FORMA DE ÎNVĂȚĂMÂNT : cu frecven ță [604959]

UNIVERSITATEA “AUREL VLAICU” DIN ARAD
FACULTATEA DE ȘTIIN ȚE UMANISTE ȘI SOCIALE
DOMENIUL / PROGRAMUL DE STUDIU:
Conversie profesional ă în limba englez ă
FORMA DE ÎNVĂȚĂMÂNT : cu frecven ță

LUCRARE DE DIPLOMĂ

ÎNDRUMĂTOR ȘTIINȚIFIC:
Lect. univ. dr. Alina (Pădurean) Ionescu

ABSOLVENT: [anonimizat]
2015

UNIVERSITATEA “AUREL VLAICU” DIN ARAD
FACULTATEA DE ȘTIIN ȚE UMANISTE ȘI SOCIALE
DOMENIUL / PROGRAMUL DE STUDIU:
Conversie profesional ă în limba englez ă
FORMA DE ÎNVĂȚĂMÂNT : cu frecven ță

ASPECTS OF TEACHING ENGLISH AS A
SECOND LANGUAGE TO PRE -ADOLESCENT
SECONDARY STUDENTS

ÎNDRUMĂTOR ȘTIINȚIFIC:
Lect. univ. dr. Alina (Pădurean) Ionescu

ABSOLVENT: [anonimizat]
2015

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………… …….. 1

CHAPTER 1 – THE PASSAGE FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE …………. 3
1.1. General issues about this period of intense transformation …………………………… 3
1.2. Physical transformations ………………………………………………………………… 7
1.2.1. Puberty and sexual development……………………………………………………. 7
1.2.2. Physical appearance and body image……………………………………………….. 9
1.2.3. Physical activity and weight………………………………………………………… 9
1.2.4. Disordered eating……………………………………………………………………. 10
1.3. Cognitive development ………………………………………………………………….. 11
1.3.1. Perspectives in adolescent thinking………………………………………………… 12
1.3.2. Metacognition and relativistic thinking…………………………………………….. 12
1.3.3. Wisdom and risk -taking……………………………………………………………… 13
1.3.4. Neural plasticity and the development of intelligence………………………………. 13
1.4. Emotional development ………………………………………………………………….. 14
1.4.1. Developing a sense of identity……………………………………………………… 14
1.4.2. Emotional intelligence………………………………………………………………. 16
1.5. Social development ……… ………………………………………………………………. 18
1.5.1. Peer relationships……………………………………………………………………. 18
1.5.2. Dating and sexual behavior…………………………………………………………. 21
1.5.3. Family relationships………………………………………………………………… 22
1.5.4. School……………………………………………………………………………….. 23
1.5.5. Community…………………………………………………………………………. 24
1.6. Teenagers and ICT ………………………………………………………………………. 24

CHAPTER 2 – TEACHING ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE TO
SECONDARY STUDENTS ………………………………………………………………… 27
2.1. General considerations connected to teaching secondary students …………………… 27
2.2. Teaching receptive skills …………………………………………………………………. 31
2.2.1. Teaching listening…………………………………………………………………… 35
2.2.1.1. Aims of teaching listening…………………………………………………. 35
2.2.1.2. Processes involved in listening…………………………………………….. 35
2.2.1.3. The roles of the teacher…………………………………………………….. 36
2.2.1.4. Active listening activities for teenage students …………………………….. 38
2.2.2. Teaching reading……………………………………………………………………. 39
2.2.2.1. The aims of teaching reading……………………………………………….. 39
2.2.2.2. The role of the teacher……………………………………………………… 40

2.2.2.3. Active reading activities for early adolescent students………………………. 41
2.3. Teaching productive skills ………………………………………………………………. 43
2.3.1. Teaching writing…………………………………………………………………….. 43
2.3.1.1. Functional styles……………………………………………………………. 44
2.3.1.2. Writing for learning and writing for writing………………………………… 44
2.3.1.3. The roles of the teacher…………………………………………………….. 46
2.3.2. Teaching speaking…………………………………………………………………… 47
2.3.2.1. The aims of teaching speaking…………………………………………….. 47
2.3.2.2. Strategies for teaching speaking…………………………………………… 48
2.4. Teaching English with the help of technology …………………………………………. 51
2.4.1. The necessity of using ICT to teach English……………………………………….. 52
2.4.2. Problems arising from the use of ICT in the English classroom…………………… 55

CHAPTER 3 – PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS ………………………………………. 58
3.1. An overview of some of the most popular web sit es among English teachers ………. 58
3.2. ICT through the eyes of secondary students in my school: Survey on the
relationship between teenage students and ICT ………………………………………….. 62
3.3. Sample lesson plans including ICT activities …………………………………………… 69
3.3.1. Lesson plan 1: Would you like a sandwich?……………………………………………………… 69
3.3.2. Lesson plan 2: They emigrated to the U.S.A………………………………………… 72

CONCLUSIONS ………………………………………………………………………………. 75

RESOURCES ………………………………………………………………………………… 76

1
INTRODUCTION

Teaching secondary students is one of the greatest challenges of the teaching profession.
Secondary students represent a challenging category for numerous reasons. First of all,
they experience the greatest influx of physical alterations, thus moving from childhood, through
adolescence, towards adulthood. Teenage years witness massive transform ations in our students:
their bodies extend in size, their hormones cause significant changes in their behavior, while
their sexual organs develop and trigger their own enormous consequences.
These changes naturally lead to great changes in the way adoles cents perceive themselves
and the world around them. They tend to focus more on their friends rather than their families,
they question the views of older generations, they wish to impose their will and their
personalities in more and more contexts, and th ey experience feelings of isolation, competition
or sometimes frustration when comparing themselves with their peer. They become more
emotional and sensible, and their social skills develop significantly as they embark in new
experiences which on most occa sions expose them to new social circles.
All of these features of the period called adolescence – as well as many others, which will
be thoroughly discussed in the following pages – present the English teacher of our days with a
very important problem: how to teach students who under so much pressure and who are dealing
with so many new experiences all at once? They are not children any more, but they are not yet
fully grown either. How to approach them during the English class so as to avoid hurting their
fragile feelings but at the same time to get them from where they are to where you, as an English
teacher, know they should get? How to understand them, their needs, their emotions, their
language and their likes?

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These are only some of the questions that my paper intends to try to answer after a
careful study of the physiology and psychology of adolescence. In the following chapters I
intend to try to understand what goes inside teenagers‘ minds so that I can then identify the most
suitable teaching approa ches during the English class.
Thus, in my opinion, the teaching of English to secondary students should be completely
adapted to their features. Both receptive and productive skills should be taught practically and
communicatively and should often includ e Information and Communication Technology, a new
reality of our days which has become such an important element of teenage life. TVs, computers
and the internet are nowadays an essential part of my students‘ lives; understanding these new
means of communi cation and technological devices is therefore an important pathway towards
success in the classroom as well. To illustrate my opinion, I will use the example of the printed
dictionary and the online dictionary during the English class: while many students may consider
printed dictionaries old, dull and difficult to manage, online dictionaries are quick, practical and
so easy to use! With this in mind, the second part of my paper will focus on the teaching of
English as a second language to secondary student s by adapting methodology to the features of
the students. Listening, reading, writing and speaking skills will be discussed and exemplified by
using modern and active activities. Technology will also be approached, given its essential role
in the teaching enterprise.
Last but not least, the final part of my paper intends to offer a sample of some of the most
popular web sites among teenagers and which seemed the most efficient in the opinion of
English teachers worldwide. I will also present the results of a survey I applied to some of my
secondary students regarding their opinions about computers and the internet, as well as a few
lesson plans that incorporate ICT as part of the teaching procedure.

3
CHAPTER 1 – THE PASSAGE FROM CHILDHOOD TO ADOLESCENCE

1.1. General issues ab out this period of intense transformation
Media portrayals of adolescents often seem to emphasize the problems that can be a part
of adolescence. Gang violence, school shootings, alcohol -related accidents, drug abuse, and
suicides involvin g teens are all too frequently reflected in newspaper headlines and movie plots.
In the professional literature, too, adolescence is frequently portrayed as a negative stage of
life—a period of storm and stress to be survived or endured (Arnett, 1999).
So, it may not be surprising that a 1999 survey of the general public by Public Agenda
reported that for 71% of those polled, negative terms, such as ―rude,‖ ―wild,‖ and
―irresponsible,‖ first came to mind when they were asked what they thought about America n
teenagers (Public Agenda, 1999). Many other negative attitudes were also expressed by those
surveyed. At the same time, however, the survey found that 89% of the respondents believed that
―almost all teenagers can get back on track‖ with the right kind o f guidance and attention. In fact,
most adults agree about the kinds of things that are important for adults to do with young
people —encourage success in school, set boundaries, teach shared values, teach respect for
cultural differences, guide decision ma king, give financial guidance, and so on (Scales, Benson,
& Roehlkepartain, 2001). However, fewer actually act on these beliefs to give young people the
kind of support they need.
Despite the negative portrayals that sometimes seem so prevalent —and the neg ative
attitudes about adolescents that they support —the picture of adolescents today is largely a very
positive one. Most adolescents in fact succeed in school, are attached to their families and their
communities, and emerge from their teen years without experiencing serious problems such as

4
substance abuse or involvement with violence. With all of the attention given to negative images
of adolescents, however, the positive aspects of adolescents can be overlooked. Professionals can
play an importa nt role in shifting perceptions of a dolescents to the positive. The truth is that
adolescents, despite occasional or numerous protests, need adults and want them to be part of
their lives, rec ognizing that they can nurture, teach, guide, and protect them o n the jo urney to
adulthood. Directin g the courage and creativity of normal adolescents into h ealthy pursuits is
part of what successfully counse ling, teaching, or mentoring an adolescent is all about.
Much has been written , both in the lay press and the scientific literature, a bout
adolescents‘ mental health problems —such a s depression, suicide, and drug abuse —and about
the serious problems that some adolescents experience. Efforts are made to move to a new way
of understanding and working with adolescents in the context of larger sys tems (Lerner &
Galambos, 1998); although working w ith adolescents and families is critical, systemi c change is
sometimes needed to safeguard adolescent health.
Moreover, today‘s adolescent needs one thing that adults seem to have the l east surplus
of—time. It takes time to listen and relate to an adolescent. In a report by the U.S. Council of
Economic Advisers, teens rated ―not having enough time together‖ wit h their parents as one of
their top problems. This report also indicates that adolescents whose parents are more invol ved
in their lives (as measured by the frequency of eating meals together regularly, a simple measure
of parental involvement) have significantly lower rates of ―prob lem behaviors‖ such as smoking,
alcohol or marijua na use, lying to parents, fighting, initiation of sexual acti vity, and suicidal
thoughts and attempts (U.S. Council of Economic Advisors, 2000).
A crosscutting theme, r egardless of one‘s professional role, is the need to comm unicate
effectively with youth. Adolescents will no t simply ―open up‖ to adults on demand. Effective

5
communication requires that an emotional bond form, however briefly, between the professional
and the adoles cent. Professionals must find a way to relate comfortably to adolescents, and be
flexible enough to accommodat e the wide range of adolescents they are likely to enc ounter. And,
professionals must recognize that developi ng effective communication with the adolescents with
whom they work requires effort on their part. It m ay take a number of sessions of nonjudgmental
listening to establish the trust needed for a particular adolescent to share with an adult what he or
she is thinking and f eeling. It may take even longer before an adolescent feels comfortable
asking an adult for help with an important d ecision. Discussing options for using birth control
with a phy sician or telling a school psychologist or so cial worker that one is feeling depressed or
sad generally requires both time and trust.
Professionals may find that the strategies they use to provide information and offer
services to adults just don‘t work as well with adolescents. Young people need adults who will
listen to them —understand and appreciate their perspective —and then coach or motivate them to
use informatio n or services offered in the interest of th eir own health (Hamburg, 1997). Simply
presenting information on the negative consequences of high -risk behaviors is not enough.
Having an understanding of normal adolescent development can help professionals be e ffective
communicators with young people.
Child development is the scientific study of the patterns of growth, change, and stability
that occur from conception through adolescence. Although the definition of the field seems
straightforward, the simplicity is somewhat misleading. To understand what child development
is actually about, we need to look underneath the various parts of the definition.
In its study of growth, change, and stability, child development takes a scientific
approach. Like members of ot her scientific disciplines, researchers in child development test

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their assumptions about the nature and course of human development by applying scientific
methods. As we‘ll see in the next chapter, they develop theories about development, and they use
methodical, scientific techniques to validate the accuracy of their assumptions systematically.
Child development focuses on human development. Although there are some
developmentalists who study the course of development in nonhuman species, the vast majority
examine growth and change in people. Some seek to understand universal principles of
development, while others focus on how cultural, racial, and ethnic differences affect the course
of development. Still others aim to understand the unique aspect s of individuals, looking at the
traits and characteristics that differentiate one person from another. Regardless of approach,
however, all child developmentalists view development as a continuing process throughout
childhood and adolescence.
As developme ntal specialists focus on the ways people change and grow during their
lives, they also consider stability in children‘s and adolescents‘ lives. They ask in which areas
and in what periods people show change and growth and when and how their behavior revea ls
consistency and continuity with prior behavior.
Finally, although child development focuses on childhood and adolescence, the process
of development persists throughout every part of people‘s lives, beginning with the moment of
conception and continuing until death. Developmental specialists assume that in some ways
people continue to grow and change right up to the end of their lives, while in other respects their
behavior remains stable. In other words, developmentalists believe that no particular, sin gle
period of life governs all development. Instead, they believe that every period of life contains the
potential for both growth and decline in abilities and that individuals maintain the capacity for
substantial growth and change throughout their lives.

