Feminism versus Femininity in Victorian Literature [622427]

MINISTERUL EDUCAȚIEI NAȚ IONALE
UNIVERSITATEA PETROL – GAZE DIN PLOIEȘTI
FACULTATEA: LITERE ȘI ȘTIIȚNE
DEPARTAMENTUL: FILOLOGIE
PROGRAMUL DE STUDII: LICEN ȚĂ
FORMA DE ÎNVĂȚĂMÂNT: (IF/FR/ID):

Vizat
Facultatea

Aprobat,
Director de departament,
Conf. Univ. Dr. Toma Irina

LUCRARE DE LICENȚĂ

TEMA: Feminism versus Femininity in Victorian Literature

Conducător științific:
Conf. Univ. Dr. Toma Irina
Absolvent: [anonimizat]
2017

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ……….. 5

I. Historical background: Victorian Society and Mentality of People ……………… 9

1.1 Victorian Era and its Women ………………………….. ………………………….. ……. 9

II. The Typical Victorian Woman: Different Perspectives on Woman ………….. 16

2.1 The Angel in the House ………………………….. ………………………….. ………….. 17

2.2 ―Fallen ‖ Women ………………………….. ………………………….. ……………………. 21

III. The Feminine Victorian Emancipated Heroine ………………………….. ………… 29

3.1 The Notion of Marriage ………………………….. ………………………….. ………….. 44

3.2 Escaping from Marriage ………………………….. ………………………….. …………. 56

3.3 Fin de Siécle ………………………….. ………………………….. …………………………. 61

Conclusions ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. ……… 72

Bibliography ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………………….. …….. 74

4

Introduction

Historically, the Victorian period is known for being one of the most important periods
because of the changes and the developments that brought England as a world power. Queen
Victoria was the first monarch that saw her name given to the time she reigns. What is
specific for this period is innovation, the idea of progress, advances in the medical domain,
technological knowledge. ―Like all ages it was an age of paradox, but the paradoxes of the
mid-nineteenth century struck contemporaries as more stark and disturbing than those which
had faced their ancestors. ‖1 Today, we associate the nineteenth century with family values,
religious observations and deep faith. It is important to know that Victor ian families were
numerous and patriarchal. They inspire hard work, respectability, social deference and
religious aspects. People in the Victorian age supported the idea that people were not born
equally, people in high rank despising people in low rank a nd men were superior to women.
Regarding women, they were often portrayed as either pure and innocent women or those of
loose moral but, in time, they had the opportunity to benefit from an improved educational
system. This opening to the cultural life, to gether with the chance to enter into the labour
market gave many a role outside the family.

When we think of 'Victorian women', presumably our minds are immediately cast to
images of pious home makers, sharing an essence of gentility and affability. Almos t unaware
of, but content with the fact that their sole purpose was to run the home, bring up the children,
obey their husband and act with the upmost decorum. So it is not surprising at all that the
majority of the literature representing Victorian women shows them this way, i.e the
traditional idea requesting women to marry, have children and look after a happy home. At
that time, it was difficult to see women as anything other than future mothers or the
representation of ideal of motherhood, and how the well-ordered society stands for the
difference between the masculinity and femininity. Women were concerned about what home
means and domestic confines. In that time everything was man -dominated and women were
simply subject to the voice of man. It was har d for a woman from a low -class to have a decent
life and a good marriage. Professionally, very few of them had options as a woman could
become a governess or a teacher. Later, in the Age, new roles for women were created as a
result of economic development and their voice had been finally heard and recognized.
Writers began to face the current situation and do advanced work, including this theme
between the most discussed controversial aspects of the period.

1 Andrew Sanders, The short Oxford history of En glish literature , p. 399
5

The study is motivated by the main roles of women, their ideals on gender by featuring
characters that are presented in some of Victorian novels such as Jane Eyre , Middlemarch,
Far from the Madding Crowd , Jude the Obscure , Tess of the d'Urbervilles, Vanity Fair etc.
Charlotte Brontë through Jane Eyre undoubtedly managed to call into question the stereotypes
of the time she lived in. With her ―we are made aware of a woman novelist coping with very
deep phobias, barely confesable fears and pressures arising out of her female condition in a
society where ―ideal ‖ fiction connected with the institution of marriage concealed
disconcerting and bitter realities. ‖2 At the same time, the general concept and idea of the
Victorianism is supp orted by the investigation of Thomas Hardy`s novels which represent an
important new voice in English fiction. Hardy tries to depict a portrait of what he saw and
experienced, including his avoidance of the city life and to create a snapshot for future
generation. Women writers had a crucial role in their contribution to the feminist debate in
Victorianised Britain. It is important to mention that the study regards feminism and
femininity in the Victorian period as far as it goes to reveal the gender role, how women
express their ambition and thoughts and also the use of symbols and words as a means to
communicate and show their ideas. Literature in the Victorian period truly reflects the reality
and spirit of that time. The power, reality towards society, h umour with kindness and
boundless imagination are all beyond any time. In any aspect of literature, works are ready to
welcome the new century.

The study is structured in three main chapters. The first chapter – Historical
Background: Victorian Society an d Mentality of People – presents a short historical
background focused on an understanding of Victorian society with its main characteristics and
important acknowledge. This retrospective consideration is essential to discover and analyse
what was the stan dard and the acceptance at the time when the novels were published. It is
meaningful to see how literature evolved through the period and what were women perceived
in the books of Thomas Hardy, Charlotte Brontë, and George Eliot and so on. From the
beginni ng, they take into consideration a number of themes such as nature, love, womankind,
and of course the role that women had in the society. This chapter will be focused in
recreating the atmosphere of the society of that time and how females were treated an d their
main activities and responsibilities. We shall see different types of woman from orphan Jane
to the independent Bathsheba and pious Dorothea. Victorian literature has many features and
those features bring its originality. Writers become to face th e situation and try to reflect the
new reality and changes. Equality was seen as important theme reflected through novels as a

2 Boris Ford, From Dickens to Hardy , p.251
6

goal for self -realization as feminists. People in the Victorian age had the beli ef that people are
not born equal so the writers had to challenge with this idea, too.

The second chapter – The Typical Victorian Women: Different Perspective of Women

– will be a survey that will highlight the stylistic techniques that Victorian writers a dapted in
order to discover their new ideas about woman`s position in society and in relation to the
opposite sex. This part will be focused on the role that minor feminine characters and other
characters have in order to underline the main characteristic of the society. Characters like
Miss Temple, Helen Burn, Nelly Dean, and so on will have the main function to reveal the
most significant details about women`s condition. It is relevant to see how the main characters
evolved through the eyes of these chara cters and what was their contribution, more or less,
that leads to the development of the main characters. This section is divided into two
subchapters portraying women in middle and lower classes. From the role of ideal women or
"angel in the house" to th e "fallen woman," the Victorian women had to face the prejudices of
the society they were living in. Regardless of the social class where they came from, feminine
figures were a source of inspiration for Victorian writers. In particular, the novels of Char les
Dickens, Charlotte Brontë and Emily Brontë emphasize the situation of women at the time.

The third chapter – The Feminine Victorian Emancipated Heroine – will present a
consideration and a critical view about the Victorian heroines. Victorian literatur e abounds in
clever women who try to manage and deny the means to sate their intellectual curiosity and
the opportunity to pursue a career. This part will present assumptions about women`s
innocence, emotional temperament, self -sacrifice due to the concept of Victorian female
reinforced by religion. This chapter will also try to develop another perspective concerning
women`s self -realization, esteem and their choices regarding marriage, society and their
independence. Main characters such as Jane Eyre, Bath sheba Everdene and Dorothea Brooke
will not be seen as simply woman with specific Victorian virtues but also as women who try
to show their independence and free spirit. This chapter will underline the most significant
gestures and acts that heroines have done throughout the novels, their thoughts and deepest
beliefs and how they manage to struggle in a world dominated by men. The three subchapters
follow the evolution of feminine figures in terms of marriage, divorce and rights over time.
New Woman was a m odel for the Victorian woman at the end of the 19th century. Women's
emancipation is progressively and visibly accomplished with the recognition of the status they
get. We shall see a different type of woman, one who has the intelligence and the power to
cross over the rules imposed by the society or by the church. Women in these novels will not
be seen like companion but more than ―competitors ‖ in rights and privileges. If ea rly in the

7

period, they were associated with domestic responsibility, now the y are able to have a role in
the public life.

Finally, the paper will present the conclusions as a panoramic view through the
Victorian period. How women became a respectable part in the society, how they win the
right to be considered almost equal with m en is a task that this essay will try to focus on. The
entire essay follows the steps that writers from that period pursue and how they tried to
change a mentality and a society where limitations and restrictions were applied on the
women.

The main featur es of the Victorian humankind may also be seen with the aid of the
characters built by the authors already mentioned. It is important to clarify a finish line where
a principle as equality is no longer seen as a taboo. There is still a preoccupation even i f in our
modern society where such a principle in some countries is considered to be something
unattainable. Problems such as inferiority, economic dependence on the husband and
limitations of rights were problems that even from that period were of concern , but with the
passage of time people`s mentality had changed. In addition, Queen Victoria becomes a
symbol of motherhood and domesticity and that Era was associated with one of progress and
evolution in both literature and mentality for the next century.

8

Chapter I

I. Historical background: Victorian Society and Mentality of People

This section presents a view about Victorin Age and mentality when peole had to face
a new reality. The people of British Empire were p eople who have as basic beliefs things like
morality, identity, consumerism and a political stability offered by Queen Victoria. This
political stability encourages people to seek order in their daily lives. In fact, that means the
way people acted and int eracted in society following a strict set of social norms. ‖Victorian ‖
was an adjective associated with earnest, moral responsibility, deep faith in church, prudery
and old -fashioned. The identity of a person depended on three things: race, gender and class .
The economic state has also a great influence regarding women who tried to obtain a
favourable position according to their expectations. At the beginning of 19th century, Great
Britain had to challenge an important series of changes such as the developme nt of economy
and to face up social problems.

The Victorian era was a period of prosperity and peace for the people who lived in the
British Empire. During the 19th century, the British Empire expanded its territories all over
the world. For example, the Empire reached Canada, Australia, New Zeeland, parts of the
Pacific Ocean. Not only was the conquest of new territories the goal pursued by the British
Empire but also the industrialization, civic engagement, politics. In this perspective, the
British Empi re becomes one of the most powerful nations of the world.

What made Victorian Age so important was the changes brought by the time. The
Industrial Revolution had a great impact on the life of people. Apparently, the revolution
brought benefits only to a p art of the population, while the factory workers worked in
deplorable conditions. People moved from the countryside to cities. Child labour was a
negative aspect of the time captured by the novelists. In his novels, Charles Dickens depicts
the situations o f poor people and especially the situation of children. Novels such as Oliver
Twist , David Copperfield reveal an image about values and exploitation. Lewis Caroll`s
Alice ’s Adventures in Wonderland presents a satirical view of the social and cultural conte xt
of the time.

2.1 Victorian Era and its Women
The exploitation was applied not only to children but also to women. Women had few
privileges and rights during this period of time. Life was very difficult and the main goal that
a young girl was thought to be was that she should grow up and get married so therefore
everybody believed that woman had no need for education which might make irresponsible
9

mothers or wives. In fact, things like looking beautiful, playing the piano, having a proper
behaviour according to the rules were considered to be more important than getting a suitable
education because it was considered unnecessary. Girls were taught conventional manners in
such a way that they could be able to represent their future husbands; they had l earned to play
a musical, they got lessons for needlework and some of them even had lessons of languages.
Young girls did not get any education at all until the British elementary education act passed
in 1870, which allowed that children, no matter what ge nder got education up until age 13.
Returning to women, they were not given so many opportunities for higher education. Often,
they would be able to study only subjects where there was no controversy such as history or
English. The women that did manage to get into the universities were harshly discriminated
against and they were not given opportunities equal to their peers.

As women grew up their only duty was only regarding the care to the children and
their husbands. However, some upper and middle -class women would become teachers,
governesses or tutors. After the Industrial Revolution, woman received better jobs and
salaries. Most employees were working in factories in harsh conditions so many factories
prefer to employ women because they could work mor e than men. Other jobs women could
have included being nurses, maids, cooks but that only applied for women who had no
children or husband. On the other side, being an unmarried woman was considered to be
dangerous and also affected the stability of the so ciety, as the family unit was the most
important element in that time. Once she married she was expected to be devoted and
submissive to her husband and also she lost all her rights to any property or money that they
had and their husband would be in contr ol of everything. Their fathers, husbands or other
male relatives were their legal representatives and men were those who were in charge of
women ‘s property for almost all the nineteenth ce ntury. An important reform was made in
1887 when the Property Act gave women the chance to own property for the first time while
they were married. Women were not allowed to vote and were not legal guardians of their
children. A Victorian woman ―would be stoical, motherly, submissive and chaste ‖3.

It is important to ment ion that division between sexes was very strict and clear and
every man and every woman knew that ―even within marriage, obliged [them] to lead separate
and unequal lives until they died ‖4. It was believed that the main role that a woman had was
her devoti on to her family, her ideal motherhood behaviour – taking care of children and
maintain a cosy and comfortable home for her husband and make them a decent meal.
Because the working woman could not afford to pay a servant, they had to do all the domestic

3 Paxman, Jeremy. The English: A Portrait of a People . p. 228
4 Idem, p. 212
10

chores. The effect was dirt, disease, alcoholism and prostitution and after all the working class
woman was to blame.

On the opposite side of the social ladder, women from the upper classes compared
with working class women had their own duties and responsibilities, too. In the countryside it
was easier to observe this attitude because they had to take care of their tenants. In this way,
women were quite busy and responsible and also could see themselves very useful. Regarding
the situation in the towns, it seemed to be restricted only to homemaking. Yet, their
homemaking responsibility was limited, too. Woman from the upper class did not perform the
domestic chores as they had a large number of servants who did that. Another important task
that a woman should do was accepting visitors and paying visits. Those visits had their own
rituals and also it was a social occasion which had its rules.

A number of Victorian writers were in terested in the speech of village communities,
which continues with the large movement into the towns in the course of a century. The
Victorian novel it was particularly a middle -class result and it has its own limitations. As we
know, the Evangelical infl uence in the Victorian middle had to do with the language and
literature and that it means a limitation. However, there were also positives aspects to the
middle -class influence on writers. The family, considered to be a fortress and a stable pillar
had be come a major subject in the Victorian period. Writers did assume a new kind of
literature where children were important both as subject and as a public. It was also brought to
the public`s attention not only the children and childhood, but as well the wome n the nature,
the significant details. For example, ― Hardy`s consistencies are based on feeling, h abit, a
keen sense of romance of life`s little ironies, an eye for significant detail, and on increasing
personal discomfort with its tendency to return to t he same themes such as marriage, or the
nature of woman, or the symbolic death of village bands. ―5

After the middle class become a respectable class, it pursued values such as dignity,
self-respect and patriotic spirit. At the same time, Queen Victoria w as the perfect example for
the spirit of that time.

If we want to understand the term s ―feminism ‖ and ―femininity ‖, the Victorian
literature would be the perfect example to reveal the most important features of the time.
Writers such as Charlotte Brontë, Emily Brontë, Charles Dickens, George Eliot have tried to
underline the importance of human being, especially the women`s equality and rights in a
world dominated by men figures and men principles. According to the Oxford English
Dictionary , the term femin ism is ―the advocacy of women's rights on the ground of the
equality of the sexes ‖, while femininity represents ―qualities or attributes regarded as

5 Boris Ford, From Dickens to Hardy , p.407

11

characteristic of women ‖6. Furthermore, we must have a cle ar distinction between the terms
sex and gender that sometimes create divergent ways to describe the difference among men
and women. Sex represents the biological difference between the two, while gender refers to
the socially constructed characteristics o f women and men – such as norms, roles and
relationships of and between groups of women and men.7 In the Victorian period, people had
the belief that one had a certain sex (female), one must think in a certain way (feminine),
which means that gender is con flated into sex. Jan Marsh, professor at the Humanities
Research Centre of the University of Sussex argues in her article, Gender Ideology &
Separate Spheres in the 19th Century that: ―The gender history of 19th -century Britain can be
read in two ways: as an overarching patriarchal model which reserved power and privilege for
men; or as a process of determined but gradual female challenge to their exclusion .‖(Marsh,
2015, para.1)

According to Vivian Gornick (1978) the battle for women ‘s rights began with M ary
Wollstonecraft ‘s publication of Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792). In this publication
Mary`s radically demands that women should be aware of their intellectual than their static
role as mother and wives. This is the start point that the femini st movement came into
existence and fought for equality for women in areas such as education, work force, female
sexuality, politics, her role in the society. Even if she supported the idea of self -esteem,
intelligence and basic human potential of women, t he feminist movement did not become a
solid movement until the late nineteenth century. As Gornick said ―the conviction that men by
nature take their brains seriously, and women by nature do not, is based not on an inborn
reality but on a cultural belief t hat has served our deepest insecurities ‖8. Since that time,
women tried to obtain a favourable position and various individual movements took places
through the time, this movements been called waves of feminism . The first wave of feminism
took place in th e late nineteenth and early twentieth century ‘s. As far as we can go, feminism
is considered a politics and the main goal of this movement was to open up the opportunities
for women.

Later, the social and political developments in the Victorian era brough t a new kind of
thinking, a new philosophy, a materialistic one focused on the individual, education and
democracy. John Stuart Mill had an important role in the nineteenth century thought because
his utilitarian doctrines were placed on the center of the Victorian system of thought. In
addition, he supported innovating ideas such as compulsory education, birth control, equality

6 https://en.oxforddictionaries.com ( accesed April 4th, 2017)
7 http://www.who.int/gender -equity -rights/understanding/gender -defin ition/en/ (accesed April 4th, 2017)
8 Vivian Gornick, http://www.latimes.com/opinion/la -oe-gornick9 -2008nov09 -story.html ( accesed April 4th ,
2017)
12

for women, especially in the discussion over the Reform Bill of 1867 and had an important
contribution to the formation of the suffrage movement in the early 20thcentury. His essay
named The Subjection of Women is probably one of the most important essays because it
shows how gender relations were seen in the Victorian England of the mid1800. Mill`s essay
was a radical reaction which tried to demolish a boundary where women were considered to
be the weaker sex, therefore, subordinated to men. John Stuart Mill argues:

―That the principle which regulates the existing social relations between the two
sexes —the legal subordination of one sex to the other —is wrong in itself, and now
one of the chief hindrances to human improvement; and that it ought to be
replaced by a principle of perfect equality, admitting no power or privilege on the
one side, nor disability on the other. ‖ (Mill, 1869, para.1)

With that new reflection, literature becomes complex and various and from among all
literary genres, the novel was the most usable instrument that try to capture the dynamism and
the changes of the Victorian period: ―the vehicle best equipped to present a picture of life
lived in a given society, against a stable background of social and moral values, by people
who were recognizably like the people encountered by the readers. ‖9 The main source of
inspiration was the realit y itself so the writers had to put down the conflicts and the thoughts
of the period as it were. Therefore, realism was the creators` favourite mode of writing.
Realism was a tool for Victorian fiction because it recreated everyday experiences and the
language used was that every common people could understand. Thus, the novel had an
educational role. In time, the novel becomes both a form of entertainment and an impulse to
social reforms. The people were interested in reading especially when the number of libraries
growth and the publishing evolved. But, ―under the pretence of offer ing their readers slices of
real life, the great Victorians fooled their public, reaching a reality far deeper than the surface
one.‖10 Not only the novels become common but also the autobiographical stories. Diaries or
journal were considered to be a way for self -discovery, exploring the inner life and somehow
a path for inspiration. If we take in consideration the autobiographical elements such as
childhood, we will discover par ts from Victorian era reinterpreted and reinforced by writers.
For Charles Dickens, his own childhood experience was partly responsible for his on social
reform and especially for children.

Regarding our topic, Charlotte Brontë, the elder sister to writer s Emily and Anne
Brontë manage to become an important figure in the 19th century. Her novels brought to the
light the struggle faced by women. Jane Eyre it is an example of a bildungsroman , a novel

9 David Daiches, A Critical History of English Literature , p. 1049
10 Irina Toma, Victorian contrasts , p. 17
13

that focuses on the education and growth of its heroine and her life history. Charlotte Brontë
through her novel very well described the miserable condition of the women in that age. She
is aware of the female`s rights and in fact she may be considered the first feminist writer in
the English literature. Her heroines demand for rights and freedom. Moreover, Charlotte
creates feminine characters that are independent minded and reject the role imposed by t he
others. She opens the eyes to the realities around her and presents the poverty, starvation,
orphan hood and even rage to madness. Considered an offensive novel, Jane Eyre shocked the
Victorians.

