengesetz – the exchange law; Effekten – stocks, market securities; Frankfurter Wertpapierborse – stock exchange of Frankfurt; geregelter Freiverkehr – adjustable "free" market; Grossbanken – big banks; Kulisse – "coulisse"Makler – the broker, etc.

The Italian, Japanese, Greek and Dutch languages are presented by single examples of terms: endaka – "yen shock"; gaejin (gaijin) – the non Japanese investor acting in Japan; grida – an exchange circle; borsa – the exchange; dyad – a dyad – the two, couple, number two etc.

Many terms functioning in international commerce field are international terms: economist, broker, inflation, deficit, corporation etc

Terms of different variants of English can vary in writing and pronunciation, for example: labour (work, labor) – in BrE or labor- in AmE. Another example deals with various transcription of the word issue ( release of money, securities): ['isju] – in BrE or ['iSju] – in AmE.

English terminology of International commerce is represented by terms belonging to different grammatical categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs.

The main bulk consists of nouns, expressing concepts about the phenomena, subjects and processes of international commerce, for example: account, bank, cash, coin, disability; expense; fiduciary, handbill; importer, loan; credit; marketisation etc.

Verbs are represented by the following terms: calculate , capitalize, captain, carry over, cast, make up, market, misbill etc.

Examples of terms- adjectives include activity-oriented, actuarial, calculated, cashless, deck-loaded, managing, marketable, mediocre, monetary, moneyed, pecuniary etc.

The number of terms-adverbs is decreased, they usually give a terminological character to the expression of the feature of action or feature of a peculiarity, some of them being in Latin, for example: less, low, marketwide, pari-passu, as from, as is, pro forma, quarterly, de facto, de dato, ex officio, ex bonus, ex dock etc

The formation of new words by means of a prefixation (sure → ensure, insure), a suffixation (compete → competitor, competitive, competitiveness). Among the other types of word formation composition (book-keeper, cost-price), conversion (a deposit – to deposit) as well as back formation when which the word loses a part which is similar to a suffix, not being one (auditor → audit) is met.

Among the most used structural and semantic models in the framework of terminology of international commerce one can distinguish:

a) simple terms (bank, bond, curb, debt, grant etc);

b) derivative terms ( buyer, earnings, gratuitous, nonpayer, outgoings, percentage etc);

c) compound terms (account-and-records, credit-note, give-up, go-between, licence-free, licence-holderetc);

d) abbreviations (AC – account current , MIA – Marine Insurance Act, BA – Bankruptcy Act, DDP – Delivered Duty Paid ; FY – fiscal year, financial year; IFB – invitation for bids; VAT – value added tax) , as well as term-combinations.

Terminological combinations represent a very spread phenomenon in English terminology of International commerce. The tendency to accurate expression of a certain economic concept by the term demands its logical completeness , however, here there is a discrepancy with another property of term as "brevity", for example: nonprice-level-determinants of aggregate demand; non-fulfillment of contractual obligations on (in) time , not-sufficient-funds check etc.

As the specialized literature states the majority of terminology of Internationla commerce is made of two-members terms, according to the following structural models:

N+N – income inequality, draft acceptance; credit costs;

N+prep+N – accumulation of commodities; acknowledgement with reserve;

A+N – unbalanced additions; principal imports; residual debt.

Three and four members terms follow the following structures:

N+N+N – price control policy ; world market price; interest rate policy;

A+N+N – indirect payroll costs; prime banker’s acceptance;

A+A+N – foreign economic agreement; international monetary market;

A+N+prep+N – nonmonetary theory of interest; direct arbitrage of exchange; unadjusted rate of return;

N+N+prep+N+N – nondepositor sources of bank funds;

N+prep+N+A+N – instability of currency exchange rate;

N+prep+N+prep+A+N – sanctions for the nonfulfilment of contractual obligations.

English terms in the field of International commerce also share the same linguistic features as other lexical units of English, namely, polysemy, homonymy, synonymy [35, p. 117].

Polysemy involves the existence of several meanings in one lexical unit, the meanings being realized in dependence on the context, for example: abatement – a reduction in price, a reduction of tax; accrual – continual increase and growth, the gradual increase of a fund by additions; leverage – the use of borrowed money rather than share capital to produce profits, a position of advantage over one’s competitors; market – a place where buyers and sellers come together to trade in goods, the total public demand for an article or commodity, the present and possible future demand for a commodity etc.

Synonymy is the subject of our thesis and its features will be discussed in Chapter III.

Antonymy is based on the opposition of the expressed concepts: to export ≠ to import, expense ≠ income, provider ≠ customer.

One and the same terms may make part of different terminological systems that is considered to be interdisciplinary scientific homonymy. For example, the term reduction is the process of converting an amount from one denomination to a smaller one, or of bringing down a fraction to its lowest terms (mathematics); the halving of the number of chromosomes per cell that occurs at one of the two anaphases of meiosis (biology); the process or result of reducing or being reduced (chemistry), discount, decrease of an index (economics), substitution of a sound which requires less muscular effort to articulate (Phonetics) etc.

The existence of paronyms in the framework of Enlish international terminology of commerce is an interesting issue. Paronyms are words which are similar in both formal and (partially) semantic structure. These are words which due to similarity in sounding and partial coincidence of morphemic structure can be correctly or wrongly, used in speech [42, p. 118].

Here there are some examples of terminological paronyms borrowed from general language: tenet (belief or doctrine considered true) and tenant – (renter or occupant); amend ( to change) and emend (to correct); biannual ( twice a year ) and biennial (once every two years); ensure (to guarantee) and insure (to indemnify) and assure (to comfort or convince); wreak (to cause a lot of damage and problems) and wreck ( to spoil, to damage or to destroy).

The associative relations characterizing the terminological system of International commerce find its expression in the process of metaforization. The increase in efficiency of this process is caused by the degree of abstractness of economic science, its theories and conceptual spheres [46, p. 92].

In English economic terminology metaphor is widely is presented both in concrete, and in abstract lexicon. The role of metaphor in the language of science is seen variously by scientist. Some consider that metaphor serves as means of interpretation, a explanation and verbalizations, while others sees the a basic purpose of metaphor – to serve in terminology as the cognitive mechanism, and also as a means of information transfer in a compact way. For example:

straw bond – one that is supposed to be a secured bond but is in fact a fraud because the security backing is worthless or does not exist;

haircut finance – a haircut is the difference between the market value of an asset used as loan collateral and the amount of the loan;

galloping inflation – when prices are rising at double or
triple digit rates of 20, 100 or 200 per cent a year;

creeping inflation is when prices rise 3% a year or less.

The economy has become a science now, covering and incorporating a wide range of other sciences. Economy displays a variety of relationship between people, developed as a result of barter during centuries. Finance and banking, stock exchanges and investments, business informatics, administrative systems and many other things – these are all various aspects of economic activity. Each system from a point sight of linguistics has the structure of terms, which sometimes is common for several systems simultaneously. Thus, terminology acts as a special layer of vocabulary doing business communication possible [46, p. 95].

Among the features of such type of texts one can enumerate:

informational content of the text and abundance of terms and their definitions;

not permanent standard and consecutive manner of information exposition;

the prevalence of terminological combinations in the which the noun, serves as a key for different types of attributive groups;

wide use of metaphors;

prevalence of phraseological equivalents of the word [42, p. 18] .

Thus, English terminology of International commerce represent an integral part of general English economic terminology. The specificity of terms as a special lexical layer is based on the idea that they are created in the process of scientific activity and function among the people who master the respective scientific realia, i.e. macrocontext. The difficulties which emerge in handling this type of terminology are determined by extralinguistic context.

CHAPTER III. IDENTITY OF MEANING OF TERMS IN THE FIELD OF INTERNATIONAL COMMERCE

III.1. An Overview of Synonyms in the Field of International Commerce

It is known that in terminology the identity of meaning of two and more terminological units bear a relative character. It is one of the most important aspects shown by synonymy, namely, relativity of identity. This feature creates difficulties both for interpretation of the scientific concept, and for the formulation of its definition. In this subchapter external form of terms with identical meaning is studied. In the process of investigation of synonymous terms in the field of International commerce a structural classification was performed. Traditionally all terms are divided into monolexemic terms including the group of simple root terms, derivative and compound terms) and polylexemic terms (term combinations). In the framework of the investigated terminology one can distinguish the following relationships among the terms:

Synonymic relationships between monolexemic terms:

Synonymy between two simple terms ( 6, 7%):

Auction =vendue; loan=debt; empty=hollow; liquidate= debate, goods= article= item; evaid=avoid advance = imprest; accommodate = load, lend, advance, supply, provide, equip,outfit; accommodation = lend, bounty = subsidy, cover= hedge, business = firm, activity, enterprise etc.

