Ferdinand de Saussure). London: Fontana, 1976, p. [620050]

3
Introduction
The language of any people is a living organism that develops and changes under the
influence of the time and generation s. English is the international lang uage of communication, and
its popularity and relevance of study is growing. Idiomatic expressions are a very important part
of it, because they reflect the history of the country and language, containing cultural phenomena,
human wisdom and experience. It is practically impossible to trace any rules of the formation of
idiomatic expressions. Therefore, the forming process of idiomatic expressions is most of the time
a chain of randomness.
The world of English idiomatic expressions is huge and diverse, and every aspect of th eir
study certainly deserves attention. Therefore, the study of English idioms is a major problem today ,
because it creates difficulties in the process of translation due to cultural differences . In order to
understand the depth of this process, first, it was necessar y to find out what is an ‘idiom ’? While
searching for the answer to this question, we e ncountered different interpretation of this term in
works of linguists and theorists.
The motivation to stu dy closer idiomatic expressions was dictated by the fact that, they
are an essence of any language, included English and Romanian, and we thought that it would be
very interesting to analyse them from semantic and structural point of view , due to the fact , that
their usage became more frequently , and English and Romanian culture vary .
Likewise, this to pic interested us, because we want to show how important is the culture in
the field of linguistics and how many problems it creates in the process of translation due to the
fact, that each country names the same things differently. This and many other imp ortant and
interesting facts about idiomatic expression s that is going to be presented in this study should be
taken into consideration, otherwise, a translator will totally fail in the process of handling it.
Another specific to this topic thing, is the translator’s work itself. In our opinion, idiomatic
expressions are the most difficult to translate, because translator should ideally have a well –
founded knowledge of the target and sours language and its cultural aspects. Besides, s/he require
creativity, skills, willingness, and perseverance to search for the best equivalent.
Due to the fact that idiomatic expressions have a great i mportance in every language and
in English and Romanian as well, the aim of this paper is first , to differentiate idiomatic
expressions from other pa rts of figurative language, like m etaphors and set expressions, because
one of the main problem which idioms create is their identification. When a translator face a pure
opaque idioma tic expression, which violate the grammatical rules of a particular lang uage, the

4
only difficulty is to find the appropriate equiv alent. W hile, when it comes to face ,for instant , a set
expression, which might be both idioma tic one or not, translator has at the same time two very
difficult tasks: first, to identify what kind o f expression is that , and two, how to render it accurate.
Next steps are to classify them and the most important, t o identify the best methods, strategies and
techniques of translation in specialised literature. Likewise, we intend to present a perspective
analysis of English idiomatic expressions and their equivalents in Romanian in the domain of
colours.
Thus, the objectives of this study are:
• to analyse the concept s of different parts of figurative language;
• to define idiomatic expressions;
• to analyse idiomatic expressions’ classification;
• to analyse difficulties of idiomatic expression from the linguistic point of view;
• to identify translation methods and techniques regarding idiomatic expression;
• to determi ne the effect of different ways of translation from English into Romanian;
• to determine the Romanian equivalents of English idiomatic expressions in the domain of
colours , and to analyse them .
As we stated earlier, many linguists and theorists like L. P. S mith, V. V. Vinogradov, A.
Makkai, A. V. Koonin, M. Backer, A. P. Cowie, C. Fernando, and many others, have paid a great
attention to idiomatic expressions concerned with their form, meaning, function, interpretation,
and usage. We intend to detail their major views and approaches regarding the idiomatic
expressions.
In order to achieve the set aim, we are going to determine the following tasks in our
diploma paper:
• to study the types of idiomatic expres sions and their classific ations;
• to research the problems of rendering idiomatic expressions from English into Romanian ;
• to identify the most accurate translation strategies.
The importance of this paper is in the detailed investigation of idiomatic expressions from
the major poin ts of view, and in illustration of it with English idiomatic expressions in the domain
of colours with counterparts in Romanian.

Index Terms – idiomatic expressions, translation, culture, difficulties, English – Romanian.

5
CHAPTER ONE . THEORETICAL OVERVIEW OF IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS
1.1. Definition of Idiomatic Expressions . Cri teria for Idiomatic Expressions
Many idioms have their origins from colloquial speech and slang s, others appeared as a
result of certain historical circumstances of a particular culture or people . L. P. Smith compares
them with “sea -shells; they have their voices, and are full of old echoe s” [18 , p. 2]. Thus, they are
culture specific elements , which are responsible for the few number of idiomatic expressions ,
which have equivalents in another language, because as Culler states: “languages are not
nomenclatures and the concepts of one language may differ radically from those of another, since
each language articulates or organizes the world differently, and lan guages do not simply name
categories; th ey articulate their own” [7 , p. 21]. According to Culler this is the main reason why
idiomatic expressions are so difficult to handle. Sometimes their meaning can be deduced from
the context , but unfortunately, such cases are rarely encountered, and one should search the
meaning and the appropriate equivalent in dicti onaries . But, before we will turn to this quite
difficult, but very interesting aspects, we are going to analyze its definition.
Many linguists and theorists have defined idioma tic expressions. According to Cacciari
this process also create difficulties. She states that defining idioms “is a difficult and controversial
task, along with the description of thei r acquirement and understanding ” [6, p. 7] . Cacciari, also
mentions several factors which are responsible for these difficulties as, for instance, the fact that
idiomatization is a process, meaning that structures acquire their idiomaticity gradually. As well
as, the fact that they are analysable a nd holistic at the same time, meaning that they are built of
more constituent words, but their global meaning cannot be reduced to the meaning of these words.
And, the fact that there are different types of idioms, some of them retaining the original meani ng
of their constituent words, others having a completely dif ferent meaning [33 ].
Cowie suggest s that idiomaticity is largely a question of meaning. Grammar and meaning
complement each other to create idiomaticity. They see the following two features as th e most
important to characterize idioms:
1) compositeness – an idiom is a combination of two or more words which function as a
unit of meaning;
2) semantic unity – idiomaticity is largely a semantic matter, and it is manifested in much
the same way in expr essions of different structural types [23, p.8] .
Here again, it can be seen that the authors support the common view that an idiom’s
overall figurative meaning cannot be predicted from the m eaning o f its constituent parts [32 ].

6
However, Ginzburg defines it as “ non-motivated word -groups that cannot be freely made
up in speech but are reproduced as ready -made units” [10 , p. 74]. Further , he states that “this
definition proceeds from the assumption that the essential features of idiomatic expression s are
stability of the lexical components and lack of motivation. It is consequently assumed that unlike
components of free word -groups which may vary according to the needs of communication,
memb er-words of idiomatic expressions are always reproduced as s ingle unchangeable
collocatio ns” [10 , p. 74 -75].
Another linguist Larson define them as “a string of words whose meaning is different from
the meaning conveyed by the individual words” [12 , p.20]. Longman gives very similar one too :
“an idiomatic expression is a fixed group of words with a special different meaning from the
meaning of the separate words” [13 , p. 17] . The same opinion about idiomatic expressions
definitions have McCarthy & O’del: “ idioms are expressions which have a m eaning that is not
obvious from the individual words” [14 , p.6]. They also believe that “the best way to understand
an idiom is to see it in context” [ 14, p. 6].
All this definitions have several things in common : the meaning of an idiomatic expression
cannot be deducted from the literal meaning of the expression , thus, it cannot be translated literary
because it will alter the meaning. The second thing to be mention ed, is that idiomatic expressions
are ready -made units, and their structure cannot be changed. In this regard, Backer, who considers
that “idioms are frozen patterns of language which allow little or no variation in form and, in the
case of idioms, often carry meaning which cannot be deducted from thei r individual components”
[4, p. 65], states that “a speaker or writer cannot normally do any of the following with an idiom:
1) change th e order of the words in idiomatic expression (e.g. the long and the short of it
(the basic fact of the situation) not the short and the long);
2) delete a word from idiomatic expression (e.g. red in tooth and claw (a violent
revolutionary) not red in tooth );
3) add a word to idiomatic expression (e.g. face the music (to accept criticism or
punishment for something you have done not face the classical music );
4) replace a word from idiomatic expression with another (e.g. the long and the short of it
not the tall and the short of it );
5) change the grammatical structure of idiomatic expression (e.g. to face the music not the
music was faced )” [4, p. 63].

7
To sum it up, besides the fact that idiomatic expressions create difficulties from sematic
point of view, there are also structural and grammatical aspects that shou ld be taken into
consideration.

1.2. Classification Features of Idiomatic Expressions
Translating idioms is a very difficult task for a translator, and it might become more
difficult if s/he has poor knowledge about them. The classification of idiomatic expressions is one
of the major help for a translator, because it helps to identify acco rding to different aspects, is a
particular expression an idiomatic one or not. As a matter of fact, the affluence of idiomatic
expressions brings about numerous ways of sorting them. Grammarians and linguists such as
Smith, Vinogradov, Koonin, Makkai etc. , have made many attempts over the time to categorize
idioms.
Thus, the categorization of idiomatic expressions is a complex linguistic process, because
idiomatic expressions can be classified according to the ways they are formed, according to the
degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to their structure and according to their part –
of-speech meaning and so on. To understand better their classification, therefore, focus will be put
on merely three main ways of idiom categorization as follows: the first ever known idiomatic
principle that belongs to L.P. Smith, thematic classification; second semantic classification; and
third structural classification.
According to Antrushina “t he traditional and oldest principle for classifying idiomatic
expressions is based on their original content and might be alluded to as "thematic" (although the
term is not universally accepted). On this principle, idioms are classified according to their sources
of origin, "source" referring to the particular sphere of human activity, of life of nature, of natural
phenomena, etc. Thus, L. P. Smith gives in his classification groups of idioms used by sailors ,
fishermen , soldiers , hunters and associated with the realia, phenomena and conditions of their
occupations. In the classification offered by Smith, there are groups of idioms associated with
domestic and wild animals and birds, agriculture and cooking. There are also numerous idioms
drawn from sports, arts, etc. ” [2, p. 242 – 243].
As she further states “t his principle of classification is sometimes called "etymological".
The term does not seem appropriate since we usually mean something different when we speak of
the etymology of a word or word -group: whether the word (or word -group) is native or borrowed,
and, if the latter, what is the source of borrowing. It is true that L. P. Smith makes a special study