In his novels, Hardy tries to create a way for the women `s thought and right. Even if
he is a man, he succeeded in qualifying as a feminist and it shows Hardy`s extraordinary
understanding and insight in the women`s universe and psyche. Throughout his novels such as
Tess of the D`Urbervilles or Far from the Mad ding Crowd , Jude the Obscure, Hardy manages
to capture the real state of women, their thoughts and inner reflection even if the patriarchal
social order is dominant. He tried to create a new image of Victorian woman and choose a
different angle to look at those women where marriage, love, sexual inexperience are heard
through a woman`s mind. Different from the other female characters, Tess has a strong
personality and always fought against Christian doctrines, and she never lost hope. In Far
from the Maddin g Crowd , Hardy presents a story about a beautiful and independent woman,
Bathsheba Everdene and the three men, Gabriel Oak, a farmer, Mr. Boldwood, a rich and
handsome man, and a young soldier, Troy. His feminine characters differ far less than his
male ch aracters. Both Bathsheba and Tess have the courage to remain faithful to their
thoughts and self -esteem, but Tess was the character who won for her strength and struggle to
be treated as an individual. However, ―Hardy`s characters live in a world haunted b u the
presence of the beloved and anything which is true or a false sign of the existence of another
may be a means of enticing the lover into fascinated longing. The loved one has the creative
power of a deity. He or she creates the self of the lover havi ng formerly latent existence and
organizes that self giving it a new order. But at the same time, his godlike power has an effect
of th e outer world, suddenly giving it focus and a meaning. ‖11 Even if Hardy`s female
characters tries to push their limits, t he social conventions and limitation bring them to
silence. However, their voice will be heard and appreciated and their contribution to the
feminism is unmatched.

As far as we are concerned about Victorian literature and the writer of that time,
George E liot had a great contribution to the feminist movement. Controversy and outrage
accompanied her during her writing career. George Eliot was the pseudonym used by Mary

11 Irina Toma, op cit ., p.76
14

Ann Evans as an unmarried woman from that period. As Cha rlotte Brontë or Charles Dickens
her work are also inspired by her own experience of life and Middlemarch is considered her
finest achievement. The novel is a fine combination between realism and idealism. George
Eliot presents a Victorian society where ch aracters as Dorothea are seen as emancipated and
her main focus was the moral problems of character. The author`s main fields are the
education and marriage, as Dorothea has two marriages. If in the first marriage, Dorothea was
seen as a woman who wants to achieve an intellectual independence in the second marriage,
Dorothea is closer to the typical Victorian woman. Therefore, ―in George Eliot`s conception,
it is the relations into which people are brought in the course of their daily activities that
precip itate the changes and the crises out of which the ultimate moral meaning emerges. ‖12

The Victorian period was a period for many changes regarding women. The feminist
critics tried to emphasize the Victorian women`s situation, their economic problems, soci al
status, all in all their situation in society. If at the beginning of the time, women were seen as
passive voices, inanimate figures, writers tried to change that early image due to the
patriarchal society. The reconfiguration of the time help people`s mentality put questions
about the assumptions of the ―Victorian literature ‖. Feminism was preoccupied with the social
history, alert to the material base of aesthetic criteria, alert to the extra -individual pressures of
ideological forces along with politi cal motivation, became successful to blend textualism and
historicism into new trans -disciplinary area, that is, ―cultural studies". 13

In conclusion, the Victorian period is a period of contrasts from the static mentality of
the society to the obvious dy namism of science and progress. Feminism appeared as a new
trend and tried to catch the main limitations and oppressions. In a world dominated by men,
writers saw in woman a new kind of literature, far different from one existed before. As we
know, poor wo men searched for work, while wealthy women focused on nurturing home and
family. It was almost impossible to get a divorce, even for those rich enough to pay the legal
costs -as Charlotte Brontë reveals in Jane Eyre when Mr. Rochester tried to get divorce f rom
Bertha. Regarding violence and well treated women, we may suppose that women were
probably treated worse in Britain than in any industrialized country from Europe. However,
after 1870, the situation become to improve and in 1897 women started to demand the right to
vote in the national elections.

12 Irina Toma, op.cit., p.60
13 http://www.bachelorandmaster.com/movementandgenrestudies/feminist -approach -to-victorian –
literature.html#.WN4LQli0nIX (accesed April 5th ,2017)

15

Chapter 2

II. The Typical V ictorian Woman: Different Perspectives on Woman

As we saw in the previous chapter, Victorian writers depicted the image of women and
their situation throughout their works.

Education in Victorian England was obeyed to the church`s moral and preaches.
Church`s teachings were supposed to be the laws that governed the mentality and behavior of
people and the difference between the what meant masculinity and femininity was associated
with biological difference. However, education was seen as a key for openin g the possibilities
for rights and it established some freedoms for women. For example, women were trained for
employment but Victorians found almost impossible to accept such a measure because this
could affect family life. In this context, women`s educat ion was based on what they should be
taught and how to prevent the interests that might appear if they would form a group.
Women`s possibilities were restrained as a consequence for male domination and suppression.
Hence, higher education was unnecessary a nd useless for what they had to do. In Subjection
of Women , John Stuart Mill wrote: ―This great gain for the intellectual power of our species
would come partly through better and more complete intellectual education of women, which
would then improve in s tep with the improvement of men ‘s.‖ (p. 49)

Another fact that contributes to the delimitation between femininity and masculinity
was the difference between social classes. As we know, women were taught to do household,
to take care of children and to be c onfined in their private sphere. Anyway, women found a
door for expressing their intellectual expectations and as a result they had an important role in
Victorian education. A Victorian governess was in contrast to the ideal Victorian womanhood.
While this ideal summed the idea that woman was a property of her father, brother and later
his husband, the new mentality was recreated. Governesses represented an important part of
feminist movement, especially for middle class women. Regarding their lives and act ivities,
Victorian women`s activities were limited and their daily lives was a life in idleness.
Daughters for middle -class or upper class were educated by governess and it was considered
exceptional for a girl to enter in a college or to choose a professi on. Matrimony was
considered the ideal for a woman and the only way for she to become the representation of
Victorian womanhood. Another demand was higher education and equality. As a matter of
fact, this position was mainly occupied for the middle class w omen, who had to work for their
daily life. Printing press sustained the ideas and debated about education. An entire network
was built by teachers, governesses and women who used their books, journals and

16

articles for educational support. In this con text, the governesses gained respect in society.
Foregrounding from the definition of the feminist movement, Victorian writers tried to
emphasize the problems that common Victorian female confront with. Therefore, their own
existence and inspiration has be en found somewhere hidden within their novels and
characters. Throughout their works, they manage to underline the needs and aspect from
private and public life and in that way they also touch the political and social side of Victorian
society. Traditional ly however, middle -class women were the most common source of
inspiration for the novelists, play writers and other people who sustained the emancipation of
women because they represented the most stable pillar of family and society. They were
expected to be obedient and passive and beside all, women were expected to present an image
of femininity and womanhood.

2.1 The Angel in the House
According to Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, ―Every woman who could think
and speak wisely and bring up her chil dren soundly was advancing the time when women`s
interests in society would be better represented. ‖ 14 In this quotation, the idea that women
should be capable to obtain what they recall is more that obvious. Unlike women that the
doctrine of Victorian wom anhood was well preserved, governesses provided their female
charges with a solid educational foundation. Fictional sources, mainly Charlotte Brontë`s Jane
Eyre explain and sustain their arguments. Feminist writers such as Charlotte Brontë could not
tolera te what she saw and through her novels encourages the advocacy for women`s rights.
Not only her, but also her sisters Emily Brontë, author of Wuthering Heights , and Anne

–Agnes Grey wrote about the difficult life that a Victorian woman had. A perfect exam ple for her
inner development and way of thinking is Jane Eyre. For many readers, Jane, the main character
symbolized the position that a woman should have within society and marriage. What made Jane
Eyre an example to follow was her demand for equality an d independence. The heroine acts not
only as a character who fought against men`s oppression but also as a voice for female around
Britain. Harold Bloom point out in his Bloom`s Guides: Jane Eyre that: ―Charlotte Brontë,
particularly in Jane Eyre , manifest s an aggressivity towards her reader that is infrequent among
major novelists ‖15. In other words, Charlotte Brontë`s feminist spirit is revealed in her most
famous novel and through her biography. The main theme that the author revealed was the
subordinati on of women in a patriarchal society. The novel is a bildgsroman that fallows the
evolution of the main character from childhood to maturity. In

14 Leonore Davidoff, Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class 1780 –1850 p.
186
15 Harold Bloom, Bloom`s Guides: Jane Eyre, p. 7
17

this perspective, the whole book presents the development of heroine. For Jane, was important
to pursuit her inner desire to fight for equality and independence. She is considered a rebel
child and she c an distinguish between who loves her and who hate her or tries to manipulate
her. In contrast with Jane is Bathsheba Everdeen, Far from the Madding Crowd `s main
character who is a naive girl who falls in love with the wrong man. Symbols are frequently
used in the novel to illustrate female`s desire and the connection between man and nature.
David Lodge indicates that: ―She [Charlotte Brontë] seeks in the natural world, not order, but
a reflection of the turbulent, fluctuating inner life of the heroine. The elements have a
constantly changing, and often ambivalent aspect in the novel sustained by its basic rhythms,
the alternation of night and day, storm and calm. ‖16 For such reasons, Jane`s rebellious and
desire from freedom is reflected through her rejectio ns of the marriage both Mr. Rochester
and St. J ohn. She said at some point: ―I was with an equal -one with whom I might argue – one
whom, if I saw good, I might resist ‖( Jane Eyre, p. 414) showing her struggle and capacity for
equality.

In connection with t his inner development and desire to fight against the oppression of
women, biblical knowledge played an important part in how it shape and transform the
society and people`s mentality. The Scriptures had an important usage and presence in the
Victorian peo ple`s lives. For instance, children were taught form the biblical texts how
obedient they should be and for poor children church was the only place where they could
received a primary education. The Bible encouraged the simple life especially for women.
This life was one of piety and the sermons were an opportunity for people to meet and
discuss. Evangelicalism was the religion that dominated Victorian society. Therefore,
fallowing the doctrine of Evangelicalism meant to read the Bible every day. However, n ot
only people were affected by religion and sermons but also the architecture and literature.
Faith was present in character`s mind and behaviour. They followed the teaches for the
Scriptures and symbols were existing in almost every novel. In fact, these symbols are the
reflection of womanhood and for authors was a way to reinterpret their needs and demands.
For instance, authors such as George Eliot or Elizabeth Gaskell reimage and construct biblical
images in order to create a proper atmosphere for thei r characters. Not only had the characters
embodied the elements for the Bible but also the novelists within their own life.

With this new perspective, Victorian women were able to open a way for
understanding the difference between genders. As we already saw, women were classified in
―angel in the house ‖ or ―fallen women ‖ and in Nina Auerbach`s opinion Victorian women
―were fortified by the dreams of their culture as much as their lives were mutilated by its fears

16 David Lodge, The Language of Fiction , p.121
18

.―17 For her, nineteenth century women were limited or force to dream only to what society
required. So, she claims that the essence of that period was family life. Furthermore,
Auerbach was one the feminist critics that tried to manage the power that religion had in
society, novels and nineteenth century debate about gender. Religious practice it is important
to understand as a means for women to reinterpret the biblical symbols. Church was a
meaningful tool for understanding the Victorian culture and, therefore the area in the sexuality
functioned. Church created the perfect model for femininity and that leads women to a certain
equality with men. Patriarchal structures were in opposition with the women`s voices of
authority and power. Piety was a n appreciate quality of those times and Callum Brown ‘s work
The Death of Christian Britain reveals that ―Before 1800, Christian piety had been a ‗he‘.
From 1800 to 1960, it had been a ‗she‘. Afte r 1960, it became nothing in gendered terms ‖18,
showing in th is way that the gender difference throughout the time changed. Although, for
that period, for a woman was quite difficult to assert herself as an entity. Her sacralisation was
a limitation on her rights and on her way of thinking.

The intertextuality betw een the Victorian novels and the Bible is noticeable at the
character level. For example, characters such as Pipp, Oliver Twist, Jude or Jane Eyre are
orphaned and are always looking for "promised land". However, characters from Victorian
literature, espec ially women seem to surprise the theme of suffering most. In Charlotte
Brontë`s novel, characters are seen through the light of Christiany and the image of society
can be better drawn through the religious perspective. Christianity has a great contribution not
only in Brontë`s works because the approaching religion in the characters lives means a way
for exploring different attitudes toward this concept. What Brontë did was a distinction
between male religion and women religion. We may say that in Jane Eyre we have a religion
of heart and a religion of duty. The first one is based on the women`s belief that they can be
free and independent spirits in a patriarchal society while the second one confirm the status of
man in his main function at Church, as a cle rgyman. If at the beginning of the nineteenth
century women could go to conferences and were able to preach, by the mid -nineteenth
century this changed as a result of doctrine sphere. The turmoil is reflected throughout the
novel and feminist voices are hi ghlighted by the women injustices.

In this perspective, characters such as Helen Burns, St. John Rivers and Jane herself
can be associated with different biblical characters. For instance, Helen Burns could be
associated with Jesus Christ. She is devoted, faithful and endures Mr. Blocklehurst`s
humiliation without resistance. In fact, she represented the image of devotion and obedience

17 Nina Auerbach. Woman and the Demon: the Life of a Victorian Myth , p. 34
18 Brown , Callum, The Death of Christian Britain , p. 196
19

that it was an image for nineteenth century women. Her strong beliefs in God make her a
martyr and her death actually reflect a release. As we already mention, on her tombstone is
read ―RESURGAM ‖ that means ―I shall rise again ‖, setting in this way her role as martyr and
also Jesus Christ second coming. Jane`s friend it is the religion of heart that is superior to the
religion of duty. Helen and Miss Temple are the perfect example for good clergy ―women ‖
where truth is a powerful tool.

In compa rison with Helen, who is devoted and has an extraordinary self -sacrifice, a
male character seems to overshadow the image of piety. Though, he becomes the image of a
totalitarian and fanatic belief. St. John Rivers, in this case, becomes an embodiment of
frustration throughout the novel. His devotion to God will bring him happiness only after he
has died, in Heaven. Yet, Brontë writes with a sense of duty and mission in which sinners can
also be rescued. St. John said about himself that he is ―a cold, hard, ambitious man ‖ and he
lives his life being guided by ―[r]eason and not feeling ‖ (371) . As illustrated by his actes of
charity and also by the rescue of Jane, what gives satisfaction to him is his sense of duty and
his mission as clergy. However, when he th inks that he could become a missionary also
reflects about h ow Jane could become his wife and company. His words ―you are formed for
labour, not for love ‖ (398) demonstrate exactly the opposite. Jane is simply an object that can
be used for his needs and w ork. He even thinks that she does not need to hear God because he
can become a God for her. John's handling of Jane is actually the manipulative force that
religion has on humanity. But Jane is not ready to be become a martyr and her refusal comes
as an as sumption of her independent consciousness and her free will. For St. John, religion
becomes an imprisonment for where he never escaped. To fulfil his duty he had to detach of
all his feeling and emotions. He chose to not feel anything.

Biblical feminism i n Jane Eyre is revealed through the main character as she refused to
understand God`s will except her own consciousness. Men intervention was a common
practice in Victorian period as women were seem incapable do distinguish things for
themselves. Supernatu ral elements are present in the novel. An example for divine
intervention is when Jane heard Mr. Rochester`s voice. That was the moment when she knew
that God was looking after her. For Jane, religion had a double role, both restrictive and
beneficial. Low ood was the place where she learnt about the fact that physical and spiritual
part of the human cannot be separated. Her way of thinking was shaped by her unrestrictive
bonds of religion. Although she had the opportunity to meet Miss Temple and Helen Burns ,
she learnt that Christianity is about love and forgiveness rather than judgment. Religion plays
an important role in the novel but opinions are divided so Maria Lamonaca in her essay
―Jane ’s Crown of Thorns: Feminism and Christianity in Jane Eyre ‖ says t hat what is

20

important about novel is that ―Jane ‘s religious and spiritual autonomy as a major component
of her bildungsroman ‖ (246) .

2.2 “Fallen ” Women
―Fallen women ‖ is a specific concept for the nineteenth century Victorian literature.
As the Vic torian literature is full of erotic and outside marr iage events, the term ―fallen ‖ is
usually associated with an immoral behaviour that women used to have. In fact, Victorian
society was obsessed with the sexual innocence and moral chastity. We tend to spe ak about
―fallen women ‖ because the ―fallen man ‖ doe s not exist. Women were supposed to respect the
high moral standards that society established. In that case, they were excluded by the people
or family and in the end their life was doomed by poverty. Thi s kind of women were seen as
lacking of shame and modesty, while the society where they lived was a society where men`s
domination was everywhere. Rosalind White writes that: ―The term "fallen woman" refers to
an irrevocable loss of innocence, a concept or iginating in the biblical fall in the Garden of
Eden; the characterization of Eve as temptress inextricably links her fallen state with the loss
of sexual purity. ‖19 The society had harshly judged the women who committed adultery or
women who had a differe nt behaviour until the marriage. Amanda Anderson thinks that the
culture was applied only ―to a range of feminine identities: prostitutes, unmarried women who
engage[d] in sexual relations with men, victims of seduction, adulteresses, as well as variously
delinquent lower -class women ‖20. However, there is not a clear distinction between a
prostitute and a ―fallen ‖ woman. According to William Acton, a woman could be called
prostitute ―whether for hire or not, voluntarily surrenders her virtue ‖ and ―her first offence is
as much as an act of prostitution as its repetition ‖.21 Unlike the prostitute, the fallen women
achieved no economic gain, considered to be only victims of seduction. William Acton thinks
that:‖I have every reason to believe, that by far the nu mber of women who have resorted to
prostitution for a livehood, return sooner or later to a more or less regular course of life… ‖22

Nineteenth century was perceived as a time full of contrasts, supported also by the
image that Victorian society saw the sexual problem s: ―What are we faced with in the
nineteenth century? An age when woman was sacred and when you could buy a thirteenth –

19 Rosalind White, “The Role of the "Fallen Woman" in Three Victorian Novels: George Eliot's Adam
Bede, Wilkie Collins's A rmadale and Elizabeth Gaskell's Mary Barton ”, The Victorian Web,
http://www.victorianweb.org/gender/fallen2.html, (accessed April 13, 2017)
20 Anderson, Amanda. Tainted Souls and Painted Faces: The Rhetoric of Fallenness in Victorian Culture , p.2
21 William, A cton, Prostitution, Considered in Its Moral, Social, and Sanitary Aspects , p.7
https://books.google.ro/books?id=XJsrHfQqL5sC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=
onepage&q&f=false ( accessed April 13, 2017)
22 Idem,p.64
21

year old girl for a few pounds? … When more churches were built than in the whole previous
history of the country and when one in the sixty houses in London was a brothel?… When the
sanctity of marriage was proclaimed from every pulpit, in every newspaper editorial and
public utterance; and when never or hardly ever -have so many great public figures, from the
future king down, led scand alous private lives. ‖23

Elisabeth Lee explains the differences between men and women and how women were
judged for their innocence and c hastity, and as a result were need to live upon the society`s
rules. She said that: ―Therefore, women were portrayed eit her frigid or else insatiable. A
young lady was only worth as much as her chastity and appearance of complete innocence, for
women were time bombs just waiting to be set off. Once led astray, she was the fallen woman,
and nothing could reconcile that till she died. ‖24 Victorian writers felt that this concept was
exaggerated and they had to do something. Characters such as Céline Varens, Bl anche
Ingram, Rebecca Sharp, Fanny Robin, Tess show how women were condemned for their
behaviour.

Charlotte Brontë`s aim was to develop a new kind of women capable to show their
independence and free will. The author uses the feminine character from diffe rent social
classes to make a proper judge regarding the mentality that society had. Minor characters such
as Céline Varens, Blanche Ingram or Bertha Mason are designed by Brontë to emphasize the
progressive way that women evolved throughout the novel. Des pite the fact that Bertha was
created as a mad woman, she represents in fact the rage against the men while Céline or
Blance function as an undercover role to define Jane`s nature. As Gilbert and Gubar suggest
in The Madwoman in the Attic that Céline and B lanche function as ―negative role -models ―
for Jane and ― all suggest problems she must overcome before she can reac h the independent
maturity which is the goal for her pilgrimage. ‖25

The character Céline Varens is presented through Mr. Rochester`s story. Céline
Varens is Adele`s mother and few years later, Mr. Rochester discover that Adele might be his
daughter so he takes care of her, becoming his pupil. When Jane meets for the first time Adele
she seems to have a lot of her mother`s characteristics, she is already a ―little woman ‖, a doll –
like, she likes to sing and to dance, she prefers fashionable clothes rather than freedom or
love. But as she grew up with a British education and responsibility, she will appear as a

23 John Fowles, The French Lieut enant`s Woman , p.215
24 Elizabeth Lee, “Victorian Theories of Sex and Sexuality ”, The Victorian Web,
http://www.victorianweb.org/gender/sextheory.html, (accessed April 13, 2017)

25 Gilbert, Gubar, Madwoman in the Attic , p.350
22

docile, kind and sensitive per son thanks to her governess. In fact, Adele is the character who
helps the reader to discover the difference between Jane and Céline.