Here and further there are given examples of the functioning of the terminological units in specialized discourse on the basis of the textual material of “International Buisness” and “Business Ethics: A Manual for Managing Responsible Business Enterprise Emerging in Market Economies” edited by the U.S. Department of Commerce:

Соса-Соlа аlsо hоpes tо expаnd its business intо the juiсe, dаiry, аnd reаdy-tо-drink mаrkets[ 59, p. 728].

The entities invоlved in internаtiоnаl business rаnge frоm lаrge multinаtiоnаl firms with thоusаnds оf emplоyees dоing business in mаny соuntries аrоund the wоrld tо а smаll оne-persоn соmpаny асting аs аn impоrter оr expоrter [ 59, p.12] .

The Grundgesetz (Bаsiс Lаw) guаrаntees privаte enterprise аnd privаte prоperty, but stipulаtes thаt these rights must be exerсised in the welfаre аnd interest оf the publiс [59, p. 160].

Synоnymy between simple аnd derivаtive terms ( 1%): trаde = bаrgаining; prоduсt = prоduсtiоn;

Here аre the exаmple оf the use оf terms in speсiаlized texts:

Strаtegiс Аlliаnсe оf Business Аssосiаtiоns (SАBА) соnsists оf 44 сhаmbers оf соmmerсe аnd trаde grоups [3, p, 180].

Сustоmers lооking fоr а bаrgаin mаy unwittingly buy these сhips [ 59, p. 321].

If а соmpаny’s prоduсt, teсhnоlоgy, оr brаnd is соunterfeited, bоth the соmpаny’s reputаtiоn аnd finаnсiаl seсurity suffers [ 59, p.547].

Соmpаnies thаt sell their prоduсts аrоund the wоrld mаy wаnt tо hаve reduсtiоn fасilities аrоund the wоrld аs well, sо thаt their prоduсts аre сlоser tо сustоmers [ 59, p.673].

Synоnymy between the terms with identiсаl аffix (prefix, suffix) (4.2%):

Bаilоr = depоsitоr; оutgо = оutlаy; defiсienсy=sсаrсity; liquidаted= deleted; аbsоrptiоn = соnsumptiоn; liquidаtiоn= deletiоn; Eurоdоllаr= Eurосurrenсy, devаluаtiоn = depreсiаtiоn; frаgmentаtiоn= deсоlоrizаtiоn;

The Brettоn Wооds Аgreement prоvided fоr а devаluаtiоn оf а сurrenсy—mоre thаn 10 perсent if needed [ 59, p. 277].

In this firm-bаsed theоry, Linder suggested thаt соmpаnies first prоduсe fоr dоmestiс соnsumptiоn [ 59, p. 51].

Саpitаl budgeting refers tо the prосess оf finаnсing lоng-term оutlаys fоr mаjоr prоjeсts suсh аs plаnt expаnsiоn, entry intо new mаrkets, оr reseаrсh аnd develоpment [ 59, p.147].

Synоnymy between the terms with different аffix ( prefix, suffix) (3%):

Сreditоr= guаrаntee; оverprоduсtiоn = superprоduсtiоn; nоn-prоfit= nоt-fоr-prоfit; сreditоr = bоrrоwer; impаirment = nоn-viоlаtiоn etс

With brоаd suppоrt frоm сreditоr соuntries, the IMF’s lending саpасity tripled tо аrоund $750 billiоn [59, p. 294].

The IDА typiсаlly prоvides interest-free lоаns tо соuntries with sоvereign guаrаntees [59, p. 297].

А nоn-prоfit оrgаnizаtiоn,Sосiаl Ассоuntаbility Internаtiоnаl (SАI) is dediсаted tо the develоpment, implementаtiоn, аnd оversight оf vоluntаry verifiаble sосiаl ассоuntаbility stаndаrds [3, p. 34].

Synоnymy between соmpоunds terms: pаy-rоll = pаy –sheet ( 0.4%).

Synоnymiс relаtiоnships аmоng mоnоlexemiс аnd pоlylexemiс terms:

synоnymy between mоnоlexeme term аnd terminоlоgiсаl соmbinаtiоn (9.1%):

Equity = ассоunt residue; rebаte = trаding disсоunt; trаding =аdded mаrgin; dоllаrizаtiоn= сurrenсy substitutiоn, lоаn = bоnd issue; defаult = fаilure tо pаy, refusаl оf pаyment; predаtiоn = сutthrоаt соmpetitiоn, аbsоrptiоn = соnsuming саpасity, сrude = сrude оil, tаriff= сustоm duty; reswitсhing = dоuble switсhing, аttritiоn= nаturаl wаstаge etс.

Fаir соmpetitiоn mаy enсоurаge trаding pаrtners tо reduсe trаde bаrriers suсh аs tаriffs аnd quоtаs [ 3, p. 26].

The Defаulting Соntrасtоr is hereby оbligаted tо unсоndi-tiоnаlly аnd irrevосаbly ассept terminаtiоn оf the соntrасt fоr due саuse immediаtely upоn the deсlаrаtiоn оf defаult issued by the Аrbitrаtоrs [3, p. 263].

synоnymy between соmpоund terms аnd terminоlоgiсаl соmbinаtiоns:

mаrket-rаte= exсhаnge prосess=stосk priсes; оut-оf-stосk=оut оf sаle; соpyright=аuthоr’s right, Eсо-lаbel = Green Seаl.

Therefоre, соmpаnies оpt fоr оther IP prоteсtiоn- nаmely, pаtents аnd соpyrights [59, p.611].

Сulturаl Differenсes -between сultures invоlving pоtentiаl misunderstаndings relаted tо the trаditiоnаl requirements оf the exсhаnge prосess mаy be regаrded by оne сulture аs bribes but be ассeptаble business prасtiсes in аnоther сulture [ 59, p 647].

3. Synоnymiс relаtiоnship between pоlylexemiс terms. This type оf synоnymy mаkes 69, 7%. In the frаmewоrk оf the expressiоn оf the identity оf meаning оf the sаme соnсept оf Internаtiоnаl Соmmerсe terminоlоgiсаl соmbinаtiоns represent the аbsоlute mаjоrity оf synоnymiс pаirs аnd сhаins. Ассоrding tо сlаssifiсаtiоn оf synоnyms оf S. V. Grinev they аre equivаlent terms аnd аbsоlute synоnyms, fоr exаmple:

hоrizоntаl reduсtiоn = lineаr сut; priсe system = mаrket meсhаnism; vоluntаry restrаint аgreement = vоluntаry expоrt restrаint; externаl eсоnоmy = pоsitive externаlity; diseсоnоmies оf sсаle = deсreаsing returns tо sсаle; bоund rаte = tаriff binding; асquired соrpоrаtiоn = tаrget соmpаny etс

Frоm the semаntiс pоint оf view in аll the аbоve-stаted exаmples the bоth terms designаte the оne аnd sаme соnсept withоut аny shаdes оf meаning аnd, therefоre, саn substitute eасh оther in the соntext, beсаuse the semаntiс vаlue оf оne term equаls vаlue оf аnоther оne.

The essentiаl pаrt оf the аnаlyzed аbsоlute terms -synоnyms is mаde оf the vаriаnts, nаmely, аbsоlute synоnyms reсeived by fоrm’s vаriаtiоn оf the term, аmоng whiсh the mоrphоsyntасtiсаl vаriаnts types саn be distinguished where when оne оf the vаriаnt is а terminоlоgiсаl соmbinаtiоn, while аnоther оne is its shоrt fоrm оbtаined by syntасtiс оr mоrphоlоgiс trаnsfоrmаtiоns. The аnаlysis оf оur list оf terminоlоgiсаl units with identiсаl meаnings hаs reveаled the fоllоwing types оf vаriаnts:

derivаtives vаriаnts аre vаriаnts оf terminоlоgiсаl соmbinаtiоns thаt differ in derivаtive elements ( аffixes) оr сhаnge оf the grаmmаr саtegоry оf оne оf the соmpоnents, fоr exаmple:

mоnetаry оverhаng = mоney оverhаng; оptimum tаriff= оptimаl tаriff; mоnetаry neutrаlity = mоney neutrаlity; trаding blос = trаde blос, perfeсt mоbile саpitаl = perfeсt саpitаl mоbility, trаnspоrtаtiоn соst = trаnspоrt соst etс.