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As they specialize in chosen topical areas, child developmentalists typically look at
particular age ranges. They usually divide childhood and adolescence into broad age ranges: the
prenatal period (the period from conception to birth), infancy and toddl erhood (birth to age 3),
the preschool period (ages 3 to 6), middle childhood (ages 6 to 12), and adolescence (ages 12 to
20).
1.2. Physical development
Entering puberty heralds the physical changes of adolescence: a growth spurt and sexual
maturation. Profess ionals who work with adolescents need to know what is normative and what
represents early or late physical development in order to help prepare the adolescent for the
myriad changes that take place during this time of life. Even in schools where sex educat ion is
taught, many girls and boys still feel unprepared for the changes of puberty, suggesting that these
important topics are not being dealt with in ways that are most useful to adolescents (Coleman &
Hendry, 1999).
1.2.1. Puberty and Sexual Development
Although it sometimes seems that adolescents‘ bodies change overnight, the process of
sexual maturation actually occurs over a period of several years. The sequence of physical
changes is largely predictable, but there is great variability in the age of o nset of puberty and the
pace at which changes occur (Kipke, 1999).
There are numerous factors that affect the onset and progression of puberty, including
genetic and biological influences, stressful life events, socioeconomic status, nutrition and diet,
amount of body fat, and the presence of a chronic illness. The growth spurt, which involves rapid
skeletal growth, usually begins at about ages 10 to 12 in girls and 12 to 14 in boys and is
complete at around age 17 to 19 in girls and 20 in boys (Hofmann & Greydanus, 1997). For most

8
adolescents, sexual maturation involves achieving fertility and the physical changes that support
fertility. For girls, these changes involve breast budding, which may begin around age 10 or
earlier, and menstruation, which typi cally begins at age 12 or 13.9 For boys, the onset of puberty
involves enlargement of the testes at around age 11 or 12 and first ejaculation, which typically
occurs between the ages of 12 and 14. The development of secondary sexual characteristics, such
as body hair and (for boys) voice changes, occurs later in puberty.
Many adults may still believe that the magic age of 13 is the time to talk about puberty,
but for many boys and girls, this is years too late. A recent study of 17,000 healthy girls ages 3
through 12 visiting pediatricians‘ offices found that 6.7% of White girls and 27.2% of African
American girls were showing some signs of puberty by age 7 (i.e., breast and/or pubic hair
development) (Herman -Giddens et al., 1997; Kaplowitz and Oberfield, 19 99). The findings of
this study suggest that onset of puberty may be occurring about 1 year earlier in White girls and
2 years earlier in African American girls tha n had previously been thought.
However, studies have not yet been completed on nonclinical s amples to confirm that this
is the case for girls in general. Relatively little research has examined differences in the course of
puberty among different ethnic groups; this is clearly an area that deserves additional attention
(Lerner & Galambos, 1998).
Professionals who work with children and their families can alert parents to the need to
prepare their children early for the changes of adolescence. Professionals can also offer helpful
advice to parents and other adults about how to discuss puberty with younger adolescents.
Research findings suggest that adolescent girls who are unprepared for the physical and
emotional changes of puberty may have the most difficulty with menstruation (Koff & Rierdan,
1995; Stubbs, Rierdan, & Koff, 1989). When 157 ninth grade girls were asked to suggest how

9
younger girls should be prepared for menstruation, they recommended that mothers provide
emotional support and assurance, emphasize the pragmatics of menstrual hygiene, and provide
information about how it will actuall y feel, emphasizing positively their own first experiences
with menstruation (Koff & Rierdan, 1995).
1.2.2. Physical Appearance and Body Image
Regardless of the timing of the physical changes that take place during adolescence, this
is a period in which physical appearance commonly assumes paramount importance. Both girls
and boys are known to spend hours concerned about their appearance, particularly in order to ―fit
in‖ with the norms of the group with whom they most identify. At the same time, they wish to
have their own unique style, and they may spend hours in the bathroom or in front of the mirror
trying to achieve this goal.
Adults should take adolescents seriously when they express concerns about aspects of
their appearance, such as acne, eyeglasses, weight, or facial features. If an adolescent is
concerned, for example, that he is overweight, it is important to spend the time to listen, rather
than dismissing the comment with the reassurance that ―you look fine.‖ Perhaps a peer made a
comment about h is appearance at a time when he had been wondering about the same thing.
Adults need to understand the meaning and context of the adolescent‘s concern and to keep the
lines of communication open. Otherwise, the adolescent may have a difficult time keeping the
problem (and potential solutions) in perspective or be less likely to express concerns in the
future.
1.2.3. Physical Activity and Weight
Approximately 14% of adolescents aged 12 to 19 years are overweight —nearly 3 times
as many as in 1980 (USDHHS, 200 1). Overweight adolescents are at greater risk for type II

10
diabetes, high blood lipids, and hypertension and have a 70% chance of becoming overweight or
obese adults. In addition, they may suffer from social discrimination, particularly from their
peers, which can contribute to feelings of depression or low self-esteem. Diseases directly related
to lack of exercise, such as obesity and diabetes, have been reported to be more prevalent among
ethnic minority teens (Ross, 2000). For example, type II diabetes is particularly prevalent among
Native American and Alaska Native adolescents, and obesity is more frequent among African
American teenage girls than among White teenage girls (Ross, 2000).
Participation in sports, which has important direct health benefit s, is one socially
sanctioned arena in which adolescents‘ physical energies can be positively channeled. Other
activities in which physical energy can be channeled include dance, theatre, carpentry,
cheerleading, hiking, skiing, skateboarding, and part-time jobs that involve physical demands.
These activities provide adolescents with opportunities for getting exercise, making friends,
gaining competence and confidence, learning about teamwork, taking risks, and building
character and self -discipline (Boyd & Yin, 1996).
1.2.4. Disordered Eating
Puberty, by its very nature, is associated with weight gain, and many adolescents
experience dissatisfaction with their changing bodies. In a culture that glorifies being thin, some
adolescents —mostly girls —become overly preoccupied with their physical appearance and, in
an effort to achieve or maintain a thin body, begin to diet obsessively. A minority of these
adolescents eventually develops an eating disorder such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia
(Archibald, Graber , & Brooks -Gunn, 1999; Str iegel -Moore & Cachelin, 1999). The
consequences of eating disorders are potentially very serious, resulting in death in the most
extreme cases. Between 0.5% and 1% of all females ages 12 to 18 in the United States are

11
anorexic, and 1% to 3% are bulimic, with perhaps 20% engaging in less extreme but still
unhealthy dieting behaviors (Dounchis, Hayden, Wilfley, 2001). Although boys can also have
these eating disorders, the large majority are female (over 90%).
Symptoms of eating di sorders usually first become evident early in adolescence. Factors
that appear to place girls at increased risk for anorexia or bulimia include low self -esteem, poor
coping skills, childhood physical or sexual abuse, early sexual maturation, and perfection ism.
Daughters of women with eating disorders are at particular risk for developing an eating disorder
themselves (Striegel -Moore & Cachelin, 1999).

1.3. Cognitive development
Adolescence is a time for rapid cognitive development. Jean Piaget describes adoles cence
as the stage of life in which the individual's thoughts start taking more of an abstract form a nd
egocentric thoughts decrease . This allows an individual to think and reason in a wider
perspective. Development of executive functions, or cognitive ski lls that enable the control and
coordination of thoughts and behavior, are generally associated with the prefrontal cortex area of
the brain. The thoughts, ideas, and concepts developed at this period of life greatly influence
one's future life and play a major role in character and personality formation.
Jean Piaget describes adolescence as the stage of life in which the individual's thoughts
start taking more of an abstract form, and egocentric thoughts decrease.
Biological changes in brain structure and connectivity within the brain interact with
increased experience, knowledge, and changing social demands to produce rapid cognitive
growth. These changes generally begin at puberty or shortly thereafter, and some skills continue
to develop as an adolescent ages.

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1.3.1. Perspectives in Adolescent Thinking
There are two perspectives on adolescent thinking: constructivist and information –
processing. The constructivist perspective, based on the work of Piaget, takes a quantitative,
state-theory approach. This v iew hypothesizes that adolescents' cognitive improvement is
relatively sudden and drastic. The information -processing perspective derives from the study of
artificial intelligence and attempts to explain cognitive development in terms of the growth of
specific components of t he overall process of thinking.
Improvements in basic thinking abilities occur in five areas during adolescence:
 Attention. Improvements are seen in selective attention (the process by which one focuses on
one stimulus while tuning out another), as well as divided attention (the ability to pay attention to
two or more stimuli at the same time).
 Memory. Improvements are seen in both working memory and long -term memory.
 Processing Speed. Adolescents think more quickly than children. Proces sing speed improves
sharply between age five and middle adolescence, levels off around age 15, and does not appear
to change between late adolescence and adulthood.
 Organization. Adolescents are more aware of their own thought processes and can use
mnemoni c devices and other strategies to think more efficiently.
 Metacognition. Adolescents can think about thinking itself. This often involves monitoring
one's own cognitive activity during the thinking process. This provides the ability to plan ahead,
see the future consequences of an action, and to provide alternative explanations of events.
1.3.2. Metacognition and Relativistic Thinking
Metacognition is relevant in social cognition, resulting in increased introspection, self –
consciousness, and intellectualiza tion. Adolescents are much better able to understand that

13
people do not have complete control over their mental activity. Being able to introspect may lead
to two forms of adolescent egocentrism, which results in two distinct problems in thinking: the
imag inary audience, when an adolescent believes everyone is listening to him or her, and the
personal fable, which causes adolescents to feel that nothing harmful could ever happen to them.
Adolescents reach a stage of social perspective -taking in which they c an understand how the
thoughts or actions of one person can influence those of another person, even if th ey personally
are not involved.
Adolescents are more likely to question others' assertions, and less likely to accept
information as absolute truths. T hrough experience outside the family circle, they learn that rules
they were taught as absolute are actually relativistic. They begin to differentiate between rules
crafted from common sense (don't touch a hot stove), and those that are based on culturally –
relative standards (codes of etiquette). This can lead to a period of questi oning authority in all
domains.
1.3.3. Wisdom and Risk -Taking
Wisdom, or the capacity for insight and judgment that is developed through experience,
increases between the ages of 14 and 25, then levels off. Wisdom is not the same as intelligence,
and adolescents do not improve substantially on IQ tests since their scores are relative to others
in their same age group, as everyone matures at approximately the same rate.
Adolescents are more likely to take risks than adults. The behavioral decision -making
theory proposes that adolescents and adults both weigh the potential rewards and consequences
of an action. However, adolescents seem to give more weight to rewards, particularly soc ial
rewards, than do adults.
1.3.4. Neural plasticity and the development of intelligence

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A recent longitudinal MRI study of participants aged between 3 and 29 years revealed
that the trajectory of change in cortical thickness is associated with the development of IQ (Shaw
et al., 2006). The relationship between cortical thickness and IQ, as in dexed by Wechsler
intelligence scales, was found to vary with age. Stratification of participants into three IQ bands
(average, high and superior IQ) indicated that the maximum trajectory differences between
groups were in superior frontal gyrus bilaterall y extending into the medial PFC. The
developmental shift in trajectory was most pronounced for the most intelligent children and
adolescents: the children with the highest IQ had a thinner cortex in early childhood but cortical
thickness then increased, pe aking at around age 11, and then underwent the most dramatic
cortical thinning thereafter.

1.4. Emotional development
Emotional development during adolescence involves establishing a realistic and coherent
sense of identity in the context of relating to othe rs and learning to cope with stress and manage
emotions (Santrock, 2001), processes that are life -long issues for most people.
Identity refers to more than just how adolescents see themselves right now; it also
includes what has been termed the ―possible s elf‖—what individuals might become and who
they would like to become (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Establishing a sense of identity has
traditionally been thought of as the central task of adolescence (Erikson, 1968), although it is
now commonly accepted that i dentity formation neither begins nor ends during adolescence.
Adolescence is the first time, however, when individuals have the cognitive capacity to
consciously sort through who they are and what makes them unique.
1.4.1. Developing a Sense of Identity

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Identity includes two concepts. First is self -concept: the set of beliefs one has about
oneself. This includes beliefs about one‘s attributes (e.g., tall, intelligent), roles and goals (e.g.,
occupation one wants to have when grown), and interests, values, and beliefs (e.g., religious,
political). Second is self -esteem, which involves evaluating how one feels about one‘s self –
concept.
―Global‖ self -esteem refers to how much we like or approve of our perceived selves as a
whole. ―Specific‖ self-esteem refers to how much we feel about certain parts of ourselves (e.g.,
as an athlete or student, how one looks, etc.). Self -esteem develops uniquely for each adolescent,
and there are many different trajectories of self-esteem possible over the course of adolescence.
(Zimmerman, Copeland, Shope, & Dielman, 1997). Thus, self -esteem, whether high or low, may
remain relatively stable during adolescence or may steadily improve or worsen.
Many factors influence identity development and self-esteem during adolescence. For
example, adolescents‘ developing cognitive skills enable them to make abstract generalizations
about the self (Keating, 1990). The physical changes they are experiencing can strongly
influence, either positively or negatively, global self-esteem. This is p articularly true in early
adolescence when physical appearance tops the list of factors that determine global self -esteem,
especially for girls (Harter, 1990a). Comments by others, particularly parents and peers, reflect
appraisals of the individual that s ome adolescents may incorporate as part of their identity and
feelings about themselves (Robinson, 1995).
The process by which an adolescent begins to achieve a realistic sense of identity also
involves experimenting with different ways of appearing, sound ing, and behaving. Each
adolescent approaches these tasks in his or her own unique way. So, just as one adolescent will
explore more in one domain (e.g., music), another will explore more in another (e.g., adopting a

