ED 243 111AUTHORTITLEINSTITUTION SPONS AGENCYPUB DATECONTRACTNOTEAVAILABLE FROM PUB TYPEDOCUMENT RESUMECS 208 231Fearing, Bertie E.; Allen,… [603717]

ED 243 111AUTHORTITLEINSTITUTION
SPONS AGENCYPUB DATECONTRACTNOTEAVAILABLE FROM
PUB TYPEDOCUMENT RESUMECS 208 231Fearing, Bertie E.; Allen, JoTeaching Technical Writing in the SecondarySchool.ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and CommunicationSkills, Urbana, Ill.; National Councillof Teachers ofEnglish, Urbana, Ill.National Inst. of Education (ED), Washington, DC.84400-83-302563p.; TRIP: Theory & Research into PracticeSeries.National Council af Teachers of English, 1111 KenyonRd., Urbana, IL 61801 (Stock No. 52953, $4.75 member,$6.00 non-member).Information Analyses – ERIC information AnalysisProducts (071) – Guides – Cl.Issroom Use Guides(For Teachers) (052)EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus, Postage.DESCRIPTORS Education Work Relationship; High Cchools;Prewriting; Revision (Written Composition); *TeachingMethods; *Technical Writing; Units of Study; *WritingExercises; *Writing Instruction; Writing Processes;*Writing ResearchIDENTIFIERS Stylistics; *Theory Practice RelationshipABSTRACT aIntended to help secondary school compositioninstructors develop a useful, pragmatic unit on technical writing,this monograph explores the theory, research, and pedagogy oftechnical writing. The first section discusses the purpose and formsof technical writing, as well as elements of technical styleincluding diction, paragraphing and emphasis. The second halfprovides writing exercises emphasizing the elements of technicalstyle and the prewriting and writing stages. The book concludes witha discussion of revision in technical writing. (NTH)
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-. .a
Teaching TechnicalWriting107the SecondarySchool
Berne E. FearingJo Allen
ERICMDAUS. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION.EDUCATIONAL. RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)XI:his document has, been reproduced aseceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.LI Minor changes have been made to improvereproduction quality.Points of view or opinions stated in this docu-ment do not necessarily represent official NIEposition or policy.

ERICiL
a
Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills.1111 Kenyon Rolad, Urbana, Illinois 61801National Couneil of Teachers of English1111 Kenyon Road, Urbana°, Illinois

Teaching Technical Writingin the Secondary School
tr
Bertie E. FearingEast Carolina UniversityJo AllenOklahoma State University
f;

NCTE Editorial Board: Thomas L. Clark, Julie Jensen, John S. Mayher,Elisabeth McPherson, Zara Rashkis, John C. Maxwell, ex officio,Paul O'Dea,ex officio.NCTE Stock Number 52953Published 1984 by the ERIC Clea ghouse on Reading and CommunicationSkills and the National Council of Teachers of English, 1111 Kenyon Road,Urbana, Illinois 61801
This publication was prepare with funding from the National Insti-tute of Education, U.S. Department of Education, under contract no.400-83-0025 Contractors undertaking such projects under govern-ment sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their judgment in professionaland technical-wafers. Prior to publication, the manuscript was submitted to theEditorial Board of the National Council of Teachers of English for critical reviewand determination of professional competence. This publication has met suchstandards. Points of view or opinions, however, do not necessarily represent, theofficial view or opinions of either the National Council of Teachers of English orthe National Institute of Education.
5

Contents
Foreword vii
1.. neory and Research 1Purpose 3Forms of Technical Writing 4Style 4Appropriate Diction 5Economy 11Paragraphing 13Parallelism 15Emphasis 18Professional Resources 192. Practice 23aStyle 23?rewriting 38Writing 46A Final Note: Revision ,52Sources Cited 55
C