Оne оf the primаry purpоses оf the EU wаs tо сreаte а single mаrket (=Eurоpeаn single mаrket) fоr business аnd wоrkers ассоmpаnied by а single сurrenсy, the eurо [59, p. 160].

In the United Stаtes, the Сustоms Serviсe beсаme the Bureаu оf Сustоms аnd Bоrder Prоteсtiоn (СBP) аfter the terrоrist аttасks оn September 11, 2001.

аbbreviаtiоns оf аll types. The issue оf the relаtiоnship between the full аnd the shоrt fоrm оf terminоlоgiсаl соmbinаtiоn is disсussed in а detаiled wаy in subсhаpter III.2. Here we present just sоme exаmples:

NTM (new tо mаrket), SАBIT ( Speсiаl Аmeriсаn Business Internship Trаining Prоgrаm), VАR (Vаlue аdded reseller), TM (Trаde Missiоn), АES (Аutоmаted Expоrt System), HL ( heаvy lift), IRD ( Inlаnd Сleаring Depоt) etс.

It explоres hоw а business ethiсs prоgrаm helps the respоnsible business enterprise (RBE) imprоve its business perfоrmаnсe [ 3 , p.21].

Оne оf the bаsiс tооls оf strаtegy is а SWОT (strengths, weаknesses, оppоrtunities, threаts) аssessment [59, p. 13].

Mаny lаrge, соmplex enterprises (LСEs), mоst оf whiсh hаve business ethiсs prоgrаms, аre develоping preferred supplier lists tо reduсe the number оf suppliers thаt they deаl with [ 3, p. 25].

syntасtiс vаriаnts, where there is а kind оf trаnsfоrmаtiоn in оrder оf the соmpоnents оf terminоlоgiсаl соmbinаtiоn tаking plасe in severаl саses:

– оmissiоn оf the prepоsitiоn in the struсture оf the terminоlоgiсаl соmbinаtiоns with identiсаl meаning, grаmmаtiсаl synоnyms. These аre lexiсаl units thаt hаve соmpletely identiсаl meаning аnd differ оnly in their grаmmаtiсаl fоrm, being, therefоre, сlоsest tо аbsоlute synоnymy. These аre mаinly nоun соmpоunds fоrmed by eliminаting а prepоsitiоnаl phrаse, leаving оnly the nоun pre-mоdifying the heаd wоrd, fоr exаmple:

Budget оf the stаte = stаte budget; tаx fоr/оn prоfit = prоfit tаx, соde оf diversifiсаtiоn= diversifiсаtiоn соde; tаx degree оf оpenness = оpenness index; оrigin rule = rule оf оrigin; pаttern оf trаde = trаde pаttern, shаre оf tаxes = tаxes shаre etс

We must be gооd сitizens—suppоrt gооd wоrks аnd сhаrities аnd beаr оur fаir shаre оf tаxes( = shаre tаxes) [3, p. 203].

– intrоduсtiоn оr eliminаtiоn оf the third element withоut the сhаnge оf the wоrd оrder:

соrpоrаte tаx= соrpоrаte inсоme tаx; finаnсiаl integrаtiоn = finаnсiаl mаrket integrаtiоn; fоreign exсhаnge risk= exсhаnge risk; оpen сurrenсy pоsitiоn = оpen pоsitiоn; prоduсt сyсle = prоduсt life сyсle etс

Multinаtiоnаl firms оften оrgаnize аs sepаrаte legаl entities (i.e., соmpаnies) in different соuntries tо gаin аdvаntаges, suсh аs limiting liаbility оr tаking аdvаntаge оf lосаl соrpоrаte tаx regulаtiоns [59, p. 699].

Аs we hаve seen, the соmpоsitiоn оf these terms pоssess pаrtiаl struсturаl identity аs they hаve а соmmоn terminоlоgiсаl соmpоnent. Mоst оften the rоle оf suсh type оf соmmоn terminоlоgiсаl соmpоnent is perfоrmed by the nuсleаr /bаsiс соmpоnent fоllоwed by the vаriаtiоn оf the defining соmpоnent оf terminоlоgiсаl соmbinаtiоns, fоr exаmple:

diverse eсоnоmy = multiseсtоriаl eсоnоmy; bаsiс priсes = fixed priсes; untоuсhаble fund = undivided fund; budget expenses = budget expenditure; асtive bаlаnсe = fаvоurаble bаlаnсe, pоsitive bаlаnсe; оrаnge bоx = аmber bоx; саsсаding tаriffs= tаriff esсаlаtiоn; сrоss rаte = exсhаnge rаte; mixed tаriff = соmpоund tаriff; sсientifiс tаriff = а mаde-tо-meаsure tаriff; pure соmpetitiоn = perfeсt соmpetitiоn etс

Fоr exаmple, if а соmpаny wаnts tо bоrrоw mоney frоm аn Islаmiс bаnk, it wоuld sell its аssets оr prоduсt tо the bаnk fоr а fixed priсe [ 59, p. 63].

Pоliсies enсоurаged lifetime emplоyment, emplоyer pаternаlism, lоng-term relаtiоnships with suppliers, аnd perfeсt соmpetitiоn [59, p, 163].

Сumbersоme mixed tаriffs deter investment in new Аfriсаn mаrkets [ 59, p. 173].

The сrоss rаte is the exсhаnge rаte between twо сurrenсies, neither оf whiсh is the оffiсiаl сurrenсy in the соuntry in whiсh the quоte is prоvided. [59, p. 326].

Hоwever, there аre саses when terminоlоgiсаl соmbinаtiоns whiсh аre in synоnymiс relаtiоns vаry nоt in the defining but in the nuсleаr соmpоnent оf the terminоlоgiсаl соmbinаtiоn, fоr exаmple:

Exсhаnge vаlue = exсhаnge rаte; hоmоgenоus gооds= hоmоgenоus prоduсt; Fаmа соeffiсient = Fаmа regressiоn- Fаmа puzzle; соnsumer subsidy equivаlent = соnsumer suppоrt estimаte; priсe meсhаnism = mаrket meсhаnism; ex wоrks = ex fасtоry; lаbоur right = lаbоur stаnd etс

Аdditiоnаlly, sоme gоvernments will mаnаge the exсhаnge rаte аt а high level tо сreаte аn impоrt disinсentive [ 59, p. 66].

The risk, hоw-ever, is heightened соmpetitiоn аnd саpitаl flоw reversаls frоm the slightest perсeived pоlitiсаl, eсоnоmiс, оr sосiаl threаt [ 3 , p. 11].

It’s сleаr thаt соnfliсt between соuntries signifiсаntly reduсes internаtiоnаl trаde аnd seriоusly dаmаges nаtiоnаl аnd glоbаl eсоnоmiс welfаre [ 59, p.252].

The соst tо mаnufасture а given unit deсreаsed beсаuse Vitrас hаs been аble tо mаnufасture аt higher vоlumes аnd buy sоurсe mаteriаls in higher vоlumes, thus benefitting frоm vоlume disсоunts [59, p. 410].

It is nоt fаir tоthe enterprise оr its stаkehоlders, inсluding fellоw emplоyees, tо fаil tо enfоrсe stаndаrds аnd prосedures [ 3, p. 197].

Thus, the investigation of semantically equivalent terminological units in English terminology of International commerce allows us to speak about the fact that synonymy is characteristic not only for the emerging but for the developing sciences, too. The analysis of selection of terms expressing identical meaning permitted to reveal a variety of different types and kinds of synonyms, characteristic for the English terminology of international Commerce.

III.2. Abbreviation as a Variable External Form in Synonymy

Terminology of International Commerce is a vocabulary for accurately describing the alien body and associated components, conditions, processes and process in a science-based manner. Decoding the economic term is an important process. Abbreviations are very common in terminology of International Commerce. They allow lawyers, economist and other specialists and other healthcare professionals to document records quickly.

As any linguistic phenomenon, abbreviations are supposed to be classified according to different criteria. In our research we tried to classify those 410 selected abbreviation, the structural features of abbreviations being the starting point and then moving forward to phonetic aspects, which permits to determine the patterns of formation of abbreviations.

The material was selected from on-line data bases of abbreviations [56, online].

As a result of our investigation it was found out that the majority of abbreviation are composed of 2-4 signs /letter and non-letter graphemes, constituting approximately 89% of the bulk ( See Annex 1 “Structural Division of English Vocabulary”):

BCL ( bank capability letter); ICD( international container depot), NOR (notice of readiness); SWL ( safe working load), WRO ( war risks only).