16
certain style or appearance). Professio nals whose role involves advising parents or adolescents
can assure them that most experimentation is a positive sign that adolescents feel secure enough
to explore the unknown. Adolescents who fail to experiment in any realm are sometimes seen to
be more stable but may, in fact, be experiencing more difficulty than youth who seem to flit from
one interest to another. Adolescence is a time when experimenting with alternatives is
developmentally appropriate, except when it seriously threatens the youth‘s hea lth or life.
1.4.2. Emotional Intelligence
Identity development as well as moral development occurs in the context of relating to
others (Jordan, 1994). All adolescents must begin to master the emotional skills necessary to
manage stress and be sensitive and effective in relating to other people. These skills have been
called ―emotional intelligence‖ (Goleman, 1994). Emotional intelligence involves self-
awareness, but above all, relationship skills —the ability to get along well with other people and
to mak e friends. Professionals who can help adolescents develop emotional intelligence provide
them with resources that will help them succeed as adults in both their personal and professional
lives. However, one does not have to look to the future for the benef its; youth without
relationship skills are at greater risk than their peers who have these skills for a number of
problems, including dropping out of school (Olweus, 1996).
What follows is a brief description of the most important skills for adolescents to begin to
master as part of their emotional development.
• Recognizing and managing emotions. In order to label their feelings accurately,
adolescents must learn to pay conscious attention to them. Without this self-awareness, they may
simply say that they feel ―good‖ or ―bad,‖ ―okay‖ or ―uptight.‖ When adolescents are able to
specify that they feel ―anxious‖ about an upcoming test or ―sad‖ about being rejected by a

17
possible love interest, then they have identified the source of their feelings, which can le ad to
discovering options to resolve their problem. For example, they can set aside time to study or ask
for help in preparing for the test, or they can talk over their feelings about being rejected by a
love interest with a friend or think about a new per son in whom to become interested. The
important point is that being aware of and being able to label their feelings helps adolescents
identify options and to do something constructive about them. Without this awareness, if the
feelings become uncomfortable enough and the source is undefined, they may seek to numb their
emotions with alcohol or other drugs, to overeat, or to withdraw and become depressed.
Adolescents who feel angry may take out their anger on others, hurting them or themselves
instead of dea ling with their anger in constructive ways, if they are not aware of its source
Goleman, 1994).
• Developing empathy. Recognizing their own emotions lays the groundwork but does
not ensure that youth will recognize that others have feelings and that they need to take these
feelings into account. Some youth have particular difficulty ―reading‖ the emotions of others
accurately, for example, mistaking neutral comments for hostility. Empathy can be taught in
various contexts, such as helping students to empath ize with different groups of immigrants and
understand emotionally the negative consequences of prejudice (Aronson, 2000).
• Learning to resolve conflict constructively. Given the unique and differing needs and
desires that people have, conflict is inevita ble. Tools for managing conflict can be modeled
informally by professionals or, as in some schools, actively taught to adolescents. Conflict
resolution programs teach students to define their objectives in conflicts, their feelings, and the
reasons for wha t they want and feel, and then ask them to take the perspective of others involved
when coming up with options that might resolve conflicts (Johnson & Johnson, 1991). Although

18
many of these skills are taught within programs targeting adolescents, they can also be taught
informally with good results.
• Developing a cooperative spirit. It is hardly surprising that schools mirror the
competitive attitudes present in our larger society. Yet, in the contemporary work world, the
importance of teams and the abilit y to work cooperatively with others is increasingly
emphasized.

1.5. Social Development
The social development of adolescents is best considered in the contexts in which it
occurs; that is, relating to peers, family, school, work, and community. It is important to keep in
mind when interpreting the findings of research on the social development of adolescents .
1.5.1. Peer Relationships
One of the most obvious changes in adolescence is that the hub around which the
adolescent‘s world revolves shifts from the family to the peer group. It is important to note that
this decreased frequency of contact with family does not mean that family closeness has assumed
less importance for the adolescent (O‘Koon, 1997). In fact, family closeness and attachment has
recently been confirmed as the most important factor associated with not smoking, less use of
alcohol and other drugs, later initiation of sexual intercourse, and fewer suicide attempts among
adolescents (Resnick, Bearman, & Blum et al., 1997).
In order to est ablish greater independence from their parents, adolescents must orient
themselves toward their peers to a greater extent than they did in earlier stages of development.
Those professionals whose role is to advise parents can help reassure them that increa sed peer

19
contact among adolescents does not mean that parents are less important to them, but that the
new focus on peers is an important and healthy new stage in their child‘s development.
Another important function of peer groups is to provide adolescen ts with a source of
information about the world outside of the family and about themselves (Santrock, 2001). Peer
groups also serve as powerful reinforcers during adolescence as sources of popularity, status,
prestige, and acceptance. Being accepted by peers has important implications for adjustment both
during adolescence and into adulthood. One study found, for example, that fifth graders who
were able to make at least one good friend were found to have higher feelings of self -worth at
age 30 when comp ared to those who had been friendless (Bagwell, Newcomb, & Bukowski,
1998). Positive peer relations during adolescence have been linked to positive psychosocial
adjustment. For example, those who are accepted by their peers and have mutual friendships
have been found to have better self -images during adolescence and to perform better in school
(Hansen, Giacoletti, & Nangle, 1995; Savin -Williams & Berndt, 1990). On the other hand, social
isolation among peer-rejected teens has been linked to a variety of negative behaviors, such as
delinquency (Kupersmidt & Coie, 1990). In addition, adults who had interpersonal problems
during adolescence appear to be at much greater risk for psychosocial difficulties during
adulthood (Hansen et al., 1995).
The nature of adol escents‘ involvement with peer groups changes over the course of
adolescence. Younger adolescents typically have at least one primary peer group with whom
they identify whose members are usually similar in many respects, including sex (Savin –
Williams & Ber ndt, 1990). During this time, involvement with the peer group tends to be most
intense, and conformity and concerns about acceptance are at their peak. Preoccupation with how
their peers see them can become all consuming to adolescents. The intense desire to belong to a

20
particular group can influence young adolescents to go along with activities in which they would
otherwise not engage (Mucucci, 1998; Santrock, 2001). Adolescents need adults who can help
them withstand peer pressure and find alternative ―cool enough‖ groups that will accept them if
the group with which the adolescent seeks to belong is undesirable (or even dangerous). The
need to belong to groups at this age is too strong to simply ignore.
During middle adolescence (ages 14 -16 years), peer groups tend to be more gender
mixed. Less conformity and more tolerance of individual differences in appearance, beliefs, and
feelings are typical. By late adolescence, peer groups have often been replaced by more intimate
dyadic relationships, such as one -on-one friendships and romances, that have grown in
importance as the adolescent has matured (Micucci, 1998).
Adolescents vary in the number of friends that they have and in how they spend time with
their friends. Introverted youth tend to have fewer but closer friendships, and boys and girls
differ with regard to the kinds of activities they engage in most frequently with their friends. In
general, boys tend to engage in more action -oriented pursuits, and girls spend more time talking
together (Smith, 199 7). Individuals of both sexes, however, appear to value the same qualities in
a friend: loyalty, frankness, and trustworthiness (Claes, 1992).
Some studies have also shown that adolescent girls value intimacy, the feeling that one
can freely share one‘s private thoughts and feelings, as a primary quality in friendship (Bakken
& Romig, 1992; Claes, 1992; Clark & Ayers, 1993). Boys also speak of the high importance of
intimacy in friendship (Pollack & Shuster, 2000). One review of studies showed that White
adolescent girls tend to reveal their innermost thoughts and feelings to friends more so than do
boys, and that they receive more social support from friends. However, this gender difference
does not appear to hold for African American adolescents (Brown, Wa y, & Duff, 1999).

21
To have a friend presupposes that one has the social skills to make and keep that friend.
For most adolescents, the rudiments of those skills are in place, and peer groups and friendships
allow them to further hone those skills. For a sma ll subset of adolescents, however, this is not the
case. These adolescents may be rejected by their peers, and this rejection can have serious
negative effects, such as delinquency, drug abuse, dropping out of school, and aggression (Asher
& Coie, 1990). F or adolescents who lack social skills, adults who informally coach them in the
appropriate skill areas can be lifesavers. Discussions about how to initiate conversations with
peers, give genuine compliments, be a good listener, share private information ap propriately, and
keep confidences can go a long way toward enhancing social skills.
1.5.2. Dating and Sexual Behavior
Dating typically begins in middle adolescence, usually between the ages of 14 and 16
years. Even very young adolescents are now ―cyberdating‖ over the Internet, chatting about
mutual interests without having to risk face-to-face or even telephone encounters (Santrock,
2001). Early romantic relationships tend to be of short duration, usually just a few months, with
most of the datin g occurring in a group context, at least for White adolescents. As the amount of
time invested in a particular relationship increases, the expectation that sexual involvement will
occur tends to increase for many adolescents.
In addition to sensitivity ab out issues of sexuality in relationships, it is important that
professionals be aware of the grief and sense of loss associated with the ending of romantic
relationships during adolescence. Adolescents need emotional support to work through their
grief, an d feelings of sadness and distress should be taken seriously and validated. Although
clearly not the sole cause of suicide, loss of a boyfriend or girlfriend has been reported to trigger
suicide attempts for adolescents with a prior history of difficulty o r loss (Santrock, 2001).

22
1.5.3. Family Relationships
Families today can take many forms —single parent, shared custody, adoptive, blended,
foster, traditional dual parent, to name a few. Regardless of family form, a strong sense of
bonding, closeness, and a ttachment to family have been found to be associated with better
emotional development, better school performance, and engagement in fewer high -risk activities,
such as drug use (Resnick et al., 1997; Klein, 1997; Perry, 2000). For more than half of famili es
in the United States, divorce is a fact of life. Whether divorce will have negative effects on
adolescents appears to depend on a number of factors, not simply the fact of the divorce itself.
Although it is true that adolescents from divorced families exhibit more adjustment problems
than do adolescents from intact families (Conger & Chao, 1996), evidence suggests that most
adolescents are able to cope well with their parents‘ divorce (Emery, 1999). The factors that
appear to have the greatest impact on coping include whether parents can harmoniously parent
after the divorce (Hetherington, 2000) and whether the economic problems that often occur after
a divorce and lead to other stresses, such as having to move, can be kept to a minimum (Emery,
1999).
During adolescence, parent –adolescent conflict tends to increase, particularly between
adolescent girls and their mothers. This conflict appears to be a necessary part of gaining
independence from parents while learning new ways of staying connected to them (Steinberg,
2001). Daughters, in particular, appear to strive for new ways of relating to their mothers
(Debold, Weseen, & Brookins, 1999). In their search for new ways of relating, daughters may be
awkward and seem rejecting. Understandably, mothers may w ithdraw, and a cycle of mutual
distancing can begin that is sometimes difficult to disrupt. If parents can be reassured that the

23
awkwardness their teen is displaying is not rejection and can be encouraged to stay involved, a
new way of relating may eventua lly evolve that is satisfying for all.
Parent –teen conflict tends to peak with younger adolescents (Lauren, Coy, & Collins,
1998). Two kinds of conflict typically occur: spontaneous conflict over day-to-day matters, such
as what clothes the adolescent is allowed to purchase or wear and whether homework has been
completed, and conflict over important issues, such as academic performance. Interestingly, the
spontaneous conflict that occurs on a day -to-day basis seems to be more distressing to parents
than to the adolescents (Steinberg, 2001). This is important for parents to keep in mind. Parents
often give greater meaning to conflict -laden interactions, construing them to be rejections of their
values or as indicators of their failures as parents. Adolescents , on the other hand, may see the
interaction as far less significant —just another way of showing Mom or Dad that they are
individuals or just as a way to blow off steam. Professionals can help parents understand that
minor conflict or bickering is normal a nd that these exchanges do not mean that they are not
skilled or effective parents (Steinberg, 2001).
1.5.4. School
For most adolescents, school is a prominent part of their life. It is here that they relate to
and develop relationships with their peers and where they have the opportunity to develop key
cognitive skills. For some youth, it is also a source of safety and stability. Some of the same
qualities that characterize families of adolescents who do well—a strong sense of attachment,
bonding, and belonging, and a feeling of being cared about —also characterize adolescents‘
positive relationships with their teachers and their schools. One additional factor, adolescent
perception of teacher fairness, has also been found to be associated with positive ad olescent
development.

24
These factors, more than the size of the school, the type of school (e.g., public, private),
or teacher –pupil ratio, have been found to be strongly associated with whether adolescents are
successful or are involved with drugs or deli nquency or drop out of school (Resnick et al., 1997;
Klein, 1997). Because schools are such a critical setting for adolescents, it can be important even
for professionals who work in other settings to connect with the school psychologist, counselor,
or soc ial worker of an at -risk adolescent to help create a supportive system of care.
1.5.5. Community
The characteristics of the community in which an adolescent lives can have a profound
impact on the adolescent‘s development. Community includes such factors as the socioeconomic
characteristics of one‘s neighborhood, the types of resources available, the service systems
within the community (including schools), religious organizations, the media, and the people
who live in the community. Some communities are rich in resources that provide support and
opportunity for adolescents. Unfortunately, many communities, particularly in inner cities or
poor rural areas, do not.