Foreword
The Educational Resources. Information Center (ERIC) is a nationalinformation system developed by the U.S. Office of Education and nowsponsored by the National Institute of Education (NIE). ERIC providesready access to descriptions of exemplary programs, research and devel-opment reports, and related information useful in developing effectiveeducational programs.Through its network of specialized centers or clearinghouses, each ofwhich is responsible for a particular educational area, ERIC acquires,evaluates, abstracts, and indexes current information and lists that infor-mation in its reference publications.The ERIC system has already made availablethrough the ERICDocument Reproduction Servicea considerable body of data, includingall federally funded research reports since 1956. However, if the findingsof educational research are to be used by teachers, much of the data mustbe translated into an essentially different context. Rather than resting atthe point of making research reports easily accessible, NIE has directedthe ERIC clearinghouses to commission authorities in various fields towrite information analysis papers.As with all federal educational information efforts, ERIC has' as aprimary goal bridging the gap between educational theory and classroompractice. One method of achieving that goal is the development by theERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills "(ERIC/RCS) of a series of-booklets designed to meet concrete educational needs.Each booklet provides teachers with a review of the best educationaltheory and research on a limited topic, followed by descriptions of class-room activities that will assist teachers in putting that theory into practice.The idea is not unique. Several educational journals and many com-mercial textbooks offer similar aids. The ERIC/RCS booklets are, how-ever, noteworthy in their sharp focus on educational needs and their,pairing of sound academic theory with tested classroom practice. Andthey have been developed in response to the increasing !timber ofrequests from teachers to provide this kind of service.
vii

viii ForewordTopics for these booklets are recommended by the ERIC/ RCSNational Advisory Board. Suggestions for topics are welcomed by theBoard and should be directed to the Clearinghouse.Charles Suhor .Director, ERIC/ RCS
8

1 Theory and Research
Technical writing can be defined as writing that conveys information,sometimes solely to impart knowledge and sometimes also to initiateaction or change. It is factual writing that deals with fundamentals,principles, procedures, details, methods, and the like, and ideally it is alsogood writingclear, accurate; and concise.Technical writing is not new to the civilized world, nor did it emergewith the rise of modern technology. Rather, technical writing can betraced back to the Middle Ages, the Romans, the Greeks, and even theBabylonians:who produced a clay tablet dated circa 2000 B.C. whichnow rests in the New York Metropolitan Museum of History. One of theearliest-gurviving examples of technical writing, this clay tablet tells itsreaders how to make beer. The greatest writer of the Middle Ages,Geoffrey Chaucer, wrote A Treatise on the Astrolabe which, althoughnot nearly so famous. as The Canterbury Tales, is an instructional manualthat tells its readers step-by-step how to calculate the movements ofheavenly bodies by using the sextant-like instrument called the astrolabe.Before Chaucer, a man named Frontinus, a water commissioner ofRome, wrote technical reports about the aqueducts (in A.D. 97); andanother Roman named Vituvius, an architect in the time of AugustusCaesar, wrote a complex, ten-volume report about city planning (in 27B.C.). The great philosopher Aristotle was also a technical writer, whowandered around his botanical gardens making notes about plants andother biological phenomena and who wrote treatises on physics andpsychology.Although technical writing is an ancient forM of writing, it is still oneof the most desirable skills in the marketplace. Andrews and Blickle(1982) have said that "scientists and engineers today produce far morewritten material than do novelists and poets, and may, in their way, bemore influential." The so-called dean of American business managementtheory, Peter Drucker (1952), writes that the one basic, and perhaps mostvaluable, skill for employees is the "ability to organize and express ideasin writing and speaking" but "very few students botherto learn it."Unfortunately, few students do bother to learn it, andwhether forlack of knowledge or out of fearfew secondary English teachers
1

.,
Expressive Writing Literary Writing Technical Writing.wwirimmow
ExamplesJournals, diaries, '! Novels,plays, poems,personal writings, etcp ,etc.instructional manuals, Proposals, sales letters,
scientific articles, letters ofproCess descriptions, recommendation etc,
etc.
PurposeTo reveal the writer's To create a world or To impart facts To persuade with facts
innermost feelings, part of a worlddoubts, fears, hopes
FocusThe writer The literary work The reader
Writer'sConfilsor Creator Teacher., Change agent
Role
Reader'sConfidant Observer Learner Receiver (possibly
Role wary)mogi,=…011…r…
Figure 1,Three Forms of Writing and Their Function, [Adapted from Jakobson (1960) and Dilworth (1979).]
0