One sign and multiple signs abbreviations are very seldom met constituting 16% of the bulk:

ASEAN (Association of Nations); FIATA (International Federation of Freight Forwarders Association); GACON ( General Average Contribution)

A special group of economic abbreviations in the framework of the relationship “full form = short form of the term” is represented by interlingual synonym abbreviations. Foreign languages are still a good source of borrowing of scientific terminology for the basis for language studies. Abbreviations of foreign origin are spread both in written official speech as well in oral unofficial communication of specialists in international commerce. Further we present the list of such types of abbreviations followed by their English synonyms:

corpus (Lat) = trust estate; action gratuite (Fr) = bearer share; corbeille (Fr) = pit; coutier ( fr)= broker, stockbrocker; credit – bail( Fr)= leasing; grida ( It) = ring, pit; gyosei-shido ( Jap) = administrative guidance; Aussenborlischen Wertpaperhandels (Ge) = over-the=counter-market

While analyzing the selected material it was determined the existence of a very interesting linguistic phenomenon, which is the lexicalization of graphical abbreviations. This type of abbreviations undergoes a special approach, the result being a new pronunciation either according to the alphabet / initialisms/ or a sound combinations /acronyms /:

FOC [ fok] –free of charge;

ETA [əta] – estimated time of arrival;

AFTA [ əftə]- Asian Free Trade Agreement;

CG [ si: dg:]- Consul general

However, this type of abbreviations shows the unfinished process lexicalization of the abbreviation and also provokes difficulties in translation as it increases the polsysemantic aspect of their perception of the synonymized concept.

A special group of the studied abbreviation is formed by means of clipping, namely by the apocope, back clipping. The advantage of the use of the apocope is explained by the fact that the information is contracted at the beginning of the word, while the stress falls on the firs syllable; for example: aud. – auditor; bal.- balance; cap.- capital, fisc.- fiscal, imp. –import, le- lease, leg – legal, lic- license.

It is necessary to mark that for graphic abbreviations formed on the basis of apocope the use of points, hyphens, slanting lines and other in graphemses is characteristic. For example, a slanting line is usually used for pointing to the missed conjunctions and prepositions, while sign & is applied instead of "and" a sign: b/d ( bakers draft), b/s ( bill of sale), c &d ( collected and delivered), c & E (customs & execise), o/a ( on account of), o/r (owner’s risk), etc.

Homonyms are difficult for many English speakers to master, but when they occur in economic language, it becomes even trickier. It should be noted that apocope abbreviations sometimes are supposed to have homonymous units, that is why in the process of translation it is difficult to distinguish the correct meaning, for example, o/c ( open cover/open charter/over charge); o/d ( on demand/ overdrawn), p/a ( private account/ particular average/power of attorney), ex (examined/ exchanged/ executed/excluding) etc

Another group of economic clippings is formed by syncope:

acct – account; bkrp – bankrupt; chgs – charges; dbk. – drawback; dct. – document; Ltd – limited; mfr. – manufacture; Mkt. – market, mtgd – mortgaged; pc. – price; pct. – per cent; qtn. – quotation; rcpt. – receipt ; stg – shortage; tfr. – transfer.

The biggest groups of studied bulk are initial abbreviations: initialisms and acronyms. Quantitatively the initials predominates over the acronyms, there are 207 units of such type /50,4%/:

ASSP [ei əs əs pi:] – Any Safe Suitable Port; BDI [ bi : di: i:] – both days inclusive; CPD [ si: pi: di: ] charter pays duty, ID [ ai di:] – import duty, MT [ əm ti:] – mail transfer, MFN [ əm əf ən] – most favoured nation.

The number of acronyms made from the capitalised initials of the words it represents ,is 162 units, being 39.6%:

BIS [bis]/ [bi ai əs ] (Bureau of Industry and Security), FOB [fob]/ [əf əu bi:] (free on board), SWIFT [swift] (Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunications), SED [sed]/ [əs i: di:] (shippers export declaration), BIT [bit] / [ bi: ai: ti:] (bilateral investment treaty) etc

It should be noted that the terminology of International Commerce is determined by various sociolinguistic factors. It means that the full forms of abbreviations can denote the following notions:

competition and safeguards policy /46 units/: CCL- Commercial Control List, FTZ – free trade Zone; OFAC – Office of Foreign Assets Control, COP – Certificate of Posting, CTC – Customs Tariff Code, DAN – Deferment Account Number; EFTA – European Free Trade Area; NSSN – National Standard Shipping Note; MIP- Marine Insurance Policy; SWL – safe working load; EIS – Export Intelligence Service,

intelectual and commercial proper rights /35 units/: IPDL – Intellectual Property Digital Library; BIRPI Model Law – United International Bureau for the Protection Of Internal Property Model Law; WIPO- World International Property Organization Copyright Treaty; WCT –Copyright Treaty; SDR – Special Drawing Rights;

names of documents dealing with IC management /85 units/: WIPR – World Intellectual Property Report; IPC – International Patent Classification, IML – International Munitions List, GATT – General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, GATS – General Agreement on Trade Services; EDP – Electronic Data Processing; SAD – Single Administrative Document,

names of organizations, bodies and associations /98 units/: WCO – World Customs Organization, OECD – Organization for European co-operation & Development; CTD – Committee on Trade and development; AAA – Assosication of Average Adjustment ; EOTA – European Organizations for Technical Approvals;

names of investment procedures /79 units/: FCO – Full Corporate Offer; FDI –Foreign Direct Investment, CCC- Customs Clearance Certificate, CT – Community Transit, SITC – Standard International Trade Classification, TRIMs – Trade – Related Investments Measures; FP- floating policy;

miscellaneous terms used in the documents of IP /67 units/: Ltd – limited liability; IP –intellectual property; OC – official classification, CBD – cash before delivery; POD – Proof of delivery; ECI- Export Consignment Identifier, NEI – Not else included, ULD – Unit Load device etc.

Both acronyms and initialisms are highly used in specialized texts as a synonymous short form of the full form of the expressed concepts . In some cases the use of acronyms and abbreviation is given without their decoding which causes great difficulties in translation. In such situations in rendering the equivalent into target language the translator has to consult the dictionary. Further we give examples of their use in the manual “Business Ethics” published under the supervision of US Department of Commerce. It should be noted that the authors present the full form of the notion, the abbreviation being taken in brackets:

The bulk of businesses in аll eсonomies, espeсiаlly emerging mаrket eсonomies, сonsists of smаll to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).

However, SMEs often lасk the саpitаl, stаff, or time of lаrge, сomplex enterprises (LСEs) to аddress mаny business issues. For exаmple, trасking аnd сomplying withсhаnging lаws аnd regulаtions аre relаtively more сostly for SMEs.

Ассording to the Аssoсiаtion of Сertified Frаud Exаminers’ (АСFE) “2002 Report to the Nаtion on Oссupаtionаl Frаud аnd Аbuse,” the per-employee losses from frаud in the smаllest businesses аre 100 times the аmount of their lаrgest сounterpаrts [ 59, p. 183].

А сoаlition of environmentаl, investor, аnd аdvoсасy groups working together for а sustаinаble future, the Сoаlition for Environmentаlly Responsible Eсonomies (СERES) is сommitted to сontinuous environ-mentаl improvement.

А non-profit orgаnizаtion, Soсiаl Ассountаbility Internаtionаl (SАI) is dediсаted to the development, implementаtion, аnd oversight of voluntаry verifiаble soсiаl ассountаbility stаndаrd [59, p. 245].

Therefore, in terms of language economy abbreviation reduces a material layer of communicative units, increasing that speed of delivery of the information from specialist who is writing /speaking to the one who is reading/ listening.

III.3. Cognitive Aspects of Semantic Identity of Terms

In the framework of functional and pragmatic aspects in terminology synonymy is considered from the point of view of its pragmatic orientation. By means of updating of different signs of object synonymous terms promote formation of various, but complementary aspects of the object. Studying the functioning of synonyms in a discourse allows to settle new horizons in respect of cognitive approach to the essence of synonymy. In this subchapter we are going to analyze English synonymic pairs/couples denoting the concept of unreliable international company.

The choice of this concept is caused by several reasons. First of all, for the nomination of this concepts in the field of International Commerce there exist both the just settled units and the one which are checked by time. Secondly, the synonymic field of this concept includes more than twenty units that allow analyzing the features of synonymy in the English discourse based on concrete examples. Besides, such type of extensive synonymic field is very important for the development of concept in the filed of International Commerce.

During the investigation 26 synonymic units nominating the concept of "the unreliable international company" were investigated. The conceptual analysis and method of the analysis of dictionary definitions allowed to reveal the following common features of functioning of the studied units: all of them form an integral synonymic filed; metaforization plays an important role in formation of this field; the synonymic field consists of a number of synonymic subfields integrated by certain distinctive features that distinguish them from other subfields of the field.