1.6. Teenagers and ICT
Very little research focuses on factors related to adolescent computer us e and electronic
game use. Some consider excessive video game or Internet game use to be a form of addiction
[1, 2]. The relationship between initiation or current past month substance use with greater
computer/electronic game use may be a case of associat ing problem behaviors based on a
problem behavior theory approach [3]. Video game use was linked to greater drug use, drinking
behaviors (alcohol use) among young adults [4]. Internet use itself may involve exposure to
tobacco and alcohol products through advertising on line and product placement in uploaded

25
videos on popular sites. An earlier study found that past month drinkers used the computer more
frequently per week excluding sc hool but not for school work . The overall issue of addiction
related to co mputer use remains controversial, thus examining other factors related to adolescent
computer and electronic game use would be most enlightening. Using the Internet for scho ol
fostered positive aspects . Use of computer games was associated with lower acade mic
performance , and excessive electronic game use among Thai adolescents was associated with
lower grades . More research needs to determine if the school use versus nonschool/recreational
matters in the relationship between electronic use and educational measures.
Other research found that frequent computer -related activities were an independent risk
factor for neck -shoulder pain and lower back pa in among Finnish adolescents . Greater time spent
watching television and computer gaming was related to lack of sleep in children . Computer time
had a strong impact on bedtime and contributing to less sleep among American teens . Computer
use is a sedentary activity and has become common among adolescents. As a consequence, it
might be expected that greater time on the computer and particularly the Internet might be
associated with greater body mass index (BMI). Increased screen time among high school teens
suppor ted the displacement hypothesis whereby in this case increased screen time reduces
discretionary time for physical activity in one study. Electronic games might involve more
movement or physical activity, in certain cases depending on the game console (e.g., Wii) and
type of game played (e.g., sports).
An examination of the literature reveals that those who s tudy video game addiction
sometimes disagree on the proportion of children and teenagers addicted to computer games.
However, the majority of studies suggest that approximately 5 to 10% of youth who play
computer games become addicted.

26
Compared to other p sychological difficulties (such as depression and anxiety), teenage
computer game addiction is obviously a relatively new problem faced by families. As such,
parents may lack accurate and/or helpful information on the signs of computer game addiction,
the risk factors for video game addiction, and strategies for helping teenagers addicted to
computer games after the problem develops.
As more therapists work with teenagers addicted to computer games and more
researchers study the problem, they are becoming b etter at detecting the signs of addiction,
testing for video game addiction, and offering help to parents with teenagers addicted to
computer games.
Still, there is much confusion about exactly what computer game addiction is and how
parents can help a tee nager who seems far more interested in playing in a virtual world than
living in the real world.
Parents who are attempting to help teenagers addicted to computer games are advised to
take note of the ten critical points below.

27
CHAPTER 2 – TEACHING ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE TO SECONDARY
STUDENTS

2.1. General considerations connected to teaching secondary students
The primary characteristic of classical education is the use of the language curriculum,
based on the study of literature in English (also in Latin and in foreign languages). Far from
weakening the importance of this curriculum, modern conditions seem to cry out for its return as
a humanizing instrument. A growing carelessness and vulgarity of speech, confusion of thinking,
and the pass ivity of the mind fostered by our present forms of entertainment are the intellectual
ills of the age. The remedies will contain the two ingredients which are the outcomes of a
humanistic training —culture and discipline.
The first outcome of the language curriculum is culture. It is the appreciation which
comes from carefully reading and understanding and sharing the best and noblest thoughts of
good and noble persons. Certainly, youths in secondary school are made to grow through contact
with selected lit erature, with a cultured teacher for guide and interpreter.
The second outcome of the language curriculum is discipline. It comes from consciously
forming habits and performing acts according to a pattern. The rules of language supply the
pattern. If we fo rce the student to express himself in exact terms, we shall drive him to perceive
objects precisely and to think exact thoughts. Briefly, that is the purpose of the language
discipline in high school.
Training in English need not be stereotyped or antiquat ed if the teacher thoroughly
understands the nature and idiom of his own language. The best British and American authors of
the past century prove that modern writing can be good literature. But the use of slang, sport –

28
coined words, and streamlined speech under the guise of modernity and the plea of developing a
direct language, is all too often an excuse for total ignorance of fundamental laws of linguistics
and authentic idiom.
Unfortunately, we ourselves have been corrupted by the linguistic vices of the times.
Teachers should realize that one of their most effective influences in the formation of the student
is personal contact. Greater reserve, refinement, and distinction of speech at all times on the part
of our own teachers would enhance in the studen ts‘ eyes the objectives of a good English course.
Teachers need an occasional reminder of this.
Again, teachers in every subject must be seriously concerned with the use of at least
correct written and oral expression in the work of their classes. In a ver y real sense every teacher
is an English teacher.
In each school the objectives of the English course should be carefully worked out,
clearly and explicitly stated, and proposed for the conscious aim of teachers and students.
In broad terms it may be said that the purpose of the composition phase of the courses
should be a sure mastery of the mechanics of expression, grammatical correctness, and a
familiarity with the general forms of composition —narration, description, exposition,
argumentation.
It is fut ile to attempt to teach the forms of composition to students who do not have a
grasp of the functions of the parts of speech or the construction of a sentence. The foundation of
our first -year students being what it is today, it is surely necessary to revi ew English grammar
during the first year, especially for students coming from other schools. Not to do so will be to
balk the attempts of teachers in the upper classes to make any real progress in composition. This
training in grammar must be adapted to th e actual condition of the students in each class; but it is

29
to be hoped that it will not consume so much time that the composition which is the proper work
of high school will have to be neglected.
The formula for composition is about one part theory to th ree parts practice. Too often
the prescription is reversed. Too often teachers talk endlessly of rules and definitions when the
boys should be exercising themselves in the application. Furthermore, the correction of exercises
is indispensable. The teacher should organize his classes so that the correction of papers will be a
regular feature. Yet the effort at correction will be largely wasted unless the student is put to
revising and rewriting the composition in the light of the corrections. It is more effe ctive to have
one exercise written, corrected, and rewritten than to have two distinct exercises written once and
done with.
The purpose of the study of literature is primarily the appreciation of literature. Other
schools put more emphasis than we do upon the acquisition of literary information, the history of
literature and a formal study of the literary types (essay, short story, poetry, and the like). Our
main goal should always be to gain, through our contact with beautiful texts, an understanding of
human nature.
Let us make some important remarks about the laws of learning. There can be little doubt
that our students generally fail to receive the maximum return from their classical training. The
proportion of return will depend directly upon the way t he courses are taught. Classical courses
in themselves do not have some magical virtue for training the mind. In other words, transfer of
training is not automatic. The mind can be trained and developed, but not in the sense that a body
muscle is trained a nd developed. Mental training consists in communicating ideals and methods.
Training received in one field can be transferred to another field, but only under certain restricted
conditions.

30
An ideal is "an idea which has been linked up with a series of con cepts, images, and
sentiments; an ideal means practically a force." Each field of study has its ideals; each has its
methods and its skills. If the ideals and methods are specific, the habit acquired will be specific;
if they are general, the habit will be general. The specific ideals and methods of one field will not
carry over into another; but the general ones will —if they are properly taught. Teaching these
general ideals and methods properly includes teaching how to make the transfer from one field to
another. This principle is very important, and its frequent neglect minimizes many of the
potential outcomes of the classical curriculum.
For the full fruition of the study, students must be taught not only the process, but also
the applicability of this process to other life problems and they must have some practice in
making the transfer. This training will consist partly in teaching students to recognize the
similarity between the old situation and the new, partly in exercising them in applying the idea ls
and methods.
To put this principle another way, the training of the human faculties cannot be
mechanized. The mind is not a muscle. The memory, the judgment the power of observation, the
taste, can never be trained in one field in such a way as to be fo und in the same degree in other
fields. The transfer or the generalization of an acquired habit is in proportion to the
generalization of the method or of the assimilated idea.
All learning must proceed from the known to the unknown. If a man cannot correl ate an
unknown thing with something familiar to him, he cannot get at its meaning. Therefore the
teacher must know and use the learner‘s "apperceptive mass" in order to teach him. The
apperceptive mass is the sum of his experience contained in the phantasm s, concepts and
emotional associations which have been registered in his consciousness. One of the chief

31
problems of the teacher is to draw upon the student‘s apperception in such a way that when he
proposes a new idea of a new object, the student will be able to associate it with some idea or
mental image he already has. Because inexperienced teachers have not yet gauged the level of
mental development of a class, they sometimes "talk over the students‘ heads," that is they do not
make enough connections w ith the apperceptive mass. New teachers will do well to analyze
consciously the thinking process of their students until they develop "resonance" with it.

2.2. Teaching receptive skills
Receptive skills are the ways in which people extract meaning from th e discourse they
see or hear. There are generalities about this kind of processing which apply to both reading and
listening – and which will be addressed in this chapter – but there are also significant differences
between reading and listening processes too, and in the ways we can teach these skills in the
classroom.
When we read a story or a newspaper, listen to the news, or take part in conversation we
employ our previous knowledge as we approach the process of comprehension, and we deploy a
range of r eceptive skills; which ones we use will be determined by our reading or listening
purpose. What a reader will bring to understand a piece of discourse is much more than just
knowing the language. In order to make sense of any text we need to have 'pre -existent
knowledge of the world' (Cook 1989: 69). Such knowledge is often referred to as schema (plural
schemata). Each of us carries in our heads mental representations of typical situations that we
come across. When we are stimulated by particular words, discourse patterns, or contexts, such
schematic knowledge is activated and we are able to recognise what we see or hear because it fits

32
into patterns that we already know. As Chris Tribble points out, we recognise a letter of rejection
or a letter offering a job within the first couple of lines (Tribble 1997: 35).
When we read a sign on the motorway our motives are different from when we read a
detective novel; when we take an audiotape guide round a museum we have a different purpose
in mind from when we listen to a stranger giving us directions on a street corner. We can divide
reasons for reading and listening into two broad categories:
1. For maintaining good social relations . We often hear people say they spent a whole
afternoon or whole weekend chatting with someone else but when they are asked what they
talked about, they say things like, 'Nothing much!' or 'I can't really remember.' In this kind of
talk, the information content or message is not important. What is important is the goodwill that
is maint ained or established through the talk. The communication here is listener -oriented and
not message -oriented. A great deal of conversation and casual talk is of this nature.
2. For entertainment . People listen to jokes, stories, songs, plays, TV; radio broa dcasts,
etc. mainly for entertainment. The outcome of such listening is not usually measured in terms of
how useful it was but in terms of personal satisfaction.
3. For obtaining information necessary for day -to-day living a large amount of reading
and li stening takes place because it will help us to achieve some clear aim. Thus, for example,
we read a road sign so that we know where to go. People listen to news broadcasts, directions on
how to get to different places, weather forecasts and travel : inform ation -airport, bus – and train
terminal announcements -because listening to these enables them to get the information necessary
for day -today living: to know when to board the plane, whether it is 'safe' to plan a picnic, etc.

33
4. For academic purposes . Peop le listen to lectures, seminars and talks as a way of
extending their knowledge and skills. Listening is a central part of all learning. A pupil who
cannot understand what the teacher is saying in a class is seriously hampered in his learning.
The processe s we go through when reading a novel or listening to a poem are likely to be
different from those we use when we are looking for someone's number in a telephone directory,
or when we are listening to a spoken 'alert' message on a computer. Our use of these different
skills will frequently depend on what we are reading or listening for.
 Identifying the topic: good readers and listeners are able to pick up the topic of a
written or spoken text very quickly. With the help of their own schemata they quickly get an idea
of what is being talked about. This ability allows them to process the text more effectively as it
progresses.
 Predicting and guessing: both readers and listeners sometimes guess in order to try
and understand what is being written or talked about , especially if they have first identified the
topic. Sometimes they look forward, trying to predict what is coming; sometimes they make
assumptions or guess the content from their initial glance or half -hearing – as they try and apply
their schemata to what is in front of them. Their subsequent reading and listening helps them to
confirm their expectations of what they have predicted or to readjust what they thought was
going to happ en in the Light of experience.
 Reading and listening for general unders tanding: good readers and listeners are able
to take in a stream of discourse and understand the gist of it without worrying too much about the
details. Reading and listening for such 'general' comprehension means not stopping for every
word, not analysing everything that the writer or speaker includes in the text. A term commonly
used in discussions about reading is skimming (which means running your eyes over a text to get

34
a quick idea of the gist of a text). By encouraging students to have a quick look a t the text before
plunging into it for detail, we help them to get a general understanding of what it is all about.
This will help them when and if they read for more specific information. Gist reading and
listening are not 'lazy' options. The reader or li stener has made a choice not to attend to every
detail, but to use their processing powers to get more of a top -down view of what is going on.
 Reading and listening for specific information: in contrast to reading and listening for
gist, we frequently go t o written and spoken text because we want specific details; we may listen
to the news, only concentrating when the particular item that interests us comes up. We may
quickly look through a film review to find the name of the director or the star. In both c ases we
almost ignore all the other information until we come to the specific item we are looking for. In
discussions about reading this skill is frequently referred to as scanning.
 Reading and listening for detailed information: sometimes we read and list en in order
to understand everything we are reading in detail. This is usually the case with written
instructions or directions, or with the description of scientific procedures; it happens when
someone gives us their address and telephone number and we wr ite down all the details.
 Interpreting text: readers and listeners are able to see beyond the literal meaning of
words in a passage, using a variety of clues to understand what the writer or speaker is implying
or suggesting. Successful interpretation of this kind depends to a large extent on shared schemata
as in the example of the lecturer who, by saying to a student You're in a non -smoking zone was
understood to be asking the student to put her cigarette out. We get a lot more from a reading
suggest bec ause, as active participants, we use our schemata together with our knowledge of the
world to expand the pictures we have been given, and to fill in the gaps which the write r or
speaker seems to have left or list ening text than the words alone.