Céline Varens was a French opera singer, considered an aggressive woman and her
sinful Parisian life brought her into the Rochester`s life. She had loose morals, and her main
skill was to seduce men and then ruin them. Rochester presents Céline as unfaithful to him ―a
woman who could betray me for such a rival was not worth contending for; 8 she deserved
only scorn ‖ (Jane Ey re, p.167). She rejects the Victorian rules and morals by seeking with
other men. Her promiscuous life is a result of her wish for material things such as diamonds
and dresses. This is in fact the only thing that even Mr. Rochester gave her – material
happi ness. If we think to Céline in the term of an independent woman, the Victorian
counterargument would be that this kind of independence only brings her an illusory
happiness.

In other words, Céline is not considered a typical Victorian woman, neither a goo d
mother for Adele. Céline ‘s role as fallen woman explains why she as a character is given no
redeeming qualities and thus, functions perfectly in the novel as a bad woman. Céline Varens
is only used as the background to Rochester's immoral past when he wa s entangled with, of all
women, a French opera -girl, an immoral, unprincipled, foreign woman, just one step above
from prostitution.

Blanche Ingram is also considered a negative model of femininity because of her
limited and superficial way of thinking an d acting. She is a very attractive woman situated on
an upper class with a respectable place in the world. Unlike Céline and Adele, she also
possesses money, beauty, admiration and it showed to be in opposition to Jane. Her name
could signify purity and in nocence but also emptiness, that means no personality. She made at
a certain point a very interesting remark regarding the young men of the period: ―Creatures so
absorbed in care about their pretty faces and their whites hands, and their small feet; as if a
man had anything to do with beauty ‖26. This quote could also reflect the fact that Mrs. Ingram
could signify the abuse of wealth, power and privilege that were very common in that period
but also the desire to manipulate the people who surrounded her. Sh e is aware that in order to
maintain her position she has to het marry with a rich man and Mrs. Rochester seems to be the
ideal husband for her. But, unlike Jane, Blanche is not spiritually connected with him and as a
consequence Mr. Rochester is unable to see her as a future wife. However, Blanche possesses
beauty, the only trait that might be seemed to give her power in the Victorian patriarchal
society. Jane noticed Blanche during her stay at Thornfield Hall and it is visible an opposition
between them. At some point, Jane thinks: ‖ if a woman, in my position,

26 Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre , p. 182
23

could presume to be jealous of a woman in Miss Ingram's. But I was not jealous: or very
rarely; –the nature of the pain I suffered could not be explained by that word. Miss Ingram
was a mark beneath jealousy: she was too inferior to excite the feeling ‖(Jane Eyre, p.221).
Blanche, as other characters is exposed to th e reader through Jane`s eyes: ‖ She was very
showy, but she was not genuine: she had a fine pers on, many brilliant attainments; but her
mind was poor, her heart barren by nature: nothing bloomed spontaneously on that soil; no
unforced natural fruit delighted by its freshness. She was not good; she was not original: she
used to repeat sounding phrases from books: she never offered, nor had, an opinion of her
own‖(Jane Eyre, p.221). This quote also emphasizes the most common situation toward
women: the inability to have an own opinion. As governess, Jane takes care of Adele, she is
concerning about her education, instead Blanche ―Too often she betrayed this, by the undue
vent she gave to a spiteful antipathy she had conceived against little Adele: pushing her away
with some costumelios epithet if she happened to approach her; sometimes ordering her from
the room, and always treating her with coldness and acrimony. ‖(Jane Eyre, p.221).
Essentially, this description shows not only that Blanche is unable to be a good mother but
also her cruel character. Regarding Jane`s preoccupation for Adele, she also think s about how
―If Miss Ingram had been a good and noble woman, endowed with force, fervour, kindness,
sense ‖, the situation would be better for the child. How Bla nche thinks about governess is a
reveal about how woman were seen in that period. She shows crue lty and no understanding
about those whom she considers to be of lower social status than hers. Like Rebecca Sharp,
Blanche lives in a turmoil of events, her presence been always noticed by the all men who
surrounded her.

Moreover, the only thing that see ms to have in common Blanche and Céline is Mr.
Rochester`s money and position. Also, both are described as sexual aggressive women,
passive and selfish. Céline and Blanche function together as a contrast to Jane`s main
characteristics: generosity and care for others.

Focusing on the female status and problems, Thomas Hardy also shows how the force
of social environment affected inner „reality‟ of protagonists, th eir aspirations, portraying
female maturation as process of self -realization rather than self -correction. In Tess of the
D'Urbervilles , main character could be seen from two perspectives: as a pure woman or as a
fallen woman while in Far from the Madding Crowd, Fanny Robin was always associated
with the image of Troy – ―Fanny Robin, the victim of Ser geant Troy ‖.

Regarding Fanny, Hardy presents her initially as an innocent girl who turned to be a
tragic heroine. We can see how the author try to cover and find a justification for all the
circumstances that in the end brought her to death. However, her role was more important

24

than we think, she had the power to destroy the marriage between Troy and Bathsheba
Everdene but Hardy only mentions her for five ti mes. Hardy describes Fanny as ―a slim girl,
rather thinly clad ‖ and her ――voice [is] unexpected ly attractive: it [is] the low and dulcet note
suggestive of romance; common in descriptions, rare in experience ‖ (53). In the beginning,
Fanny appears only as an interest for what happened in the past and what will happen in the
future. Fanny does not app ear as a round -character, and she could be described in a single
sentence. Her only meaning seems to be Troy. As Amelia, from Vanity Fair, Fanny is
obedient and naive but in contrast to Amelia, she is considered a fallen woman. An important
scene is when B oldwood and troy discuss about Bathsheba and Fanny is mentioned:

―But about Fanny? ‖

―Bathsheba is a woman well to do, ‖ continued Boldwood in nervous
anxiety, ―and Troy, she will make a good wife, and indeed, she is
worth your hastening on your marriage w ith her! ‖

―But she has a will─ not to say a temper, and I shall be a mere

slave to her. I could do anything with poor Fanny Robin. ‖

―Troy, ‖ said Boldwood, imploringly, ―I‘ll do anything for you, only

don‘t desert her─ pray don ‘t desert her, Troy. ‖

―Wh ich, poor Fanny? ‖

―No─ Bathsheba Everdene. Love her best! Love her tenderly! ‖
(228− 9)

Boldwood does not name the girl and Troy only uses her name to tease Boldwood. Another
significant scene is when Fanny dies and Joseph simply informs Bathsheba about F anny ‘s
―having lived by se ampstering in Melchester . . . and that she walked therefrom at the end of
last week, passing near here Saturday night in the dusk ‖ (272). She is associated with a fallen
women only after the people discover her pregnancy. As a co nsequence, she will be reduced
to poverty. No one seems to realize that actually she was after all a victim of Troy`s
behaviour.

In chapter 40, Hardy transforms Fanny in a universal type of women – she walks alone,
on a moonless, completely alone. It may s eem that she is searching an identity. In contrast
with Bathsheba who thinks, ―I hate to be thought men ‘s property ‖ or ―I shouldn ‘t mind being
a bride at a wedding if I could be one without having a husband ‖ (35), Fanny belongs to Troy
as mark for his beha viour. For the beginning, Hardy`s stress is on the searching of a potential
husband for Bathsheba and the three men who acceded to that status try lead Bathsheba in the
road toward marriage. Moreover, Hardy sets the story in a time that most women`s purpos e
was to marry and bear children. In other words, women`s life stared only after they belonged

25

to a man just as Bathsheba cannot manage the farm without Oak. Ideally, Fanny`s happiness
is strong related with her dream to get married with Troy. Because of that, Hardy describe
Fanny throughout the story only as an accessory for Troy and her baby is more than a link that
she is strongly connected with the young soldier. When the baby dies, Bathsheba`s
development will be complete and Troy will realize tha t he loves Fanny. Furthermore,
Fanny`s baby comes as a witness/ testimony for Troy`s past and Bathsheba realizes that she
never really belongs to Troy. When Troy places flowers to the Fanny`s tomb, the rain washes
them away as a sign that she is erased fro m his life. Although the young woman was unable to
make her presence at the right time, her role will be more than important for the evolution of
Bathsheba. Even if Hardy strongly marginalized her, the story is obedient to the Victorian
time when a woman m ust belong to a man. For the independent Bathsheba is meditation for
her future status as a ―men`s property ‖.

In this respect, Charles Dickens goes forward with the issues of ―falleness ‖ and
prostitution and in Oliver Twist and David Copperfield , he portr ay a variety of female
characters that can be called fallen. However, Dickens tries to reveal a new kind of women
who is covered by the term ―fallen ‖. J. Hillis Miller write in this book, Charles Dickens: The
World of his Novels , that: ―There is no accepta nce of the doctrine of the original sin in
Dickens`s anthropology. Each human creature comes pure and good from the hand of God
and only becomes evil through the effects of an evil environment .‖27

Nancy, the female character from Oliver Twist , is the firs t female character that brings
to light the London underworld. Through the childish eyes of Oliver, the reader discovers
Nancy with her friend Bet and thinks about them: ‖remarkably free and agreeable in their
style ‖ and ―very nice girls indeed ‖(p.57). An i mportant role it has Fagin, the man who raised
Nancy in poverty and trapped her. In this perspective, the woman can be considered the
victim of the circumstances, as she never identifies as a part of the gang. Her attitude and love
for other c an be seen wh en she refuses to betray Rose Maylie and Mr.Brownlow: ―There are
many of us who have kept the same course together, and I`m not turn upon them, who might –
any of them -have turned upon me, but didn`t, bad as they are ‖ (305). Although she is impl ied
in the ga ng, she is conscious about Oliver`s future and at some point thinks: ‖I hope he is dead,
and out of harm`s way, and out of yours ‖ (166). Oliver`s circumstances complete her image
and her feelings as frustration and shame. Rose Maylie also contribute to her feelings because
she represent the ideal of femininity in the novel: ‖ she felt burdened with the sense of her own
deep shame, and shrunk as though she could scarcely bear the presence of her with whom she
had sought this interview ‖(262). As we already know , the women in the Victorian

27 J. Hillis Miller, Charles Dickens: The World of his Novels, p.68
26

society tried to achieve a sort of domestic duties and this is the thing that Nancy tried, too. In
her cohabitation with Bill Sikes, she performs domestic duties and nurses her ―husband ‖ as it
was expected from an ideal woman. From that point of view, Nancy`s position is closer to the
ideal of femininity regarding the mentality of the time. Lucia Zedner points out: ‖ In Oliver
Twist, Dickens portrays Nancy a s unfailingly loyal to the villainous Bill Sikes ‖28. Her
attachment to Sikes will lead her to death.

In Oliver Twist , Charles Dickens develop different perspectives for ―falleness ‖ and
another example for this is Oliver`s mother, Agnes Fleming. Her tragic story is reflected
through surgeon`s judging: ―The old stor y`, he said shaking, his head; No wedding -ring, I
see‖(4). In this perspective, Agnes`s moral ruin is a perfect example for what it means a moral
ruin and its consequences for the family. For her father, his daughter`s ―falleness ‖ force him
to run away ―Goaded by shame and dishonour ‖ (343), as the community offers them only a
negative image caused by his Agnes. Moreover, Rose Maylie, Agnes`s sister thinks that she is
condemned for others sins. In t hat case, her aspiration for an upper class is stopped when she
wanted to marry with the prosperous Harry Maylie. As a consequence, Harry is forced to
leave his privileged status and become a clergyman in order to have a family with Rose: ―This
is my rank and station now, and here I lay it down ‖ (348).

In conclusion, the female image of the Victorian woman followed the social class she
was part of. Regardless of whether they were following the traditional or rebellious way,
women of the 19th century had th e power to find their inner strength. Education was a means
by which women could claim their rights. Writers of that period described the atmosphere and
the way women were treated. Throughout the mentioned novels, Victorian writers have tried
to provide a realistic picture of the position women occupy both in society and in marriage.
The image of "angel in the house" was a doctrine imposed by the social mentality of those
times. The church, in turn, played an important role in trying to consider the woman i nferior
to the man. However, Victorian writers find in some passages a reflection on womanhood.
Yet, even in the 19th century novels, female characters suffered the most.

Femininity was most often associated with the type of behaviour they had in society.
As we mentioned, middle -class women were a source of inspiration for writers. As far as the
women who were considered ―fallen ‖, the society had a harsh attitude. Victorian society
judged the behavior of women sharply through the actions they were taking. As expected,
women had to stay pure until they get married. Deviation from this had unfortunate
consequences for that woman. However, fallen women in the Victorian novels presented
another perspective. Reputation was an element of the 19th century family. Dickens' feminine

28 Lucia Zedner, Women, Crime and Custory in Victorian England , p. 58
27

characters offer a picture of the woman who sacrifices for the good of the family. Self –
sacrifice was appreciated in the Victorian era, but it could not compensate social position.
Though she was not punished by justice, the fallen woman was punished by the inability to
reintegrate into society. Another significant fact is the removal of these women. This removal
can be associated with the public sphere that was not allowed for women.

In spite of the inferiority position of women in society, Victorian literature shows the
typical female figure of the Victorian woman through the consciousness that feminine
characters have. From this perspective, the British social co nsciousness was aware about the
claims and the rights that women demanded. Whether the Victorian woman was seen – as an
angel in the house or a fallen woman, she always represented a fascination for her
contemporary writers.

28

Chapter 3

III. The Feminine Victorian Emancipated Heroine

If in the previous chapter, Victorian writers depicted the image of what British
people used to call ―angel in the house ‖ and ―fallen women ‖, in this section our concern will
refer to the emancipation and the main characteristics of the Victorian emancipated woman.

With Victorian writers, the path that had been created for women was far different
than was made by the previous writers. If in the early nineteenth century, women were
consider inferior compared to men, the situation would took a favourable turn for the
1800mid`s. As sources of inspiration, we already saw that private life was one of the most
used tools. Biography and autobiography construct the largest source for the history of the
women`s movement. Thus, Hardy wrote his novel having as source of inspiration women that
marked his life. Charlotte Brontë used her own experience at a charity school and in Jane
Eyre that thing made possible a complete view over the edu cational system and how the
children were treated through the eyes of the writer herself. As regarding George Eliot, she
knew the differences between the towns and the countryside and that helped her to expose
better her characters, their daily activities and how they did manage with the moral rules
imposed by that period.

Almost every character has a well defined role that help us understanding better the
position that women had, their activities and also their inner thoughts and feeling. From
women who t ry to get out of ruck, such as Rebecca Sharp, William Thackeray`s main
character from Vanity Fair, to the pious Dorothea and unconventional Susanna Bridehead,
every woman is inspired by the reality of the time. Society considered that women were
vulnerable human being that needs a permanent protection and in a patriarchal society to be
vulnerable meant helpless women with an identity imposed. But this vulnerability might be
seen as a modality for reasoning and underline the state of mind without avoiding th e
emotion, the feelings that could be turns into a position of autonomy.

The grace of Charlotte Brontë`s fiction is that she can expose the vulnerability and
horror through the grotesque and madness. We shall see through Jane Eyre how Victorian
society us ed to marginalize a woman without any possibility using and old stereotype such
as orphan hood. In Jane Eyre, Charlotte Brontë dares to put forward new standards about
what female worth means, what beauty and rules about life, restraining social and cultur al
environment are all about. The book is considered to be a feminist novel. The focus is
regard to gender role portrayal and the use of symbolism as a means to

29

communicate the idea of a typical Victorian woman as an image shared by Victorian era.
Under the constitution of things in patriarchal Victorian society, Brontë ‘s views about a
woman ‘s rights and role were bound to cause controversy. Unlike the typical Victorian
woman, Jane Eyre struggles to assert herself independently; not an easy task in a s ociety
that considers the woman inferior (in all aspects) to men.

It is obvious in Jane Eyre that the kind of relations she wants to form must have the
principle of equality (and not convenience) as a basis. In many ways, Jane is the first
modern female f igure in fiction because she remains unbroken and also she seems to be
posed of the greatest treasure a woman can have: self -respect. For the first instant when the
heroine appears, she will reveal a different breed. Even when she has to confront with her
aunt or at the Lowood, she is able to know her own worth – an unforgivable thing in girls
and woman. It is important to mention that as soon as she arrived at Thornfield Hall, she
sets the struggle where the restless master comes and goes. The house represe nts the fate of
woman in the nineteenth century: enclosure, entrapment, no hope of ecape. Not only Jane
is capture there but also her alter -ego, Bertha Mason. We can associate Jane with freedom
denied and a deep faith and everything that means social conve ntions and Bertha with
sexuality denied, oppression against womanhood. Thornfield Hall itself represents the
rules applied to woman.

Jane must pass a lot of tests to become what she becomes. She must reject a variety
of hypocritical masculine figures who feel it is their right to submit her. Also, she is aware
and even she refuses the fate of being a female victim. The universe of Jane Eyre is
contouring according to female laws.

The novel is confident on the heroine ‘s sensitivity to dreams and visions. F emale
education and intelligence is an important theme, such as love, forgiveness, the importance
of values, independence and dept of women`s lives : ‖ It is in vain to say human beings
ought to be satisfied with tranquillity: they must have action; and the y will make it if they
cannot find it ‖29. Charlotte Brontë presents and examines with Jane Eyre the very
complicated relation between expressing your desire and restrains yourself. She uses
different landscape, a wilder one, different kind of people, for e xample Edward Rochester
is considered to be a Byronic hero, the mad wife locked up in a attic, people for different
classes such as Helen Burns, Mrs. Fairfax, Bertha Mason, different approach to morality
and besides all, she focuses on the fact that women should be allowed to use their talents. It
is known that few jobs were considered respectable for a woman like becoming a
governess.

29 Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre , p.111
30

The main character, Jane is also the voice who speaks, who suffers and endures al l
the pains with a strong confidence in herself and God. Raised by her aunt, Mrs. Reed she
does not received the affection she needs and an important and unforgettable scene is when
Jane, after a fight with her cousin John Reed is sent to the red -room and her reaction are
visible when she speaks with her aunt: ―I am glad you are no relation of mine. I will never
call you aunt again as long as I live. I will never come to visit you when I am grown up;
and if anyone asks me how I liked you, and how you treate d me, I will say the very thought
of you makes me sick, and that you treated me with miserable cruelty ‖30 –this quotation
appears in chapter 4 and it means Jane`s testimony about her free spirit and liberation. Mrs.
Reed appears incapable to react and seem s to be astonished by these words. In chapter
four, Jane also tends to remind that even her aunt is surrounded by patri archal limits:
―What would uncle Reed say to you if he were alive? ‖. This remark appears in Jane`s mind
after she has a dialogue with Mr. Brocklehurst who represent an image of cruelty and
merciless patriarchal figure. Not even her female cousins Georgiana and Eliza Reed do not
have a mild attitude regarding Jane being considered negatives example for what is means
vanity and superficial amb ition and vanity. Child with no parents, Jane is considered a
burden for her relatives, so her childhood will continue at Lowood School: ―I had only
been a spectator of the proceedings at Lowood, I was now to become an actor therein ‖31.
Her way from childh ood to adulthood is full of events that transform Jane in one of the
most strong character being the representation of women faithfully and confidence. The
school ‘s headmaster is Mr. Brocklehurst, a very cruel man who leads the school with a
strict regime of poverty and privation for his students.

Jane‘s friend, Helen Burns will become an important figure for the inner
development of the heroine. On the one hand, Helen is a clever and an intelligent girl who
teaches Jane the notion of tolerance and patienc e. On the other hand, Helen exaggerated
attitude towards religion, her ready acceptance of death and suffering is hardly accepted by
Jane. Helen does no more than accept her fate. Her name is also suggestive, like the name
of Miss Temple, she burns with fe ar, anger, spiritual passions but she hopes to die young,
as she explains in chapter nine: ―By dying young, I shall escape from great sufferings. ‖
Another suggestive scene is when Jane sees Helen for the last time. Helen dies over the
night. On her grave, which is originally unmarked, fifteen years after her death, a gray
marble tablet is put over it, with the single word Resurgam , Latin for what means ―I shall

30 Charlotte Bronte, Jane Eyre , pg.36
31 Idem, p.52
31

rise again. ‖ The angelic Helen Burns and her doctrine of endurance represent a religious
position that contrasts with Mr. Brocklehurst ‘s32.