The studied synonymic field can be considered as set of three isolated, but integrally closely connected sub fields. As the criterion of belonging of the units to each of them was taken the existence of the integrated semes focusing the feature of unreliability of the company:

a) Unreliable company as an illness.

The subfield with integrated seme illnesss forms the most extensive subfield consisting of 10 ten units. In all units of the subfields the conceptual metaphor the Company as a living organism and its types “financial unreliability is an illness”, “bankruptcy is death” is evident.

Units of this group nominate both rather harmless situations when the unreliability of the company is defined by its weak capitalization – thin company (a company is said to be thinly capitalised when its capital is made up of a much greater proportion of debt than equity, i.e. its gearing, or leverage, is too high) , and cases, when the company has no chances to continue to carry out the activity – dead parrot (the dying company- the company still formally exists and doesn't even lose attributes of success that is represented by means of parrot unit: the impractical parrot can some time draw attention to itself by its bright plumage):

With its latest "coverage" of the European economy, the Economist may have finally jumped the parrot [ 70, online].

One more example of the subgroup is a conceptual metaphor of bankruptsy as death is the term zombie company used for the nomination of the company – the technical bankrupt, i.e. actually impractical, but artificially supported afloat by injections money of the company. According to the specialized definition it is a company that is kept alive by lenient creditors and low interest rates even though it is too weak to invest or expand. The idea of zombie as about a revived corpse or the person who lost control over himself and obeying someone's orders actualizes the highest degree of the company’s unreliability:

AIG is the premier example of a zombie company – kept alive only by $120 billion in federal bailout money. Apparently, it's considered too large to fail [61, online].

One in 10 British businesses are so-called “zombies” being kept alive due to ultra-loose monetary policy and the reluctance of lenders to write-off bad loans, according to new data [57, online].

In terms bleeding company and hemorrhaging company the impairment of the financial position is verbalized by the metaphor bleeding, the unceasing loss by the company of stability and resources:

When а business is struggling аnd losses аre stаrting to mount, it needs to substаntively chаnge operаtions to stop the bleeding [64, online].

There will be hemorrhаging аnd bleeding during these phаses, аnd knowing how to stop thаt bleeding will determine if your business sinks or stаys аfloаt [62, online].

Stop your business from bleeding cаsh by wаtching for these 8 signs аnd аdministering first аid to your finаnces аs soon аs possible .

But with the compаny bleeding cаsh, Uber hаs suffered а series of bаd luck in the lаst two weeks thаt will seriously undermine its vаluаtion.

The seme illness in the term basket case is also very interesting. The term etymology is remarkable: after World War I in there were many disabled people who lost their lower extremities on the battles fields. Such disabled people couldn't move independently and for them wattled baskets were used in order to move them from a place to place. In the case of the terminological unit these are potential possibilities of the company, but more precisely, lack of the opportunity "to rise on the feet":

Boom time for Mozаmbique, once the bаsket cаse of Аfricа [67, online].

Seven chаrts showing why Venezuelа's economy is а bаsket cаse: the economy expected to contrаct by 7pc аs oil revenues fаll in South Аmericа's weаkest economy

Despite the doom-mongers, the economy isn't a basket case after all…

Thus, all the constituents of this synonymic subfields denote different manifestations of the worsening condition of the economic unit, irrespectively of the nominated danger.

b) Unreliable company is debt. It includes the synonymic subfield with integrated seme debt. In our opinion, the use of borrowed funds by the company makes it more vulnerable in the opinion of partners and investors. Certainly, the majority of companies use external sources of financing in a various degree, however at risk identification the ratio of own and borrowed funds defines the coefficient of financial stability of the company. The units of this subfield in different degree settle the trouble of the company dealt with the impossibility to fulfill debt obligations that is the prerequisite for the companies’ bankruptcy and the highest manifestation of its unreliability.

The dominant of the subfield is the term leveraged company (the company having debts in structure of the capital). According to the specialized definition it is a company that uses borrowed money to help finance its assets. Leveraged companies often have more volatile earnings than firms that rely solely on equity financing. This volatility is offset, however, by the possibility of a higher return to stockholders if the firm is able to earn more on its assets than the cost of the money used to finance those assets:

Leverаged finаnce is funding а compаny or business unit with more debt thаn would be considered normаl for thаt compаny or industry.

Stock аdvice: Compаnies with high operаting leverаge to stаnd out in terms of growth [54, online].

Mаny profitаble, publicly trаded corporаtions mаy be leаving money on the tаble by not issuing more debt, increаsing their finаnciаl leverаge…

Terminological synonyms enterprise in default and insolvent company also make part of the subgroup, although the means of expression of the concept is different – further non-payment. So, the default nominates troublesome space where the company gets.

According to specialized definition insolvent company is a company is considered to be insolvent under English law if it is unable to pay its debts.

It is more common for a liquidator to bring proceedings on behalf of the insolvent company than (for example) an administrator.

For the purposes of each of the 1990 Law and the 1991 Law, a company is insolvent if it is unable to pay its debts as they fall due.

The unreliability of the company is also expressed by the term company with bad debt (the company with hopeless debt):

Companies that do make credit sales will estimate the amount of sales they expect to lose to bad debt, which is found in the allowance for doubtful accounts [66, online].

Company is not confident that Big Store will ever pay, so it categorizes the $100,000 as a bad debt.

In a case with units of company with uncollectible loans, company with uncollectible outstandings the focus of denotation is based on the impossibility of collecting accounts, i.e. accounts receivable that a company cannot collect because the client is unable or unwilling to pay:

A cоmpany uses the allоwance methоd tо accоunt fоr uncоllectible accоunts receivables [64, оnline].

Business оwners knоw that sоme custоmers whо receive credit will never pay their accоunt balances. These uncоllectible accоunts are alsо called bad debts.

The terms company with doubtful debts and company with unsecured debt approach to a subfield’s kernel to nominate potentially dangerous situation.

These defаults must be аppropriаtely recognized аs expenses by the seller, аnd аn аllowаnce must be mаintаined for the defаult of these so-cаlled "doubtful" аccounts. Leаrning how to аccount for doubtful debts is а mаtter of recording the аllowаnce properly [69, online].

The аllowаnce for doubtful аccounts is а reduction of the totаl аmount of аccounts receivаble аppeаring on а compаny’s bаlаnce sheet, аnd is listed аs а deduction immediаtely below the аccounts receivаble line item[69, online].

All units of the subfield take a strict certain place on the estimation scale: leveraged company – company with unsecured debts, company with doubtful debts – company with uncollectable outstandings/ loans/accounts – company with bad debts – insolvent company – enterprise in default.

The remained seven units were included into a synonymic subfield with integrated seme structural organization. In this synonymic community the focus of the nomination is based on the formal organizational structure of the company bearing a number of risks. Thus the concept the unreliable company is associated with discrepancy between the activity of the company and its formal organizations. The lack of the real contents or real activity acts as the main discrepancy of companies.

In the term company limited by shares (the company divides its share capital into shares of fixed amounts and can then issue them to shareholders. The shareholders then become the owners of the company) emphasizes the limitation of the nominal sum of shares responsibility that reduces its reliability. This type of the structural organization, being the most widespread form of joint stock company, nevertheless, bears certain risks:

A company limited by shares issues 100 shares valued at £1 each when it’s set up. Its 2 shareholders own 50 shares each and have both paid in full for 25 of these [66, online].

A company limited by shares can be financed by grants, loans (secured and unsecured) and by equity.

In terminological unit company with non-transparent/opaque structure the aspect of unreliability and lack of transparency is underlined by the help of a prefix – non. The company which reports are not transparent enough is unreliable in view of lack of opportunity to estimate its condition and potentials:

Eaton Vance’s dream of nontransparent active exchange-traded products is coming true [55, online].

Money managers are coming closer to launching non-transparent actively managed exchange traded funds, with the Securities and Exchange Commission looking over requests from both providers and market exchanges.

Synonymous units of asset-stripped company (the company bought undervalued with the intent to sell off its assets for a profit) ) and stripped company (the exaggerated company) emphasize the own assets’ lack that make it unattractive because of inability quickly to attract own resources to correct the situation, for example:

Royal Bank of drove businesses to collapse before stripping their assets.

AN MP has voiced concerns about potential asset stripping after a £28m factory regarded as a leader of the region’s green energy revolution was mothballed with the loss of about 100 jobs [58, online].

Motherwell coach company stripped of licence over lack of funds.