35
2.2.1. Teaching listening
2.2.1.1. Aims of Teaching Listening
The component on listening aims at developing pupils' ability to listen to information
with understanding and precision. The sub -skills of listening range from the basic level of sound,
word and phra se recognition to an understanding of the whole text. The use of various text types
is recommended ranging from teacher -simulated texts to media broadcasts and authentic
conversations.
Pupils are encouraged to respond to the in – formation heard in a varie ty of ways. These
responses would comprise both verbal and non -verbal forms. By the end of the primary s chool,
pupils should be able to listen to and respond to a number of familiar topics. Thus, the sub -skills
of list ening extend and develop skills of und erstanding the text and responding to the message in
the text as well as to non -verbal cues conveyed within the communication.
2.2.1.2. Processes Involved in Listening
1. Hearing vs. listening . Our ears are constantly being barraged by sound. However, we
do not pay attention to everything we hear. We only begin to 'listen' when we pay attention to the
sounds we hear and make efforts to interpret them.
2. Top-down processing . When a listener hears something, this may remind him of
something in his previ ous knowledge, and this in turns, leads him to predict the kind of
information he is likely to hear. W hen this happens, he is said to be using 'top -down' processing.
When a listener can relate what he is about to h ear he already knows, this will help him
understand what he hears better. This is why pre -listening activities are introduced to help
students see how the listening text relates to what they already know.

36
3. Bottom -up processing . If what he hears does not trigger anything in the previous
knowledg e, then the listener would resort to what is called 'bottom up' listening, the slow
building up of meaning block by block through understanding all the linguistic data he hears.
This kind of processing is much hard way to solve this problem, however, is not to focus the
student's attention on the 'building blocks': pronunciation, word knowledge, etc. People listen for
words and sounds. They listen for meaning. So you should teach your students to list meaning: to
use whatever clues they can get from the con text-who is speaking, .on what to pic, for what
purpose, to whom, where, etc. -to make sense of what they hear. They should, for example, try to
guess the meaning of unknown or partially heard words from the context. They should be taught
to have a whole -to-part focus in their listening. They should work at understanding the whole
message and to use grammar, vocabulary and sounds only as aids in doing this and not as
important in themselves.
4. Listening is an active process . When a proficient listener listens, he doesn't passively
receive what the speaker says. He actively constructs meaning. He identifies main points and
supporting details; he distinguishes fact from opinion. He guesses the meaning of unfamiliar
words. These are cognitive aspects of li stening. There are also affective or emotional dimensions
to listening. The listener agrees or disagrees with a speaker. Likes or dislikes the speaker's tone
of voice or choice of words. He may find the speakers' choice of topic morally objectionable or
absolutely boring. He may be disappointed with/surprised by/worried about satisfied with the
speaker's treatment of the topic and so on. Listeners' attitudes, values and interests all affect the
way they interpret and respond .
2.2.1.3. The roles of the teacher

37
As with all activities, for listening we need to be active in creating student engagement
through the way we set up tasks. We need to build up students' confidence by helping them listen
better r ather than by testing their listening abilities. In particular we need to focus on the
following roles:
 Organiser: we need to tell students exactly what their listening purpose is, and give them
clear instructions about how to achieve it. One of our chief responsibilities wi ll be to build their
confidence through offering tasks that are achievable and texts that are comprehensible.
 Machine operator: when we use tape or disk material we "need to be as efficient as
possible in the way we use the tape player. This means knowing where the segment w e wish to
use is on the tape or disk, and knowing, through the use of the playback machine counte r, how to
get back there. Above all it means trying the material out before taking it into class so that we do
not waste time making things work when we get there. We shoul d take decisions about wh ere we
can stop the extract for particular questions and exercises, but, once in class, we shoul d be
prepared to respond to the students' needs in the way we stop and start the machine. We involve
our students in live listening we need to observe them with great care to see how easily they can
understand us. We can then adjust the way we use the 'machine' (in this case ourselves or a
visitor) accordingly.
 Feedback organiser: when our students have completed the task, we should lead a
feedback session to check that they have completed the task successfully. We may sta rt by
having them compare their answers in pairs and then ask for answers from the class in general or
from pairs in particular. Students often appreciate giving paired a nswers like this since, by
sharing their knowledge, they are also sharing their responsibility for the answers. Because
listening can be a tense experience, encouraging this kind of cooperation is highly desirable. It is

38
important to be supportive when organising feedback after listening if we are to counter any
negative e xpectations students might have and if we wish to sustain their motivation.
 Prompter: when students have listened to a tape or disk for comprehension purposes we
can have them listen to it again for them to notice a variety of language an d spoken features.
Sometimes we can offer them script dictations (where some words in a transcript ar e blanked
out) to provoke their awareness.
2.2.1. 4. Active listening activities for teenage students
Students are often asked to listen to tapes or to their teacher talking, but it can be just as
useful to encourage them to listen to each other in a more active way. Learning to listen to each
other more carefully can build their ability and confidence in re al-life situations, in which they
will need to focus on both listening and speaking. The following activities are a fun way of
getting students to concentrate more and to remember information.
Dual dictation . Ask students to get into pairs to write a dial ogue. When student A is
speaking, student B should write down what they are saying and vice versa. When they have
finished the conversation, they should check what each other has written and put the two sides of
the conversation together. You could then as k students to perform their dialogues again to the
rest of the class, or to swap with other pairs. This activity works best if you give students a theme
or role -play such as: a conversation between friends about holidays , an argument between
siblings , an interview with a famous person or a scene from a film .
Class memory quiz . Ask one student at a time to go to the front of the class. Ask the rest
of the class to ask them any questions they like (as long as they are not too personal!) : What is
your favourite colour/food/band? What did you have for lunch? Which country would you most
like to visit? Try to make a note of some of the answers. When all of the students (or half of the

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students, if you have a large group) have been interviewed, explain tha t you are going to hold a
quiz about the class. Get the students into small teams and ask them to put their hand up if they
know the answer to a question: Which student likes Oasis? What is Marie's favourite food?
Which two students would like to be famous actors? . Award a point to the first team to answer
correctly. This game can be a lot of fun, and encourages students to listen to each other.
Listen for lies . Divide the class into two teams A and B. Ask one student at a time to
come to the front of the class and read aloud a passage which you have chosen, e.g. a story or
newspaper article. Then ask them to read it aloud again, but to make some changes. Each time a
lie (or change) is read out, the students must stand up. The first team to stand up gets a point.
This game requires students to listen carefully and encourages them to remember important
information and details.
2.2.2. Teaching reading
The sub -skills involved in reading extend from basic word, phrase and sentence
recognition to retrieval of specific information from the text and response to the text. The reading
component will also provide pupils with the opportunity of developing study skills such as using
dictionaries and encyclopaedias and extracting information from maps, plans and graphs .
The use of a wide range of texts for the teaching of reading skills is recommended. A
variety of texts for the teaching of reading skills is also recommended. A variety of text types
will not only enrich pupils' vocabulary and language structure but wil l also promote the
application of reading skills for different purposes. Towards this end, pupils are also encouraged
to read extensively outside the classroom with minimal teacher guidance.
2.2.2.1. The aims of teaching reading
Your aims can centre arou nd one or more of the following areas:

40
1) development of reading skills; study skills; comprehension skills;
2) introduction (or practice) of an important/ new genre, e.g. poem, flowchart, etc.
3) creation of a new interest or a cashing in on current interest so that pupils will read more;
4) the ironing out of old (bad) habits, e.g. word by word reading;
5) the development of flexible reading strategies, e.g. skimming for obtaining an overview and
reading intensively to obtain an accurate picture of w hat is being described.
2.2.2.2 . The role of the teacher
 Organiser: we need to tell students exactly what their reading purpose is, and give them
clear instructions about how to achieve it, and how long they have to do this.
 Observer: when we ask student s to read on their own we need to give them space to do
so. This means restraining ourselves from interrupting that reading, even though the
temptation may be to add more information or instructions. While students are reading
we can observe their progress since this will give us valuable information about how well
they are doing individually and collectively .
 Feedback organiser: when our students have completed the task, we can lead a feedback
session to check that they have completed the task successfully. We may start by having
them compare their answers in pairs and then ask for answers from the class in general or
from pairs in particular. Students often appreciate giving paired answers like this since,
by sharing their knowledge, they are a lso sharing their responsibility for the answers.
 Prompt: When students have read a text we can prompt them to notice language features
in that text , we may also, as controllers, direct them to certain features of text
construction, clarifying ambiguities , and making them aware issues of the text structure
which they had not come across previously.

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2.2.2.3 . Active reading activities for early adolescent students
Here are a few funny and interesting activities better suited for secondary students from
the fifth and sixth grades:
Sweetheart Sentences Activity
Practice reading and identifying sentence types with this Sweetheart Sentences activity.
Cut apart the sentence cards and the four sentence candy boxes. Sentences with and without
punctuation are pro vided for differentiation as needed. Read the sentence, determine what type
of sentence it is and place it on the correct box of candy. After sorting the sentences, check your
answers and c omplete the worksheet provided.
Apples Fact or Fiction Activity
Place the ―Fact‖ and ―Fiction‖ baskets in front of you. Read the statement on an apple
and decide whether it is a correct apple fact or it is fiction. Place the apple on the matching
basket. After reading and sorting each statement, check your answers on t he answer key.
Complete the worksheet provided by recording app le facts that you have learned.
To Infer or not to Infer – Inferences Activity
Use your knowledge and information from pictures to practice making inferences. Place
the inference mat in front of you and select a picture card. Find the letter on the picture card and
the three inference cards with the same letter. Look at the picture and read the three inferences.
Using clues from the picture and your own knowledge, decide which two statements y ou can
infer from the picture and statement you can‘t infer. The first player to reach the end of the game,
scores a goal and wins! After game play, c omplete the worksheet provided.
Slap Shot Hockey – Telling Sentences Activity

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Play Slap Shot Hockey to p ractice reading and identifying telling sentences. The object of
the game is to travel around the game board to shoot a goal and score! Place your playing pieces
on the board. The first player picks the top card and reads the sentence. The player must
determine if it is a telling sentence or not. If it is a telling sentence, the player moves one space
on the game board. If it is an asking sentence, the player does not move. (Sentences with and
without punctuation are provided). The first player to reach the end of the game, scores a goal
and wins! After game play, c omplete the worksheet provided.
Don’t Wake the Librarian Sorting Books by Genre Activity
Shhh! The librarian has fallen asleep, but you still have books to return! To play, attach
the two game b oard pages toget her and select a playing piece. The object of the game is to return
all of your books to their correct genre shelf, without waking the librarian. Spin a die and move
that many spaces. If the space is brown, you may return one of your books to its shelf. If the
space is red, pick up a red call card. Be careful, don‘t make any loud noises or you may wake the
librarian! If you wake her, you must return to the first square! The first player to return all of
their books to t he correct shelf is th e winner!
Are We There Yet Asking Sentences Activity
Two players race around the game board to complete their cross -country road trip. Select
a car to drive with and choose the white or black road trip path to follow. Place your car on
―Start Here.‖ Shuffle the sentences and place them on the game board. To play, players take
turns picking up and reading a sentence card. Determine if the sentence is an asking or telling
sentence. If the sentence is asking a question, move onto the next circle of your road trip. If it is
not an asking sentence, stay where you are. The first player to finish their road trip is the winner!

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After game play, write down the sentences you‘ve collected during your road trip a nd add the
correct punctuation.

2.3. Teaching productive skills
In the next two chapters I will focus on productive skills – speaking and writing, as the
main aim of this diploma thesis it to teach these skills in mixed ability classes. I would like to
analyse all aspects of teaching speaking and wri ting and have a deeper look into the problems of
teaching them. I will also present some interesting and practical ideas how to make students
successful in writing and speaking.
2.3.1 Teaching w riting
Writing is one of the four language skills: reading, writing, speaking and listening.
Writing and speaking are considered to be productive skills that means, they involve producing
language rather than receiving it. There are various ways how to define writing. Wikipedia
defines writing as: ―the representati on of language in a textual medium through the use of a set
of signs or symbols (known as a writing system).‖ (―Writing‖) On the other hand, in The
Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Writings Systems, Florian Coulmas defines a writing system as: ―a
set of visible or tactile signs used to represent units of language in a systematic way, with the
purpose of recording messages which can be retrieved by everyone who knows the language in
question and the rules by virtue of which its units are encoded in the writing system.‖
As it was mentioned earlier, when we write we communicate a message. To
communicate a message means: e.g. express somebody‘s experience, respond to greeting or
invitation. Therefore we can state, that both accuracy and fluency are very important in writing

44
and while teaching it we have to strongly focus on both of them. The goal of a language teacher
is to enable students to produce fluent, understandable, accurate and appropri ate written English.
But this is a hard work for English teachers in mixed ability classes where the students are on the
different level. According to G. Broughton, et al., English teachers can use three stages of
writing: controlled writing ; guided writin g; free writing .
2.3.1.1. Functional styles
Another aspect that English teachers should be aware of is functional style or register.
Therefore, the teachers must select the conventions and style which are most likely to be useful
to the students, if they want to be successful. But the great deal of sensitivity which students
need in using language develops unconsciously from spinoff from reading. In teaching writing
skill a teacher is an essential factor. Before giving a task to students, the teacher shou ld check
whether the task is appropriate for the needs of the students, the task is within the level of the
students, the task is just above their level, so they will be really challenged or whether the task is
enjoyable.
2.3.1.2. Writing for learning and writing for writing
On the other hand, Jeremy Harmer in his book How to Teach Writing distinguishes
between writing for learning and writing for writing.
In writing for learning students write predominantly to spread their learning of grammar
and vocabulary of the language. Further more, Harmer (2004) divides writing for learning into:
reinforcement writing ; preparation writing ; activity writing .
a) Reinforcement writing
It is a simple form where students are asked to write sentences using grammar the y have
recently learnt, write paragraphs or longer compositions to practice recently focused -on aspects