A crucial moment is when Jane discovers Bertha Mason. First wife of Edward
Rochester, she represents the captivity of the society. Protected and guarder by Grace
Poole, she becomes within the time a cruel, violent and abuse woman and because of that
she is unable to propose her own response for what was happened. Grace Poole is one the
most enigmatic women that Jane meets at Thornfield. She is associated with Bertha, but
unlike Bertha she is the madwoman`s public representation. Jane is trying to find out what
is the real position of Grace Poole at Thornfield. What is interesting about that is the fact
that Jane speculates at some point that Mr. Rochester may have once feelings for Grace. In
fact, Grace is the one who protect Mr. Rochester`s secret and tries to look after the
―madwoman in the attic ‖. Although Bertha is unable to spe ak, her reactions revealed her
personality. She always tries to escape from the attic as Mr. Rochester tries to escape from
his past and get ready for a new beginning. As George Landor points out, Jane finds that
Rochester is usurping the place of God, and by discovering Bertha, she envisions herself in
consequence suffering the fate of Pharaoh before Moses, declaring: ‗My hopes were all
dead – struck with a subtle doom, such as, in one night, fell on all the first -borning the land
of Egypt ‘ (ch. 26)33. Although she is insane, she also is receptive at some events such as
the future wedd ing between Jane and Edward so she shows herself to Jane and destroy her
wedding veil. Her previous actions reveal her necessity to be heard. Bertha could be
consider another side of Jane`s personality. Both of them love the same man, Bertha is a
foreign w oman, she was not used with the Victorian principle and she is not able to pursue
the rules that follows in that period .On the other hand, Jane`s personality is reflected by
her desire to become an equal voice for the man she loves. Bertha is Rochester`s burden
for the wrong decisions he once made. He admits that he had married Bertha for status,
money acceding a higher position rather for love or equality as this thing will be revealed
in chapter 27 when Edward confess to Jane: ―Oh, I have no respect for myself when I think
at that act! ‖. It is important to mention that: ―…the existence of this criminal self
imprisoned at Thornfield`s attic is the ultimate legal impediment to Jane`s and Rochester`s
marriage, and that its existence is, paradoxically, an i mpediment raised by Jane as well as
by Rochester. ‖34 On the other hand both Jane and Bertha are imprisoned, Jane in the red –

32 Spark Notes Editors. “Spark Note on Jane Eyre. ” Spark Notes LLC. 2002.
http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/janeeyre/ (accessed March 2 3, 2017).
33 George P. Landow, Victorian Types, Victorian Shows: Biblical Typology in Victorian Literature,
Art and Thought (1980), p. 97.
34 Gilbert, Sandra M. and Susan Gubar, eds. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the
Nineteenth -Century Imagin ation p.360

32

room, that ―bad animal ‖ this is what would become a persistent memory for the whole life
of her, and then Bertha, who is imprisoned at Thornfield Hall by Rochester after he finds
out that she is insane. Yet, also Bertha and Jane are margin alised, and at some point the
figure of Bertha seen as dirty, grotesque it might signify the slavery from that period and
the effects of imperialism, and as we know England was a major slaving power .Her
madness could be associated with the fear for realit y or a rejection from the society. She is
unable to communicate or to find love, so she creates her own world as a form of self –
protection.

Before we actually find out about Bertha Mason ‘s existence, we are aware of her as
an uneasy and even threatening p resence. She is the source of the mysterious, mocking
laugh that Jane hears as she stands on the battlements of Thornfield Hall, desperate for
freedom from domestic routine.35 Bertha will destroy Thornfield as an act of freedom and
despair, a rebellion aga inst society, she burning down the house and destroy herself in the
process. Not only the house will be a ―victim ‖ but also Rochester because the fire causes
him to lose both eyes and hand. Mrs. Rochester death will make possible an equal marriage
with no constraints.

Social expectations and cultural influences imposed limits on the amount of power
that a woman could have. An example for those limitations is subjects such sex, marriage,
divorce, adultery, private propriety, homosexuality, prostitution that were consider taboos.
However, what Thomas Hardy did was to write about how women were underestimated by
the contemporaries, about the sexually charged issues, about the hypocrisy of the time.
Thomas Hardy`s writing dared to challenge with the power of Vi ctorian assumptions
although their frustration presence were fully fel t. According to J. Hillis Miller, ― The form
of Hardy`s novels is a mirage, a fiction, but a fiction created by selection, by freeing a
certain shape from the rock and by following certa in strands in the total web to reveal a
previously hidden design in li fe.‖

Hardy succeeds through his feminine characters to create a path for the growth of
an independent woman, one who fights for her acceptance and her ideals. From the naive
Tess, to th e independent Bathsheba and defiant Sue, Hardy manages to have a close
examination of his feminine characters, a study on his personal experience. That is way
Hardy is considering to be among the first feminists. As Charlotte Brontë see the
vulnerability a s a starting point for her heroine, Thomas Hardy find vulnerability as a
pattern that his feminine characters use not to show their inferioty but autonomy. He tries

35 The figure of Bertha Mason, http://www.bl.uk/romantics -and-victorians/articles/the -figure-of-bertha –
mason#sthash.N6rfgCRA.dpuf (accessed March 25, 2017).

33

in that way to find a balance between man and women, advocating the equality between
human being. This is to say, women at Hardy are intelligent, strong -minded and free and
independent spirits who try to confront the oppressive treatment of them. He thought that
all these qualities reflect the true human female nature in a society that negative impacts
such as adultery, divorce, sexuality were regarded as intimidating and frustrating. H is
feminine characters` evolution is situated somehow between the law of the Victorian time
and their free will to be accepted as equal, between his idealist ideas and his preserving
way to the society he lived. However, Hardy offers a voice and a self -governing mind to
reflect the anxiety and also the ambiguity of their role in the society. Far From the
Madding Crowd (1874) was the book that establish Hardy`s reputation and one of the most
representatives characters, Bathsheba Everdene, express best the di fficulties that women
had to challenge in pointed their views and opinions.

As Jane and Dorothea, Bathsheba will have her own pilgrimage where she will
discover important values such as faith, love and tolerance. If at the beginning of the novel,
she is p oor after she is inherited, the young woman will learn to run a farm in Waterbury.
Also, Waterbury is the place where almost all the action takes place. Bathsheba is not only
financially independent but also spiritual and this is the reason why Hardy uses such a
character to prevent the eventual consequences of marriage.

There are few moments where Bathsheba is incapable to be silent, thing that will
cause her major problems and she is trapped in her own word. When farmer Boldwood
proposes her, Bathsheba r eplies him: ―It is difficult for a woman to define her feelings in a
language which is chiefly made by men to express theirs ‖ ( Far from the Madding Crowd ,
p.308). She seems to understand her role in a patriarchal society where her identity and her
way of thinking, as well, are tested. Unlike Sue, she does not affront the values of the men
in the society she lives. When she manages the farm, she is aware of her position and also
she wants that everything is clear for the workers: ―I shall be up before you a re awake; I
shall be afield before you are up; and I shall have breakfast before you are afield ‖ (Far
from the Madding Crowd , p.97). Despite her managerial skills show her ability to be part
of in a society that marginalize women, Oak express his concernin g in what it means her
power to deal with: ― How would the farm go on with nobody to mind it but a woman? ‖ (
Far from the Madding Crowd , p.217). Bathsheba is accepted a woman farmer but she will
not receive the real respect as a man farmer will have.

Rega rding marriage and the ideal of motherhood, Hardy`s characters express his
ideal and it is no surprise for reader to discover that women are not interested becoming
―men`s property ‖. She does not want to become a prisoner although at first encounter with

34

Troy he said: ―you are a prisoner, miss ‖ (p.183). The word ―prisoner ‖ means captivity and
the heroine is concerned about that as a refusal to become inferior to the patriarchal society
she lives in. Troy`s existence is a warning to her individuality an d independence and her
future acts will get her in trouble. When she discovered that Troy betrayed her, Bathsheba
has a crucial moment: ―Loving is a misery for women always. I shall never forgive God for
making me a woman… ‖ (p.222). Independent and free -spirited mind, the heroine will find
the strength to pass over the obstacles. She is difficult to conquest, she is arrogant,
impulsive and at some point she even says to Oak: ―I am too independent and you would
never be able to, I know ‖ (p.41). While Oak i s ready to love her unconditionally, Troy is
ready to subjugate her as a task for his masculinity. It seems that he is the one that needs to
possess a woman, regarding her as nothing else than an object. His affair with Fanny Robin
is essentially to unders tand his position toward women. Troy cannot see Bathsheba like an
independent women, he wants to create an illusion of her unreal self. In other words, Troy
is associated with Victorian society, incapable to accept the equality and ready anytime to
show hi s manliness. As regarding Fanny Robin, she is seems like a victim of the Victorian
society while Bathsheba is a voice that must be heard. Troy, Boldwood and Oak try to
reshape Bathsheba according to their desires and expectations, hence make her see the re al
position that a woman has. She is not a typical Victorian woman; she has found the
strength to fight for her ideal of womanhood. Bathsheba, however will find happiness in
the marriage with Gabriel Oak, even if their friendship`s evolution does not have a good
start. Oak is the first man that sees Bathsheba without her knowing and their relation
evolves for misunderstanding and disagreement to marriage.

In Far From the Madding Crowd , Hardy presents a story that in many ways
supports the idea of feminism and women`s rights. Still, in his writing we find typical
Victorian women, his novels are a reflection of how females were treated and subjugate in
a patriarchal society. Hardy portrays the feminist ideology as a weapon for their freedom
and existence, wom an as a strong and capable human, depicting the equal relationship
between a man and a woman.

Middlemarch , by George Eliot is more than a ―Study of Provincial Life ‖ as the
author herself subtitle; it is a complex image about England and the changing of va lues
were redefined ―Defying the vision according to which the poets alone traditionally moved
in the intellectual vanguard, George Eliot was the first to move in the vanguard of the
thought of her day, adding thus new scope and dignity to the English nove l. She is said to
have made the novel respectable without sacrificing its entertainment quality, due to her
eye for character, her eye for dialogue and her clear sense of the social and economic

35

conditions in which people lived.36‖ The novel presents different types of women but Eliot
main focus is Dorothea Brooke, who is also the main feminine character. She is presented
like a pious and idealistic woman who wants to help the community. Dorothea, as Jane and
Bathsheba, has a depth faith and love for G od and nature, but especially for human being.
Eliot`s main observation is the tension between Dorothea's physical femininity and her
spirituality.

Although opinions are divided concerning the feminist assumptions that George
Eliot tried to reveal through her novel, Zelda Austen thinks that: ―feminist critics are
angry…because George Eliot…did not permit Dorothea Brooke to do what [she herself] did
in real life; refuse to marry until the she was middle -aged, lived an independent existence
as a spinster , publish books, and live life openly with a man she could not marry.37‖
George Eliot however tried to recreate the society, ideas and culture of an isolated land
from England in 1830s, a period that brought England a series of events. Both Dorothea
and Ly dgate are enthusiastic in what means the benefit of community and both fail.
Dorothea will be focused in her first marriage. Her weakness will be revealed in her
blindness faith of the pseudo -intellectual Casaubon while Dr. Lydgate will be unable to
touch his aspiration when Rosamond Vincy appears in his life. Eliot associates Rosamond
Vincy with the romantic figure, in order to reveal her mediocre status, ‖ found time. . .to
read the best novels, and even the second best, and she knew much poetry by heart. Her
favourite poem was ‗Lalla Rookh ‖( Middlemarch, p.124), while Dorothea takes her role of
protector by driving the plot. In fact, Rosamond can be seen as a parody of a romance lady.
She even follow the pattern that French romances suggested, those with w hich she is
familiar. By marring with Casaubon, Dorothea supports Celia`s marriage with Sir James,
she reunites Lydgate and Rosamond, and also rehabilitees Lydgate`s name.

George Eliot use the suffering as a tool for the characters ‘ obser vations and how s uch
a feeling can be useful for bringing self -knowledge, compassion and understanding the human
nature. Henry James saw Middlemarch as ―a treasure house of details, but it is an indifferent
whole ‖. Still, Dorothea`s way of thinking has bee n changed through out the novel, from the
naive and blind girl to the mature woman capable to distinguish between what is authentic and
fake. Kathleen Blake, a feminist literary critic suggest that: ― [Middlemarch]…begins and ends
with Dorothea [and that] at the final…c ompletes the theme launched in the
prelude…[specifically] a theme [of a] Saint Theresa Syndrome.38‖ With Dorothea, George
Eliot manages to create a feminist character through Dorothea, one who looks below the
36 Irina, Toma, Victorian Contrasts, p. 59
37 Austen, Zelda, “ Why Feminists Critics are Angry with George Elliot ”, p.549
38 Blake, Kathleen, Middlemarch and the Woman Question , p.288
36

surface, beyond the conventi ons. Eliot ‘s fiction comes to concentrate increasingly on
individual human minds, ―While Middlemarch is set in the past, and the narrator does not
look back to its happenings as complete or finished events. Rather, the narrator provides a
second time -frame, and the novel is written with an eye to the contemporary debate over the
second Reform Act and the position of women. ‖39

The contradictions between the life George Eliot led and the one described in her
works are surprising. Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar touch on this, saying: ―For, as an
Agnostic setting out to write about the virtues of clerical life, a ―fallen ‖ woman praising the
wife‘s service, a childless writer celebrating motherhood, an intellectual writing what she
called ―experiments in life ‖ in celebration of womanly feeling, Eliot becomes entangled in
contradictions that she c an only resolve through acts of vengeance against her own characters,
violent retributions that become more prominent when contrasted with her professed purposes
as a no velist ‖ (479)

In connection with the feminist ideal, William Makepeace Thackeray succe eds
through Vanity Fair to write about a society where about he himself said ―(…) we are for the
most part an abominably foolish and selfish people ‗desperately wicked ‘ and all eager after
vanities.40‖ However, when we speak about Victorian women, a common theme is that of
―fallen women ‖. The notion, as Elizabeth Lee said, has to do with the different role that
women and men had: ‖ A dichotomy of temperaments defined femini ne and masculine: an
anabolic nature which nurtured versus a katabolic nature which re leased energy
respectively.41‖ His contemporary received Vanity Fair with appreciation and John Forster`s
words were ‖ "Vanity Fair is the work of a mind, at once accomp lished and subtle, which has
enjoyed opportunities of observing many and varied circles of society. . . his genteel
characters… have a reality about them… They are drawn from actual life, not from books and
fancy; and they are presented by means of brief, decisive yet always most discriminative
touches42" (1848).

Vanity Fair follows the story of two different women, Rebecca Sharp and Amelia
Sedley. Amelia is seen as the obedient, kind and naive feminine character that devoted her life
to family. Amelia is the stereotype of the typical Victorian woman, the angel in the house. She
illustrat es weak humility and blind loyalty, but it is a specific difference between her and the

39 Hilda M., Hollins, Unsatisfactory Answer: Dialogism in George Eliot's Later Novel, p. 130,
https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/14235/1/fulltext.pdf ( acces sed April 9, 2017)
40 W. M. Thackeray to G. H. Lewes, on 6 March 1848, as quoted in Ioan M. Williams, Thackeray, London:
Evans Brothers Limited, 1968, p. 60.
41 Elizabeth Lee, ―Victorian Theories of Sex and Sexuality ‖, The Victorian Web ,
http://www.victorianwe b.org/gender/sextheory.html, ( April 9, 2017)
42 William Makepeace Thackeray, Thackeray`s Vanity Fair ,
http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/novel_19c/thackeray/index.html , ( April 10, 2017)
37

people who surrounding her. Amelia`s characterizat ion is seems to be her overwhelming
affection and her capacity to love ―too violently, [and] against reason. ‖ She has a foolish way
to love, that eventually will only bring her unhappiness. Although she is captured in a sordid
marriage, she would have the lifetime devotion of William Dobbin, who will always protect
and take care of her. Even if she allows Dobin to be near, eventually she will turn back to him,
following her own pursuits.

Contrasting Amelia`s image of passive voice, Rebecca [Becky] Sharp em phasizes the
opposite image of the traditional heroine. While Amelia is situated in the domestic sphere,
Rebecca is looking for fame and fortune. Thackeray designs two different types of women,
not to choose a right or a wrong one but to show two ways of b ecoming selfish. At the end of
the novel, the reader will discover that neither Amelia nor Rebecca is bad or good. For the
beginning, Amelia and Becky are situated on the different social classes. As we know, the
difference between social classes was an im portant subject in the Victorian society. The gap
between the poor and the rich was well designed by Thackeray, but also he emphasizes the
struggle that common people do and their aspirations to distinguish themselves. In that time,
two elements were impor tant to distinguish: birth and fortune and exactly these two elements
distinguish Amelia and Becky. Also, the novel presents the way that Becky followed for a
reputation, how hard she managed to obtain and how easy had been lost.

Becky`s roots are from on e of the lowest class, her father was an artist and also a man
of bad behaviour: ‖ He was a clever man, a pleasant companion, a careless student; with a
great propensity for running into debt, and a partiality for the tavern. When he was drunk, he
used to b eat his wife and daughter; and the next morning, with a headache, he would rail at
the world for its neglect of his genius, and abuse, with a good deal of cleverness, and
sometimes with perfect reason, the fools, his brother painters. ‖ Her mother was a Fre nch
opera -girl and it was far different from the image that a woman was expected to show. As
Jane`s evolution is based on the stories that she heard from Mr. Rochester, and then she
discovers the origin of Adele`s mother, Céline Varens, a French woman. Thr ough his eyes,
Jane finds out that Céline was a French singer opera living by questionable principles. She is
seen as being materialistic, faithless, and for Jane represent a warning for Mr. Rochester`s
lifestyle. Céline Varens represent the negative model from the Victorian period such as
Becky`s mother does. Despite the fact that she does not renegade her mother, she avoids to
confess detail about her mother`s disreputable profession as she thinks that might be
threatening her rise in the society. Just as Jane, Becky spoke French, as Miss Pinkerton said
―‗with purity and a Parisian accent. ‖(Vanity Fair , p.11)

38

Rebecca Sharp was seen like a person with an intelligent mind and a deep
ambition for her purpose. Starting from childhood, she felt wronged by people who do not
understand her. As we already know, people were classified by their income, and she was a
penniless orphan in a society that standards matter. This was the start point that
determinates Becky to struggle for her status and the only optio n that she had was to marry
with someone rich. In chapter ten we see that: ―Thus it was that our little roman tic friend
formed visions of the future for herself – nor must we be scandalised that, in all her castles
in the air, a husband was the principal i nhabitant. Of what else have young ladies to think,
but husbands? ‖; she knew that this task would not be easy but rather her only solution for a
profitable future.

Thackeray takes care to give the reader the reality and also the appearance of the
time. Wi th Rebecca Sharp as he describes her: ‖ She was small and slight in person; pale,
sandy -haired, and with eyes habitually cast down: when they looked up they were very
large, odd, and attractive… By the side of many tall and bouncing young ladies in the
establishment, Rebecca Sharp looked like a child. ‖ Thackeray manages to make a
difference between the common Victorian women and the main character. It was clear for
beginning that Rebecca was not the ideal of traditional heroine but the author endowed her
with inner strength. However, as the novel evolves, Becky will start to begin more
concerned about her looks, as a step for her entry in a world dominated by men. This
attempt can be also associated with her need to detach from the common people and show
her individuality. She is aware about her capability to manipulate and she is not afraid to
use it. Thackeray wr ites in the preface called ‗Before the Curtain ‘ that ―the famous little
Becky Puppet has been pronounced to be uncommonly flexible in the joints a nd lively on
the wire ‖.