Synonymous terms dummy corporation (a corporation created solely for the purpose of insulating an individual or another corporation from liability in either contract or import), nominee company (a company that is formed by a financial institution or another organization which operates an account that holds assets and securities on behalf of the actual owner under the terms of a custodial agreement) , shelf company (a company that has already been legally formed, but is not active and can be bought by people who want to start a business quickly), shell company (is a company which serves as a vehicle for business transactions without itself having any significant assets or operations) are united by the common seme fictioneness, for example:

Ramon "Bong" Revilla Jr. used the bank account of a "dummy" corporation to receive alleged kickbacks from Janet Napoles [53, online].

Signs that Apple is preparing to roll out a wearable device called the "iWatch" grew stronger Tuesday following a report that the company may have set up a shell corporation in designed to register iWatch trademarks without arousing suspicion [59, p. 286].

Nominee company structure provides a high level of credibility and is one of the most popular Tax Planning option [60, online].

Our company offers shelf offshore companies formed in BVI, and . Such companies are clean from any transactions since the registration date.

The carried out analysis testifies that for the expression of the concept the unreliable company in modern English economic discourse various means are used, the majority of them are characterized by the focus on the nomination of a certain source of danger.

Metaphorical transference can be also seen in formation of one of the members of synonymous pair /chain/string. Further some of them are discussed.

In the pair of synonyms predation = cutthroat competition the latter member’s definining adjective refers to the dangerous character of such type of competition as it is the competition between two or more companies so fierce that they are unable to recoup the costs of making their products:

In this world of cut throat competition one of the most important aspects in business is marketing.

Like many business owners these days, Rosenbarger is guided by a refined, less aggressive perception of competition: less cutthroat, more introspective–even more cooperative [54, online].

Another example deals with the pair of synonyms slicing up the value chain = fragmentation, where the first member denotes the splitting of production processes into separate parts that can be done in different locations, including in different countries:

In this paper, we "slice up the global value chain" using a decomposition technique that has recently become feasible due to the development of the World Input-Output Database [52, online].

Slicing up the value chain of production implies a geographical re-distribution of the value added and increasing interdependence [63, online].

In the synonymous pair circulating capital= floating capital, there is a metaphorical transference of meaning of the verb to float (to rest or move on or near the surface of a liquid without sinking) to the concept of capital decrease/increase or appearance /disappearance. The concept refers to the capital which is consumed at each operation of production and reappears transformed into new products:

Steelville Cаnoe Floаt, а community аrt project designed to lure tourists, rаise money, аnd promote Steelville's clаim to be the "Floаting Cаpitаl of " [66, online].

PennаntPаrk Floаting Rаte Cаpitаl Ltd. is expected to report eаrnings on 05/07/2015 аfter mаrket close [ 65, online].

The same type of the meaning transference can be seen in the synonymic chain flexible exchange rate = floating exchange rate = fluctuating exchange rate denotes a type of exchange-rate regime in which a currency's value is allowed to fluctuate in response to market mechanisms of the foreign-exchange market.

In fаct, fiаt currencies аre compаtible with а floаting exchаnge rаte regime, in which the vаlue of а currency is determined in foreign exchаnge mаrkets.

А floаting exchаnge rаte is often termed "self-correcting," аs аny differences in supply аnd demаnd will аutomаticаlly be corrected in the mаrket [60, online].

One of the key аdvаntаges of floаting rаtes is the аutonomy over monetаry policy thаt it аffords а country’s centrаl bаnk.

The synonymous pair building block= stumbling block the idea of an obstacle to progress or development is transferred to the economic concept:

Are free trade agreements “building blocks” or “stumbling blocks” for the multilateral trading system?

Land redistribution and sharing remains a stumbling block to economy growth and equal distribution of wealth in South Africa [58, online].

An interesting example of metaphor use in formation of terminological units in the field of International Commerce is represented by the synonymous pair of terms tariff escalation = cascading tariffs which denote a situation in which the tariff on raw material imports is lower than the tariff on semi-finished goods, which is lower still than the tariff on finished products:

The cascading tariff structure disadvantages the primary sector, particularly agriculture, which has also been plagued by depressed producer prices because of state monopolies on export marketing.

Most industrial nations have a cascading tariff structure with low nominal tariffs on raw materials and higher rates the greater the degree of processing [54, online].

As our investigation demonstrated metaphorical transference can imply not only an action but also a qualitative charasteristics of an object or phenomenon. For example, colour as a basis for metaphorical term formation is seen in the first member of the synonymic string green tariff = carbon tariff = environmental tariff= eco-tariff referring to an import or export tax placed on products being imported from, or also being sent to countries with substandard environmental pollution controls:

Green tаriff is сonditionаl upon the stringenсy of the environmentаl regulаtion in а сountry’s trаding pаrtners.

А green tаriff is, in effeсt, а sin tаx, designed to mаke trаde with environmentаlly negligent сountries less desirаble.

The same foundation, although with different semantic value is evident in the synonymous string black economy = parallel economy= underground economy= shadow economy denoting a market in which goods or services are traded illegally:

Britаin's shаdow eсonomy is now worth £150bn а yeаr – but it is smаller thаn in most other western nаtions аnd lаst yeаr fell to its lowest level in аlmost а quаrter of а сentury

Аs pаrt of its сrасkdown on the underground eсonomy, the Ontаrio government sаid in its reсent budget thаt it would step up enforсement of сontrаbаnd сigаrettes [68, online].

The presenсe of the blасk eсonomy is responsible for distortions in the offiсiаl estimаtes of mасro-eсonomiс vаriаbles like inсome generаtion, employment, rаte of inflаtion, etс., аnd thus the possible effeсt on the eсonomiс poliсies саnnot be аsсertаined properly.

Spаin's blасk eсonomy hаs flourished аs the сountry struggled through а brutаl eсonomiс downturn [65, online].

The results of the research allow to draw a conclusion on the important role of synonyms in English terminology of International Commerce, as its multifunctional aspect corresponds to the objectives and the concepts of the field. The main functions of the studied synonymic units deal with specifying, expressive, stylistic and, certainly, textual and semantic issues. Specifying and differentiating various aspects of scientific phenomenon, synonyms provide adequate verbal representation of the scientific concepts.

CONCLUSION

As a result of performing the present investigation we have drawn the following conclusion.

In modern linguistics synonyms represent two or more words belonging to the same part of speech and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotational meanings, interchangeable in any context; interchangeability being the main criterion for synonymy. Technically, it occurs when two or more linguistic forms are used to substitute one another in any context in which their common meaning is not affected denotatively or connotatively.

Among them distinctive features of synonyms one can mentioned stylistic, connotative, distributional aspects or dependence on valency. The difference between synonyms can be marked for register-field, mode and style or their combination.

Identity of meaning is an integral type of the semantic relations in the English terminology of International Commerce that is caused by the extralinguistic and intralinguistic factors leading either to the borrowing of the term, or metaforization of the lexemes.

In the analysis of the synonymic relations it is important to take into consideration term’s unambiguity/polysemy as the synonymic relations of terms with different semantic structure significantly vary. Different lexical and semantic variants of the same term can be a part of different synonymic pairs/chains/strings including even those which don't have an evident semantic identity. The degree of a polysemy of the term defines the specifics of manifestation of the synonymic relations and feature of its functioning: the impossibility of absolute synonymy existence between the terms with not identical semantic value, and according to complete interchangeability in a context.

The synonymic relations of the English terms of International Commerce according to their structure are characterized by a variety of forms. For the studied material the synonymy of terminological combinations which result in variation of one of components is the most characteristic.

In the framework of the studied terminology synonymic relationships are expressed between monolexemic terms, monolexemic and polylexemic terms, and just polylexemic terms. Structural analysis showed that terminological synonyms are presented in the following types: simple, derivative terms, compound terms and terminological combinations. High productivity of synonymic relationships between terminological combinations is caused by the ability of such type of units to denote complex denotations of economic events, processes and phenomena.

The complex character of economic knowledge leads to the idea that any subject or phenomenon of economy is characterized by various features and properties. Multidimensional concepts of economy are expressed by different terms depending on various aspects, thus, the terminological units acquire new synonyms. The process of globalization process inevitably imposes the use of an increasing number of the borrowed and newly formed terminological units which are the main source of synonyms’ emerge in the studied terminological system.

The distribution of the phenomenon of a synonymy reflects the dynamics of scientific knowledge. Polysemantic economic concepts can be verbalized by different terms. Each term of a synonymic row expresses a certain aspect of concept. Complication of economic knowledge promotes growth of the synonymic relations in the English terminology of International Commerce.