45
of language. Students also can be asked to write a story about something that happened in the
past (to practise past tenses), or to write a description of someone they know to use the character
and physical description vocabulary. The aim of this phase is to give students opportunity to
practise and remember new language they have learnt better. The act of writing these exercises
makes them think about th e new vocabulary or grammar.
b) Preparation writing
When learning second language sometimes it is more useful to use writing as preparation
for some other activities. J. Harmer suggests using preparation writing for example when
students are asked to prepare discussion. Writing sentences ―gives the students time to think up
ideas rather than having to come up with instant fluent opinions, something that many, especially
at lower level, find difficult and awkward.‖ (Harmer, 2004, 33)
c) Activity writing
Writing is frequently used with activities that focus on something else such as language
practice, acting out or speaking. Activity writing is used with activities in which students are
asked to write their dialogue before they act it out. It is helpful for studen ts to plan and write the
dialogue before they act it out. Other types are questionnaire -type activities. Groups of students
design a questionnaire and then they circulate around the class asking their colleagues the
questions they have prepared. They write down the answers and later students report what they
have found out. The aim of activity writing is to use writing to help students to perform other
activity but ―students need to be able to write to do these activities, but the activities do not teach
students to write.‖ (Harmer, 2004, 33)

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In the writing for writing phase, on the other hand, students are able to study written texts
to become better writers. Writing for writing includes activities such are writing stories or
poems, journals or creating dr amatic scenarios. These tasks ―force‖ students to express more
personal and more complex thoughts. But this is not easy because most of students feel limited
by knowledge of second language and they do not feel so ambitious and do not want to take
risks.
2.3.1.3. The roles of the teacher
 Demonstrating : When students are involved in writing activities they need to be aware of
writing conventions and genre constraints. The task of the teacher is to draw these features to
their attention.
 Motivating and provoking : Sometimes students are stuck while writing and do not know
how to start or continue. Then, the teacher‘s task is to help, stimulate or encourage students and
persuade them that writing can be an enjoyable activity. When students do not know what to do,
it is good to prepare suggestions for them, rather that having students to think for a long time.
 Supporting : Supporting is one of the most important teacher‘s tasks. Students need a lot
of help and reassurance and therefore teachers need to be ver y supportive when students are
writing in the class and be prepared to help students to overcome problems.
 Responding : By responding J. Harmer understands reacting to the construction and
content of the students´ written work. Teachers make suggestions for improvement but do not
judge or grade the work. The aim is to tell students how well they are doing. The teacher may
also make suggestions and comments about the students‘ use of language.
 Evaluation and correction : Many teachers say that to evaluate the ir students is the
hardest work. There are many situations when the students are evaluated. All students want to

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know how they are doing so far, what is necessary to improve and what standard they have
achieved. When evaluating tests the teacher indicates what was written well and where the
mistakes were made. When the teacher hands back marked work, he/she should get a student to
have a look at the errors that are highlighted and try to put them right. By correcting , J. Harmer
means correcting syntax (word order), concord (grammar agreement), collocation and word
choice. Feedback is also very important here. When the teacher corrects, he/she actually plays
several roles (Harmer, 2004, 109): students see the teacher as the examiner, in fact the teacher
takes a role of audience (responds to the ideas), he/she can act as an assistant (helps students with
writing), a resource (is available when students need information), an evaluator (says how well
the students have done so far) and an editor (helps to select a nd rearrange the students´ writing).
2.3.2 Teaching s peaking
Speaking belongs to productive skills; it is more frequently used than writing. The main
function of spoken language is to socialize individuals. On the contrary to writing, spoken
language is produced and processed in real time, the speaker and hearer have limited time to plan
and produce what they want to say and understand what they hear. Speech is generally used in
face-to-face conversations; it is temporary, spontaneous and variable. Spoken language is
supported by body language such as gestures or facial expressions (often called non -verbal
communication). Among other features of spoken language belong the opportunity for feedback:
the hearer may ask for clarification, explanation or repeti tion of what sounds problematic. For
speaking is typical different speed, false starts, pauses, unfinished sentences or hesitation.
2.3.2.1. The aims of teaching speaking
The main aim of teaching speaking skills is to communicate efficiently. Learners of a
foreign language should be able to make themselves understood while speaking the language.

48
The goal is to avoid misunderstanding in the message due to faulty vocabulary, grammar and
pronunciation.
To help learners develop communicative efficiency, the teachers can use activities based
on: a) language input ; b) language output ; c) communicative output .
In the document released by The National Capital Language Resource Centre (NCLRC)
is said that:‖ language input comes in the form of the teacher talk, listening activities, reading
passage and the language heard and read outside of class. It gives learners the material they need
to begin producing language themselves.‖ NCLRC further divides language input into content –
oriented input and form -oriented input.
Content -oriented input deals with information, it also includes description of learning
strategies and example of their use. Form -oriented input deals with ways of using the language:
guidance from the teacher or source of grammar, vocabulary, pro nunciation, and then discourse
competence (language used in specific context), sociolinguistic competence (turn taking, pause,
length) and strategic competence (phrases to use to ask for clarification and repair
miscommunication).
2.3.2.2. Strategies for teaching speaking
However, not only a balanced activities approach is important for teaching speaking
successfully and therefore NCLRC came with strategies for using speaking to learn.
a) Using minimal response
In every group, and especially in mixed -ability classes, that we teach there are some
students who do not feel confident to speak and they rather stay silent and just listen. To
encourage these students to speak is to help them to build up a certain amount of minimal
responses they can use in diff erent types of exchanges. Such responses are often idiomatic

49
phrases to indicate understanding, doubt, agreement or other responses. NCLRC affirms that:
―Having a stock of such responses enables a learner to focus on what the other participant is
saying, w ithout having to simultaneously plan a response.‖
b) Recognizing scripts
Invitations, greetings, compliments and other functions follow patterns of scripts as they
are influenced by social and cultural norm. Teachers should make learners aware of the scr ipts in
different situations, so the learners can predict what they will hear and what they will need to say
in response.
c) Using language to talk about language
Sometimes the learners come across the situation when they are misunderstood by their
conve rsation partner. They often feel embarrassed or shy and they refuse to continue in speaking.
Therefore the teacher should help the learners to overcome this situation by assuring them that
misunderstanding can occur in any type of interaction and the teach ers should give students
strategies and phrases to use for comprehensible check.
Finally we can state, that by using these strategies the teacher can create authentic
practice environment and students will get more confidence to manage various communication
situations.
Robert S. Brown and P. Nation claim that students should be offered form -focused
instructions and meaning -focused instructions in their process of improving their speaking skills .
A) Form -focused Speaking
It goes deeply into details of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. This stage is
suitable for beginners. An effective way how to start teaching foreign languages is to base
speaking on some simple, useful phrases and sentences e.g. greetings, simple questions and

50
answers o r personal descriptions which are easy to remember. These can be practiced by
repetition drills. By repetition drills the teachers can change speed, the learner who is to repeat,
the content of the sentence and the way of choosing the substitution.
B) Meaning -focused Speaking
In this stage the attention lays on the message being communicated. The activity develops
learner‘s ability to speak. R.S Brown and P. Nation suggest several ways:
1. The teacher presents new vocabulary or grammar (it is based on form -focused instruction) and
then the students are given some practice.
2. Frequently, before the students start to speak they work in groups or pairs to prepare the
activity. The activity gives learners the opportunity to learn form each other.
3. The students are given topics to talk about. They may prepare it for homework, use
dictionaries or a reference text and then they present what they have prepared.
4. Often, the activities are supported by pictures or written texts. They appear in a Raking
activity or a Problem solving activity where the text contains important data about the situation .
5. Many speaking activities force students to ask each other. The pattern of these activities is that
each learner receives different information for completing the activity. In these kinds of activities
students discover different names, two -way tasks or information gap.
On the other hand, G. Broughton and his colleagues divide speaking activities into:
Controlled oral work : Among controlled oral work the authors incl ude the dialogue. The
advantage of dialogue is that it can be used for controlled, guided or free work. It is also possible
to use the dialogue for each level, starting with elementary level. The students prepare mini –
dialogue in pairs even in the first lesson. Controlled oral work can be supported by drills,
especially substitution drills which are widely used. The advantage of drills is that the error is

51
almost eliminated so the students feel more comfortable to speak, which is a very important point
mainly at lower levels. G. Broughton et al. say that substitution drills: ―demonstrate much more
clearly to the class that this is not simply mechanical drill but language practice with a visually
demonstrated communicative function in a real life situation in which the student can find
himself.‖
Guided oral work : The aim of the guided oral work is to give students a limited freedom
and to practice what they have learnt. In this phase, making mistakes in learning is taken as a
natural part. Among guided ora l work the authors include role -plays. Here the students can learn
some practical phrases used in everyday life . However, not only a role -play but also setting up a
role-play situation is another way how to practise speaking skills in a guided way.
Free oral work : It is the last phase in which the students should be able to produce such
an amount oflanguage that they will be able to express themselves. This phase is typical for
advanced students. The aim of the teacher in this phase is to create such situ ation and stimuli that
all students will be actively involved in a communicative way.

2.4. Teaching English with the help of technology
With the spread and development of English around the world, English is used as a
second language in a country like India and for some people the 1st language. It enjoys a high
prestige in the country. At present the role and status of English in India is higher than ever as
evidenced by i ts position as a key subject of medium of instruction, curriculum. As the number
of English learners i s increasing different teaching methods have been implemented to test the
effectiveness of the teaching proc ess. Use of authentic materials in the form of films, radio, TV

52
has been there for a long time. It is true that the se technologi es have proved successful in
replacing the traditional teaching.
The new era assigns new challenges and duties on the modern teacher. The tradition of
English teaching has been drastically changed with the remarkable entry of technology.
Techn ology provid es so many options as making teaching interesting and also making teaching
more produ ctive in terms of improvements. Technology is one of the most significant drivers of
both social and lingui stic change. Graddol: (1997:16) states that‖ technology lies at the heart of
the globalization process; affect ing education work and culture. The use of English language has
increased rapidly after 1960. At present the rol e and status of English is that it is the language of
social context, political, sociocultural, bu siness, educati on, industries, media, library,
communication across borders, and key subject in curriculum and lan guage of imparting
education‖.
Technology is utilized for the upliftment of modern styles; it satisfies both visual and
auditory senses of the students. With the spread and development of English around the worl d,
English has been learned and used by more and more speakers. According to David Graddol ‗it
is the language at the leading edge of scientific and technological development, new think ing in
economies and management, new literatures and entertainment genre .
2.4.1. The necessity of using ICT to teach English
 To Cultivate Students‘ Interest in Study
Nowadays, the stereotyped traditional teaching methods and environment are unpopular
while multimedia technology featuring audio, visual animation effects natur ally and humanely
makes us more access to information besides, with such characteristics as abundant -informati on
and crossing time and space, multimedia te chnology offers a sense of reality and functions very

53
well, whi ch greatly cultivates students‘ interest and motivation in study and their involvement in
class activities.
 To Promote Students‘ Communication Capacity
Traditional teaching has hampered studen ts‘ capacity to compr ehend certain language
and also understanding to structure, meaning and function of the language, and makes the
students passive recipients of knowledge, So it is hard to achieve the target of communication.
With teachers‘ instructions leading students‘ thought patterns and motivating students‘ emotions,
the multimed ia technology seeks integration of teaching and learning and provides the students
greater incentives, The PP T courseware activate students‘ thinking; the visual and vivid
courseware rand help them to transforms English learning into capacity cultivation. And such in –
class activities as group discussion, subject discuss ion, and debates can also offer more
opportunities for communication among students and between teach ers and students. So
multimedia technology teaching has uniquely inspired students‘ positive thinking and
communication skills in social practice.
 To Widen Students‘ Knowledge to Gain an Understanding to Western Culture.
The multimedia courseware can offer the s tudents abundant information; more plentiful
than textbooks, and help them to get of displays vivid cultural background, rich content and t rue-
to-life language materials, which are much natural and closer to life. Not only could learners
improve th eir list ening ability, but also learn the western culture. Grasping information through
various channe ls can equip; the students with knowledge and bring about information -sharing
among students and make them actively participate in class discussion and communicat ion.
 To Improve Teaching Effect

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Multimedia teachings enrich teaching content and make the best of class time and break
the ―teacher -centered‖ teaching pattern and fundamentally improve class efficiency. Due to large
classes it is difficult for the student s to have speaking communication. The utilization of multi –
media sound lab materializes the individualized and co -operative teaching.The traditional
teaching model mainly emphasized on teachers‘ instruction, and the information provided is
limited due to t raditional class es. On the contrary, multimedia technology goes beyond time and
space, creates more vivid, visual, au thentic environment for English learning, stimulates
students‘ initiatives and economizes class time meanwhile increases class information.
 To Improve Interaction Between Teacher and Student
Multimedia teaching stresses the role of students, and enhances the impo rtance of
―interaction‖ between teachers and students. A major feature of multimedia teaching is to train
and improve students‘ abi lity to listen and speak, and to develop their communicative
competence, During this p rocess, the teacher‘s role as a facilitator is particularly prominent.
Using multimedia in context creation creates a good platform for the exchange between teachers
and students, while at the same time provid ing a language environment that improves on the
traditional classroom teaching model. In this way, teac hers in the classroom no longer blindly
input information and force students to receive it in a passive way.
 Creat es a Context for Language teaching
Multimedia teaching creates a context for language teaching. This me thod makes the
class lively and interesting, as well as optimizing the organization of the class. Multimedi a has
its own features such a s visibility an d liveliness. During the process of multimedia English
teaching, sounds and pictures can be set together, which enhances the initiative of both teachers
and students, When using multimedia software, teachers can use pictures and images to enrich