She is capable to manipulate and satisfy her own wishes and often, she is associated with a
snake: ‖I [Miss Pinkerton] have nourished a viper in my bosom. ‖43 Or ―She writ es and twists
about like a snake.44‖ This image can be associa ted with the image of snake in the Eden Garden.
As the snake cannot provide strength by force, but by words, Rebecca must show her power of
speaking and acting. She has to follow her way into society and changed the position that she had
and also the influ ence on the men who surrounded her. Rebecca seems to follow the same
trajectory in the conquest of the Crawley family, and also the same tactics as with Joseph Sedley.
She can be considered a femme fatale; a femme fatale means a woman that uses her sexuali ty and
other feminine skills in attempt to conquest men for a hidden

43 Vanity Fair, p.14
44 VF, p.263
39

purpose. Thackeray uses his character to reveal an attempt of men`s subjugation, in chapter
51, for example : ―Lord Steyne was her slave – followed he r everywhere, and scarcely spoke
to anyone in the room besides, and paid her the most marked compliments and attention. ‖
This is another difference between Amelia and Becky and the author uses different
perspective to design distinct types of feminine char acter from the traditional one, who`s rules
were very important and respected to the one who is capable to think and action according to
her own thoughts. In the end, Becky is a product that society offers and Amelia does not
represent the ideal model of t he ―angel in the house ‖ and Thackeray`s heroines cannot be
considered neither good or bad. In Vanity Fair , however, the concept of men`s property was
more than a goal for Rebecca Sharp. Her behaviour towards men leads us to the conclusion
that she is not a model for qualities such as virtue or innocence .

The novel is ended by: ―Ah! Vanitas Vanitatum! Which of us is happy in this world?
Whic h of us has his desire, or having it, is satisfied? ‖

In Jude the Obscure , Hardy`s main feminine character, Sue Brideh ead is the image of
a rebellious woman who does not comply with the social norms. In some ways, Sue tried to
take control over her destiny and faith. She is a strong and self -emancipated women, one of
the most controversial Hardy`s feminine characters. Alt hough she is emancipated, she is full
of contradiction mostly in what it means the institution of marriage and her vocation as a
teacher. The similarity between men and women in Hardy`s novels created reaction from his
public readers. Through her, the auth or managed to get in the mind of a future modern woman
who does not find easy to adapt to the laws of the Victorian society. Future aspects of the
human being psychology are analyzed and depicted through Hardy's characters, especially
Sue. The heroine was considered inexplicable and hard to understand by the readers of that
time. For a Victorian woman, the refusal of a legal marriage meant deviating from the rules
imposed not only by the society but also by the church. What Hardy really wants is to get into
her inner world. In this way, he choose to build an another pattern of the Victorian women
and create a distinct personality for Sue Bridehead. What Hardy actually offers is a complex
personality but, in fact, her greatest characteristic is obscurity. Obs curity is a quality that
throughout the novel will be attributed to Sue, not to Jude, thus creating an exchange of
position. Her experience will open up to an unexplored path in a patriarchal society.

Sue is considered an emancipated Victorian woman for m any reasons. Firstly, her
attitude towards men is a cold and selfish one. She is aware about her position and she said to
Jude: ―Your wickedness was only the natural man ‘s desire to possess the woman ‖ (p. 356).
Her capacity of seducing men is revealed main ly when she treats them like some puppets that
she can manipulate. Even Thackeray in Vanity Fair ends by saying: ―Come, children, le t us

40

shut up the box and the puppets, for our play is played out ‖. Puppetry is a form of theatre or
performance that involves the manipulation of puppets —inanimate objects, often resembling
some type of human or animal figure that are animated or manipulated by a human called a
puppeteer.45 In Jude the Obscure everything seems to be at the hands of Sue, except maybe
the death of her children. Her sadism is a pplied to men whom she makes them suffering.
While Jude felt much discouraged, the heroine said to him: ―she seemed to get further and
further away from him with her strange ways and curiousness of gender ‖, (148). In this scene
it is an obvious contrast be tween Sue and Jude. Later, Jude`s response is a reaction for her
sadism: ―you are absolutely the most ethereal, least sensual woman I ever knew to exist
without inhuman sexlessness. ‖ (p. 348) However, his love for Sue made him ignore the
constant cruelties . Since it was difficult for Jude to understand her tortures, he chooses to
ignore them: "I am awfully ignorant on general matters, although I have worked so hard," he
said, to turn the subject. ‖(p. 132)

Secondly, she has the desire to improve herself. Sh e married Phillotson in order to
obtain a job as a teacher. However, the new status of married woman does not fit her and Sue
considers it a limitation of her identity. If in Tess of the d ’Urbervilles , Hardy does not provide
a balance between male sexualit y and female sexuality as a consequence for Tess`s actions, in
Jude the Obscure , Sue is aware about her status and education. The heroine had to do with the
conflict between what she feels and the social conventions. Like other feminine characters,
Sue has her own vulnerability and weakness, which is her inability to sustain her action and
thoughts. The main conflict it is between her sexuality and her intellect. In contrast with his
previous feminine characters, Hardy gives the right to Sue to have control on her body,
sexuality and thought. Similarly, in Charlotte Brontë`s Jane Eyre , the heroine had an inner
debate about her desire to marry Mr. Rochester and her intellectual freedom.

Both Sue and Jude are married with someone else but when they decided to live
together, the society ostracized them and people refused them work. Hardy beginnings his
novel with an ironical tone about the union between Jude and Arabella: ―And so, standing
before the aforesaid officiator, the two swore that at every other time of their lives till death
took them, they would assuredly believe, feed, and desire precisely as they had believed, felt
and desired during the few preceeding weeks what was as remarkable as the undertaking itself
was the fact that nobody seemed at all sur prised at what they swore .‖(p. 66 -67) In contrast
with Jude`s marriage, Sue`s matrimony is rather a convention and soon she discovers that she
is trapped by the conventions of marriage. Her disappointment will be greater when she
realizes that marriage is a kind of devotion. The existence of the three men in Sue`s life makes

45 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppetry (accessed May 16, 2017)
41

her understand her sexuality and the same time her repugnant attitude toward marriage. Mona
Caird noticed that: ―The injustice of obliging two people, on pain of social ostracism, either to
accept the marriage -contract as it stands, or to live apart, is surely self -evident. ‖46 Even if she
is married with Philliston, she refuses to live on sexually response with him. A lthough she is
aware about nineteenth century laws about marriage, Sue has an identity with matrimony. As
we already mention, Victorian married woman has no identity within marriage.

Traditionally, the
Victorian society had very well -established rules reg arding
marriage and life outside marriage. Yet, the institution of marriage as well as religion,
education and society are presented with the evolution of characters. Sue is one of the
character that stood against the idea imposed by the society regarding love, marriage and
women`s rights. She does not accept to be a property for her husband and this thing is
reflected mostly in her pseudo -marriage with Philliston. This idea is revealed in the New
Woman movement of the 1890s when one of the demands was the freedom of womanhood
and the freedom to decide whether to marry or not. From this perspective, Sue is considered a
pioneer for feminist movement. Free love becomes a favorite theme for writers such as Olive
Schreiner, George Egerton, and Grant Allen. Sue B ridehead becomes in this way an
inspiration for self -defining woman and an attempt to liberation. Nevertheless, Sue tries to
escape under the unconventional laws of the time. Aunt Drusilla`s neighbour says about Sue
that: "She was not exactly a tomboy, you know; but she could do things that only boys do, as
a rule ‖ (p. 97) describing her capricious way of being in a patriarchal society. Her childhood
is a way for reader to discover that from an earlier age, Sue was aware about the inequality
between a boy a nd girl. Like Jane Eyre, Rebecca Sharp or Bathsheba Everdeen, Sue
Bridehead has an infantilism that soon will be transformed into a reply for the society they
live in. Girl`s growing will draw her personality and her individuality. As a matter of fact,
Victorian writers created admirable feminine characters who always found a way to fight
against social oppression. Even Alice, Lewis Caroll`s character, is an emancipated little girl
that throughout the novel reflect aspects of the Victorian Britain. Wonderla nd, like Victorian
society has its own set of values.

Regarding out topic, Hardy creates a type of woman that is full of contradictions
following in this way the pattern of feminist movement. Sue may be seen as a naive but rather
intelligent, an independe nt women but needing men, in some ways unconventional but in the
end she becomes submissive to social conventional rules. She is capable to create a favourable
framework for nineteenth century feminism. Mostly, Sue is considered a model of femininity,
as she is irresistible, mysterious and unconventional. Her reaction to the Victorian society is

46 Mona Caird, The Morality of Marriage: And Other Essays on the Status and Destiny of Woman, p.117
42

revealed in the moment when she said: "I shall do just as I choose!" (p. 197). Hardy
underlines her struggle for freedom and self -emancipation. However, this struggle for
liberation can also be a form of rebellion or stubbornness of the free spirit. She is aware of the
nineteenth -century society and the division b etween genders. However, her behaviour will be
hardly accepted by the mentality of the time and her attempting to be treated as equal with
men will fail.

Some of Jude`s flaws are reflected to Sue such as naivety. After she becomes aware
that her marriage with Philliston won`t bring her happiness, the interdependence grows
between Sue and Jude. They begin to behave as a married couple and to face with problems
such as finances, religion and especially children. Sue demands the right to love and to be
loved besides any restricting codes. Her desire for spiritual freedom is destroyed as well as
Jude`s desire for emancipation. In this perspective, Hardy puts together both men and women
who can be ingrained by the expectations of society. However, for a time Sue is courageous
enough to maintain a distance from traditional prejudices and values. A number of critics
think that under the mask of unconventionality it is a traditional way to follow the female
chastity. Hardy is aware about the true nature of marriage and the status of women in the time
he lived. He, such as Dickens, Thackeray revealed throughout their novels that women were
forced to sell their sexuality as married women or prostitute. As we already saw in the chapter
called Fallen Women , the Victorian society was a patriarchal society that exploited female
sexuality. With Sue Bridehead, Hardy managed to create a character that fight against the
perceptions of the contemporary marriage ideology. The her oine thinks: ―Before I married I
had never thought out fully what marriage meant, even though I knew. It was idiotic of me –
there is no excuse. I was old enough and I thought I was very experienced … I am certain one
ought to be allowed to undo what one has done so ignorantly."(p. 256) Sue`s independent
personality does not fit with the women of the time that were married primary for economic
reasons rather than love. Social advantages forced women to enter in an unwanted marriage.
Actually Hardy described Sue through her attitude and her opinion, too. S he refused to marry
Jude and her wish is to live together as lovers. By protecting her sexuality it is in fact the
protection of her inner independence. As far the relation between Sue and her husband, the
difference between them is obvious. While Sue does not agree the traditional concept of
marriage, Philliston thinks the opposite: "I don't see why the women and the children should
not be the unit without the man ‖ (p. 277) While Sue`s opinion against mar riage is
incomprehensible to Jude, the man thinks th at traditional union will fulfil them as a couple.

Unlike Arabella, Sue is a devoted mother, taking care not only of the two children she
has with Jude but also of Jude`s son with Arabella, Little Father Time. For Sue, little Jude is a

43

shadow of the past. His name signifies that he may be biologically a child, but her inner
development goes beyond his parent`s understanding. Child`s unrealistic nature will be
reflected when he kills his brothers.
From this perspective, Sue will never manage to establi sh
a family with Jude. Neither society nor the past will allow them to live otherwise than under
the restrictions of the Victorian mentality. However, Hardy completes the image of
emancipated Victorian woman with Sue. The heroine defends the physicality of women; she
supports their free decisions about marriage and besides all their reservations about sexuality.
But, we have to make a clear distinction about Sue is reserved about sexuality; she does not
denounce the status of mother or motherhood.

Yet, her opposition to get married is because she considers that marriage will limit her
freedom. Though, her controversial nature is depicted mostly in her relation with men. She
chooses to live with them or to escape them. The link between desire, passion and li beration is
highlighted by the distance that Sue maintains.

3.1 The Notion of Marriage

In the Victorian time, marriage was associated with the women`s dependence and
obedience towards men and according to John Ruskin ―The man`s duty as a member of a
commonwealth, is to assist in the maintenance, in the advance, in the defence of the state. The
woman`s duty, as a member of the commonwealth, is to assist in the ordering, in the
comforting, and in the beautifu l adornment of the state ‖47. Stephanie Coontz m entioned that
―Most nineteenth -century men and women would have agreed, though they might have more
delicately substituted the word difference for inequality .‖ 48 Victorian society was one based
on the difference between classes and especially between men and women.

As we know, Europe has known several conflicts that demand equality. In a era where
progress was seen as a strong step for the future, women`s issues also become a future goal
for a modern society. John Stuart Mill believed that emancipation of women would lead to a
better future for the whole society and fought for the rights of women: ―… [T]he legal
subordination of one sex to another — is wrong in itself, and now one of the chief hindrances
to human improvement; and that it ought to be repl aced by a system of perfect equality,
admitting no power and privilege on the one side, nor disability on the other.(Mill, Chapter 1)

Inevitably , women were expected to marry with men that were from the same social
class and they should fulfil their duty. As Marilyn Yalom write in her book A History of the

47 John Ruskin, Sesame and Lilies , Gutenberg Project
http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext98/sesli10.txt ,(accessed April 21 , 2017 )
48 Stephanie Coontz, Marriage, a History: How Love Conquered Marriage , p.17
44

Wife: ―obeying and satisfying one`s husband, keeping one`s children physically and morally
sound, and maintaining the household (cleaning, washing, preparing food, etc.) ‖49, Victorian
woman has a limited and restraint role outside of the house. If she tried to escape from the
laws imposed by the social mentality, she would be harshly criticised. As inequality come to
light, writers tried to emphasize the climate in what women l ived at that time. However, the
institution of marriage was defined by social stability, structure and order. More than that,
marriage was not associated with love or compassion, but with the commitment between a
man and a woman. For Stephanie Coontz, this theory raised a number of questions such as: ―If
love was the most important reason to marry, how could society cond emn people who stayed
single rather than enter a loveless marriage? If love disappeared from a marriage, why
shouldn`t a couple be allowed to go their separate ways? If men and women were true soul
mates, why should they not be equal partners in society? ―50. The last question that Stephanie
Cootz put leads us to the Victorian doctrine of separate sphere. Doctrine of separate sphere
was an id eology during the Industrial Revolution focused on the basic idea of gendered
separation. Danaya C. Wright, professor at University of Florida Levin College of Law, said
that: ―The metaphor of the sphere suggested that women ‘s actions were bounded, encircl ed,
limited to an area, both physical and intellectual, while men ‘s spheres were global and
universal. ‖51. In fact, the doctrine starts when the bourgeois population was moved to
suburbs. In time, this relocation affected not only the bourgeois population, but also the
working class which continue to work in the cities. This so called transfer change the
perception about city life and now the place is associated with negative connotations.
Furthermore, both social classes and gender relation were affected. As we see, the main role
that a woman had was to be mother, wife and servant and because of that they were named
―guardians of the domestic haven ‖. In addition, the ideal of femininity was associated with
social status and especially with the middle -class women.

Religion had its own role in the union of a couple and it was considered the place
where a future family would become a stabile part of the community. John Stuart Mill writes
that: ―The Church was faithful to a better morality in that it required a formal ‗yes‘ from the
woman at the marriage ceremony; but there was nothing to show that the consent was freely
given, and it was practically impossible for the girl to refuse if the father persisted, except
perhaps when she could get the protection of re ligion by becoming a nun. ‖ For a woman was

49 Marilyn Yalom, A History of the Wife , p.181
50 Stephanie Coontz, Marriage, a History: How to love Conquered Marriage , p.175 -6
51 Danaya C. Wright, Theorizing History: Separate Spheres, the Public/Private Binary an d a New Analytic for
Family Law History , [2012] ANZLH E -Journal, Refereed Paper No 2, (44), available

at http://scholarship.law.ufl.edu/facultypub/651 , p.45
45

almost impossible to refuse a marriage already imposed. In other words, her opinion did not
matter at all as the father and her husband had the total control and right over her: ―a husband
had the power of life and death over his wife; and for many years in England things weren ‘t
much better. ‖ As a woman had no right for possess p roperty, her husb and was responsible for
her properties. In consequence, she was treated as a property, too. This economic dependence
caused an wrong understanding of women`s position within the family.

As a woman was seen helpless and the general conception was that they were unable
to think and take care of themselves, they were perceived similarly to children. The
patriarchal society also sustained these beliefs. In that case, the Church supported the idea of
patriarchal society. However, in Jennifer P hegley`s opinion: ― While most Victorian struggles
with the contrast between the ideal and the ideal of marriage, one iconic couple stood as a
beacon of companionate domesticity and a model for the nation: Queen Victorian and Prince
Albert. ‖ Although, Que en Victorian was a symbol for the women and he was the ideal model
for that means motherhood, she was not a subject for the harshly laws that were applied for
other women. Women, sexuality, and marriage began to change dramatically in the 1880s, as
in 1857 Matrimonial Causes Act supported the idea that women should disposed of their
property. In this connection, some of the rights of married women remained unchanged until
the 1882 Married Women`s Property Act was passed. In accordance with religion and social
classes, parents also played an important role in the choice of the future partner. Tea parties,
tennis matches were ideal places to introduce a young woman or a young man to a future
husband or wife. Kelsey brought into question the idea of marriage as a lottery. The two
players, a woman and a man were pushed into a game were only the destiny could be guilty.
The rules established years ago were now under the threaten of a variety of reason and
questions: ‖ Was the game of marriage really random or d id it have a real bias ? Was the dice
really loaded, in favour of men, and if it so how had that been achieved? And more
importantly, how did the umpires, the referees and the rule – makers of the establishment
respond to the changes that the women desired? ‖

Regarding the ideal of motherhood that a married woman should be able to provide,
her duty was to create a future male ready for responsibilities. Jennifer Kelsey wrote in
Changing the Rules: Women and Victorian Marriage that: ―A mother`s responsibilit ies were
immense for ju st as she could be the first to spot and encourage a child`s developing talents,
she could equally, in his eyes, at least, be blamed for man`s future failings ‖( p.35) . For a
woman, her status as a married lady was seen as an important part for the develop ing a future
man capable to complete his duties. Children, especially boys grew with a sort of female
images for instance mother, sisters, governess, and maids and so on. George Meredith, a

46

Victorian novelist once said : ―I expect Woman will be the las t thing civilized by Man. ‖ As
stated previously, Victorian society, books, parents, and clergymen taught that marriage was a
woman's providential purpose in life, but according to the law, marriage marked the end of a
woman's individuality.

Charles Dicken s`s female characters from Great Expectations , except Estella are
contain within the home. In this respect: ―Great Expectations is the work in which Dickens
best demonstrates his mastery at creating atmosphere and extraordinary characters. Dickens`
most ac claimed novel focuses on the force of symbols, demonstrating thus how the very
`realistic` Victorian novel can push the limits of a ―low mimetic form ‖52. On the other hand,
men had the freedom to travel all around London and public space of London. Unlike
Dickens, George Eliot through Dorothea Brooke opens a door for what means cultivated and
freedom spirit to explore. Far different from Dickens and Eliot, Thackeray succeeded with the
help of Becky Sharp to reveal an outer world unexplored before.

In this connection, Dickens opens his book with a negative image about what it
means motherhood as Pip`s first description is about his dead mother. With a dead mother and
a so-called step mother, Pip discovers the maternal love in his brother -in-law, Joe Gargery.
Timothy Farrel, in his article Separate Spheres: Victorian Constructions of Gender in Great
Expectations , raised a curious question about Dickens`s work: ―What, then, are the
consequences of this reversal of gender roles? Certainly, Dickens would not advo cate an
arrangement like the Gargery's, in which the woman is characterized by her masculinity and
the man by his femininity. ‖53 Farrel, thinks that Pip is ―the victim of this gender inversion ‖.
Thus Dickens, like many Victorians, held up the middle -class definition of gender as the ideal
which the lower – and upper -classes should emulate. This ideal woman, then, is one who is
firmly rooted in the home and who subordinates her own self in favour of her husband and
children.