8
of idioms borrowed from other languages, but that is only a relatively small part of his
classification system. The general principle is not etymologica l” [2, p. 243].
According to L. P. Smith theory , “there is no clarification of the semantic structure. To
him, the persistent word combinations, determined as idioms is of interest mainly because they
are verbal anomalies , which break grammatical or logic al rules. At the same time, Smith tried to
demonstrate wealth and multiplicity of English phraseology, to determine from which sources it
has penet rated into the general language” [2, p. 243] .
Smith points out that “word – groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen are
especially numerous in English vocabulary. Most of them have long since developed metaphorical
meanings which have no longer any association with the sea or sailors. E.g., to be all at sea – to be
unable to understand; to sink or sw im – to fail or succeed; in deep water – in trouble or danger, etc.
Though, direct associations with seafaring in all these idioms have been severed, distant memories
of the sea romance and adventur e still linger in some of them” [2, p. 244 – 245].
In conc lusion , Antrushina states that “t he thematic principle of classifying phraseological
units has real merit but it does not take into consideration the linguistic characteristic features of
the phraseological units ” [2, p.245].
Many linguists made attempts to classify idiomatic expressions from semantic point of
view, further we are going to present classification that we consider the basic.
First classification system of the phraseological units or idiomatic expressions belongs to
academician Viktor Vinogradov, which was based on the semantic principle. Vinogradov's
classification system is founded on the degree of semantic cohesion between the components of a
phraseological unit. Units with a partially transferred meaning show the weake st cohesion between
their compo nents. The more distant the meaning of a phraseological unit from the current meaning
of its constitue nt parts, the greater is its de gree of semantic cohesion. Accordingly, Vinogradov
classifies phraseological units into three classes: phraseological combina -tions, unities and fusions
[2, p. 245].
1) Phraseological fusions are completely non -motivated word -groups, representing the
highest stage of blending together. In phraseological fusions the degree of motivation is very low,
we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components, they are highly
idiomatic and cannot be translated word for word into other languages, e.g. to pull one’s leg (to
deceive ); to show the white feather (to act like a coward ).

9
2) Phraseological unities are clearly motivated. The emotional quality is based on the image
created by the whole, in other words, where the meaning of the whole can be guessed from the
meanings of its components, but it is transferred (meta phoric al or metonymical). e.g. to lose one’s
head (to be at a loss what to do ); a fish out of water (a person situated uncomfortably outside his
usual environment ).
3) Phraseological combinations (collocations) are motivated, their meaning cannot be
understood f rom the meanings of the constituent parts; they are highly idiomatic and cannot be
translated word -for-word into other languages, the metaphor, on which the shift of meaning was
based, has lost it s clarity and is obscure, e.g. at sixes and sevens (in confu sion); bosom friend (close
friends who share confidences ).
Arnold in her book “The English World” states that “it has been pointed out by N.N.
Amosova and A.V. Koonin that this classification, being developed for the Russian phraseology,
does not fit the s pecifically English features. N.N. Amosova's approach is contextological. She
defines phraseological units as units of fixed context, where fixed context is a context characterized
by a specific and unchanging sequence of definite lexical components and a peculiar semantic
relationship between them” [3 , p.170]. In the following concept idioms is one of the sub -divisions
of fixed context units. So viet linguist Amosova claims: “i n idioms the new meaning is created by
the whole, though every element has its original meaning weakened or even completely lost, e.g.
in the nick of tim e (at the exact moment)” [3 , p. 170].
Previously mentioned linguist A. V. Koonin , provided a classification system of
phraseological unit s, which is “the latest out -standing achieve ment in the Russian theory of
phraseology. The classification is based on the combined structural -semantic principle and it also
considers the quotient of stability of phra seological units [2, p. 250].
Phraseological units are subdivided into the following four classes according to their
function in communication determined by their structural -semantic characteristics [2 , p. 250].
1) Nominative phraseological units are represented by word -groups, including the ones
with one meaningful word, and coordinative phrases of the type wear and tear, well and good. The
first class also includes word -groups with a predicative structure, such as substantive, adjectival,
adverbial and preposit ional.
2) Nominative -communicative phraseological units include word -groups of the type to
break the ice – the ice is broken, that is, verbal word -groups , which are transformed into a sentence
when the verb is used in the Passive Voice.

10
3) Phraseological u nits, which are neither nominative nor communicative , include
interjectional word -groups (e.g. a pretty kettle of fish).
4) Communicative phraseological units are represented by proverbs and sayings. (e.g. An
apple a day keeps the doctor away; Marriage in haste) [2, p. 2 51].
Another linguist who elaborate and analyse the classification of idiomatic expressions is
Adam Makkai. His work is considered very valuable and it is the most extended work written on
idiomatic expressions. Unfortunately, we did not fou nd his book “Idiom Structure in English ” in
our country , but we found his classification in dr. Zarei’s book called “Idioms. Etymology,
Contextual Pragmatic Clues, and Lexical Knowledge in Focus”.
Zarei states that “idioms have been classified from different points of view, syntactically
or semantically” [19 , p. 12]. Makkai divides idioms into two categories:
1) Idioms of Encoding (I dentifiable) idioms of encoding are those idiosyncratic lexical
combinations that have transparent meaning involving co llocational preferences and restrictions,
exemplified by “at” in “he drove at 70 m.p.h. ” [19 , p. 12], not drive “with” as in Romanin.
2) Idioms of D ecoding (Non -Identifiable) idioms of decoding refer to those non –
identifiable and misleading lexical express ions whose interpretations could not be comprehended
on the basis of only learned linguistic conventions. In other words, the meaning of decoding idioms
is not predicable. Expressions such as beat about the bush and fly off the handle are examples of
this type of idioms. Idioms of decoding are classified into lexemic and sememic id ioms [19 , p. 12 ].
1) Lexemic idioms . According to Makkai, the lexemic idioms include:
a) Phrasal verbs – the constituent structure of this type of idiom is always verb + adverb: e.g., to
come up with , to take part in .
b) Tournures (turns of phrase) – consist at least of three lexemes, having a compulsory it in a fixed
position between the verb and the adverb : e.g., fly off the handle, kick the bucket .
c) Irreversible binomials – defined as a formula consisting of parts A and B the order of which
cannot be reversed : e.g., paper and salt, coffee and cream .
d) Phrasal compounds : e.g., black ice, black board .
e) Incorporating verbs: e.g., man-handle .
f) Pseudo -idioms – all lexemic id ioms one of whose constituents is a fossilized term that does not
make any sense on its own : e.g., spick and span, kit and kin .

11
Thus, “a s any polylexonic lexeme which is made up of more than one minimal free form
or (morphological) word, each lexon of which can occur in other environments as the realization
of a monolexonic lexeme ” [19 , p. 12] .
2) Sememic idioms , most of the time convey pragmatic meanings related to a particular
culture. They include:
a) Proverbs: e.g., A bird in hand is worth two i n the bush.
b) Familiar quotations: e.g., Not a mouse stirring.
c) 'First base 'idioms: associated with a national game like baseball, e.g., have two strikes against
one, never to get to first base.
d) Idioms of 'institutionalized politeness': such as may I ……..?
e) Idioms of 'institutionalized greeting': e.g., How do you do? , So long.
f) Idioms of 'institutionalized understatement': e.g., I wasn't too crazy about him.
g) Idioms of 'institutionalized hyperbole': e.g., He won't even lift a finger .
Makk ai’s classification approaches the issue of idiomatic expressions from semantic,
structural and pragmatic point of view, and those previously mentioned as well as the following
are of a great help in the translation process.
Another linguists, Fernando in his book “Idioms and Idiomaticity”, states that “according
to the level of compositionality, idioms can be classified into figurative idioms, semi -idioms
groups and pure idioms [9 , p. 35].
1) Pure idioms. This type of idioms cannot be translated or interpr eted compositionally. It
is a type of "conventionalized, non -literal multiword expression" whose meaning cannot be
understood by adding up the meanings of the words that make up the phrase. The combination of
these characteristics places pure idioms at the top of the scale of idiomaticity. A relevant example
of a pure idiom is to kick the bucket as it is an opaque expression. Another signified example: over
the moon or in a nutshell [9, p. 35].
2) Semi -idioms usually comprise of at least one literal and one figurative component, which
gives them an overall partially compositional meaning (semi -transparent metaphors). Then, this
type of idioms is considered partially opaque and translator needs so me specialist knowledge in
order to understand their signification (e.g., to bumper to bumper , to skate on thin ice ) [9, p. 60].

12
3) Literal idioms are semantically less complex than the other two, and therefore easier to
understand. However, these expressi ons do qualify as idioms because they cannot be changed or
allow only restricted variation, for example, the underlying sense of futility in the phrase to carry
coals to Newcastle is comprehensible by placing the action in a literal context. Another releva nt
example for this type of idiomatic expressions: to add fuel to the fire , to break the ice , to fill the
sink [9, p. 86].
To sum it up, the most difficult idiomatic expressions to handle during translation process
are pure idioms, but to recognize, which is also very important are literal idiomatic expressions.
According to professor Smirnitsky , in English it is possible to distinguish two structurally –
semantic type s of phraseological units. First type, l ike derivative words, have one root morpheme
and can be conditionally called one -top units . For the second type, like compound words, there are
at least two root morp hemes, but there may be more (e.g. every other day ), and the number of
components are the same as of the compound words (e .g. one-hundred-horse-power -engine
machine ). This kind of phraseological units can be conditionally called two-top units [17 , p. 212].
He divided one -top unities into three structural types:
1) The most typical one-top phraseological units in English are of the type verb + adverb ,
which is an idiomatic combinat ion of verb with well-known category of adverbs , so-called
postpositional adverbs: e.g. give up ( a renunța, a se da bătut), make out (a elibera, a înțelege cu
greutate), ring up ( a suna, a telefona), pull up ( a se opri) [17, p. 212].
In each of the previously given examples , the meaning of the whole combination cannot
be deduced from it s component parts . Polysemy is very characteristic f or this type of
phraseological units . In some cases, the meaning of one phraseological unit of this type vary so
widely that the lexico -semantic variant s of this unit turn into homonym s [17, p. 213].
2) The second type of one -top phraseological units in English are units of the type to be
tired , to be surprised etc.
Smirnitsky states that “t here are also units in this type which remind free word -groups of
the type to be young , e.g., to be akin to; to be aware of etc. The difference between them is that
the adjective young can be used as an attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while the nominal
component in such units can act only as a predicative. In these units the verb is the grammar centre
and the second c omponent is the semantic centre ” [17, p. 215].