55
the conten t of classes, and als o imagine different contexts in the process of producing teaching
courseware, Students in the class can use multime dia to understand the class in a clear way.
Through the whole interactive process, it is apparent that using multimedia in ELT is effective in
nurturing students‘ interest in learning English, as well as enhancing teachers‘‘ interest in
English teaching. As Zhang (2006:11.1)points out through Multimedia and network technology
we can offer students not only rich, sources of authentic learning materials, but also an attra ctive
and a friendly interface, vivid pictures and pleasant sounds, which to a large extent overcomes
the lack of authentic language environment and arouses students‘ interest in learning English.
 To Provide F lexibility to Course Content:
In addition, multimedia teaching is also flexible. It is obvious that the context can be
created not only in the classroom, but also after class. Multimedia language teaching can al so
create a multimedia language environment for the purpose of conducting language teaching.
English te aching itself must focus on the guidance of teachers and be student -centered(see, for
example, Holec, 1981), which we believe is one of the principles for language teaching. Students
are bound to h ave some proble ms in classroom teaching, which can be addressed under the
guidance of teachers. In such circumstances, students can use technology to their advantage, such
as manipulating the network to contact teachers, and receiving answers by email.
2.4.2. Problems arising from the use of ICT in the English classroom
In spite of advantages of application of multimedia technology to Englis h class teaching
has to improve teaching effect and university students‘ overall capacities, there are many
problems existing in practical teaching, such as:
Major Means Replaced by the Assisting One : Application of multimedia technology is
and assisting instrument to achieve the projected teaching effect, While if totally dependent on,

56
multimedia devices during teaching, the teachers may be turned into slaves to the multimedia
and cannot play the leading role in teaching, It is observed in practice that a lot of teachers are
active in multimedia technology application but not proficient enough to h andle it confid ently. In
class, they are standing by the computer and students are fixing their attention onl y on the screen,
and therefore, there is no eye contac t between teachers and students . The trend of mo dern
information and technology teaching appears to the extr emity regardless of the essence of the
traditional teaching. And hence, the notion of Creative Education is to be fully comprehended
that modern educational techniques serves an assisting instrument rather than a target: and that
should not dominate class. They are su bstitutes to effective teaching and learning
Loss of Speaking Communication : English language and English analysis by the teachers
are effectiv e in conveying knowledge to the students from English pronunciation to
comprehension, improving stud ents‘ English thought patterns and oral expression, Whereas, the
introduction of multimedia technology featurin g audio, visual, textual effect fully meets audio
and visual requirements of the students and enhance their intere st, but it also results in lack of
communication between teachers and students, replacement of teachers‘ voice by compu ter
sound, and teachers‘ analysis by visual image and students have‘ few chances for sp eaking
communication . With the favorable atmosphere by the mutual communication between teachers
and students fading away, and sound
and image of multimedia affecting students‘ initiative to think and speak, Eng lish class turns to
course ware show and students are made viewers rather than the participants of class activities.
The res triction of Students’ Thinking Potential : It is clear that language teaching is
different from science subjects, for language teaching does not require demonstration by various
steps, rather, the tense and orderly atmosphere is formed through questions and answer between

57
teachers and students, Teachers raise impromptu and real -time questions and guide the students
to think, cultivate their capacity to discover and solve problems, ho wever, due to over –
demonstration and pre -arranged order, the courseware lack s real -time effe ct and cannot give
feedback. It ignores emphasis and importance in teaching; it also neglects instruction in students‗
thinking , inspiring their paths of thinking, strengthening their capacity contemplating and so lving
problems. In this way, it should be noted that cultivation of students‘ thinking capacity should be
the m ajor objective in teaching and using of multimedia technology and it should not take up the
students‘ t ime for thinking, analyzing and exploring questions.
Abstract Thinking Replaced by Imaginable Thinking : The Process of cognition goes
through perceptual stage and rational sta ge. It also applies to studying process. It is our hope that
teaching makes students adopt the outlook cognit ion from perc eptual recognition to rational
apprehension, and greatly leap from perceptual thinking to rationa l thinking; Therefore , it is the
major objective in teaching. To enhance the students‘ abstract thinking, the multimedia
technology makes content easier, and w ith its unique advantages, it can clarify the emphasis in
teachi ng. While if the image and imagination in students‘ mind were merely showed on the
screen, their abstra ct thinking would be restricted and logical thinking would waste away. At
present the dec reased students‘ reading competence has become a major concern for reason that,
textual words are replaced by sound and image, handwriting by keyboard input. All in all, the
multimedia as an assisting instrument, cannot replace th e dominant role of teacher s and it is part
of a complete teaching process. Besides, it is not a mechanic i mitation of teaching, rather it
integrates the visual, textual demonstration with teachers‘ experience t o contribute to the
programmed, automatic and continuous teaching projec t so as to enhance the overall
improvement of students‘ listenin g, speaking, reading and writing

58
CHAPTER 3 – PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

3.1. An overview of some of the most popular websites among English teachers
BitStrips It improves my role as a teacher because it really made it
clear to me the areas where I need to improve. It made it
easier for me to spot the holes/areas of struggle and the
comp onents that students understand.
BrainPOP
Featured Movie With the BrainPOP Featured Movie app, the learning
transfers from whole -group to the individual. Students can
take ownership of their learning using the app on an iPod
Touch or iPad, an even quiz themselves with the app.
ClassDojo Since I began using ClassDojo with my students, I have seen
a HUGE increase in willingness and eagerness to participate
in class discussion.
Codecademy Codecademy lets students learn at their own pace. I find it
ideal for working with students whom I see once a week. I
can supplement their online, individual learning with in –
person lessons .
Dance Mat
Typing I do think this website is good to use to introduce the
keyboard and allow younger students to use it in order to
learn where the letters are located.
Desmos It provides meaningful learning experiences for all students,
and gives kinesthetic and visual learners the chance to excel.
DIY It helps me and my students track what we've completed, and
offers a electronic portfolio of sorts to save and share later.

59
Dropbox One of the key aspects to Dropbox for me is the ease of use
and the fact that it saves time in the classroom. Prior to using
Dropbox, I either had to individually email images to
students or needed students to take their own images.
Duolingo If they finish an assigned activity or the need remediation
they can use Duolingo. Duolingo puts more focus on spelling
than we do in our classroom, but that is a good skill for
them.
EduBlogs I love using edublogs as a place for students to share their
knowledge with one another. I can posed a critical
assessment question that they must answer or assign them to
engage their classmates on a topic.
Educreations
Interative
Whiteboard Instead of wasting my time going around and asking kids to
count by 5's or write numbers and circle the 10's place I am
using educreations. I give my students the oral/slate
assessment all at once.
Evernote This tool allows teachers to keep track of conference notes,
daily observations, create checklists for lesson and unit goals
without all the heavy papers, binders, folders and notebooks.
Explain
Everything EE allows me to engage the learner by moving away from
the paper -driven work that tends to define traditional
classrooms and integrate technology.
Geogebra This tool allows teachers to keep track of conference notes,
daily observations, create checklists for lesson and unit goals
without all the heavy papers, binders, folders and notebooks.
Goodreads In a customized learning situation, this was much more
efficient than booktalking to the class because each student
was directed to the content they needed at the time they
needed it.

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Google Drive Logistically, I really enjoy using Google Drive because I can
move from work laptop, to classroom PC station, and back
home without having to remember or use a thumb drive or
emailing s omething to myself.
Google Earth In my Spanish classroom I use Google Earth to explore
different places in Spanish speaking countries. It makes the
students feel like they have been to that p articular place not
just read about it.
Google
Hangouts It changed my classroom from a place we meet for 80
minutes twice a week to a virtual world that's always on and
always connected.
KidBlog Kidblog allows me to have as much control as I need for my
class. I can allow students the freedom to have their own
blog page, edit their name, edit their password, or edit their
account.
LearnZillion It is easy to use and is great for introducing, reinforcing, or
advancing student learning. The assignments can be
individualized for each of my students so that I can
determine what lessons they need to best help them.
MinecraftEdu The specific takeaway that I have from using Minecraft
during club is that there is a lot of potential for learning, as
long as students are focused and learning objectives are
clear.
National Library
of Virtual
Manipulatives This site improves my teaching as often I find we move away
from using the manipulatives too soon and it can be
cumbersome i n grade four to have a bunch of hundred, ten,
and one blocks for all students, this allows all students easy
access!
Popplet They made presentations, inserting images and videos,
drawing images, and typing text. Students are able to invite
others to collaborate on their popplets. They were fully
engaged and were able to make interesting presentations.

61
Prezi My overall opinion about the Prezi as a learning tool is that it
is an exciting tool to present information. The times I have
used Prezi in this fashion, I notice students paying more
attention.
Quizlet The product helps me as a teacher have different ways to
teach my students vocabulary words. It is transforming my
classroom by making my students want to study and learn
new words. It has improved all of our tes t and quiz scores.
Read Write
Think I use the graphic writing organizers as part of the planning
stage during writing. This shows them how to organize their
ideas for a report or how to build up arguments in a
persuasive essay.
Scratch Scratch really helps students understand programming basics
with the colorful, linking blocks of code. Truly, Scratch is a
highly engaging way to teach programming basics to K -12
students.
Socrative Overall, this has impacted instruction in our school by giving
teachers a manageable and quick way to change their
instruction based on formative feedback.
SpellingCity I love how students are so engaged with the activities, and
they can have choices while still practicing their words. It is
wonderful for differentiation – students can have access to
whichever lists you allow.
Stack the
States I like this as an enrichment/review activity because it
requires little prep. Best of all, it reduces the amount of time
I need to spend in front of the room doing "drill and kill"
reviews.
Starfall.com Overall, this has impacted instruction in our school by giving
teachers a manageable and quick way to change their
instruction based on formative feedback.

62
Subtext As a teaching tool, it's a great way to build in well crafted
questions that help students to think critically about specific
sections of a text, or to provide areas for students to stop and
reflect.
Twitter Twitter provides a platform on which teachers can learn from
a professional learning network. By bouncing ideas off of
others and seeing what others are doing within their
classroom, it leads to be a better teacher for the students.
VoiceThread I absolutely loved using VoiceThread for my Physical
Education classes. It allows students to express themselves
without the restrictions of a classic, old -school homework
assignment.
Weebly Students in my multimedia class really were not sure at first
about building webpages. Weebly makes them all "web
builders" in a few minutes. They were all surprised about
what they could build!
Wordle This is great for science texts and non -fiction texts as well – to
pull out vocabulary and identify the main idea. I use Wordle
in the classroom setting to help students get the main idea of
a text after reading it if they have difficulty.

3.2. ICT through the eyes of secondary students in my school

SURVEY ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEENAGE STUDENTS AND
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY

1. Do you enjoy watching TV?
 Yes
 No
2. Do you enjoy using the computer?
 Yes

63
 No
3. How much do the hours you spend in front of the computer influence your behavior?
 Very much
 Much
 Normally
 Little
 Very little
4. How many hours do you normally spend in front of your computer per day?
 None
 Less than an h our
 1-3 hours
 3-5 hours
 Over 5 hours
5. Why do you use the computer?
 It relaxes me
 It prevents me from getting bored
 I‘m interested in certain websites
 It offers me information
 I have fun
 Others
6. Why don’t you use the computer?
 I have a lot of homework
 My parents won‘t allow me
 I‘m meeting my friends
 I spend time with my family
 I have other activities (sports, music, dancing etc.)
7. Specialists have found that spending a lot of time in front of a computer or a TV leads to
the following consequences. Whi ch ones apply to you?
 Fatigue
 Insomnia

64
 Isolation
 Boredom
 Addiction
 Violence
 Not being able to focus
8. Try to rank the top 5 positive effects of using ICT upon you.
 Communication
 Information
 Relaxation
 Education
9. What other activities would you perform outdoors if you didn’t have the possibility of
using your computer?
 Reading
 Walking or riding my bike in the park
 Painting/ drawing
 Listening to music
 Going out with my friends
 Resting
 Doing extra school work
 Others
10. How do you normally use your compute r?
 I chat with my friends online
 Search for information
 Play video games
 Download films or music
 Explore web pages
 Doing school work
 Others
11. How much does the computer/TV help you with your school work?
 Very much

65
 Much
 Normally
 Little
 Very little
12. What is your family’s reaction to your use of the computer/TV?
 They are against using it with exaggeration
 They think it‘s useful
 They make me follow a certain schedule
 They use it just as much as I do
 They are indifferent

CONCLUSIONS OF THE SURVEY

The s urvey was applied to a class of 25 students, aged between 12 and 13. All of the
students answered all the questions included in the survey.
Certain significant conclusions can be drawn from the interpretation of the results of the
survey.
First of all, 100 % of the students enjoy watching TV and using their computer. The
answer YES can be found on all questionnaires.
What draws particular attention is the number of hours that the students spend using their
computers and watching TV. 50% of the respondents a nswered that they spend more than 5
hours per day, while 25% stated that they used their computers between 3 and 5 hours per day.
The other 25% of the respondents chose other options which represent shorter time intervals; 2
thirds of these respondents wer e girls.

66

78% of the questionnaires revealed that the students‘ reasons for using computers and
watching TV are to avoid getting bored and having fun. 15% of them said that they use them to
research information, while 7% chose the relaxation option or others.

Moreover, when asked to state the reasons why they do not use their computers, 34% of
the students mentioned their homework, 28% spending time with family or friends and 38%
mentioned practicing other activities or being prevented from using them by their families (being
grounded). 50%
25%25%Number of hours spent on computers
more than 5 hours
between 3 and 5 hours
shorter time intervals
78%15%7%Students’ reasons for using computers and
watching TV
avoid getting bored and
having fun
research information
relaxation option or others

67

In terms of consequences of using ICT, students have mentioned the following: 5%
insomnia, 10% isolation, 29% boredom, 22% addiction, 25% not being able to focus and 10%
vilence. These numbers lead us to understand tha t almost 40% of our young users do not know
how to properly use their computers so as not to get bored or feel isolated. Being introduced to
new web sites and games during the English class will give them new challenging
preoccupations with positive conseq uences upon their behavior and mental activity.