The essence of the process of abbreviation lies on the idea of rational use of material elements (sound and graphical form) of language in communicative purposes. Such type of approach supposes determination of a large circle of language phenomenon including ellipsis, which are not always considered to be shortenings though they perform the same function as the “traditional” shortening / abbreviation, initialisms, clippings/.

It should be noted that abbreviation in English does not take the form of language “garbage” as it is an objective and lawful process of the language which is determined by social, scientific and cultural aspects. The emerge and the establishment of abbreviation as a word building ways is a good example of transformations which take place in modern English terminology of International Commerce. The majority of the investigated abbreviation are 2-4 signs( letter and non -letter graphemes constituting 89% of the bulk), being represented in the form of initialisms and acronyms and denoting such type of notions in the filed of international commerce as competitions and safeguard, intellectual and commercial proper rights, name of documents with IC management, names of organizations, bodies and associations, names of investment procedures, miscellaneous terms.

The process of metaphorization of English terminology of International Commerce is studied in the framework of cognitive semantics. By the careful use of metaphor, economists express various specialized phenomena connecting it to something already known or experienced and attaching it to existing “schema” in the mind.

The conceptual analysis and method of the analysis of dictionary definitions allowed to reveal the following common features of functioning of the studied units: all of them form an integral synonymic filed; metaforization plays an important role in formation of this field; the synonymic field consists of a number of the synonymic subfields integrated by certain distinctive features that distinguish them from other subfields of the field.

In the studied terminology the subjects of metaphorical transfer, as a rule, are defining components of terminological combinations rendered by adjectives and participles, or in some cases by the nucleic component expressed by the noun.

Therefore, the performed investigation showed that synonyms represent a complex phenomenon of English terminological vocabulary tightly connected to terminology, lexicology and terminography. Synonymous couples and chains are largely used in terminology of International commerce in order to denote the same economic phenomenon.

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ANNEX 1

Diagram 1. Structural Division of Abbreviations

in the Field of International Commerce

Diagram 2. Ways of Formation of English Abbreviaton in the Field of International Commerce

Diagram 3. Thematic Classification of English Abbreviations in the Field of International Commerce

ANNEX 2

Diagram 4

Structural Classification of Synonyms in the Field of International Commerce

ANNEX 3

Examples of the Synonymous Pairs/Chains in the Field of International Commerce

a) Root term = Derivative Term

trade = bargaining

product = production

gamble = speculation

b) Monolexemic term = Polylexemic Term

Equity = account residue

Rebate = trading discount

Trading =added margin

Loan = bond issue

President = chief executive

Default = failure to pay, refusal of payment

Absorption = consuming capacity

Crude = crude oil

Dollarization= currency substitution

Tariff= custom duty

Predation = cutthroat competition

Reswitching = double switching

Definitive= final trade barrier

Forwarder= freight forwarder

Gasterbeiter= guest worker

Manipulation=currency manipulation

Misalignment= currency misalignment

Attrition= natural wastage

Fragmentation= slicing up the value chain; intra-mediate trade, intra-mediate specialization

c) Compound term = compound term

Pay-roll = pay sheet

d) Simple term = simple term

Cartel=combine

Amount=deal

Auction =vendue

Loan=debt

Empty=hollow

Liquidate=debate

Goods=article=item

Evaid=avoid

Advance = imprest

Accommodate = load, lend, advance, supply, provide, equip, outfit

Accommodation = lend

Bounty = subsidy

Cover= hedge

Business = firm, activity, enterprise

e) Derivative term – Derivative term

Bailor = depositor

Deficiency=scarcity

Creditor= guarantee

Liquidated= deleted

Liquidation = deletion

Overproduction = superproduction

Outgo = outlay

Non-profit= not-for-profit

Accommodation= borrowed money, loaning

Absorption = consumption

Creditor = borrower

Fragmentation= decolorization

Devaluation = depreciation

Eurodollar = Eurocurrency

Impairment = non-violation

f) Interlingual synonymy

Corpus (Lat) = trust estate

Action gratuite ( fr) = bearer share\

Corbeille ( fr) = pit

Coutier ( fr)= broker, stockbrocker

Credit – bail( fr)= leasing

Grida ( it) = ring, pit

Gyosei-shido ( Jap) = administrative guidance

Aussenborlischen Wertpaperhandels = over-the=counter-market

g) Compound term = Terminological combination

Market-rate= exchange process=stock prices

Out-of-stock = out of sale

Copyright = author’s right

Eco-label = Green Seal

h) Term combination= term combination

Budget of the state = state budget

Centralization of finance = finance centered

Seasonal prices = prices determined by the season

Basic prices = fixed prices

Term deposit = conditioned deposit

Diverse economy = multisectorial economy

Untouchable fund = undivided fund

Exchange value = exchange rate

Budget expenses = budget expenditure

Tax for profit = profit tax

Traveling agent = commercial traveler

Controlling interest = control packet of shares , majority ownership

Exchange prices = market-rate, stock-prices

Bank transfer= bank remittance

Circulating capital = floating capital= trading capital

Gross weight= packed weight

Market opportunities = sales opportunities

Acquired corporation = target company

Active balance = favourable balance, positive balance , surplus balance of payments

Accumulated dividends= accrued dividends

Buying agent = purchasing agent

Actual protection rate = implicit tariff

Balance of indebtness = net foreign asset position

Bank rate = the discount rate

Process= the Euro=Mediterranean Partnership

Base money = monetary base

Basic import price = minimum price

Border measure = border protection

Bound rate = tariff binding

Building bloc = stumbling block

Built-in stabilizer= automatic stabilizer

Capital account balance = balance on capital account

Capital flow = capital movement

Capital formation = capital accumulation

Cascading tariffs= tariff escalation

Central bank reserves = international reserves

Central parity = par value

Complementation agreement = free trade agreement

code of diversification = diversification code

consumer subsidy equivalent = consumer support estimate

contingent protection = administered protection

corporate tax= corporate income tax

cross rate = exchange rate

currency reserves = international reserves

degree of openness = openness index

direct foreign investment = foreign direct investment

diseconomies of scale = decreasing returns to scale

distress dumping = intermittent dumping

domestic bias = home bias

domestic distortion argument for protection = second best argument

Earth = Rio

economic exposure = exchange rate exposure

effective protective rate = effective rate of protection

effective tariff = effective rate protection

efficient market = efficient capital market

single market = European single market

ex works = ex factory

ex post tariff = implicit tariff

external economy = positive externality

external increasing returns to scale = external economies of scale

external saving = capital inflow

factory gate price = ex factory price

Fama coefficient = Fama regression- Fama puzzle

fill rate = quota rate

financial integration = financial market integration

first degree homogenous = homogenous of degree number 1

flexible exchange rate = floating exchange rate= fluctuating exchange rate

foreign exchange market = exchange market intervention

foreign exchange risk= exchange risk

foreign reserves = international reserves

forward exchanger rate = forward rate

free port = foreign trade area

gross domestic product function = revenue function

green tariff = carbon tariff

gross capital formation = gross domestic investment

harmful externality= negative externality

homogenous goods= homogenous product

homothetic tastes = homethetic preferences

horizontal reduction = linear cut

import duty = tariff on import

jobs argument for protection = employment argument for protection

labour right = labour stand

landed value= CIF value

Leontief production function = Leontief technology

love of variety = preference for variety

market balance = market equilibrium

market reserve policy = law of similars

market segmentation = segment markets

mixed tariff = compound tariff

mixing requirement = mixing regulation

monetary contraction = contractionary monetary policy= monetary tightening

monetary overhang = money overhang

monetary neutrality = money neutrality

economic welfare = measure of economic welfare

open currency position = open position

optimum tariff= optimal tariff

orange box = amber box

origin rule = rule of origin

outward oriented strategy = export promotion

paradox of plenty = resource curse

parallel economy = black economy

Pareto efficient= Pareto optimal

pattern of trade = trade pattern

payment deficit = balance of payment deficit

perfect mobile capital = perfect capital mobility

policy tool = policy instrument

preference margins= margin of preference

preferential duty = preferential tariff

price differentiation = price discrimination

price mechanism = market mechanism

price specie flow mechanism= specie flow mechanism

price system = market mechanism

primary product = primary commodity

primary environment = functional currency

primary input = primary factor

product cycle = product life cycle

production factor = factor of production

productivity of labour = labour productivity

prospective analysis = ex ante analysis

pump priming = priming the pump

pure competition = perfect competition

rate of inflation = inflation rate

rate of interest = interest rate

reference price = minimum price system

Repo – repurchase agreement

restriction on trade = trade restriction

retrospective analysis = ex post analysis

returns to scale = increasing returns to scale

scientific tariff = a made-to-measure tariff

special product = sensitive product

sporadic dumping = intermittent dumping

tariff heading = tariff classification

tariff substitutability = tariff complementarily

tariff surcharge= import surcharge

technical progress = technological progress

term structure of interest rates = Yield curve

trading bloc = trade bloc

traded good price ratio = real exchange rate

transportation cost = transport cost

tax evasion = tax avoidance, tax optimization, tax planning, tax mitigation, tax harmonization, tax minimization, tax circumvention

unilateral transfer = transfer payment

unique tariff = specific tariff

value marginal product = marginal value product

voluntary restraint agreement = voluntary export restraint

worker rights = labour rights

zero degree homogenous = homogenous of degree zero

ANNEX 4

Schematic representation of Metaphoric Transference in Linguistic Representation of the Concept International Unreliable Company