13
3) The pre positional -nominal phraseological units “are units with a semantic center in the
nominal component of the phrase and with the absen ce of a grammatical center , which have either
equivalents of adverbs ( by heart , in time ) or equivalents of connecting words ( in order that, by
means of ). This type of phraseological unit s are likely to become words: tomorrow, instead etc .”
[17, p. 217].
Two-top phraseological units are also divided into three structural types:
1) Attributive -nomin al phraseological units have the construc tion of “adjective + noun”
and are noun equivalents: e.g. black art , first night premiere , common sense etc. [17, p. 217].
Further Smirnitsky states that adjectives in English constitute a comple tely clear and definite word –
groups , characterized b oth by the known syntactic features of their use, and by specific semantics
with their entire derivat ional system. They act in free word combinations with the no uns they
determine (e.g. a black stick, white hat , etc.), as well as in idiomatic combin ations. Idiomatic
combinations form together with the word a two -top phraseological unit [17, p. 217].
2) Another widespread and very common type of two -top phraseological units in modern
English are verball y-nominal of the type to take t he floor , to catch cold , to catch fire , to go to bed ,
to fall in love , etc. [17, p. 220]. In such units, verb is the grammar centre, and nominal component
is the semantic centre. Such units can be idiomatic and are similar with word -groups like: to have
a glance, to have a smoke etc. [17 , p. 221].
3) According to Smirnitsky, this type is a special structural type, and is called
phraseological repeti tions. Some of them are built on the basis of antonymy, for ex ample, now or
never (acum sau niciodat ă), up and down (de sus in jos); others are formed by alliteration, for
example, with might and main (din răsputeri) , betwixt and between (nici una nici alta) etc. Thus,
phraseological repetitions serve as adverbial equivalents [17, p. 223].
Structural -semantic classification provided by professor Smirnitsky shows that idiomatic
expressions vary in their form and they can have even more than two -tops. From semantic point
of view , they vary much more , because they are closely connected to polysemy and homonymy.
According to Amosova, the following classification is of great importan ce for
phraseological field, because it analyses phraseological units acco rding to type of context. She
states that phraseological unit s are units of non -variable or fixed context (a specific and
unchanging sequence of lexical components and specific relations between them ), which cannot
be changed and this is what distinguish them from so -called “free -words combinations”, which

14
represent units of variable context [1 , p. 58]. Thus, she singles out tw o groups of phraseological
units: phrasemes and idioms.
1) Phrasemes are units of non-variable or fixed context with phraseologically related
meaning of one of the components . Phrasemes can have different structure and differ ent
morphological composition according to their context [1, p. 58].
Phrasemes can have the structure of an attributive combination with a preposition or
adjective (e.g. black frost – a frost without snow or rime that is severe enough to blacken
vegetation ); they can also be in form of a noun in the infinitive or genitive case (e.g. pipe dream –
an unattainable or fanciful hope or scheme .); or in form of participles (e.g. sleeping partner – a
partner in a company who does not take an active part in its management, especially one who
provides some of the money ). They can also be attributive combinations with a postp ositive
preposition (e.g. frame of mind – the way someone thinks or feels about something at a particular
time); verbo -nominal combinations ( e.g. knit one’s brows – to frown because one’s is angry or
worried) and so on [1, p. 59-60].
2) Idioms are u nits of the non -variable or fixed context in which the semantic element
normally constitute identity and both are represented by a common lexical composition of the word
combination and which are characterized by an integ ral meaning [1 , p. 72]
The holistic meaning of idioms is formed on the basis of the weakening of the lexical
meanings of its components; The imagery of a variable combination of wor ds arises from the most
intensive realization of the meanings of its members (e.g. in the neck of time – at the exact moment
[1, p. 95].
Further, Amosova states that idioms can be motivated and demotivated. A motivated idiom
is closely related to a free phrase with figurative meaning (to pour oil on troubled waters -to do or
say something in order to make people stop arguing and become calmer ). [1, p. 101].
As we stated earlier, many linguists and professors have made attempt to classify idioma tic
expressions. Thus, Smith elaborate thematic classification, Vinogradov’s classification is based on
the degree of motivation, Koonin’s classification is based o n structural -semantic principle and on
the functions units fulfil led in speech . The most voluminous work on idiom atic expressions ’
classification is con sidered to be of linguist Makkai. Smirnitky provided a structural -semantic
classifi cation based on words, and professor Amosova according to their context.

15
1.3. Difficulties Regarding Idiomati c Expressions Rendering
Previously, we have mentioned that idiomatic expression are considered one of the most
problematic part of speech to handle with. Its definition , characteristics and classification s shed
light on this fact. Notwithstanding, there are still other factors responsible for the difficulties
translators have to face.
Irujo in her book “A Piece of Cake: Learning and Teaching Idioms”, states that “there are
several explanations for the fact that idioms are very difficult to learn in a second language ” [11,
p. 236]. They are the non -literalness, exposure to idioms and their correct use.
1) Non -literalness. We have already mentioned the fact that “i dioms are non -literal, they
do not m ean what they say” [11 , p. 236]. In this regard, Irujo provide an example: “ to spill the
beans has nothing to do with the “beans” or with “spilling” in its literal sense. Most idioms have
literal counterparts, which makes them even h arder to learn” [11 , p. 236].
2) Exposure. According to Irujo “idioms are frequently omitted in the speech addressed to
the second language learners. Native speakers tend to use simple, concrete, everyday vocabulary
when they address to second language learner s; the use of idioms is avoided ” [11, p. 237]. Further ,
she states that idiomatic expressions are use in movies and television , but they do not provide the
kind of interaction. “Thus, the learners’ exposure to idioms appear to occur mainl y in non –
interactive situations, where there is no opportunity for negotiation of meaning, rather in
interactive situations which allow learners to clarify meaning and receive feedback on use” [11 ,
p.237].
3) Correct use. “Even when learners do master the meaning of some English idioms, it is
still very difficult to learn to use them correctly. Idioms vary in formality from slang ( you got it )
and colloquialisms ( he kicked the bucket ) to those which can be u sed in formal situations” [11 , p.
237]. Besides, idioms have constraints and “most of them are invariant and must be learnt as
wholes, but the verb must still be pun in the correct form, and pronouns must agree with their
antecedents [11 , p. 237].
This features are very important and should be taken into account because a translator is
also a learner. Thus, it is mandatory to learn idiomatic expressions and to know the rules of their
using.

16
Previously mentioned linguist Mona Backer paid a special attention to idiomatic
expression . She believes t hat “the first difficulty that a translator comes across is being able to
recognize that s/he is deali ng with an idiomatic expression” [4 , p. 65].
Like other linguists, she considers that those idiomatic expressions which are easily
recognizable include expressions which violate truth conditions ( it’s raining cats and dog, throw
caution to the winds , storm in a cup tea ), and are ill -formed, because they do not follow the
grammatical rules of the language ( trip the light fantastic, blow someone to kingdom come, put
paid to ) [4, p. 65].
“Expressions which start with like (simile -like structures) also tent to suggest that they
should not be interpreted literary. This include idioms such as like a bad out of hell and like water
off a duck ’s back. Generally speaking, the more difficult an expression is to understand and the
less sense it makes in a given context , the more likely a translator will recognize it as an idiom”
[4, p. 65].
Thus, Backer believes that the basic problems regarding idioms’ translation are the ability
to recognize and interpret an idiomatic expression correctly. There are two cases in which an idiom
can be easily misinterpreted if one is not already familiar with it [4, p. 66].
1) Some idioms are ‘misleading’ ; they seem transparent because they offer a reasonable
literal interpretation and their idiomatic meanings are not necessary signaled in the surrounding
text. A large number of idioms in English have both a l iteral and an idiomatic meaning (go out
with – to have a r elationship with someone ). Thus, a translator who is not familiar with the idiom
in question may easily accept literal interpretation and miss the play of idiom [4, p. 66].
2) An idiom in the source language may have a very close counterpart in the target language
which looks similar on the surface but has a totally or partially different meaning. Superficially
identical or similar idioms which have different meaning in the sour ce and target languages lay
easy traps for the unwary translator who is not familiar with the source -language idiom and who
may tempted simply to impose a target -langu age interpretation on it [4 , p. 66 -67].
Beside the fact that idiomatic expressions are ve ry difficult to identify and recognize,
Backer approach es other difficulties, this time concerning with their translation difficulties. “The
difficulties involved in translating an idiom are totally different from those involved in interpreting
it. Here, the question is not whether a given idiom is transparent, opaque, or misleading. An opaque
expression may be easier to t ranslate than a transparent one” [4 , p. 68]. The main difficulties
involved in translating idioms may be summarized as follows:

17
1) An id iom may have no equivalent in the target language . It is unrealistic to expect to
find equivalent idioms in the target language as a matter of course. The way a language chooses
to express, or not express, various meanings cannot be predicted and only occa sionally matches
the way another language chooses to express the same meanings. One language may express a
given meaning by means of a single word, another may express it by means of a transparent fixed
expression, a third may express it by means of an idi om, and so on. It is therefore unrealistic to
expect to find equivalent idioms and expressions in the targe t langu ages as matter of course [4 , p.
68].
2) An idiom may have a similar counterpart in the target language , but its context of use
may be different; the two expressions may have different connotations, or they may no t be
pragmatically transferable [4 , p. 69].
3) An idiom may be used in the source text in both its literal and idiomatic senses at the
same time. Unless the target language idiom corresponds to the source language idiom both, in
form and meaning, the play on idiom cannot be successfull y repro duced in the target text [4 , p.
69].
4) The very convention of using idioms in written discourse, the contexts in which they
can be used, and their frequency of use may be different in the sou rce and target languages [4 , p.
70].
Linguist Newmark consider s that the most difficult in the process of translation of any text
type as well as of idiomatic expressions is naturalness. According to Newmark “the level of
naturalness achieved in a translation may depend on whether it mak es sense, reds naturally, and is
written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words t hat meet that kind of
situation” [15 , p. 24].
Natural usage compris es a variety of idioms or styles or registers determined primarily by
the ‘setting’ of the text, i.e. where it is typically published or found, secondarily by the author,
topic and readership, all of whom are usually dependent on the setting. [15, p. 26]. When
translating idioms, naturalness might also be compromised by the use of books of idioms,
dictionaries, w hich often fail to distinguish between what is current (e.g., keep my head above
water) and what is dead (e.g., dead as a door nail)”, and by the d ifficulty of matching the
equivalence of meaning with the e quivalence of frequency [15 , p. 28].
All this factors proof that idiomatic expressions are one of the most difficult p art of speech
to handle with. Thus, a translator should be very attentive in recognizing the idiomatic expression,

18
understanding its meaning and finding the appropriate method of translation in order to sound
natural.