When my students do not use their computers, they have very diverse other activities:
10% of them read, 22% listen to music, 20% ride their bikes or walk, 28% go out with their
friends, 8% paint or draw and only 12% of them rest or do extra school work. This shows us that 34%
28%38%Reasons for not using computers
homework
spending time with family
and friends
other activities
5%
10%
29%
22%25%10%Consequences of using ICT
insomnia
isolation
boredom
addiction
not being able to focus
violence

68
during their spare time, students prefer to get as far away as possible to any school related
activities and enjoy themselves with their hobbies or with the sports they like.
In terms of ac tivities offered by the computer, students ranked the following activities as
the most popular among their age group: chatting with friends 40%, 23% playing video games,
17% exploring web pages and searching for information, 12% downloading films or music and
8% doing school work.

As for the use of computers/TVs in doing homework, 27% of the students consider them
to be very helpful, 37% normal, while 36% consider them of little or very little use. This
convinces us yet again that 12 year -old students do not yet know how to use computers to their
benefit and which web sites to access in order to improve their school work.
Last but not least, the reactions of the students‘ families are quite varied, depending on
the parents‘ background, education and employ ment. Most families are against the exaggerated
use of the computers (61%), followed by those who consider them as useful (20%), 15% of them
impose a certain schedule of using computers, while only 2% use them as much as the teenagers.
2% of the respondent s seem to be indifferent to this matter. 40%
23%17%12%8%Activities offered by the computer
chatting with friends
video games
web pages and information
research
downloading films or music
school work

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In conclusion, this survey highlights the need of using ICT during English classes with
the purpose of expanding the students‘ horizons and general knowledge of the world. Educative
games, web sites and programs w ould give them more challenging activities which will prevent
them from getting bored of feeling isolated.

3.3. Sample lesson plans including ICT activities

3.3.1. LESSON PLAN 1 – WOULD YOU LIKE A SANDWICH?

Teacher name:

Level: Elementary
Class: VI B

Year of study: 4th year of study Unit: Would you like a sandwich?

Lesson Length: 50 minutes
Lesson Type: Vocabulary/Reading
Date: the 10th of March 2014
Lesson Title: Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Information about the class 61%20%15%2% 2%What families/parents think about children
using computers
against the exaggerated use of
the computers
useful
impose a certain schedule of
using computers
use them as much as the
teenagers
indifferent

70
There are 27 secondary learners in the class. They have two fifty -minute lessons every week and
an extra optional class entitled READING AND WRITING TARGETS as part of their school
curriculum. I have been teaching them for nearly two years. They use ―Snapshot – Elementary‖
as their English course book.

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson the Ss will be able:
 To acquire new vocabulary connected to food and drinks
 To revise countable and uncountable nouns
 To distinguish between countable and uncountable nouns
 To distinguish between some and any
 To illustrate the new grammatical structures

Aids: whiteboard; course book; worksheet; notebook ; internet website – Duolingo

Skills: Speaking; Reading; Listening; Writing

Didactic methods: Conversation, Brainstorming, Observation, D eduction, Exercise

Organization: Individual work; Pair work

Assumptions
Learners will know some of the vocabulary and they will be interested in enriching their
vocabulary.

Anticipated difficulties with tasks Solutions
Some learners with a limited range of vocabulary
will have difficulty understanding the Listening
text. They will receive the transcript of the dialogue to
offer them extra help.

PROCEDURE

Stage Teacher’s activity The activity of the Ss Timing
1. Introductory
stage.

2.Warm up

3. Lead in

T calls the register.
T checks the homework

The teachers brings a few
photos with elaborate meals and
desserts. She asks the Ss to
imagine the most delicious meal
ever.

Leads a brainstorming activity
entitled Food and Drinks. She
writes down on the whiteboard Read the homework and make the
necessary corrections.
(Whole -class activity)

The Ss contribute with their ideas and
suggestions.
(Whole -class activity)

The Ss contribute with their ideas and
suggestions and write them down in
their notebooks. 5’

3’

5’

71

4. Pre -reading
activities

5. Reading

6. Post –
listening
activities

7. Introducing
new
vocabulary

8. Practice

all the Ss‘ suggestions.

The T then asks the Ss to work
in pai rs and group all the
products on the whiteboard on a
given worksheet according to
the following categories: Meat,
Vegetables, Dairy Produce,
Carbs.

The T asks the Ss to look on the
bottom of the page; there are 2
examples of countable nouns
and 2 examples of uncountable
nouns. She asks the Ss to
explain the difference between
the 2 categories of nouns.

Asks the Ss to read a text in
which a couple are making their
weekly shopping. While
reading, the Ss are asked to
underline nouns denoting food
and drinks.

The T then asks the Ss to group
the underlined words on 2
categories: countable and
uncountable nouns.

The T asks the Ss to focus on 2
phrases in the text: some water
and any water . The T then
explains the form of the verbs
that preceed these phrases.

The T asks the S to give their
own examples using these
phrases.

Asks the Ss to complete the
Duolingo Lesson entitled Food
and Drinks on their computers.

(Whole -class activity)

The Ss fill in the gaps according to
the T‘s instructions.
(Pair -work)

The Ss listen to the T‘s explanation
and bring their own contributions,
based on their previous acquisitions.
(Whole -class activity)

They read the text and underline the
words.
(Individual work)

The Ss make the 2 lists.
(Individual work)

Listen to the T‘s explanation and take
notes.
(Whole -class activity)

The Ss give their own examples.
(Whole -class activity)

The Ss complete their task together
with their desk mates.
The first group who finishes the task
is applauded by the class.

3’

3’

5’

2’

3’

3’

3’

72

9. Ending the
lesson
The T asks the Ss to make up
oral sentences using the new
structures.

Assigns the homework:
exercises 4, 5, 6 / 18 Snapshot
Language Booster
The Ss contribute with their
sentences.

Write down the homework.
5’

3’

3.3.2. LESSON PLAN 2 – THEY EMIGRATED TO THE U.S.A.

Teacher name:

Level: Intermediate
Class: VIII B

Year of study: 6th year of study
Unit: They Emigrated to the U.S.A.
Lesson Length: 50 minutes
Lesson Type: Vocabulary/Reading
Date: the 10th of March 2014
Lesson Title: The Story of ―The Clearances‖

Information about the class
There are 24 pre -adolescent learners in the class. They have two fifty -minute lessons every week
and an extra optional class entitled READING AND WRITING TARGETS as part of their
school curriculum. I have been teaching them for nearly three years. They use ―Snapshot –
Intermediate‖ as their English course book.

Reading Aims:
To develop reading skills such as prediction, skim ming, scanning;
To introduce new terms related to Scottish history and culture etc.;
To get the Ss express their own opinions about different subjects;
To help the Ss sustain their opinions with for and against arguments;
To make Ss aware of nouns formed through suffixation from verbs or adjectives.

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson the Ss will be able:
 To improve their pronunciation at least of some particular terms: Scottish, Highlanders,
Clearances, landlord etc.;
 To understand the meaning of new terms related to the Scottish history and culture;
 To answer questions about the subject matters discussed;
 To make nouns from verbs and adjectives using the correct ending.

73
Aids: whiteboard; course book; worksheet; notebook , internet – Wikipedia

Skills: Speaking; Reading; Listening; Writing

Didactic methods: Conversation, Observation, Elicitation, Questioning

Organization: Individual work; Pair work

Assumptions
Learners will know some of the vocabulary and they will be interested in enriching their
vocabulary.

Anticipated difficulties with tasks Solutions
Learners will have difficulties in adding the
proper endings to the verbs/adjectives. I will monitor the groups to make sure they all get
proper help.

PROCEDURE

Stage Teacher‘s activity The activity of the Ss Timing
1. Introductory
stage.

2.Warm up

3. Lead in

4. Pre -reading
activities

T calls the register.
T checks the homework

T asks the Ss a few general
questions like: Have you got
a favorite subject at school?
Which one? Do you like
History? What about
Geography?

T asks Ss to look at a map of
the UK. T asks the Ss to
identify the country they see
and discuss the small
countries that compose it.

T asks the students to do a
quick research on Wikipedia
and find new items of
information about Scotland.

T asks the Ss to skim read
the text entitles THE STORY
OF ―THE CLEARANCES‖,
then to solve, in pairs,
exercise 7a/85 in their course Ss read and check their
homework.

Ss answer the questions with their
own words, each one expressing
his preferences.
(Whole -class activity)

Ss have to identify Scotland on
the map and England and Ireland
as neighbor countries.
(Who le-class activity)

Ss search the information quickly
and write down their findings in a
cloud on the whiteboard.
(Whole -class activity)

Ss get together with their
partners, read the text, and then
solve the exercise.
(Pair work)

2’

2’

2’

5’

7’

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5. Reading the
text

6. Post -reading
activities

7. Introducing
the noun
formation

8. Practice

9. Ending the
lesson book.

T asks the Ss to read the text
one by one. While reading,
the Ss are asked to underline
any unknown words they
find.

The T asks the Ss to make
assumptions regarding the
unknown words, then clari fy
their meaning.

T asks the Ss the following
words on the whiteboard:
clearance, achievement and
weak, similar . She asks the
Ss to identify what part of
speech they are and what
their common feature is.

T gives the Ss worksheets:
they must form nouns from
verbs or adjectives by adding
the proper suffixes.

T gives Ss worksheets
containing sentences which
they have complete with a
suitable noun formed
through suffixation.

T gives Ss a similar task for
the homework.

T rewards the most active Ss
grades, then says Good bye !

The Ss pay attention to the
reading of the text and underline
the words they can‘t understand.
(Individual work)

The Ss speculate on the meaning
of the underlined words, then
write them in their notebooks.
(Pair work)

Ss notice that they are all nouns
formed from either a verb or an
adjective, plus a suffix.
(Whole -class activity)

Ss associate the verb/noun with
the appropriate ending.
(Whole -class activity)

Ss work in pairs and fill in with
the suitable noun.
(Pair work)

Ss take notes.
(Whole -class activity)

8’

3’

2’

9’

5’

5’

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CONCLUSIONS

Teaching English is a challenging occupation, especially if we take into consideration all
of the aspects regarding the changes brought about by adolescence. Teenage years, especially its
first few years, are a period of massive changes which confuse secon dary students and which
trigger new and oftentimes unwelcome behaviors in them.
As teachers, our first task when planning our lessons, is to make sure that we know and
understand our learners thoroughly, because, d espite their need to distinguish themselv es from
adults, most adolescents also need and want adults to guide them in the learning process, perhaps
more than ever. Their miscalculations about things such as appropriate behavior or the time and
effort needed to complete work are part of being inexp erienced with a school world that has
many more variables, complexities, responsibilities, and consequences for not meeting those
responsibilities.
In order to address the needs of secondary level students who are learning to read in a
second language, the curriculum must accomplish several goals: First, the curriculum must be
relevant to learners‘ lives. In this way, older second language learners will be motivated to
engage in the process and not see their time inside the classroom as unrelated to their l ives
outside the classroom. Further, strong connections must be made between curriculum and
learners‘ lives to facilitate application of the skills learned in the classroom. An important
learning goal for students is the transfer of skills to new lear ning situations , and the ability for
students to transfer skills and apply knowledge to new situations can be used as an evaluation o f
success .
Finally, as secondary level educators, we must be able to move beyond the traditional
textbook and transmission mod el of teaching a nd involve learners in inquiry -based, constructivist
learning environments where they formulate questions, investigate topics, integrate new
information into existing schema networks and most importantly, we must make the text come
alive fo r learners.

76
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REFERAT
PRIVIND LUCRAREA DE ………… ( LICENȚĂ, DIPLOMĂ, DISERTAȚIE)
A
ABSOLVENTULUI/ ABSOLVENTEI …………………………………………..
DOMENIUL / PROGRAMUL DE STUDIU …………………………………….
PROMOȚIA …………………….

1. Titlul lucrării ………………………………………………………………… …………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………
2. Structura lucrării ……………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………….………………………………………………………
………………….………………………………………………………………………….…………………
……………………………………………………….………………………………………………………
………………….………………………………………………………………………….…………………
………………………………………………………….…………………………………
3. Aprecieri asupra conținutului lucrării de .. (licență, diplomă, disertație) , organizare
logică, mod de abordare, complexitate, actualitate, deficiențe
……………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………
…………………. …………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. …………….
4. Aprecieri asupra lucrării (se va menționa: numărul t itlurilor bibliografice consultate,
frecvența notelor de subsol, calitatea și actualitatea surselor consultate; modul în care
absolventul a prelucrat informațiile din sursele bibliografice, contribuții originale)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. …………..

81
5. Concluzii (valoarea lucrării e laborate de absolvent, relevanța studiului întreprins,
competențele absolventului, consecvența și seriozitatea de care a dat dovadă absolventul
pe parcursul documentării și elaborării lucrării)
…………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………….. ………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ……………
………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………….

6. Redactarea lucrării respect ă/NU respectă normele de redactare ( dacă nu respectă, care
sunt acestea…).
7. Nu există/ Există suspiciuni de realizare prin fraudă a prezentei lucrări (dacă există,
care sunt acestea…).
8. Consider că lucrarea îndeplinește/ NU îndeplinește condițiile pentru susținere în
sesiunea de Examen de …………………………………………. (licență, diplomă, disertație) din
…………………… (dacă nu îndeplinește, se scrie motivația…)

Arad,
Data Îndrumător științific