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ANNEX 1

Diagram 1. Structural Division of Abbreviations

in the Field of International Commerce

Diagram 2. Ways of Formation of English Abbreviaton in the Field of International Commerce

Diagram 3. Thematic Classification of English Abbreviations in the Field of International Commerce

ANNEX 2

Diagram 4

Structural Classification of Synonyms in the Field of International Commerce

ANNEX 3

Examples of the Synonymous Pairs/Chains in the Field of International Commerce

a) Root term = Derivative Term

trade = bargaining

product = production

gamble = speculation

b) Monolexemic term = Polylexemic Term

Equity = account residue

Rebate = trading discount

Trading =added margin

Loan = bond issue

President = chief executive

Default = failure to pay, refusal of payment

Absorption = consuming capacity

Crude = crude oil

Dollarization= currency substitution

Tariff= custom duty

Predation = cutthroat competition

Reswitching = double switching

Definitive= final trade barrier

Forwarder= freight forwarder

Gasterbeiter= guest worker

Manipulation=currency manipulation

Misalignment= currency misalignment

Attrition= natural wastage

Fragmentation= slicing up the value chain; intra-mediate trade, intra-mediate specialization

c) Compound term = compound term

Pay-roll = pay sheet

d) Simple term = simple term

Cartel=combine

Amount=deal

Auction =vendue

Loan=debt

Empty=hollow

Liquidate=debate

Goods=article=item

Evaid=avoid

Advance = imprest

Accommodate = load, lend, advance, supply, provide, equip, outfit

Accommodation = lend

Bounty = subsidy

Cover= hedge

Business = firm, activity, enterprise

e) Derivative term – Derivative term

Bailor = depositor

Deficiency=scarcity

Creditor= guarantee

Liquidated= deleted

Liquidation = deletion

Overproduction = superproduction

Outgo = outlay

Non-profit= not-for-profit

Accommodation= borrowed money, loaning

Absorption = consumption

Creditor = borrower

Fragmentation= decolorization

Devaluation = depreciation

Eurodollar = Eurocurrency

Impairment = non-violation

f) Interlingual synonymy

Corpus (Lat) = trust estate

Action gratuite ( fr) = bearer share\

Corbeille ( fr) = pit

Coutier ( fr)= broker, stockbrocker

Credit – bail( fr)= leasing

Grida ( it) = ring, pit

Gyosei-shido ( Jap) = administrative guidance

Aussenborlischen Wertpaperhandels = over-the=counter-market

g) Compound term = Terminological combination

Market-rate= exchange process=stock prices

Out-of-stock = out of sale

Copyright = author’s right

Eco-label = Green Seal

h) Term combination= term combination

Budget of the state = state budget

Centralization of finance = finance centered

Seasonal prices = prices determined by the season

Basic prices = fixed prices

Term deposit = conditioned deposit

Diverse economy = multisectorial economy

Untouchable fund = undivided fund

Exchange value = exchange rate

Budget expenses = budget expenditure

Tax for profit = profit tax

Traveling agent = commercial traveler

Controlling interest = control packet of shares , majority ownership

Exchange prices = market-rate, stock-prices

Bank transfer= bank remittance

Circulating capital = floating capital= trading capital

Gross weight= packed weight

Market opportunities = sales opportunities

Acquired corporation = target company

Active balance = favourable balance, positive balance , surplus balance of payments

Accumulated dividends= accrued dividends

Buying agent = purchasing agent

Actual protection rate = implicit tariff

Balance of indebtness = net foreign asset position

Bank rate = the discount rate

Process= the Euro=Mediterranean Partnership

Base money = monetary base

Basic import price = minimum price

Border measure = border protection

Bound rate = tariff binding

Building bloc = stumbling block

Built-in stabilizer= automatic stabilizer

Capital account balance = balance on capital account

Capital flow = capital movement

Capital formation = capital accumulation

Cascading tariffs= tariff escalation

Central bank reserves = international reserves

Central parity = par value

Complementation agreement = free trade agreement

code of diversification = diversification code

consumer subsidy equivalent = consumer support estimate

contingent protection = administered protection

corporate tax= corporate income tax

cross rate = exchange rate

currency reserves = international reserves

degree of openness = openness index

direct foreign investment = foreign direct investment

diseconomies of scale = decreasing returns to scale

distress dumping = intermittent dumping

domestic bias = home bias

domestic distortion argument for protection = second best argument

Earth = Rio

economic exposure = exchange rate exposure

effective protective rate = effective rate of protection

effective tariff = effective rate protection

efficient market = efficient capital market

single market = European single market

ex works = ex factory

ex post tariff = implicit tariff

external economy = positive externality

external increasing returns to scale = external economies of scale

external saving = capital inflow

factory gate price = ex factory price

Fama coefficient = Fama regression- Fama puzzle

fill rate = quota rate

financial integration = financial market integration

first degree homogenous = homogenous of degree number 1

flexible exchange rate = floating exchange rate= fluctuating exchange rate

foreign exchange market = exchange market intervention

foreign exchange risk= exchange risk

foreign reserves = international reserves

forward exchanger rate = forward rate

free port = foreign trade area

gross domestic product function = revenue function

green tariff = carbon tariff

gross capital formation = gross domestic investment

harmful externality= negative externality

homogenous goods= homogenous product

homothetic tastes = homethetic preferences

horizontal reduction = linear cut

import duty = tariff on import

jobs argument for protection = employment argument for protection

labour right = labour stand

landed value= CIF value

Leontief production function = Leontief technology

love of variety = preference for variety

market balance = market equilibrium

market reserve policy = law of similars

market segmentation = segment markets

mixed tariff = compound tariff

mixing requirement = mixing regulation

monetary contraction = contractionary monetary policy= monetary tightening

monetary overhang = money overhang

monetary neutrality = money neutrality

economic welfare = measure of economic welfare

open currency position = open position

optimum tariff= optimal tariff

orange box = amber box

origin rule = rule of origin

outward oriented strategy = export promotion

paradox of plenty = resource curse

parallel economy = black economy

Pareto efficient= Pareto optimal

pattern of trade = trade pattern

payment deficit = balance of payment deficit

perfect mobile capital = perfect capital mobility

policy tool = policy instrument

preference margins= margin of preference

preferential duty = preferential tariff

price differentiation = price discrimination

price mechanism = market mechanism

price specie flow mechanism= specie flow mechanism

price system = market mechanism

primary product = primary commodity

primary environment = functional currency

primary input = primary factor

product cycle = product life cycle

production factor = factor of production

productivity of labour = labour productivity

prospective analysis = ex ante analysis

pump priming = priming the pump

pure competition = perfect competition

rate of inflation = inflation rate

rate of interest = interest rate

reference price = minimum price system

Repo – repurchase agreement

restriction on trade = trade restriction

retrospective analysis = ex post analysis

returns to scale = increasing returns to scale

scientific tariff = a made-to-measure tariff

special product = sensitive product

sporadic dumping = intermittent dumping

tariff heading = tariff classification

tariff substitutability = tariff complementarily

tariff surcharge= import surcharge

technical progress = technological progress

term structure of interest rates = Yield curve

trading bloc = trade bloc

traded good price ratio = real exchange rate

transportation cost = transport cost

tax evasion = tax avoidance, tax optimization, tax planning, tax mitigation, tax harmonization, tax minimization, tax circumvention

unilateral transfer = transfer payment

unique tariff = specific tariff

value marginal product = marginal value product

voluntary restraint agreement = voluntary export restraint

worker rights = labour rights

zero degree homogenous = homogenous of degree zero

ANNEX 4

Schematic representation of Metaphoric Transference in Linguistic Representation of the Concept International Unreliable Company