1.4. Translation Methods and Techniques Regarding Idiomatic E xpressions
Different linguists approaches different method and technique s in order to render idiomatic
expressions in target language . As we stated earlier, some idiomatic expressions have equivalent s
in another language and could be found in specialized dictionaries, other s may create real headache
to a tr anslator. A translator should take into account many factors in order achieve the set aim,
because a n idiomatic expression may depe nd on context, thus s/he should choose the appropriate
register, they may have both a literal and an idiomatic meaning, and s/he should never forget about
their semantic and structural unpredictability .
Beside all this factors, according to Newmark “translator has to make sure that (1) his/her
translation makes sense and (2) it reads naturally, written in ordinary language, using the common
grammar, idioms and voca bulary that meet the situation [16 , p. 42].
He also consider that “the natural use of language comprises different idioms, styles or
registers, which are determined by (1) the setting of the text and (2) the author, topic and
readership. He states that “idiomatic translation reproduces the message of the original but tends
to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in
the original” [16 , p. 47].
The same opinion abou t idiomatic expressions’ translation has Backer: “it is not only a
question of whether an idiom with a similar meaning is available in the target language. Other
factors include, for example, the significance of the specific lexical items w hich constitute the
idiom, that is whether they are manipulated elsewhere in the source text, whether verbally or
visually, as well as the appropriateness or inappropriateness of using idiomatic language in a given
register in the target language. The acceptability or non-acceptability of using any of the strategies
described below will therefore depend on the context in whi ch a given idiom is translated” [4 , p.
71-72]. Thus, Backer presents five strategies for translating idiomatic expressions:
1) Using an idiom of sim ilar meaning a nd form (total equivalence) . This strategy involves
using an idiom in the target language which conveys roughly the same meaning as that of the
source language idiom and, in addition consist of equivalent lexical items. This kind of match can
only occasional ly be achieved [4 , p. 72].

19
Here are some examples of English idiomatic expressions with similar meaning and form
in Romanian: to shed crocodile tears (to pretend one is crying) – a plînge cu lacrimi de crocodile;
the lesser of two evils (the less unpleasant of two choices) – cel mai mic din cele două rele; step
by step (one at a time in a particular order) – pas cu pas.
2) Using an idiom of similar meaning but dissimilar form. It is often possible to find and
idiom or fixed expression in the target language which has a meaning similar to that of the source
idiom or expression, but which consist of different lexical items [4 , p. 74].
There are many examples of English idiomatic expressions translated with this in
Romanian : once in a blue moon (extremely rarely) – odată în Paște; to fly off the handle (to lose
one's temper) – a-i sări muștarul; to rain cats and dogs (heavy raining) – a ploua cu găleata.
3) Translation by paraphrase. This is by far the most common way of translating idioms
when a match cannot be found in the target language or when it seems inappropriate to use
idiomatic language in the target text because of differences in stylistic prefere nces of source and
target languages. You may or may not find the paraphrase accurate [4 , p. 74 -75].
The following are some examples of paraphrasing: blue -eyed boy (the teacher’s favorite
pupil) – elevul preferat; a hard/ tough nut to crack (a person who i s very difficult to understand) –
este o persoană dificilă; a white lie (a harmless or well – intentioned lie) – minciună nevinovată.
4) Translation by omission. As with single words, an idiom may be sometimes omitted
altogether in the target text. This may be because it has no close match in the target language, it’s
meaning cannot be easily paraphrased , or for stylistic reasons [4 , p. 77].
Nevertheless, Bassnett states that : “in the same way that the surgeon, operating on the heart,
cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the
cultur e at his peril” [5 , p. 23]. Thus, the translator is bound to find the appropriate equivalent of
the expression, otherwise it’s cultural colourfulness will be lost.
5) Translation by compensation. One strategy which cannot be adequately illustrated,
simply because it would take up a considerable amount of space, is the strategy of compensation.
Briefly, this means that one may either omit or play down a feature such as idiomaticity at the
point where it occurs in the source text and introduce it elsewhere in the target text. This strategy
is not restricted to idiomaticity or fixed expressions and may be used to make up for any loss or
meaning, emotional force, or stylist ic effect which may not be possible to reproduce directly at a
given point in the target text [4 , p. 78].
Using the typical phraseology of the target language – its natural collocations, its own fixed
and semi -fixed expressions, the right level of idiomatic ity, and so on – will greatly enhance the

20
readability of your translations. Getting this level right means that your target text will feel less
'foreign' and, other factors being equal, may even pass for an original. But naturalness and
readability are also affected by other linguistic features. This strategy can be exemplified only
contextually [ 4, p. 78].
In addition to all previously presented strategies of idiomatic expressions’ translation,
linguis t Duff draw up several rules to take into account in thi s process:
1) Do not translate an idiomatic expression literally, if it makes no sense in your own
language.
2) Ask yourself if the idiomatic expression is ‘dead’ or ‘alive’ – a cliché, or a vivid image.
3) If the image is powerful, or strikingly concise, such as the celebrated glasnost, retain the
original word with an approximation in brackets.
4) Keep in mind that wordplay in one language cannot often be properly conveyed in
another. Aim to be natural rat her than clever. Translate the mea ning rather than the words [8 p.
139].
We already proof the fact that idiomatic expressions are very difficult to translate and t hat
they create problems, but to each case, there is always a solution. A professional transl ator will
never omit an idiomatic expression from the context/text, s/he always should find the best and the
more appropriate equivalent.

Conclusion

Translation process is very difficult itself, and it becomes more difficult when a translator
deals with idiomatic expression. First of all, s/he is a learner, and s/he should know all peculiarities
briefly presented in our paper. M any linguists and theorists like V.V. Vinogradov, M. Baker, C.
Fernando, A.V. Koonin, A. I. Smirnitski, and many others accorded a special attention to idiomatic
expression and especially to their definition and clas sification, in order to solve a problem one
should first learn its peculiarities.
Thus, first who introduced phraseological units or idiomatic expression was professor V.
V. Vinogradov. However, first classification of idioms belongs to L. P. Smith, which is called
thematic classification and is based on the sailor and fisherman. Further in our study we presented
valuable classification of L. P. Smith, V. V. Vinogradov, A. Makkai, C. Fernando, Smirnitski, A.
V. Koonin and N. N. Amosova according to different aspects.

21
We choose strategies of idiomatic expressions’ translation proposed by M. Backer, which
are of similar meaning and form, similar meaning but dissimilar form , paraphrase, omitting and
compensation. Notwithstanding, we agree with other linguists upon the fact that a good translation
should never omit an expression from text, and s/he bound to find the best method of translation.
Thus, for a successful translat ion of an idiom, translator should first identify it from those
expressions which are not idioms. Then to investigate the classification to which that particular
idiom belongs and finally, to select the suitable strategy for his /her trans lation, taking int o account
the fact that it should sound natural.

22
II. CHAPTER TWO. PECULIARITIES OF RENDERING IDIOMATIC
EXPRESSIONS FROM ENGLISH INTO ROMANIAN IN THE DOMAIN OF COLOURS
2.1. The Importance of Colours from Cultural Perspective
“Colours speak all languages”
Joseth Addison (1672 -1719)
Humans appeared, were developed and evolved in a chromatic environment; in a coloured
physical world. Over the time, the colours have been studied as a basis for philosophical
meditation, for inspiri ng artistic creations or have played an important role in the spiritual and
religious life. From century t o century, various people have experienced, learned and innovated
designing new shades about colours and their meanings or about the role and influenc e of certain
colours in everyday life. These facts made the colour step by step a fundamental feature of the
universe in which we live. The seven colo urs of the rainbow correspond to the seven musical notes,
the seven heavens, the seven planets, the seven days of the week, etc.
The colours have become symbols of culture and traditions. Thus, the intention of
reproducing some component parts of a particular culture of a country, using a specific colour is
essential. The significance of colours throughout history are very different from one culture to
another, and the rules of the past explain largely, why certain colours are preferred today for some
occasions and considered unsuitable for others.
Nevertheless, all cu ltures see and describe the world differently, due to this fact a single
colour may have different meaning in different cultures. Another unpleasant moment regarding
this topic is that not all concepts can be expressed in some languages, i.e. a certain cou ntry may
not have at all a certain colour, because the language barrier can affect one’s perception of colour.
However, any colour across the globe can be read as a word, or interpreted as a signal, a
sign, or a symbol. The "reading" of colour can be subj ective, individual, collective, common to
large social groups or cultural and historical regions.
According to Cirlot, there is a superficial classification of colours suggested by optics and
experimental psychology. The first group embraces warm ‘advancing’ colours, corresponding to
processes of assimilation, activity and intensity (red, orange, yellow and, by extension, white), and
the second covers cold, ‘retreating’ colours, corresponding to processes of dissimilation, passivity
and debil itatio n (blue, purple and, by extension, black), green being an intermediate, transitional
colour spanning the two groups [22, p. 52].