However, as the nineteenth centur y known a lot of changes such as industrialization,
social reform, scientific discoveries, social mentality and values about what means love and
marriage changed as well. The theme of marriage it was not something new, and authors such
as William Shakespea re to Jane Austen were concerned with the subject in their works.
Nevertheless, authors like George Eliot anticipated the future changes in social attitudes and
reflect the marriage as a way of independent spirit. Regarding Middlemarch , George Eliot set

52 Irina Toma, Victorian Contrasts , p.43
53Timothy Farrell, Separate Spheres: Victorian Constructions of Gender in Great Expectations, Victorian
Web http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/dickens/ge/farrell2.html, ( accessed April 23, 2017)

47

the novel aft er the period where the first Reform Bill, and she was able to provide a different
and exciting reality. If in the end of Charlotte Brontë`s Jane Eyre , the author succeeds to offer
the reader the typical final end – ―Reader, I married him ‖ or in Far from th e Madding Crowd
where Hardy offers the ideal ending – ―Then Oak laughed, and Bathsheba smiled (for she
never laughed readily now), and their friends turned to go. ‖(p.351) In The Subjection of
Women , John Stuart Miller writes : ―Marriage is not an institutio n designed for a select few.
Men are not required, as a preliminary to the marriage ceremony, to prove by testimonials that
they are fit to be trusted with the exercise of absolute power. ‖54

Middlemarch is considered a centre for the institution of marria ge because Eliot
revealed through Dorothea, Casaubon and Ladislaw the main difference between what
marriage is based upon and the superficiality of thoughts. From the beginning, the relation
between Dorothea and Casaubon evolved according to the Victorian doctrine of separate
spheres. Dorothea is unable to make a realistic impression about Mr. Casaubon and in chapter
ten her thought was ―three more conversations with him, [she] was convinced that her first
impressions had been just‖ (32). Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar observe that: ―The first man
to become a husband in Middlemarch is, of course, Edward Casaubon, the Miltonesque father
worshipped near -sighted Dorothea. ‖ 55 While Casaubon prefers the company of books, as he
spends the most part of his time in the library, Dorothea is might be seen in her ―blue -green
boudoir ‖. He becomes a book himself and his ―mind is something like a ghost of an
ancient ‖(chapter 2). Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar made a comparison between Casaubon
and Borges as follow: ―Casau bon reminds us of Borges`s description of ―the Man of the
Book ‖ and ―he is himself ―the Man of the Book ‖, Eliot`s extremely subversive portrait of
male authority ‖(p.502) . Although she has a deep desire for knowledge, Dorothea remains
faithful to her passi on: „I should learn everything then‟ she said to herself, still walking
quickly along the bridle road through the wood. „It would be my duty to study that I might
help him the better in his great works. There would be nothing trivial about our lives.
Every day-things with us would mean the greatest things. It would be like marrying Pascal. I
should learn to see the truth by the same light as great men have seen it by. And then I should
know what to do, when I got older: I should see how it was possible to le ad a grand life here –
now – in England… ‖ (29) According to Laura Green: ―Eliot ‘s capacity for both the
experience and the representation of forms of desire and intimacy, as well her attachment to
the signifying power of gender difference, were shifting, v arious, sometimes playful and
generative, at others painful and even cruel — to her protagonists, to her acolytes, and perhaps

54 John Stuart Mill, The Subjection of Women , p.19
55 Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic , p. 500
48

to hers elf.‖56 The beginning of the failed marriage is felt on the return from Rome, where the
couple spent their honeymoon – ―Thus Rome becomes for Dorothea the symbol of culture as it
is represented by her husband. ‖57 Both Dorothea and Casaubon are frustrated be cause the
marriage proved to be a disappointment. What Eliot tried to do was to establish a new kind of
novel where marriage was not regarded in a traditional way or conventional but rather as a
subject itself. Regarding this, the reader`s attention is foc used on the dynamic representations
of the marital unions. When Casaubon send the engagement le tter to Dorothea: ‖ ―To be
accepted by you as your husband and the earthly guardian of your welfare, I should regard as
the highest of providential gifts ‖ (44), s he quickly accepts the engagement. The author
describes the atmosphere: ‖ ―Between him and her i ndeed there was that total missing of each
other`s mental track, which is too evidently possible even between persons who are
continually thinking of each other ‖ (587). They fail to understand each other spirit and their
marriage is lead to be unsuccessful. In his context, Eliot manages to offer another perspective
of what means a harsh critic about a marriage which does not help none of them to evolve,
especially Dorothea. On the other hand, the marriage between Ladislaw and Dorothea
represent a modern version of union, based on love. If the traditional union was based on a
formal marriage without special implication, the new version of marriage offers a new way t o
live where love is the link that put together a man and a woman. Rosemary Ashton thinks that:
―Middlemarch is above all about change and the way individuals and groups adapt to, or
resist, change. In their marriages, in their professions, in their family life and their social
intercourse, the characters of the novel are shown responding in their various ways to events
both public and private ‖58.

Feminist readings in Middlemarch are focused on the main feminine character –
Dorothea Brooke. Eliot try to depi ct the woman`s thought and reflection about education and
culture. In the Victorian society, women do not have educational opportunities so for
Dorothea the marriage with Casaubon is then born form the social ―conditions that make a
poor dry mummified peda nt appear to an ardent young woman who has seen nothing better a
a sort of angel of vocation an d of the education that enables vocation ‖.59 In this respect,
Eliot`s feminism is successfully affirmed. Austen`s argument continues in support of the
previous i dea: ―The feminist`s insistence that literature show women as more than bride, wife,

56 Laura Green, George Eliot: Gender and Sexuality , p.398
http://library.pcw.gov.ph/sites/default/files/george%20eliot -%20gemder%20and%20sexuality.pdf, (accesed April
21, 2017)
57 Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic , p.503
58 Ashton, Rosemary. Introduction. Middlemarch . By George Eliot. London: Penguin, 2003, IX
59 Blake, Kathleen. “Middlemarch and the Woman Question. ” Modern Critical Interpretations:
Geor ge Eliot ’s Middlemarch p.55
49

and mother is admirable, but it can`t be applied to novels that were written when most women
were either brides, wives, mothers, or dependent spinsters – unless George Eliot had written
exclusively about herself‟(118). Moreo ver, Eliot show a clear distinction between the ideal
marriage rooted in the people`s minds and the unrealistic expectations. According to Louis
James: ‖ Even non -believers like George Eliot and Thomas Hardy explore issues of faith, and
as theological cert ainties were challenged by social science and the implications of evolution,
scientific belief itself assumed a quasi -religious authority. And yet the main development of
the novel was secular and materialist. ‖60

In Jude the Obscure , Hardy depicts a rebel lious attitude towards marriage, social
classes, gender and the importance of education. Sue Bridehead was associated with the
representation of the feminist movement. When reader encounters Sue for the first time, she
seems to be oddly unconventional. The novel follows the life of Jude, his pseudo -marriage
with Sue and his development as human being. Jude`s dream was to achieve higher education
and to become an equal member of the scholalary member of the society. Miss Fawley said at
some point : ―The boy i s crazy for books, that he is. It runs in our family rather. His cousin Sue
is just the same – so I've heard; but I have not seen the child for years, though she was born in
this place, within these four walls, as it happened. ‖ While Sue and Jude share the same
passion for knowledge, Miss Fawley, their aunt represents the typical Victorian women from
a lower class. When Jude asks her about the idea of going to Christminster, her reaction was
more than obvious: "Lord, no! You didn't grow up hereabout, or you wouldn't ask such as
that. We've never had anything to do with folk in Christminster, nor folk in Christminster with
we."(10), as she is conscious about the huge gap between social classes. For Hardy, this
represents another important aspect that it is re flected in Jude the Obscure . Yet, the Victorian
society supported the idea of inequality not only for women, but also for the social
environment and educational system.

New Woman was a term coined by Sarah Grand, who come as an encouragement for
the women who with autonomy within the marriage and society. For Sue, this term is more
than characteristic as readers and Victorian society found the female character unusual and
untraditional especially in her relation with Jude. Because many of Sue ‘s ideals brok e away
from original female archetypes, she became an object of interest, especially for those who
were becoming involved in the feminist movement. According to Ann Heilmann, ―New
Woman fiction was adapted and reshaped by male writers keen to explore new f emale
identities; ‖61 and Hardy was doing the same thing with his feminine characters.

60 Louis James, The Victorian Novel , p.211
61 Ann Heilmann, New Woman Fiction Women Writing First -Wave Feminism , p.6
50

Sue Bridehead, Jude`s cousin, is seen as a caprici ous and instable character.
However, Hardy`s females characters are self -emancipated and far different from the
standards imposed by the Victorian norms. This instability it is, in fact, the instability
provided by the feminist movement. As the author obse rved later, the feminist movement was
a reshaping form from the traditional Victorian woman. With Sue, on the other hand, he
managed to create his own version of a modern woman without to forget about circumstances.
As we already know, the Victorian societ y perceived unmarried women in two categories:
angel in the house and fallen women. Those stereotypes were put under question and the
principle of equality was a main goal for the feminist movement. They argued that they
should have the same right as men. Even Jude thinks that: ――If he could only get over the
sense of her sex, as she seemed to be able to do so easily of his, what a comrade she would
make; for their difference of opinion on conjectural subjects only drew them closer together
on matters of da ily human experience ‖ (p. 112 -3). What it is relevant at this quote is the fact
that Jude considers Sue equal, even their sexes are different. Their options for the relationship
is assumed and even Jude`s sexual desire is high, Sue prefers platonic relatio n with men. Sue
Bridhead is then an atypical woman ―And just like Jude, all Hardy`s protagonists find
themselves living in a world that does not want them ‖.62 Like other characters, such as Jane
Eyre or Rebecca Sharp, Sue is detached for what means the Vic torians issues of the time.

Regarding marriage and the idea of union between two human beings, Hardy depicts
in Jude the Obscure his own opinion about that. For example, when Sue writes to Jude about
her marriage with Phillotson, she says: ―I have been lo oking at the marriage service in the
Prayer -book, and it seems to me very humiliating that a giver -away should be required at all.
According to the ceremony as there printed, my bridegroom chooses me of his own will and
pleasure; but I don ‘t choose him. So mebody gives me to him, like a she -ass or she -goat, or
any other domestic animal. Bless your exalted views of woman, O Churchman! ‖ (p. 125 -26).
For her, marriage represents a disgraceful life in which women are pushed within. She has no
desire to be posses sed or to become subject for a man. That perception is closely associated
with the demand of the New Woman. Marriage is not an equal engagement because partners
are not equal, sometimes it seen as an unbalanced social contract. For instance, when Sue and
Jude decided to live together, they also have to face with the public opinion and disagreement.
Moreover, Jude explains that ―People go on marrying because they can ‘t resist natural forces,
although many of them may know perfectly well that they are possibl y buying a m onth‘s
pleasure with a life ‘s discomfort ‖(p. 194) . As we already saw, marriage was the only way to
be according to the Victorian laws and religion had its own great contribution as ―natural

62 Irina Toma, Victorian Constrasts , p.73
51

forces ‖. For them, those rules are devalued and their chose is o bvious – they lived together
without the legalities of marriage. At some point, Sue asserts, ―If we are happy as we are,
what does it matters to anybody? ‖ (216). That attitude represents a rebellion t owards society
and mentality, unfortunately rejected later by the people. Victorians were not used with such
behaviour and the people condemned their lifestyle as living in sin. However, their happiness
does not last forever, like in Jane with Rochester or Bathsheba with Oak, as the Jude`s son,
called Little Father Time commits suicide and murders the other children of the couple. In
fact, Little Father Time is closely associated with psychological condition of Jude and Sue, at
some point exclaims to her lo ver: ―I see you in him! ‖ (p.292). His name suggests mat urity and
he is described according to a Greek Mythology the Muse of Tragedy, Melpomene – ―His face
is like the tragic mask of Melpomene,"(168). Suzanne Edwars affirms that ―The principle
difference bet ween father and son lies in the fact that in Jude periods of depression are offset
by hopeful expectations63‖.

The idea of sin and misfortune is provided in the note that Little Jude left after the
suicide "DONE BECAUSE WE ARE TOO MENNY". The main differe nce between Jude and
his son is hope; while Jude plans for his future to attend to Christminster, Little Jude has no
hope for the future and his action is obvious. When the couple discovered the murder
committed by Little Father Time, Jude and Sue separate . If Jude`s son killed their children,
time killed their spiritual union. Placed in a society that could not bear the prejudices of time,
Jude the Obscure designed a specific reality from the nineteenth century. Hardy`s novel is full
of symbols and element s that remind us the modern marriage and independent unions.
Unconventional marriage that Hardy reveals is a start point for a woman`s role within a
marriage. If we think that Sue represents the image of the New Woman, she will expose
throughout the book p rinciples such as autonomy, equality and besides that, education.

Hardy`s tragic consciousness is exposed in his novel. While the society is not
receptive at the changes that Hardy uses as a mirror for the future, the ―marriage ‖ between
Sue and Jude conti nues to gain attention even today.

In accordance with Hardy`s principles was Emily Brontë, who`s novel Wuthering
Heights, presents a paradoxical love and the conflict between good and evil in human nature.
According to Rachel Ablow, there is a difference between Emily Brontë and Charles Dickens:
―While Dick ens is invested as a sympathy as a way to consolidate male identity, Brontë is
concerned with sympathy as a threat to female identity. ‖ and ―Brontë describes gender
difference as little more than a by -product of different degrees of power: what matters for her
is not whether you are a man or a woman, but whether you possess a manly acces to power or

63 Suzanne Edwars , A Shadow from the Past: Little Father Time in Jude the Obscure , p.34
52

are instead th e victim of the feminizing powerlessness. ‖64 The action placed between
Thrushcross Grange and Wuthering Heights is, in fact, the representation of human nature
development. The discussion between Nelly and Mr. Lockwood may be seen as a designed
history abo ut two generations. The reader cannot say if Nelly`s narration is true or not. There
are a lot of things that she was unable to tell or she does not remember clearly as she seems to
do. On the other hand, memories disappear in time so she recreates a story of her own
according to her feeling. However, the reader has no way to know what are the protagonists`
feelings and thoughts: ― Wuthering Heights systematically resists reader`s sympathy: not only
are the character selfish, violent and cruel; it is imposs ible to say for sure whose story the
novel purports to tell, or even whose stories end happily or unhappily. ‖65 Brontë sets a limit
to her characters to improve her narration but she also offers them depth. The main characters
are analysed and reveal their actions according to their motivation. Nelly and Mr. Lockwood
present a strategic limitation that the author offers them but also a double role: narrator and
character, Catherine and Heatcliff are analysed in accordance with their situation and
decisions. What Brontë realizes is a story place upon mystery and enigma. Such as her sister,
Charlotte Brontë, Emily offers to reader a supernatural effect to the entire novel. However, the
limitation between life and death and ordinary things and supernatural is e stablished and
connected with reality. Moreover, love and marriage in Wuthering Heights are presented in a
very realistic style. As we saw, love is a strong feeling associated with the Victorian society
and Victorian literature, but few marriages actually had love as a starting point. Marriage was
seen more or less as a business, such as Heatcliff does with Isabella. Critics, for example,
have written about Catherine and Heatcliff, the main characters of the novel, but especially
about Heatcliff, who is vie w for two different angles: as a victim or as a cold – hearted man.
Even Catherine`s marriage produces her confusion because she does not know if she suffers
because of Heatcliff or her longing of the old house. Regarding Heatcliff`s suffering, it could
be associated with the difference between his conscious and unconscious mind. His adoption
and repression are his first steps for his defensive mechanism.

Marianne Thormählen wrote in her article The Lunatic and the Devil's Disciple: The
'Lovers' in Wutherin g Heights that the strong feeling that united Heatcliff and Catherine
Earnshaw was ―something decidedly odd ‖. The characters are both ambiguou s. At some point
Catherine says: ―I am Heatcliff ‖ (Emily Brontë, p.92); that quote could signify an unspoken
oath and a testimony for her love. But soon after that she decides to marry Edgar Linton.
Catherine`s superficiality resides on the morals of the time. Marriage was a strong

64 Rachel Ablow, The Marriage of Minds: Reading Sympathy in the Victorian Marriage Plot , p.45

65 Idem, p. 48
53

union especially between rich families and to marry someone who`s identity is unknown was
unacceptable. When the young girl come to Nelly and said that: ―It would degrade me to
marry Heatcliff ‖( 91) and she will marry Edgar Lint on the entire action of the novel was
determined. Moreover, Catherine has her own defensive mechanism such as Heatcliff has.
Her decision to marry Linton is a result of a certain conflict that resides within her. Nelly
describes Catherine`s feeling ―She wa s mu ch too fond of Heatcliff. The greatest punishment
we could invent for her was to keep her separate for him. ‖(53) and the young girl declares:
―My love for Heatcliff resembles the enternal rock beneath ‖(91). On the other hand, her
attitude quickly chang es after: ―I shall like to be the greatest woman in the neighbourhood,
and I shall be proud of having such a husband [ Edgar Linton] ‖ (88). In that context, she
becomes the major conflict between the two men. The story between Catherine Earnshaw,
Heatcliff and Edgar Linton begins in the moment that Cathy with her brother decides to have
a look at Thrushcross Grange. As Cathy was bitten by a dog in her attempt to escape, Linton`s
family took care of her. Cathy stayed at the Grange for five weeks, and when she ret urned her
manners had improved and she dressed differently, she was somewhat altered (p. 41). Later,
the difference between the two men will be notice by her. While Linton was a young
gentleman, Heatcliff was savage and dirty. She told Nelly that she will marry him because he
was handsome, pleasant, young, rich, and because he loved her and Nelly told her that all of
those were bad reasons (p. 61). In addition, Cathy is aware that she is going to make a mistake
but then she declares ‖ I’ve no more busi ness t o marry Edgar Linton than I have to be in
heaven; and if the wicked man in there had not brought Heathcliff so low, I shouldn ’t have
thought of it. It would degrade me to marry Heathcliff now; so he shall never know how I love
him; and that, not beca use he ’s handsome, Nelly, but because he ’s more myself than I am.
Whatever our souls are made of, his and mine are the same, and Linton ’s is as different as a
moonbeam from lightning, or frost from fire .‖ (p. 63)

Although she betrays her feelings by marrying Li nton, she is seems to be a little
naive because she thinks that is a way for helping Heatcliff to rise. According to Marianne
Thormählen: ―The only time when the closeness between Catherine and Heatcliff is
untroubled by anything except the interfere nce of elders is their childhood ‖66. Despite her
decision, she is aware that her future is based on false illusions. As a result, Heatcliff
disappear for several years and his return marks his alternation:

―He had grown a tall, athletic, well -formed man; beside whom my master seemed
quite slender and youth -like. His upright carriage suggested the idea of his having been in the
army. His countenance was much older in expression and decision of feature than Mr.

66 Marianne Thormählen, The Lunatic and the Devil's D isciple: The 'Lovers'in Wuthering Heights, p.185
54

Linton's; it looked intelligent, and retained no marks of former degradation. A half -civilised
ferocity lurked yet in the depressed brows and eyes full of black fire, but it was subdued; and
his manner was even dignified: quite divested of roughness, though stern for grace .‖ (96)
Nelly observed in his t ransformation the remains of the old boy ―half -civilised ‖, revealing in
that way that her process to maturity was not complete, but rather failed. For exa mple, when
he returns, he becomes the master of Wuthering Heights and his behaviour towards Hindley
and his son, Hareton, is monstrous. His desire for revenge starts with Isabella, Edgar`s sister
and they will get married as an attempt to hurt Catherine. L ike Catherine, Isabella learns that
wrong decision leads a destructive and unhappy marriage. In fact, Isabella is used as a tool for
Heatcliff `s revenge. His behaviour raise a lot of question to her wife as she wrote to Nelly:
―The second question I have great interest in; it is this —Is Mr. Heathcliff a man? If so, is he
mad? And if not, is he a devil? Isha‘n‘t tell my reasons for making this inquiry; but I beseech
you to explain, if you can, what I have married ”(p. 116). In turn, Heatcliff said about his wife:
―it wounds her vanity to have the truth exposed. But I don`t care who knows that the passion
was wholly on one side, and I never told her a lie about it ‖ (156). Their situation as a couple is
revealed through this quote. While he is disgusted by Isab ella, she is hurted by his rejection.
Isabella escapes for her marriage and run to London, where she gives birth to their son,
Linton.

If in Pride and Prejudice or Jane Eyre , Jane Austen and Charlotte Brontë offer the
typical ―happy ending ‖, with Wutherin g Heights , Emily Brontë, marriage is considered a
realist meditation. In that case, the institution of marriage does not conform to this principle.
The interpretation of marriage resides in the fate of main characters. If Austen established the
need of mar riage: ―It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a
good fortune, m ust be in want of a good wife […] in the minds of the surrounding families

[…] he is considered as the rightful property of someone or other of their daughters .‖67 with
an irony indicating in that way the social conventions, Emily Brontë highlights the useless of
marriage as an economic function.

The importance of social status was defined by Catherine`s attitude towards her
marriage with Edgar Linton. The nove l has, in the end, a marriage based on love between the
young Catherine and Hareton Earnshaw. Even if Catherine and Heatcliff shared a strong
connection, girl`s desire for an economic development and status lead their love to ruin. In the
novel appears the forced married between Cathy and Linton, Heatcliff`s son. Their marriage
also failed because Linton revealed his face after the union.

67 Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice , p. 5
55

In conclusion, Emily Brontë through Wuthering Height manages to create a window
within human soul, discovering the most powerful feelings and emotions. Her character are
doomed to a faith resulted from their decision. Marriage goes through several stages from
superficiality and desire to a higher class to happiness and a union based on love.