23
Further, we are going to describe each colour more detailed based on two dictionaries of
colours and symbolism . First dictionar y belongs to I. Patter son and is called “Dictionary of
Colours”. The second , is related to symbolism of Romanian’s beliefs and traditions .
1) Red. The colour of blood. ‘Red’ derives from the Ind o-European root r(e)udh , meaning
ruddy and perhaps from the more immediate Sanskrit word rudhira meaning ‘blood’ [27, p. 325].
According to Patterson’s dictionary, red is “t he colour of revolution and communism; of
tomatoes, strawberries, fire appliances, stop lights and London buses. Red is one of the three
additive primary colours. An indicator of danger and a symbol of courage as well as revenge;
associated in medieval times with the Zodiac signs Aries and Scorpio and with the planet Mars –
the red planet” [27, p. 325].
In English folkl ore, red represents good luck, health and happiness although it is also
associated with the devil an d blood and as an evil omen. According to Antonescu, it has similar
meaning in Moldavan culture: “ it is the magical colo ur of folklore, a symbol of blood, life,
purifying fire, of the sun, love, joy and life [20, p. 575]. Another impressive feature of this colo ur
from religious point of view is that it is said that Easter Eggs are painted in red because they
symbolize the God’s blood.
According to W . B. Yeats (1865 -1939) red is the colour ‘of magic in almost every
country’. Whereas to write to someone in red ink is regarded by some as insulting (writing in
blood), in India, red is the colour of many official documents and also of pe rsonal greeting cards
[27, p. 325 -326].
2) Orange combines the energy of red and the happiness of yellow. It is associated with
joy, sunshine, and the tropics. Orange represents enthusiasm, fascination, happiness, creativity,
determination, attraction, success, encouragement, a nd stimulation [30 ].
In England it is t he colour of William (III) of Orange and of t he Ulster Orangemen; the
colour of goldfish and of Penguin Books from 1935 [27 , p. 280]. Republic of Moldova, as well as,
its neighbo urs, consider orange as the colo ur of fall and harvest, while in American culture, orange
is the colour of advertisements and fast food restaurants.
Certain countries also associate orange with wealth. In the Netherlands, for example, it’s
the national colo ur and represents the Dutch Royal fa mily. But, in many Middle Eastern countries,
such as Egypt, orange is associated with mourning. In Japanese and Chinese cultures, orange
signifies courage, happiness, love, and good health. And in Indian cultures, it’s symbolic of fire.

24
The orange -coloured spice, saffron, is considered to be lucky and sacred. Buddhis t monks’ robes
are often orange [34 ].
3) Yellow is the colo ur of sunshine . It's associated with joy, happiness, intellect, and
energy. Yellow produces a warming effect, arouses cheerfulness, stimulates mental activity, and
generates muscle energy. Yellow is often associated with food. Bright, pure yellow is an
attention getter, which is the reason taxicabs are painted this colo ur [30 ]. Yellow is seen before
other colo urs when placed against black; this combination is often used to issue a warning.
In the United Kingdom, it is the colour of the daffodil, egg yolk and the rind of ripene d
lemons . When Her Majesty the Queen visited Brunei in July 1998 she apparently avoided wearing
yellow – a colour reserved for the Sultan. In electrical wiring, the colour designates the earth. The
favourite colour of the artist J . M. W. Turner (1775 -1851) and his hallmark [27 , p. 424].
In China, yellow was the colour used b y the emperor but in the West it has perjorative
connotations. It is a slang term for cowardly, hence ‘yellow -bellied’ and ‘having a yellow streak’;
also slang for jealous. The colour represents jealousy, cowardice and adultery in symbolism. T he
colour of the medieval fool [27 , p. 425].
4) White is the colour of snow. A colour associated with p eace and purity and formerly
with wealth – it was only the rich who could afford to wear cloth es made from white cloth since
they needed such frequent washing.
In English folklore the colour white is associated with innocence although it also
symbolises death and bad luck. According to superstition it is unlucky to give white flowers
(particularly with red flowers) to someone who is ill . The colour of the outer ring in archery. In
printing, any space on paper which has no print. The albumen of the egg. Having no hue; light in
colour; as regards t ea or coff ee, having milk added [27 , p. 411].
In Moldovan culture, w hite is the privileged colo ur of the rites of passage, which marks the
mutations of the being, according to the classical scheme of an y initiation: death and rebirth. The
white of the sunrise and the matte white of death, which absorbs t he being and brings it into the
cold, lonely world, leads it to absence, to the night vision, to the disappearance of consciousness
and diurnal colo urs [20 , p. 4]. It is associated with angels, good health, new beginning, and at the
same time with coolness and cleanliness because it is the colo ur of snow.
In Western cultures, white symbolizes purity, elegance, peace, and cleanliness; brides
traditionally wear white dresses at their weddings. But in China, Korea, and some other Asian
countries, white represe nts death, mourning, and bad luck, and is traditionally worn at funerals.

25
5) Blue . The colour of the sky or of the sea. One of the three primary colours (but not until
the 16th century). In some languages there is no name for the colour and it was not regarded by
the ancients as a primary colour. It has been confused linguistically with the colour yellow – flavus
being both the root of ‘blue’ and Latin for yellow. In the Russian language there is no one word
for blue, but two words one meaning dark blue and the other light blue , which ar e regarded as
different colours [27 , p. 57].
It symbolizes trust, loyalty, wisdom, confidence, intelligence, faith, truth, and heaven.
However, it can also represent depression, loneliness, and sadness (hence having “the blues”). A
symbol of piety; associated in medieval times with the Zodiac signs Pisces and Sagittarius and
with the planet Jupiter and with darkness [27 , p. 57].
In English folklore blue represents loyalty, is the colour for baby boys and is supposed to
bring good luck to brides who heed the superstition to wear on their wedding day ‘something old,
something new, something borrowed, something blue’. Blue is the colour of the ring second from
the centre in archery. Conservative – in relat ion to the Tory Party in the UK [27 , p. 57].
Blue eye -shaped amulets, believed to protect against the evil e ye, are common sights in
Turkey. In Hinduism blue is strongly associated with Krishna, w ho embodies love and divine joy
[35].
6) Purple . A mixture of red and blue; a symbol of rank and the colour of the robes of
emperors kings and nobility , because it was extracted from sea snails. Associated in medieval
times with the Zodiac signs Virgo and Gemini and with the planet Mercury [27, p. 316].
Just as black is the tradi tional colo ur for death and grieving in many cultures, purple shares
the same meaning in some European nations, including the United Kingdom and Italy, as well as
Brazil, Thailand, India, and amon g many Catholics [34 ]. In Moldovan culture, purple symbolizes
self-control, pati ence, trust in truth, but as the same time many coffins are decorated with purple.
However, in the United States, purple – the symbol for hono ur and courage – is represented
by the Purple Heart, the military’s highest awa rd gi ven to soldiers, sailors, m arines, and a irmen
for their acts of bravery [34 ].
7) Green . The colour of growing grass. From the Old Engli sh ‘gréne’ and the Old Teutonic
root ‘grô’ from which we derive ‘grass’ and ‘to grow’. A symbol of hope; associated in medieval
times with the Zodiac signs Libra and Taurus and with the planet Venus. The holy colour of Islam
and used on the flags of many Muslim countries. Associated once with fertility and springtime and
now with environmentalism [27 , p. 186].

26
In English f olklore green is widely supposed to be unlucky especially as regards items of
clothing – ‘wear green and you will soon wear black’ [27 , p. 186]. Republic of Moldova, as well
as most Eastern cultures relate green with spring, new and eternal life, new begin nings, fertility,
youth, health, and prosperity. As red, green is found in its national clothes and decorating elements
for house. However in Moldovan culture, green also have negative connotation as it is the colour
of bile disease. Also, people avoid gre en eyed gypsies, because it is said that the might hypnotise.
8) Black having the colour of coal; the blackest looking ob ject will be one which reflects
the least light; the absence of any light; dark; enveloped in darkness; lacking in hue; the opposite
of white. The colour of mourning. White, however, is the colour of mourning in China, India and
parts of the Far East. A symbol of penitence; associated in medieval times with the Zodiac signs
Capricorn and Aquarius and with the planet Sa turn. The colour of the ring second from the outer
ring in archery [ 27, p. 43].
Technically, black is not a colour, but the absence of all colour. Although black
traditionally represents death, evil and gloom it also represents good luck in English folklor e –
chimney -sweeps, black cats and coal are all supposed to bring good fortune [27 , p.43].
Colo ur symbolism remains one of the powers of the chromatic universe. According to our
research t he symbolic significance of the colo urs contain s universal -human elements, and at the
same time distinctive features, cultural -religious connotations. The power of colo ur symbolization
encompasses a very wide area, as colo urs can be associated, in different parts of the world, with
primordial elements, with the space -time dimension.
The background knowledge of such cultural differences of the meaning of a particular
colour is very important in the process of translation, because the lack of this knowledge can lead
to stranding of the final translation r esult and the risk of offending the entire target audience.
By knowing the symbolism of different colours around the world, translator will be able to
render the information to the audience in a way that is both culturally appropriate and effective.

2.2. Semantic Peculiarities of Idiomatic Expressions with Names of Colours
A. V. Koonin states that “phraseology is a treasure of language, s ince it reflects the history
of the people, the uniqueness of its culture, way of life and worldview .” We have already s hown
how many important linguistic figures have paid atte ntion to idiomatic expressions. A. V. Koonin
as many other linguists, besides cultural specifications, also thought about idiomatic expressions’

27
peculiarities from linguistic point of view . Thus, he draw n up his valuable classification of idioms
or phraseological units based on its communicative function, already presented in our paper.
Further we are going to analyse idiomatic expressions with names of colours according to
Koonin’s semantic classific ation . In order to perform the set aim, we made a list of colour
idiomatic expressions founded in dictionaries of idioms, and classified them according to Koonin’s
theory, which include s: nominative phraseological units , subdivided into substantive, adjectival,
adverbial and prepositional; nominative -communicative units which contain a verb; interjectional
phraseological units which express emotions and communicative phraseological units which are
sayings or proverbs.
Most of the idiomatic expressions with names of colours from our list are nominative
substantiv e and are made of a colour + a noun. Such idiomatic expressions are very frequent met:
white night (a sleepless night), blue blood (of the nobility), black day (a difficult and hard day), a
horse of another colour (an entirely different matter), blue-stoking (a woman who is more
interested in learning and in an academic career than in marriage and bringing up children), purple
passage (passage in a book written in a florid, ornate style, contrasting with the rest) , golden mean
(moderation in all means) , silver living (some basis for hope in the midst of despair) etc.
However we have also found a considerable number of nominative adjectival idiomatic
expressions, most of them having the structure of “as…as…” : as red as a lobster (bright red due
to sunburnt), as red as fire (bright red), as red as cheery (bright red), as black as pitch (very black),
as green as grass (lacking experience of life), as white as a sheet (in a state of a great fear) etc.
63%35%1% 1%2.1. Semantic Peculiarities of Idiomati Expressions
Nominative Nominative-communicative Interjectional Communicative

28
Nevertheless, there are also nominative adjectival idiomatic expressions such as: red in
tooth and claw (a violent revolutionary), a true blue (a person who holds strong contrastive
convictions), green with envy (very envious, jealous ), off colour (unwell), blue collar (working in
a mutual job), black -and-white (simple and direct), silver -tongued (persuasive and charming) etc.
The littles number of nominative idiomatic expressions belong to prepositional nominative
units: with flying colours (with honour and great success), between the devil and the blue sea (in
a very difficult position, dilemma), in a blue funk (in a state of great fear), in one’s black list (in
one’s list of datable pretty girls); and one adverbial: once in a blue moon.
After nominative idiomatic expressions, the biggest number belongs to nominative
communicative units. This type of idioms contain a verb: to hang out/ show white flag (to indicate
a peaceful mission) , to see everything in black and white (to characterize everything as either very
good or as very bad), to be green about the grills (to look pale, sick), to give the green light (to
give the permission to go ahead), to be on black list (to be on a list of persons under suspicion), to
sail under the colour (pretend to be what one is not), to be in the red (to have an overdraft, to be
in debt) etc.
Unfortunately, the number of interjectional and communicative idiomatic expressions with
names of colours is very small. We have found one of each; interjectional – Beat the blues ! (cheer
up); communicative – The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence (a place or
situation that is far away or different seems better that one’s present situation).
It is obvious that the number of nominative idiomatic expressions is the biggest from our
list, because colours are used to describe mood s, situations, culture, and even political and religious
believes , thus they become adjectives. The same as nominative adjectives, substantive idioms are
in the top due to the fact that most of the time they are followed by an adjective and vice versa.

2.3. Ways and Means of Rendering Idiomatic Expressions with Names of
Colour
Common views on colours and on their significance are traceable not only at the cultural
level , but also at the linguistic level, and idioms are perfect illustrat ions of the way in which colour
terms are integrated and used in different language systems.
There are numerous expressions in all languages, in which colour plays an important role.
In the most cases, there is no equivalent in other languages and when translating them literally the

29
meaning is lost. The English to feel blue has no total equivale nt in other languages, and it can be
translated only by paraphrase, which alter the expressiveness of the expression.
Both English and Romanian abound in colour idiomatic expressions. The same idiomatic
expression may be expressed by different words in ano ther language, but they may be only cultural
equivalents but not lexical. As a powerful tool of communication, colours convey either positive
or negative connotations/ associations, which people usually perceive in various ways. For
example, although white stands for light, goodness, innocence, purity, and is considered to be the
colour of perfection, it also may be interpreted in negative terms as white slaver (traficant de carne
vie) or to bleed someone white (a stoarce pe cineva de bani).
That is we can say that the idiomatic expressions are translated either by the already existed
equivalents or by means of some othe r methods, giving non -phraseological translation because
of lacking of the analogous equivalents in the TL.
In order to perform the set aim, we have prepared a list of them using idiomatic expressions
dictionaries from English into Romanian. This list includes idioms related to following colours:
blue, red, green, golden, silver, black, white and idiomatic expressions with word “colour”.
Following the colour spectrum, we have noticed some interesting issues related to their
distribution, wealth of semantic nuances, translation and cultural differences.
According to this , we found out that, in both English and Romanian, most colour idioms
covey metaphorical meanings and are closely related to our general knowledge of the surrounding
world. Because of the reason that each country organises the world differently, we observed that
many English colour idioms do not have equivalent in Romanian, and the final translation usually
is an explanation or paraphrase.
19%
44%37%2.2. Used Strategies for Rendering Idiomatic Expressions
Similar meaning and form Similar meaning, dissimilar form Paraphrase

30
Thus, our research was done on the basis of English colour idiomatic expressions and three
types their Romanian equivalents of similar meaning and form, similar meaning, but dissimilar
form and paraphrase or non -phraseological.
First to be mentioned, is t hat the number of idioms that fully coincide in both languages,
have one and the same meaning, one and the same stylis tic shades and inner form , is limited. It is
only around 19 percent from our colour idioms list and is on the third place.
First place be longs to group of English colour idiomatic expressions and equivalences in
Romanian of similar meanin g but dissimilar form, around 44 percent. It means that they have
similar meaning but are different in the inner character of imaginary form. Such equivale nts are
called relative phraseological units. They can differ from the original phras e by some components,
usually synonymous, then by little deviation in syntactic or morphological structure, collocability
etc. But, their relativeness is covered by the co ntext.
The second one appertains to Romanian equivalences translated by paraphrase , almost 37
percent . This type includes idioms having no equivalents in the language of translation. To transfer
their meanings into any other language one should use non-phraseological ways of translation.
Non-phraseological transla tion transfers the meaning of the idiom by lexical and not by the
phraseological means. Such translation can not be considered of full value. There are often some
losses: imaginary, expressiveness, connotation, figurativeness, shade s of meanings etc. That is
why the translator very seldom use this method of translating.
When it is impossible to transfer the semantic -stylistic and expressive -emotional colouring
of the phrase one should use another method which is connected the us age of loan words, if
possible. This method is preferable when it is possible to convey the meaning of the original phrase
by its word -for-word translation in order for the reader to understand the phraseological meaning
of the whole expression and not only its constituent parts.
Further, we are going to present a detailed analysis of the strategies used in rendering
idiomatic expressions with names of colo urs. Due to the fact that each colour conveys different
meaning, we decided to analyse each of them separately. Thus, first colour from our list is black .
Black Idiomatic Expressions
According to our list, most of the black idiomatic expressions are adjec tives and usually
are formed with structure “as… as…”:
e.g., the idiomatic expression as black as coal, which means very black, has total
equivalent in Romanian and was translated by strategy of similar meaning and similar form: nergru
ca tuciul. However, we have found only two idiomatic expressions which was translated into

31
Romani an according to this strategy, the second being as black as a pitch, which also means very
black and the equivalent sounds like negru ca smoala .
Most of black idiomatic e xpressions was translated by simil ar meaning, but dissimilar
form, because of the fact that Moldovan and English/ American cultures name thing differently:
• as black as thunder (in a range or fury) – nergru de furie;
• as black as the ace spades (very dirty) – nergru ca tăciunile;
• as black as one is painted (to be in reality as a person say one is) – dracu este chiar atît
de negru.
However, our list of black idiomatic expressions is not limited only to such structure. We
observed that, most of th e black idiomatic expressions have neg ative associations, they are related
to dirt, pessimism and pain. Following expressions will prove that:
e.g., the idiomatic expression to be on the black list, means to be on a list of persons under
suspicion, and hav e total equivalence or the same meaning and form in Romanian: a fi pe lista
neagră . Another idiomatic expression with negative association is to look on the black side. This
idiom has the meaning to see everything in a pessimis tic side, and was translated into Romanian
by using the strategy of the similar meaning, but dissimilar form: a vedea jumătatea goală a sticlei.
Idiomatic expressions which was translated by this strategy are as following:
• a black look (a look that express dislike) – privire chiorîșă ;
• to swear black is white ( to perjure oneself) – a jura stîmb;
• the pot calling the kettle black (a person who is criticizing another for fault or error
which oneself is guilty) – a ride ciob de oala spartă ;
• black and blue ( bruised) – bătur măr , etc.
Such efficient translation methods were easily used because, of the fact that both Englis h
and Romanian speakers use, describe, and accociate bad things with the black colour. Thus, when
it comes to an idiomatic expression such as: black tie event, which d o not have negative association
at all, more over, it means a formal event where guests wear semi -formal clothes with men wearing
black bow ties with tuxedos or dinner jackets, it loses its colourful meaning and is simply translated
into Romanian by paraph rase: eveniment cu ținută de seară obligatoriu.
As we stated earlier, most the English colour idiomatic expressions unfortunately do not
have equivalent in Romanian, and translator have to use paraphrase, which, most of the time
transforms the idiomatic e xpression in a regular one. The following idioms are also translated by
paraphrase:

32
• a black leg ( a person who continues to work during a strike) – spărgător de grevă ;
• in one’s black book (in one’s list of datable pretty girls) – pe lista fetelor frumoase /
drăguțe;
• to black out (suddenly to lose consciousness) – a-și pierde cunoștința , etc.
While analysing our colour idiomatic list, we observed that black colour is related to
market. Here are few examples of market -related idioms:
• black market – piață neagră, conveys the same information both in Englis h and
Romanian and makes reference to a system of buying and selling official controlled
goods illigaly . Another one is black mail (to export or take money from someone by
threatening him or her) – șantaj , both in English and Romanian has negative
connotation.
• Black Friday stands for a crucial source of profit to retailer on the day following
American Thanksgiving. Romanian culture has successfully borrowed the concept with
the same meaning, making the of ficial opening of the shopping season for the winter
holidays.
An interesting fact is that in addition to above connotation, the idiom also have a
theological significance. Displaying a meaning of Orthodox Church, it denotes the day when Jesus
Christ was judged, crucified and laid to rest in the catacomb. Thus, this idiomatic expression has
two meaning at the same time, which has equivalent in Romanian. The last idiom related to market
is black gold – aur negru, which is an informal term for oil, and the c ollocation is suggestive for
the high value of oil, and the social status of those owning oil companies.
Thus, according to our research, black idiomatic expressions has many equivalents of
similar meaning and similar form and similar meaning but dissimil ar form, which is a good
indicator, because it shows that Romanian is also reach in idiomatic expressions, but still not
enough, because almost a third of it was translated by paraphrase.
The next colour in our list which has the b iggest number after black idiomatic expressions ,
are blue idiomatic expressions.
Blue Idiomatic Expressions
According to our list, most of the blue idiomatic expressions were translated by the strategy
of similar meaning but dissimilar form:
e.g. once in the blue moon, has the meaning of something which happens extremely rarely,
and it was translated as odată în Paște.