3.2 Escaping from Marriage

Ideally marriage was considered a divine mission and a great responsibility for a woman. It
was considered a privilege to be married and bear children. The romantic ideal in marriage
was illustrated in some of the Victorian novels, most known those of Charlotte Brontë and
George Eliot. On the other hand, women had an economic function. If the future wife
possessed properties or goods, they would be administrated by her husband. On the other
hand, they had no rig ht and her only gain was a household where she could run ―For a woman
marriage meant the acquisition of an ‗establishment ‘, her own place, fi nanced by her husband,
[…], a place where she had at least some freedom of choice and activity, which she might n ot
have had at all in the parental home ‖ (Jenni Calder, p. 9). It was considered that a woman did
not have another status that wife and mother and as consequence she had no identity or her
identity was within marriage. In other words, her identity
was depe ndent on the principles of
society. After she married, she would become a respected part of the community. Divorce is
not a present topic in the Victorian literature despite the many laws and changes that took
place over the nineteenth century. In fact, di vorce was one of the subjects that could be
considered taboo. While the church considered that a separation between a husband and a
wife was a sin and something unthinkable, people from the middle -class, especially women
were not capable to react because t heir inferior position. In literature, writers did not offer
many opportunities or a way to escape from a miserable marriage. On the other hand, society
perceived the divorce as something they could not achieve. For example, in Charlotte
Brontë`s Jane Eyre , the main male character, Mr. Rochester could only imagine how different
his life would have been if he had been able to get a divorce from his first wife. However,
divorce is not an alternative for him. Dickens`s mentions and reflections about marriage a re
reflected mostly in Hard Times , where Stephen Blackpool also wish a separation from his
wife. Much of the Victorian Literature offered no alternative for marriage, except maybe
adultery or death. Theme like unhappy marriage are presented all over the li terature and
character`s life is visible through their miserable condition. Even though they wrote and
remind about marriage and divorce, the Victorian society was not ready for drastic social
changes. In people`s consciousness were the roots strongly supp orted by the tradition.

56

As we already mention, the marriage did not assure them the same right with men.
Living in a patriarchal society where men were aware about that offered less opportunities for
a woman to escape from marriage. In his book, J. S. Mill claims that ―Even with true
affection, authority on the one side and subordination on the other prevent perfect confidence ‖
(44). Although the nineteenth century had a period of contrast and demand for right, women
did not have the same equal positio n as a man had. In that way, they were limited and had no
choice for their personal lives. For a young woman who got married, marriage`s reality was in
contrast with their expectations. To sum up, naive dream of marriage had soon disappeared
with the reali ty of nursing.

Until the 1839 Custody of Infants Act women were not considered legal
representatives of their children and only after that women gained the custody. In a patriarchal
society and even within the marriage, men had a total control not only ov er the properties but
also over their children and wife. A woman was consider incapable to manage something else
than house. In this context, the house was associated with a prison without escape. Later,
wives gained the right to manage the properties afte r their husbands died. But if they
abandoned their partner, they would be destitute. That condition had been changed only after
the 1857 Matrimonial Causes Act which passed and mentioned that deserted women could
gain the right on their possession. It was considered that women were free to earn money as
men were, they also should be responsible for their financial support of the family, but that
was almost impossible because a spouse`s main responsibility was to look after the marriage.
In a broader context , it was a ―reflection of the injustice of the larger economic structure of
the society. ‖68 With the 1857 Matrimonial Causes Act passed, both partners became equal
and separate entities or they supposed to be equal. Apparently, another aspect that a woman
should take into consideration if they wanted to separate was the economic function especially
before 1870s. With the Property Acts, they lives improved and they could economically
survive. In that way, the emancipation brought new rights for women and the y could hope for
better lives. This was the period when George Eliot began to write Middlemarch, too.
Through Ecclesiastical Courts there was to kind of divorce, one partial called á mensâ et thoro
and total called á vinculo matrimonii . According to Danaya C. Wright ―Cruelty, adu ltery,
bigamy, desertion, drunkenness, and other more traditional grounds had only given wives a
right to an ecclesiastical divorce a mensa et thoro, which was a separation without the right to
remarry ‖69. Unlike the first one, a vinculo matrimonii offered the

68 Mary Lyndon Shanley, Feminism, Marriage, and the Law in Victorian England , p.75

69 Danaya C. Wright, Untying the Knot: An Analysis of the English Divorce and Matrimonial Causes Court
Records, 1858 -1866, http://scholarship.law. ufl.edu/facultypub/205/ (accessed April 25, 2017) , p.906

57

possibility to remarry under certain circumstances. Yet, for common people divorce was too
expensive and the only way they could obtain a separation was a civil court. With the the
Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857, a larger number of people wish to obtain a divorce. In this
context the difference is also obvious; while a women had to prove that her husband commit
an adultery or other acts that were considered offensive, the man could easily obtain ed the
divorce with only a proof of infidelity. Despite that, the law offered the possibility to escape
from imprisonment matrimony and in the distribution of power between the partners. Unlike
the old history of marriage and divorce, the new laws such as The Divorce Act of 1857, the
Married Women ‘s Property Acts of 1870 and 1882, and the Infant Custody Acts of 1873 and
1886, the freedom of women increase and the road to a modern marriage was opened.

One of the main factors that contribute that was the pub lic pressure. The confidence
what equality ensured was a real proof that women are more than human being who did not
deserve to be treated as inferiors. Unfortunately, in Victorian marriage this thing was almost
absent.

In this perspective, the divorce wa s considered the legal way to escape from an
unwanted marriage. Of course the idea of adultery was considered a shame and humiliation,
especially if a woman was found guilty of that. In contrast, if a man was found guilty of
adultery, the woman would have no good reason for a divorce. But there was some ways from
abandoned a marriage. ―The first of these was by sueing in the church courts for separation
from bed and board, without permission to remarry ‖ (Stone 141) and it could be gained only
on the grounds of adultery or extreme cruelty. The rich could obtain divorce through a private
act of Parliament but they had to prove their wives ‘ adultery. ―The third method […] was by a
private separation ‖ (Stone 141) which was an agreement of both partners to part . Those who
had a little property chose the way of elopement, desertion, or, in a few cases with the lower
classes in particular, wife -selling during which the wife was sold at the market for the highest
offer. Nevertheless, it was not a common practice as ―[w]e can be reasonably confident that
fewer than three hundred cases of wife -sale occurred in all England during the peak seventy
years from 1780 to 1850 ‖ (Stone 148). Whatever means of separation one chose, men could
obtain divorce by proving their wive s‘ adultery but, save cases of life -threatening cruelty,
women could not ask for a divorce. If they left their husbands, they did not have any rights to
their property and children. It was the 1857 Divorce Bill that did introduce some changes to
that. Not only did separated women gain, as already mentioned, rights over their earnings,
investments and savings, they also got a chance to get custody of their children. ―No longer
did a husband […] automatically have legal possession of all the children ‖ (Ston e 388).

58

However, women could not demand divorce or separation because they were
considered inferior to men, but their voices were heard in Parliament with the feminist
movement. Single women formed the minority in the Victorian England while the marr ied
women formed the majority but there is still a large number of women who preferred to stay
single. Only a few women followed the example illustrated by Florence Nightingale70, who
finds a way for not getting married and started a career. In her Cassand ra, she said that
women are responsible for their dependent status because they accept that. Women should
never accept this position as they are part of the society. Florence Nightingale is supported by
J.S. Mill who said that women voluntarily and without complaining accepted their inferior
roles (24). On the other hand, in Mill`s opinion not only women are guilty but also men
because they were aware about situation. In the same time, they did almost nothing to change
the position in which they were. Write rs such as Charles Dickens, Thomas Hardy, William
Makepeace Thackeray found in literature a way from reveal the realities of time and offered a
panoramic view about society and marriage. For example, writers made a clear distinction
about what role a femal e should play and what profession she should do. In their books,
female characters tried to carry out their duties and responsibilities faithfully because they
were under the conventions of the time.

Although marriage was seen as main purpose in life, an unspecified number of men,
not only of women remained unmarried. In Victorian period a large number of mother, sisters,
widows, divorced women experienced a lot of changes. This was one of the main reason that
writers preferred to use as inspiration their experiences and knowledge. Feminist`s theory
supported the idea that women, including divorced women should not be under oppression,
discrimination and be treated as inferior human being. English domestic values had a great
importance especially for unmarr ied women, who considered that their life should be
according to the traditi onal laws. Some women, called ―anti-feminist women ‖ did not
encourage the idea of a free and independent woman. Yet, it was femininity that united
women from the both sides. Femini nity, as we know, it did not refer only to fashion or
women`s look, but also at their principles, values and duties in society. Victorian writers tried
to capture the femininity of time by large and cultivated description. Nevertheless, here was
also a lar ge debate about this thing comes naturally or it was imposed by the society. On the

70 Florence Nightingale was an English social reformer and statistician, and the founder of modern nursing. She
has a great contribution in Crimean War (1853 -1856). In 1849, Nightingale refused a marriage proposal from a
"suitable" gentleman, Richard Monckton Milnes, who had pursued her for years. She explained her reason for
turning him down, saying that while he stimul ated her intellectually and romanti cally, her "moral…active nature"
called for something beyond a domestic life. http://www.biography.com/people/florence -nightingale -9423539,
(accessed May 4, 2017)

59

other hand, the difference between femininity and mas culinity was part of a well -structured
community.

With Middlemarch , George Eliot brought a new perspective about how a marriage
should be regarded. Through her characters, she managed to reflect the illusions and how they
saw themselves within marriage. T he state of matrimony is an important question in
Middlemarch mirrored by the union between Dorothea and Casaubon, Rosamond and Lydgate
and later by the marriage between Dorothea and Ladislaw. Sue Bridhead is the most
representative character of Hardy beca use she obtained a divorce and she re -married with the
same man. Although the financial situation was one of the main reasons, Sue had the freedom
and the strength to react to her consciousness. Traditional marriage is not seen by the heroine
as reasonable and she preferred to maintain outside of it. In fact, society was guilty about her
return to marriage. With no children and destroyed by the people`s mentality, Sue has no
choice than to return in an unwanted marriage. Characters such as Jane, Dorothea an d Sue
reflect through their actions the feminist movement of the time. The process is made from
Jane to Sue as an indirect tool for political and social changes from that period. Not only their
perceptions had been changed but also they managed to become m ore comfortable fighting
traditional gender stereotypes and sexuality. These three characters represent different types
of women from different families with a different social and economic position. While Jane
refused to enter in a marriage that would bri ng her into an offensive position, Dorothea sets
herself within a miserable marriage. Even though she thought that in this position she would
find the intellectual independence, she is disappointed. Sue is aware that she cannot find her
independence throug h matrimony and once she got married, she refused to fulfil her
responsibilities. What have in common these three heroines is that they fought for their
independence in various ways. As we already mention, an unmarried woman was considered
a spinter, a nam e that no woman wanted. They had to be a perfect example for their husband
and therefore to provide a specific behaviour in society.

In conclusion, divorce was not a solution for the Victorian people. The difference
between genders was still visible even after the laws had been enforced and the situation has
not changed very much. The writers did not try and the social conditions did not allow them to
insist on divorce. As divorce was considered a taboo subject, Victorian people and Victorian
writers prefe rred to not discuss about it. What they could do in return was to present the harsh
conditions in which married women lived and how they were treated. Considered inferior and
standing in a position that could not allowed them to react; the Victorian women were a
source of inspiration for the writers of the period. Ann Heilmann wrote that ‖ The marriage
plot thus reinstated conservative male values, humbling the head -strong and

60

independent -minded heroine into accepting the expediency of conventional dome sticity ‖71. In
Jane Eyre, Mr. Rochester can only imagine a future, but this future depends on the decisions
of the past. The author does not even mention about divorce but rather the reader waits the
death of his first wife. Death was another means for esc aping an unwanted marriage, and its
symbol is commonly used in various novels of the time. For example, in Jude the Obscure,
the death of the three children and the society`s prejudices actually separate the main
characters, Sue and Jude. Sue sees through the death of children the punishment of God
because of the sin. The second marriage with the same man is the result of her attitude, and
she quickly becomes the victim of her own deeds. On the other hand, Jude`s situation is
impossible because he does not lose only the children but also the beloved woman.

However, hypostases of modern marriage could be noticed in Middlemarch , where
George Eliot reveals a gradual evolution of union between two people. On the one hand, the
reader can distinguish between Doro thea and Casaubon and later between Dorothea and
Ladislaw` matrimony. On the other hand, the marriage between Rosamond and Lydgate offers
a new perspective about how a union should be. The intellectual inequality between the two
puts their marriage in dang er. They are destined to live within a union where Rosamond`s
narcissism is opposite with Lydgate`s naivety. What reader discovered in the end of the novel
is that Dorothea`s feeling and choices are both a blessing and a curse. Throughout her
evolution, El iot emphasizes many of Middlemarch `s couple. In fact, the author suggest that
women more than men guarantee for happy marriage.

3.3 Fin de Siécle
―Fin de si écle‖ refers to the end of a century, in our case, the 19th century. Yet,
the term did not refer o nly to that but also to a series of concerns about what means social,
culture, artistic and politics directions.

In other words, not only the society suffered some changes but also the Victorian
woman. But, throughout the century, women's discrimination h as continued. As we notices,
they were limited to marriage and motherhood. If at the beginning of the 19th century gender
inequality and differentiation were visible, at the beginning of the 20th century seems to
change. Besides the role of mother and wife , Victorian woman becomes a social reformer. So,
from what was called an ―Angel in the house ‖ to a strong and independent woman, there was
only one step. The increasing number of opportunities offered them a new possibility for
assertion.

71 Ann Heilm ann, New Woman Fiction , p.26 -27
61

Fin de siècle offered not only liberalization for women but also a ―New Woman ‖. In
fact, the term was used by in 1792 by Mary Wollstonecraft in her pamphlet A Vindication of
Women's Rights . Soon, the New Woman, become a cultural phenomenon. In society, she was
considered a strong, emancipated and a social reformer. Besides husband and children, her
main preoccupation becomes education and pursuing a career. Although conservative ideas
have not disappeared, towards the end of the 19th century a change occurred when men
became aware of the existence of New Woman. As for the position of the New Woman, the
opinions were divided. On the one hand there were people who supported the ideas that the
feminist movement asserted, and on the other hand the people who supported the traditional
way.

In literature, Sue Bridehead, Hardy`s feminine character from Jude the Obscure
offered the perfect example. Sue Bridehead becomes in this way an inspiration for self –
defining woman and an att empt to liberation. Sue is one of the character that stood against the
idea imposed by the society regarding love, marriage and women`s rights. She does not accept
to be a property for her husband and this thing is reflected mostly in her pseudo -marriage w ith
Philliston. This idea is revealed in the New Woman movement of the 1890s when one of the
demands was the freedom of womanhood and the freedom to decide whether to marry or not.
Every New Woman writer saw from a different perspective love, freedom to ma rry for love,
equality, marriage and a well defined ideology. Not every woman who was capable to work
for herself, smoke or ride a bicycle pretend to be a ―New Woman ‖. Sall y Ledger claims that:
―The New Woman of the fin de siècle had a multiple identity. S he was, variously, a feminist
activist, a social reformer, a popular novelist, a suffragette playwright, a woman poet; she was
also often a fictional construct, a discursive response to the activities of the late nineteenth –
century women ‘s movement. ‖72 New Woman was a feminine model for her contemporaries.
She was a strong -minded woman, independent, fashionable and stylish.

As Victorian Era was a period of contrasts, so was the New Woman. Regarding the
ideal of womanhood, only middle and upper class were a ble to obtain. In the first chapter,
Victorian femininity was highlight by her submission and her refusal to participate in the
public sphere. But, as Britain advanced starting from Industrial Revolution and then economic
boom, the old Victorian model of f emininity faded. The New Woman depicts a challenge to
the Victorian institution of marriage. They were women who worked for the Empire, entered
in the public sphere and in the same time demanding for their rights. As a result, the Victorian
woman has shown that she can integrate within the limits imposed by the patriarchal society.
A turning point was made in Britain for gender roles and equality.

72 Sally Ledger, The New Woman: Fiction and Feminism at the Fin de Siècle , p. 1
62

Fin de siècle revealed ano ther perspective for women. The New Woman figure was a
model for womanhood created by a group of women writers who wanted more freedom,
opportunities and rights. Each of these women developed in mind their own version of the
New Woman. For instance, Sarah Grand`s preoccupation focused on education and health.
She wanted to create an independent and strong woman who made decisions for herself.
Another feminists writers such as Olive Schreiner demanded sexual freedom for women. Both
Sarah Grand and Olive Schr einer fought for women`s right and become suffragettes. Not only
literature was involved in the new movement but also media, newspapers and magazines. For
the Victorian people, the New Woman movement represented a new topic of conversations
and debates. Ed ucation, health, missionary works were some of the rights that women
demanded. Far from the ironic image created by the media, where women wore trousers,
smoked and rode bicycles, the New Woman was a professional one who had a great
contribution, especiall y increasing the public awareness for their demands.

The New Woman has influenced a new system of thoughts and values. Although the
feminist movement was controversial, it was the starting point for a new millennium of
debates, confrontations, and changes . Ann Heilmann wrote that: ―The impact of first -wave
feminism, and in particular the New Woman movement, on the formation of fin -de-siècle and
early twentieth -century thought and cultural practice received ever increasing attention at the
turn of the mille nnium.73‖ What changed Victorian patriarchy was the fact that women
worked in the public sphere. Later, these women formed the suffrage movement. New
Woman feminism has spread to public consciousness as a necessity for a society based on
equality.

As we m entioned in the previous subchapter, women`s life improved after a set of
laws were enforced. For instance, Infants and Child Custody Act, which was passed in 1839,
Matrimonial Causes Act , passed in 1857 and by 1891 women had the right to not live with
their husbands out of their well. In 1865, Barbara Bodichon formed Women`s Suffrage
Commitee. However, women continued to live in a degradable situation.

In literature, Victorian writers such as Charlotte Brontë, Thomas Hardy, and
Thackeray had the desire to portray women as strong and independent. Their feminine
character ‘s evolution demonstrated how society was unable to control a force that cannot be
easily restrained. As exemplified by Hardy`s heroines, they had to face a new reality about
their status an d role in society. Bathsheba Everdeen, main feminine character from Far from
the Madding Crowd , reflected the women`s difficulties in expressing their needs. Her desire
to manage by her own the farm was associated with Charles Darwin`s theory of evolution.

73 Ann Heilmann, New Womanism and Feminism in the Early Twentieth Century , p. 1
63

The independent Bathsheba has the characteristics of the New Woman`s movement.
Her description is associated with terms such as ―handsome ‖, ―attractive ‖ and ―beautiful ‖.
However, her beauty did not help her to take the right decision when she sent a Valentine to
Farmer Boldwood and this created many problems. Hardy `s heroine experienced a lot of
crises, as a consequence for her desire to control her own business and life. After she marries
with sergeant Troy, her behaviour resembles that of the traditional Victorian woman. At the
same time, she loses a part of her own autonomy. However, after Troy dies, Bathsheba is
aware of the condition she had and becomes more reserved. The heroine is capable to
distinguish between love and subjection. Once she realizes that her way of living was wrong,
her attention is focused to Gabriel Oak. Unlike other novels by Hardy, Far from the Madding
Crowd has a happy end. In fact, Hardy`s purp ose was to give an example for a New Woman
where marriage and union between two people was based on love and equality. That process
is collaboration from both sexes of all social classes. Common themes such as nature,
evolution, female empowerment are pres ented in Hardy`s novels. He is aware about the
changes that women had to face but he is hopeful that not only women could improve but also
the society where they lived. Hardy challenges the ready to pay attention to social
expectations but mostly to women. His female protagonists evolved through the novels.

Brontë`s novel Jane Eyre deals with a young woman who gained the love of her
master and his respect grace to her personality. Her fight for independence started at Lowood,
a school for girls where she h ad to be submissive to Mr. Blocklehurst. This character
represented the society ruled by men. His behaviour revealed a cruel man who is not
interested in education or culture but rather in his social position. Although Jane is there for a
short period of t ime, she received a decent education and later she becomes teacher in the
same place. At Lowood, she learns from Helen that women should guard their rights and dare
to resist oppression.