33
Another example is a blue-stoking, which means a woman who is more interested in
learning and in an academic career than in marriage and bringing up chi ldren. It was translated as
femeie snoabă. What is interesting here is that, even if the Romanian variant is not a total
equivalence, both Romanian and English variants have rather negative association in this idiomatic
expression.
Next idiomatic expressi on to be or to feel in the blue, which means to be or to feel
depressed, was translated with an Romanian prove rb: a nu-i fi toți boii acasă.
Thus, even if blue is perceived both in English and Romanian as stability, optimism,
relaxation and hope, it also has negative associations. We found more blue idiomatic expressions
of negative association which was translated with a proverb or a sayng into Romanian :
• between the devil and the deep blue sea (in a very difficult position) – între dracu și
mamă -sa/ talpa iadului;
• get away with blue murder (do something without suffering punishment) – a scăpa
basma curată ;
• run (a)round like a blue -arsed fly (very busily and excitedly) – a nu-și vedea capul de
treburi;
• to sing the blues, which means to be sad, melan cholic and, was translated as previously
mentioned idioms with a proverb: a cînta de dor și inimă albastră.
• scream blue murder (make a great deal of noise in complain) – a urla/ striga de -i crapă
bojocii/ ca din gura șarpelui, etc.
Nevertheless, we found English blue colour idioms, which has total equivalence in
Romanian. U nfortunately, there was only one example of translation by similar meaning and
similar form:
• blue blood, which means the fact of someone having been born into a fa mily that
belongs to the highest social class/ nobility and, has total equivalence: sînge albastru ,
and the second,
Blue colour idioms, as black, do not have enough equivalents in Romanian and was
translated by paraphrase, again losing the charm of the id iomatic expression:
• go off into the blue (disappear unexpectedly without trace) – a dispărea fără urmă;
• blue pencil (blue pencil) – cenzură ;
• blue collar (working in mutual job) – muncitor care face muncă fizică;
• boys in blue (Northern of federal soldiers in Civil War) – soldații din Nord;

34
• Beat the blue! (cheer up) – Fiți veseli!
• blue-eyed boy (the teacher’s favourite pupil) – elevul preferat, etc.
As we can see, English idiomatic expressions with names of blue colour are mostly
related to boys, men, soldier s and dignity. In our culture blue is associated only with boys and
men, this is the reason why most of blue idioms was translated into Romanian by strategy of
similar meaning but dissimilar form .
Red Idiomatic Expressions
As black id iomatic expressions, red idioms are used both in English and Romanian to make
a comparison, but red idioms do not show dirt like black colour, they show the feeling of shame
or the intense red colour and are from with the same structure : “as… as…”:
Simila r meaning and form:
• as red as a rose (intense red) – roșu ca un trandafir;
• as red as fire (bright red) – roșu ca focul;
Similar meaning, dissimilar form:
• as red as a cherry (bright red) – rumen ca un bujor;
• as red as blood (used to describe the deep red colour of something) – roșu aprins;
• as red as a beetroot (very red from feeling embarrassed) – (a fi) foc de rușine .
Another very interesting idiom of this type is as red as a lobster, which means bright red
due to sunburnt, that was translated as roșu ca un rac. Both English and Romanian variant may
add the word “boiled” (fiert), thus, the final version would be as red as a boiled lobster, with total
equivalence in Romanian: roșu ca un rac fiert.
During the elaboration of our list, we observed that red idiomatic expressions have both
negative and positive associations. Idioms like to be shown the red card (to be dismissed from
one’s job) – a arăta cartonașul roșu, and to see red in the face (to react with uncontrollable rage
against an object of one’s hatred) – a vedea roșu înaintea ochilor, are total equivalents with
negative associations. Idioms of similar meaning but dissimilar form, with negative association
are the following:
• red in tooth and claw (a violent revolutionary) – revoluționar pînă -n măduva oaselor;
• red-light district (that part of the town which is given over to brothels and prostitution)
– cartier rău famat ;
• to be in the red (to have an overdraft, to be in debt) – a fi în deficit (bugetar);

35
• to catch someone red-handed (to catch someone in the act of committing a crime,
usually a theft) – a prinde cu mîța în sac , etc.
Red idiomatic expressions with positive connotations are:
• to paint the town red (to celebrate by running wild, drinking and making a commotion)
– a declanșa / porni fiesta ;
• red-carpet treatment (very special treatment; royal treatment) – a fi primit cum se
cuvinte ;
• red hot (something new and exciting, creating much demand) – vioi/ înflăcărat.
The inventory of positive emotion idioms of colour is highly similar in both languages, and
the translation of such phrases generally do not pose any difficulties but, still first two examples
was translated by paraphrase due to the fact that Moldovan culture do not carry concepts like “red
carpet”, which is specific for American culture. Besides this, as well as previously mentioned two
colours, red idiomatic expressions also have a considerable number of Romanian equivalents
translated by par aphrase:
• a red rag to a bull (a source of violent anger to someone) – a întărîta taurul ;
• a redneck (a coarse, insensitive person) – un necioplit ;
• out of the red (out of debt) – a scăpa de datorii ;
• red herring (an unimportant matter that misleads everyo ne and draws attention away
from the main subject) – amănunt irrelevant ;
• red tape (bureaucratic delay, excessive attention to rules and regulations) – birocrație,
etc.
A detailed analysis shows that the behaviour of idiomatic expressions to be in the red,
which was translated in Romanian by similar meaning but dissimilar form ( a fi în deficit bugetar )
in terms of morphology, where the verb form can be changed whithout altering the general
meaning of the structure e.g., The Company is/ will be/ has been in the red. The different forms of
the verb indicate the existence of an internal structure of the idiom.
Colour Idiomatic Expressions
Most of such idiomatic expressions are closely connected to army, word “colour” in this
case having the meaning of th e print from the clothes and flag:
• to join the colours (to join the army) – a se înrola în armată ;
• with flying colours (with honour and great success) – cu steagurile -n vînt ;

36
• to call sb. to the colours (call or order to serve in armed forces of a country ) – a chema
pe cineva sub drapel;
• to lower one’s colour (no longer to support a cause of action) – a se da bătut/ a depune
armele, etc.
The biggest part of this kind of idiomatic expressions are translated by similar meaning but
dissimilar form, having a negative connotation:
• to be colourless (to lack personality) – a fi insipid ;
• to show oneself in one’s true colour (to reveal one’s true nature) – a-și arăta adevărata
față / a -și da arama pe față , etc.
However, there are also many Romanian equivalents translated by paraphrase:
• nail one’s colour (make one’s view know on a subject and abide firmly by them) – a-
și dezvălui/ a -și expune punctul de vedere ;
• off colour (unwell) – bolnav ;
• to give a false colour to something (to give an untrue account of some thing) – a prezenta
o imagine falsă ;
• to lose/ change colour (become pale) – a păli ;
• to give a true colour of something (to give a correct account of something) – a prezenta
ceva în mod correct.
Thus, we can state that previously presented Romanian equiv alents prove that English is
more colourful in inventing idioms which contain the word “colour”, this is the reason why most
of such idioms are translated in Romanian by paraphrase.
Another colour which prevailed in our list after above described colours a re white idiomatic
expressions.
White Idiomatic Expressions
White as being a colour, which symbolized poorness, clarity and innocence, have a very
negative connotation in the idiomatic expressions. This is the best example of the total
controversial meani ngs, when white colour is taken apart without the positive symbolism in both
cultures, the following examples was translated by similar meaning but dissimilar form:
• to bleed someone white (to extort all of somebody’s money) – a stoarce pe cineva de
bani;
• to swear black is white (to perjure oneself) – a jura stîmb ;

37
• to white wash (to exonerate someone by ignoring the evidence against him) – a scoate
basma curată / a mușamaliza;
• white slaver (a person selling girls into prostitution) – traficant de carne vie;
However, we also found white idiomatic expression with positive connotations, but with
no equivalence, thus they was translated by paraphrase:
• a white Christmas (a Christmas with snow) – Craciun cu zăpadă ;
• a white collar worker (professional or office worker) – funcționar, intelectual ;
• a white elephant (a valuable but useless possession) – cadou valoros dar inutil/ de
prisos ;
• a white lie (a harmless or well -intentioned lie) – minciună nevinovat ;
• a white coffee (coffee with milk ) – cafea cu lapte .
As in the case of previously mentioned colours, white colour idiomatic expressions have
only three examples of Romanian equivalence of similar meaning and similar form:
• to hang out/ show white flag (to indicate a peaceful mission) – a flutura/ arata steagul
alb;
• to see everything in black and white (to characterize everything as either very good or
as very bad) – a vedea totul în alb și negru , and
• white night (a sleepless night) – noapte albă.
To sum it up, w hite colour in British culture is traditionally assoc iated with purity and
innocence, but there are also negative association, this is the reason why idiomatic expressions
with negative connotations was translated by paraphrase into Romanian , and those with p ositive
most of the time with strategy of similar meaning and form.
Green Idiomatic Expressions
Green as being the colour, which denotes life, nature, fertility, intelligence, etc., has few
illustrated idiomatic expressions with such meanings. Among them are:
• to give the green light (to give permission to g o ahead), with equivalent of similar
meaning and form in Romanian, a da undă verde ,
• green old age (an old age in which a person’s mental and physical powers are still
strong) – bătrînețe viguroasă ;
• green thumb (a talent for gardening) translated by paraphrase – a se pricepe la grădinit;
Surprisingly, green idiomatic expressions can create problems in understanding the
meaning, because the colour meaning has very positive connotations, while most of the green