For New Woman, careers such as governess or teacher were common and in time
women`s employment area expanded. As shown by their capacities, they become doctors,
lawyers but a special place was occupied by writers. Charlotte Brontë`s favourite themes are
family, gender inequality, education as a matter of fact, religion, em ancipation. The last one
was both necessary and desirable. What made Jane Eyre a model for the New Woman
movement was her self -respect, intelligence and her well -defined situation about equality.
New dimensions for womanhood were brought with Jane Eyre . People discovered a well
covered truth and its exposure produced a shock and the novel was both loved and hated by
Brontë`s contemporary readers. Brontë`s heroine changed the mentality of people. If
governesses had no identity, with Jane Eyre, the struggle f or independence is reflected

64

through character`s evolution. Brontë expresses her political views in three important
moments. The first is represented by the moment when John Reed hits Jane; this moment
underlines the differences between genders and ho w society was formed. In this perspective,
John Reed is one of the incarnations of patriarchal society where women have to be obeyed to
men. Jane thinks at some point ―Accustomed to John Reed` s abuse, I never had an idea of
replying to it; my care was how to endure the blow which would certainly follow the
insult .‖(10) However, her reaction is interesting, she compared her cousin with the Roman
Emperor`s behaviour towards his slaves. It was her first reaction for freedom and equality.

The second episode is the scene in the red room. This room represented the punishment
that Jane received for attacking John. According to Gilbert and Gubar that it:

―represents her [Jane` s] vision of the society in which she is trapped, an uneasy and
elfin dependent‟, and tha t this scene is „a paradigm of the larger drama‟ in the novel :
the name of the room and Jane`s passion, Jane`s imprisonment and Bertha Mason`s
imprisonment. Jane` s pilgrimage towards independence „consists of a series of
experiences which are, in one way o r another, variations on the central, red -room
motif of enclosure and escape .‖74

Psychologically strong, Jane is aware about her condition and she does not blame herself
for her defense. The reader discovers Jane`s thoughts while she is the in red room. H er
intellect is revealed through her reactions and then this episode will follow her entire life.

The last but not the least scene was when Jane and her aunt, Mrs Reed had a debate. Her
aunt portrayed Jane in a negative way. Her reaction came as a natural reaction for her rights
and defence. In Harriet Björk`s opinion, Jane`s rebellious behaviour, in both this scene and in
the two others, represent the early movements of the Rights of Women in France and in
England.75 Björk argues that Jane`s speech seemed to the speech used by the feminist
movement within society. When her life is moved to Lowood, the heroine discovers another
type of society based on the same principle of inequality. The school is ruled by Mr.
Brocklehurst and teachers, who were women, ha d to obey him. Jane receives important
lessons such as love, kindness and forgiveness. Although Helen Burns and Miss Temple
becomes important persons for Jane, they are more or less a mother -figure. In a debate that
Jane ha d with Helen she said: ―But I fee l this, Helen: I must dislike those who, whatever I do
to please them, persist in liking me; I must resist those who punish me unjustly. It is as natural
as that I should love those who show me affection, or submit to punishment when I feel it
deserved. ‖ (57-58) showing in this way her free spirit.
74 Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The woman writer and the nineteenth –
century literary imagination ,p. 340 -341
75 Harriet Björk, The Language of Truth. Charlotte Brontë, the Woman Ques tion, and the Novel , p. 91
65

Another important step for her independence is Thornfield Hall where her growing will
know some obstacles. On the one hand, she meets Mr. Rochester who is the master of
Thornfield Hall. Their relationship seems to be based on equality. For the first time, Jane
meets a person who is less patriarchal that her cousin and her old master. They discusses
different topic and Mr. Rochester is interested about Jane`s mind and perspective of things. At
the same time, Jane is not afraid to share her opinions. But before that, their first meeting is
not a meeting where they are equal. Jane helps Rochester after he falls of his horse. In that
case, he has no solution for his problem that asking for help. Regarding this act from a
feminist p oint of view, Jane is situated on the same position with her future master. However,
as their relationship evolved, Rochester is aware about Jane`s intellectual and strong mind.

If in the Victorian Britain, women were associated with objects and their inf eriority was
because their sex, what Brontë managed to do with Jane Eyre was to place the character from
object to subject. In that case, Jane is self -awareness about her status and position.

Regarding marriage, there two important scenes where Jane is th e New Woman
stereotype. When at the Thornefield Hall arrives Blanche, Jane is aware of the inferior
position she has. The difference between the two women is obvious. Blanche Ingram is
presented in contrast with Jane; while the governess is silent, pay att ention to details, Blanche
is a woman belonging to the upper class with a different position than Jane. However, the
main difference than Jane and Blanche is that the second one is concerned only with the idea
of marriage. In this context, Blanche will bec ome her husband`s property without any right.
Blanche is part of the category of women who do not want to share ideas or opinions. The
mere fact of being married is enough. Jane reflects on the expectation that such a marriage
implies. She cannot accept ma rriage based on financial conventions.

Another scene that shows Jane's disapproval of the financial side is the moment of buying
the dresses. Jane finds it useless and humiliating. While Mr. Rochester is used to offer and
buy clothes to his lovers, Jane`s cheek seems to burn ―with a sense of annoyance and
degradation‟ ( 268). The word ―degradation ‖ has a very strong meaning for Jane. The way
Rochester treats the event remembers the state that Céline Varens had. Jane`s self -esteem is
reflected through her wo rds: ―I will not be your English Cèline Varens‟ (270). A feminist side
of the heroine is her unallied nature. She would not allow to be enslaved by Rochester or any
men. When he proposed her to live together in France, after Jane discovered that her master is
already married, she refused. It is not in her nature to be out of religious or nature laws.
Rochester offered her a way of life that does not fit her and in consequence Jane`s answer is
more tha n relevant: ―I care for myself! The more solitary, the more friendless, the more
unsustained I am, the more I will respect myself. I will keep the law given by God; sanctioned

66

by man. ‖(317) Jane prefers to escape from a situation that could affect int egrity. Her decision
to leave Thornefield means leaving a sinful marriage.

Jane`s pilgrimage to Moor House is not easy at all. She goes through several stages of
searching until she gets to know the Rivers. This search for Jane is associated with the
difficulty that women have to face to make their voice heard. Ever since she arrived, the
heroine shared her desire to work and as a result he earned a post as a teacher.

At the same time, the financial independence is won at the Moor House. Jane receives an
amount of money as an inheritance. Besides her inherited wealth, Jane also earns a family.
Mary, Diana and St. John are the ones who took care of Jane. An important moment that
seems to affect Jane's independence is when St. John proposes to go to India wi th him. There
are similarities in the way St. John saw the situation. Just like Rochester, he decided what she
needs to learn. Her natural instinct to rebel comes as a reaction against her obedience. The
marriage request that John makes is a cold and unlov ing one. In fact, the demand seems to be
more a contract where the parties are not equal. From this position, Jane would become a
slave and St John her master. Such a contract is against her beliefs about marriage and love
and her thoughts revealed the sit uation:

―if I join St. John, I abandon half myself: if I go to India, I go to premature death […] he
asks me to be his wife, and has no more of a husband`s heart for me than that frowning
giant of a rock […] Can I bear the consciousness that every endearm ent he bestows is a
sacrifice made on principle? No: such a martyrdom would be monstrous. I will never
undergo it. ‖ (404-405)

From this perspective, Brontë underlines the situation of that time as far as marriage is
concerned. Marriage should not be seen as a contract, but rather as a union between two
people on equal position. John offers her an unequal marriage, while Jane's feminist vision
prevents her from accepting it.

Since the beginning of the novel, Jane has had to face the desire of men to contro l women.
When he refuses John, her development is complete and ―increasingly independent and self –
reliant in her judgements. ‖76 Thus, she understands that a life without equality is not worth
living. The end of the novel portrays Rochester and Jane married . The moment Jane says
"Reader, I married him" comes as a confirmation of the freedom she has gained. What Brontë
manages to do is to change the roles that both sexes have in making a decision. Jane's decision
to marry Rochester belongs to her without bein g forced by someone. Brontë brings a novelty
that Victorian women are not used to. Brontë's feminist point of view is portrayed at the end
of the novel when she gives the heroine a marriage where both parts are autonomous. Jane is

76 Ronald Carter and John McRae, The Routledge History of Literature in English, Britain and Ireland , p. 268
67

portrayed as a woman with a new vision of the future role she has to accomplish. She is able
to speak and express her own opinions and thoughts. On the other hand, bei ng part of the
middle class helps it to change the boundaries between classes. However, part of her
behaviour is subject to tradition and conservative values. She does not express such drastic
demands as the feminist movement will ask for them. Still, Jane presents a new kind of
woman able to think, feel and act.

With Jane Eyre , Brontë manages to impose a new order regarding the situation of
women in Victorian society. Although she wrote under a male pseudonym, the book was
shocking and intriguing for the times when it was written.

As for Wuthering Heights , the novel played an important role for feminist view. Emily
Brontë tries to investigate the feminine consciousness through her female characters.
Catherine Earnshaw Linton is the main character in the f irst part of the novel. Described as
stubborn and rebellious, Cathy struggles against a society dominated by men for what she
loves. Feminine consciousness means in Wuthering Heights independence and the search for
freedom. Although the female characters w ere expected to be weak and always looking for
help, Emily Brontë has a new vision for her characters. On the one hand, the marital
institution plays an important role for a position in society and, on the other hand, the status of
the heroine. Her relatio nship with Heathcliff brings to the forefront the relationship between
the old and the new. Heatcliff's coming to the farm is an unexpected reaction from Catherine.
But with the passage of time the relationship between the two seems to evolve. When their
father dies, the management of the farm is taken over by Catherine's brother, Hindley.
Hindley has a tyrannical behaviour toward Heatcliff and the heroine refuses to accept that.
Catherine`s brother humiliates Heatcliff turning him into a servant. As a resu lt, the emotional
bond between the two amplifies. What leads to a change of situation is the trip that the two do
to Thrushcross Grange. What seemed to be an escape from Hindley's tyranny is actually the
beginning of a new kind of domination. When Catherin e is forced to stay at Thrushcross
Grange, the world of the two children is changing. It is the moment when the difference
between the social classes is obvious. After five weeks of spending time with the Linton
family, Catherine turns to Wuthering Heights completely changed. Her transformation is first
noted by Heatcliff. Both behaviour and values are changed with exposure to a civilized world.
The attitude she poses is cold and shallow. Before marrying Edgar, Catherine tells Nelly that
her love for Edgar is based on the fact that he is educated. In fact, Catherine represents the
social conventions imposed by society. This will later represent the reason for the heroine's
rebel attitude. However, she thinks about her future decision and said ―in my soul, an d in my
heart, I`m convinced I`m wrong! ‖(80) . Catherine feels that Thrusgcross Grange will not give

68

her the freedom she was used to. The firm can be associated with the society that is trying to
impose a certain type of behaviour and norms. The fact t hat she and Heatcliff come from
different environments makes them incompatible.

Her life without Heatcliff is depicted by Nelly: ―Catherine would not be persuaded
into tranquillity. She kept wandering to and fro, from the gate to the door […] and the grea t
drops that began to plash around her, she remained, calling at intervals, and then listening, and
then crying outright. ‖ (85)

Catherine believes that marriage to Edgar will help her evolve socially while marriage
to Heatcliff would not bring any benefit . However, after a period of time as a wife at
Thrushcross Grange, Catherine no longer has the freedom she needs. Heatcliff's disappearance
turns it into a lifeless person. The life she imagined alongside Edgar does not rise to her
expectations. The strong est weapon the heroine uses against her husband is the love she has
for Heatcliff. In her eyes, Linton's superficiality will not reach the height of Heatcliff's spirit.
From a feminist point of view, Catherine is the woman who resists to her father, brothe r and
husband as a protection for her self -awareness. Unlike the traditional Victorian women,
usually obedient to men, Catherine supports her point of view. At the same time, her attitude
to her husband is unusual. Her behaviour may be associated with her nature that cannot be
tamed. The freedom she possessed at Wuthering will remain a powerful memory for her inner
independence. Yet, Heatcliff's remembrance will give her the opportunity to forget her lady`s
duties at Thrushcross Grange. When she gets sick, Catherine becomes aware of how easily
she dropped into a society that did not offer her the freedom she needed. She is aware of the
mistake she made with her marrying Linton. At the same time, her behaviour makes her
childish and wants everyone to be empat hetic with her. She confesses to Heatcliff: ―You and
Edgar have broken my heart, Heathcliff! And you both come to bewail the deed to me, as if
you were the people to be pitied! I shall not pity you, not I. You have killed me‟ […] „I wish I
could hold you, ‖ she continued, bitterly, ―till we were both dead! I shouldn`t care what you
suffered. I care nothing fo r your sufferings. Why shouldn`t you suffer? I do!‟ (160)

Like Jane Eyre , Catherine learns about social norms and the passion she has to keep.
For Cathe rine, Heatcliff is nature and freedom. Edgar, on the other hand, is part of the
patriarchal society that prevents Catherine from showing her instincts. While marriage
becomes suffocating for her, Edgar is unable to understand her needs. Her only release is
ultimately death. The consequences of her decisions lead her to the only way by which she
can return to freedom -death.

Wuthering Heights presents the resistance that Catherine proves after her decision to
marry Linton. Although she desires a better life, her love for Heatcliff remains unchanged.

69

She dares to rebel against the domination of men. For Brontë's heroine, freedom does not refer
only to the equal position of a man and woman, but also to personal freedom, self -integrity.

Although at the tim e the woman was led by the idea that they were submissive to her
father, brother or husband, the female characters of Wuthering Heights prove a strength
character that supports Brontë's point of view regarding feminism. Catherine`s independent
nature has s upported the progressive idea of gender equality of the time. Marrying Edgar is a
way of helping Heatcliff sustained by the heroine in chapter 9 where she confesses to Nelly: ‖
Nelly, I see now you think me a selfish wretch; but did it never strike you that if Heathcliff
and I married, we should be beggars? whereas, if I marry Linton I can aid Heathcliff to rise,
and place him out of my brother ‘s power. ‖

On the other hand, Edgar`s sister, Isabella is the opposite of Catherine. She acts like a
lady with a pr oper education. Although she is warned by Nelly about the true nature of
Heatliff and that he has no feelings for her, her decision to marry him is categorical. The
desire of revenge for Heatcliff is also supported by the naivety of Isabella from which he takes
advantage. Once at Wuthering Heights, the heroine has to endure a completely different life
than she imagined. Caught in an illusory, miserable and violent marriage, she finds the power
to leave. Another time the victim of the others, Heatcliff has a cruel behaviour to Isabella.
When Isabella meets Heatcliff she thinks about him that he is a strong man, her illusions are
disturbed when his true nature reveals. Characterized as immature, naive and childish, Isabelle
finds the power to leave Heatcliff w hen she realizes he uses her only to take revenge. Leaving
a violent marriage was a proof of courage for a Victorian woman. In this way, Isabella proved
that a woman, even for that time, can take care of herself without a man. The marriage
between the two is a lesson that Isabella learns. The difference between appearance and
essence is important. On the one hand, Heatcliff could never change his sadistic nature and,
on the other hand, his desire for revenge had annihilated his sense of love. Isabella`s lov e is
also annihilated by his cruel treatment: ―I gave him my heart, and he took and pinched it to
death, and flung it back to me … ‖ (209 ). In this way, Isabella's desire to leave him is natural.
In fact, the heroine realizes that she was in love with a fal se image she had created about him.
She is not afraid to express the disappointment she has with her husband. She faces reality
with much courage and decides to go to an unknown destination for Heatcliff. The marriage
experience turns her into a mature and experienced woman who does not have to depend
financially on her husband. Another example of her strength of character is the moment she
named her son Linton. After her death she wants her brother to

70

take care of Linton. Thus, Brontë follows Isabel' s evolution from a naive girl to a spiritually
independent woman.

From social and political reforms to asserting individuality, Victorian women have
shown a lot of boldness. The feminist movement has been affirmed not only by literature but
also by the re aders' reaction. Debating issues such as gender equality, as revealed in Charlotte
Brontë's novel, marriage based on love, affirmation of the woman as an individual or leaving
a violent marriage, was a way of affirmation for women of that period. Jane Eyre , Catherine
Earnshaw Linton and Isabella Linton demonstrate the power they have in the struggle for
autonomy. Each novel illustrates various aspects of Queen Victoria's time. The patriarchal
society of each novel is portrayed by characters such as Bertha M ason, Catherine, Nelly, and
Isabella. Everyone expresses the need for a change in gender roles. From this perspective,
Jane is considered equal to her master, and her marriage decision belongs to her. Particularly,
Charlotte Brontë's novel highlights other aspects of society. We can see that if women were
confined to the domestic sphere without having anything to say, in Jane Eyre's case the
situation changes. The heroine has an intellectual independent life. Unlike Catherine and
Isabella, Jane gained indep endence without having to die. She remained faithful to one man.
All three show courage and boldness when expressing their opinions. Unlike Catherine, Jane
and Isabella decide to take control of their own lives. Jane refuses to go with St. John in India
and Isabella leaves Heatcliff.

If Jane Eyre and Wuthering Heights follow women's lives in the first half of the 19th
century, Thomas Hardy's novels like Far from the Madding Crowd and the Jude the Obscure
reveal a change in women's situation. The feminist m ovement believes that women should use
their knowledge in making a decision. Hardy's female characters are based on their own
thoughts and feelings. His characters are capable of being responsible for their own destiny.
As for Bathseba and for Sue, marriag e is not a means to a better position in society. In Sue's
case, marriage brings unhappiness. As for the heroine of the novel Far from the Madding
Crowd is concerned, she will evolve as a result of a superficial marriage.

71

Conclusions

The woman's condition during the Victorian Era was an important subject for writers
of that period. Whether we talk about social, economic or political conditions, feminine
figures have been a proof of gaining self – independence. As we have seen, each nove l portrays
a number of aspects specific to the 19th century. With conquests and territorial development,
Britain has kept society based on the differentiation of three classes: lower, middle and
aristocratic class. Each of these three classes had a set of rules to be respected. As for women,
they have tried to get a favourable position according to the evolution and progress of society.
It was a well -known fact that gender division brought a sort of behaviour and attitude. Queen
Victoria was an example for women of that period in terms of loyalty, dignity and
motherhood.

As we know, women did not have many rights. Their femininity was closely related
to the behaviour they had in the community they were part of. The girls were taught the
appropriate manners to represent their future husbands. Victorian women have played an
important role in developing modern consciousness over women's rights. If at the beginning
of the century, their role was exclusively domestic, until the end of the period, women had
won ma ny rights. Besides the domestic role, they have also made an important contribution to
work and education. The early 19th century did not offer many opportunities for women to
study in the university. However, the situation has changed since 1850.

Patriar chal society has challenged women to resist in a world dominated by men.
From this research, it is obvious the role of literature in terms of expectations that society has
of gender roles. As for the difference in masculinity and femininity, Victorian soci ety has
imposed some behaviour to define them. Whether we are talking about a change in the role of
gender or the feminist movement, the Victorian period has created the ideal framework for
change. In Jane Eyre , Charlotte Brontë depicts the Victorian socie ty and the situation of
women. The feminine character manages to maintain intellectual independence. Even though
Jane seems to fight the most for gender equality, all the female characters studied in this paper
share the same desire for equality. Rebecca S harp, the main character of Vanity Fair , is
fighting for her ideals. Even if she comes from the lower class, Becky manages to evolve as a
character who does not take into account the values of the 19th century. Bathsheba Everdeen,
although she has a high s tatus, is fighting the prejudices of the society she is part of. In Jude
the Obscure , Hardy creates through Sue a stereotype of women with free and progressive
thinking. In addition, Victorian literature criticizes marriage as an institution that does not
offer partners equality. As we know, the wives had to be subject to husbands. The marriage

72

institution was seen as an ideal for typical Victorian women, but for the characters of 19th
century writers, the situation is changing. Jane Eyre refuses to ma rry with Mr. Rochester. In
this case, marriage was nothing more than a contract. The same thing happens with St. John.
In Wuthering Heights , the consequences of an unfortunate marriage can be found in both the
marriage between Catherine and Edgar, and the marriage between Heatcliff and Isabella.
William Thackeray presents a tragic marriage between Amelia and George Osborne. In
Thackeray's hands Victorian society becomes the puppet theatre where the author manipulates
his characters. The novels follow the ne w dimensions of the human psyche and social life,
focusing in particular on the status of women. The opposition between the "angel" and women
who refuse to obey is portrayed in these novels. These novels are different from many other
novels because they cr iticize rooted beliefs and try to bring changes. With the feminist
movement in the British Empire, women were aware of their status in society. The New
Woman has created a favourable context for the development and evolution of a
consciousness based on gen der equality. Although the change required time, future
generations benefited from a context in which women were no longer regarded as inferior.

We cannot talk about feminism proper in the Victorian Age, but we can certainly
testify to the beginning of a story movement in terms of women`s rights. It is the high merit of
the Victorian writers already mentioned that they laid the foundations of the future movement
that was meant to enhance women`s role in the development of society.

73

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Dickens, Charles, David Copperfield , Words worth Editions, 1992
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