38
idiomatic exp ressions carry quite a negative associations . The green colour in idiomatic
expressions is used to describe an inexperienced person, for instance:
• to be green , has equivalent in Romanian of similar meaning but dissimilar form, a fi
crud or a fi necopt. Romanian equivalent have exactly the same meaning, but it uses a
different concept crud/ necopt instead of the colour, which also symbolize green.
Thus, this example more or less can be also called equivalent of similar meaning and
similar form;
• green horn – fraier;
• green as grass – încsă cu caș la gură , the most confusig idiom, as first of one might
think of, is that this idiom decribe the colour itself.
• green hand, was translated into Romanian by as boboc, but this idiom was almost used
to describe inexper ienced sailors, while boboc is used to describe especially first year
students. Thus, boboc, fits rather the concept used in university, freshman , than this
idiomatic expression.
However, we also found a green idiomatic expression, which is opposite for previously
mentioned:
• not be as green as one in cabbage -booking (humour) be not as inexperienced as one
looks) – a nu fi așa de naiv cum pare .
This examples prove that green idiomatic expressions are very confusing. It is well known
that one cannot underst and the meaning of an idiomatic expression, and this illustrated examples
makes us to understand better, why it is so hard to guess the meaning.
Another examples of negative association are related to jealousy. Idiomatic expressions
green-eyed monster (gelozia) and green with envy (negru/ mort de invidie/ gelozie) , shows the
contrast of connotations and the broad horizon of our conceptualization of the environment, as in
Romanian translation, instead of green is used black colour.
As we stated earlier, Romanian speakers tend to associate negative emotions and concepts
rather with black colour than with green as English speakers do. The only negative connotations
associated with green are bile disease and green eyed gypsies. However, we found an idiom whi ch
totally fits the meaning and the form of an English green idiom:
• to be green about the gills (to look pale, sick) – a fi verde/ străveziu/ tras la față.

39
Golden Idiomatic Expressions
The colo ur gold as being the colo ur associated with success, achievement and triumph,
both in English and Romanian has quite positive connotations:
• the golden rule (a wise/ very important rule), has total equival ent (similar meaning
and form) in Romanian, regula de aur, as well as next example;
• worship the gold calf (believe that wealth, money is all that counts in life) – a se închina
zeului de aur is an equivalent of similar meaning but dissimilar form ;
• golden mean, another example of similar meaning but dissimilar form, which means
moderation in all thing and Romanian equivalent cale de mijloc ;
• golden boy (a young man idolized for outstanding skills) – băiat de succes;
• a golden opportunity (a wonderful opportunity) – o ocazie minunată/ rară/ specială;
• a golden handshake (a lump -sum of money paid to a retiring d irector) was translated into
Romanian by paraphrase as indemnizație de pensionare.
Nevertheless, we found some cultural -specific idiomatic expressions. One of this example
is related to the United Kingdom’s history, ruled by Queen Elisabeth I in 16th centu ry, which many
historians call the Golden Age.
Due to the fact that in our country in the school is teaching universal history, it has total
equivalent in Romanian ( Epoca de Aur ), because it is assimilated by Romanian speakers and easily
recognize. However, not only United Kingdom has this concept. According to several dictionaries’
explanation, Golden Age means the finest period in a country’s history. Thus, this idiomatic
expression may also refer to Gree k or Roman, or even to Islamic Golden Age. The understanding
of this idiom, depend directly on context.
Another two culture -specific idiomatic expressions are related to United States of America.
First idiom is another saying of US state San Francisco. The City of Golden the Gate, was
translated into Romanian as Orașul Porții de Aur. This idiomatic expression is a realia and
translated by calque, due to the fact that id belongs only to United States ’ culture.
The second idiomatic expression is Acapulco Gold. First this idiom was recorded in the
United States in 1964, Acapulco Gold was defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as "a special
grade of cannabis growing in the vicinity of Acapulco…with a colour of brownish gold, or a
mixture of gold and green." This idiom was translated into Romanian as marijuana de calitate
înaltă , because another technique like calque for example would make no sense. Using paraphrase
at least, it become understandable.

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Silver Idiomatic Expressions
The last colour with the littles number (only four idiomatic expressions) are silver idiomatic
expressions. Silver is the colour of the moon, thus also of illumination and reflection. However,
two silver idioms suggest the meaning of this colour as being rich and eloquent.
• born wi th a silver spoon in one’s mouth (born into a wealthy family) – născut cu o
linguriță de argint în gură (similar meaning and form ). This is commonly thought to
be an English phrase and to refer to the British aristocracy. That may well be the case,
but the earliest citation in print is from the USA;
• silver -tongued (eloquent, persuasive and charming) – cu darul vorbirii (paraphrase ).
The idiomatic expression silver living, which means some basis for hope in the mist of
despair, has a metaphorical equivalent in Romanian, raza speranței. And, the last idiom silver
screen (cinema), was translated into Romanian as marele ecran (similar meaning but dissimilar
form).

Conclusion
As we saw from the above -mentioned examples, that the translation of the idioms is not
context -free. Only in the cases when the same construction is used literally, it ma y be translated
word by word.
The idioms present troublesome expressions that cannot be translated word -for-word, that
is why they must be given in a special dictionary as ready -made expressions with their translation;
otherwise they bring to typical language mistakes to misunderstandings due to their apparent
similarity in st ructure.
In this study, we noticed that idioms can rarely be rendered literally and that translating
them means discovering the proper equivalent which is able to express the semantic and stylistic
particularities of idioms from the source language.
We p resented several types of equivalences which illustrate that idioms are not only a part
of a linguistic system, but also an important and expressive component within a cultural
framework. From all these categories of equivalence, we insisted upon the li nguistic concept of
the total , partial and zero or non -phraseological equivalence, by bringing numerous examples
from English and Romanian idiomatic and phraseological dictionaries, articles and books.

41
We concluded that in the inter -linguistic transfer of i dioms from En glish to Romanian , one
may find various equivalent patterns, in spite of the special syntactic and semantic character istics
of idiomatic expressions.

42
General Conclusion
Languages lead their speakers to construe experience in different ways, specific to their
culture. As a consequence, a great challenge that the translator faces in the ca se of idiomatic
expressions is to reconcile respect for the cultural specificity with the desire to render the foreign
familiar. The aim is to make them available to someone unfamiliar with the culture, without
destroying the cultural images on which they are based. In the translati on of idiomaticity and
phraseology, perhaps more than in any other type, the translator becomes a real mediator between
cultures and languages.
The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words b ut also by idiomatic
expressions. Idiomatic express ions are word -groups that cannot be made in the process of speech;
they exist in the language as ready -made units.
Translation has played a role throughout history any time there has been an intersection of
two cultures and languages. And each time one cul ture has produced a written text, translators
serve as the bridge that allows literate members of one culture to be exposed to the written material
the other has produced.
This paper, focused on the analysis of the idiomatic expressions’ translation diffic ulties
and their rendering into Romanian.
Idiom becomes the embodiment of person’s national consciousness and culture, and at the
same time serves as the means of communication and the knowledge of reality.
The analysis of special literature during the las t decades shows that the majority of linguists
consider the coincidence of semantic structure, grammatical (or syntactical) organization and
componential (lexeme) structure the main criteria in defining the types of idiomatic expressions
with the undoubted primacy of semantic structure.
The analysis of the idiomatic expressions that was performed in the practical chapter of the
present research pap er revealed the techniques and methods used in their translation from English
into Romanian.
We can say that t he idiomatic expressions are translated either by the already existed
equivalents or by means of some other methods, giving non-phras eological translation because of
lacking of the analogous equivalents in the TL. Our list of idiomatic expressions consist of 131
example from English into Romanian with explanation of the id iom and its type of translation.

43
The group with the fewest number of idiomatic expressions, belong to idioms that fully
coincide in both languages, have one and the same meaning, one and t he same stylistic shades and
inner form. We found 31 examp les have their Romanian equivalents , that are equal to the original
idiomatic expressions. The number of such coincidences is very limited.
The second group , the most numerous from our list included i dioms with partial
equivalents. It means that they have similar meaning but are different in the inner character of
imaginary form. Such equivalents are called relative phraseological units. They can differ from
the original phrase by some compo nents, usually synonymous, then by little deviation in syntactic
or morphological structure, collocability etc. But, their relativeness is covered by the context . We
found 55 examples belongi ng to this group.
The third group, includes idioms having no equi valents in Romanian and we found 46
examples. To transfer their meanings into any other language one should use non -phraseological
ways of translation.
Non-phraseological translation transfers the meaning of the idiom by lexical and not by the
phraseologi cal means. Such translation can not be considere d of full value. There are often some
losses: imaginary, expressiveness, connotation, figurativeness, shades of meanings etc. That is
why the translator very seldom use this method of translating.
When it is i mpossible to transf er the semantic -stylistic and expressive -emotional colouring
of the phrase we use another method , which is connected , the us age of loan words, if possible.
This method is preferable when it is possible to convey the meaning of the origin al phrase by its
word -for-word translation in order for the reader to understand the phraseological meaning of the
whole expression and not only its constituent parts.
In conclusion we can say that distinguishing between free word -groups and idiomatic
expressions or phraseological units its further complicated by the existence of a great numbe r of
marginal cases so called: s emi-fixed or semi -free word -groups, also called non -phraseological
word -groups which share with idiomatic expressions , their structural stability but lack their
semantic unity and figurativeness.
Usually when people speak about translation or even write about it in special literature ,
they seldom specific about the meaning. Translation means both a process and a result, and when
defining translation we are interested in both aspects. But , at the same time we need the result of
translation since alongside with the source the translated text is one of the two sets of observed

44
events we have at our disposal if we need to compare the original (source) text and the resulting
(target) one.
However, the formation of the source and target texts is governed by the rules characteristic
of the source and target languages. Hence , the system of the two languages is also included in our
sphere of interes t. These systems consist of grammar units and rules, morphological and word –
building elements and rules, stylistic variations, and lexical distribution patterns (lexico -semantic
paradigms).
In translation , we deal with two languages and to verify the infor mation they give us about
the extra -linguistic objects (and concepts) we should consider extra -linguistic situation, and
background information.
The structure of the translation should follow that of the original text there should be no
change in the sequ ence of narration or in the arrangement of the segments of the text. It is necessary
to remember that using this method of translation one should consider emotional and expressive
colouring of the phraseological unit. The difficulty is that such expression s are real or forgotten
metaphors unconsciously assimilated by the native speakers.

45
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