Theory and Research 3attempt to teach this form of writing that conducts the world's work.That is indeed unfortunate. As a recent survey shows, many proposalswritten by engineers are seriously flawed by foggy language, wordiness,gobbledygook, confusing sentences, failure to interrelate facts, illogicalreasoning, little concept of audience, poor grammar, and inept punctua-tion (Macintosh, 1979). Other studies have analyzed letters written bybusiness personnel, showing similar weaknesses: wordiness, tired termsand gobbledygook, sentence vagueness or confusion, flawed punctuationthat obscures meaning, grammatical faults, spelling errors, and lack oforganization.It is hoped that this guide to teaching technical writing will enabletraditional teachers of language arts to approach the subject with con-fidence based on knowledge. In a unit on technical writing, students willquickly see the relevance of such writing and it will help them improvetheir writing skills through practice.
PurposeIf Gertrude Stein had been discussing writing rather than roses, she mighthave said "Writing is writing is writing," and she would have been correctin many respects. All effective writing consists of selecting appropriatewords and combining those words into meaningful phrases and sentences,the sentences into well-developed paragraphs, and the paragraphs into aunified whole that has order and coherence. But all writing is not alike inother ways. Figure I shows how three rather distinct forms of writingexpressive, literary, and technicalcan differ in purpose, focus, and theassumed roles of writer and reader.Technical writing, as indicated in Figure I, has a dual purposetoinform and to persuadeand the focus is entirely on the reader, either onthe reader's need to know or to change. This means.that the writer mustassume the authoritative role and must analyze the reader's characteristicsin order to be effective.Most authorities agree that the main purpose of technical writing is toinform the reader about some aspect of objective reality concerning whichthe reader knows little or nothing, or knows a great de& but wishes toknow still more. "Types of Windmills,""How Windmills Produce Energy,"and "How to Assemble and Install Your New Energy Efficient Wind-mill"all are examples of informative technical writing.The touchstones of technical writing, then, are objectivity, accuracy,and reader analysis. If this writing is, to achieve its purposeto impartinformationthe writer must carefully consider the reader's nature: Howmuch does the reader already know about the topic? How much does the

4 Bertie E. Fearing and Jo Alien -reader need or want to know? How much background information mustbe included to help the reader understand the topic?Not all technical writing is strictly informative, however. This is not tosay that the writing becomes subjective, but rather that the writingattempts to sell with facts. "How Windmills Save Your Precious EnergyDollar," "Why XYZ Company Should Invest in Windmill Stock," and"Why You Should Buy Our Energy Efficient Windmill" are examples ofpersuasive technical writing. Again, reader analysis, specifically readermotivation, is a primary concern.
Forms of Technical WritingTechnical writing occurs in a myriad of forms. One need only glance atthe index of any major technical writing textbook to be assured that thereare abundant teaching possibilities for a unit on technical writing. Sometypical forms, to name a few:abstracts literature reviewsbrochures memorandumsdirectives proposalsexecutive summaries prospectusesinformation sheets questionnairesinstructions reportsjob descriptions specificationsjournal articles technical manualslettersThere are other genres, such as: letters (adjustment, application, collec-tion, complaint, congratulatory, inquiry, order, refusal, request, sales,thank you, transmittal) and reports (annual, audit, evaluation, feasibility,field, fiscal, formal, informal, inspection, internal, investigation, labora-tory, periodic, progress, test, trouble-shooting) which are in common use.Figure 2 lists five sources that tell teachers what they need td knowabout most forms of technical writing. The sources were selected because,they are easily adapted to junior high and high school levels and theyhave good explanations and models for teachers to use. .
StyleNot only is there plenty to teach in a technical writing unit, but there isalso much to teach in depth. Fred MacIntosh (1975) states that technicalwriters are constantly challenged by the complex tasks of (1) presenting"

Theory and Research 5r.factual information clearly and concisely; (2) describing items, Oiluipmentsystems, processes, and procedures; (3) explaining ideas, concepts, prin-ciples, and laws; (4) analyzing data, problems, situations, and relation-ships; (5) synthesizing, interpreting, and evaluating data; (6) makingsound, logical cases for recommendations; and (7) adapting any of theabove to different audiences and situations.To accomplish these tasks, MacIntosh continues, technical writers needknowledge of and shrewd corlsideration 'of the situation andaudience,sensitive awareness of how, when, where, and by whom the writingwill be used,sensitivity to audience receptivity factors,knowledge of and skill with many rhetorical strategies,expertise in choosing among these strategies, andcommand of many organizational patterns.In addition, they need skill inmaking organization evident to readers,making the larger interrelationships and continuity immediatelyrecognizable as such,deciding upon and achieving the most effective tone for audienceanitypurpose,controlling pace and density,choosing the appropriate level of vocabulary for the audience,presenting data graphically as well as verbally, andselecting the appropriate form'and format, as well as the appropriategraphics, for the purpose.Style, then, is a prime consideration in technical writing. Rhetoricaltechniques are not necessarily more important in technical writing than ipother writing, but rhetorical techniquesif not altogether differentareemphasized differently. Elsewhere one of the authors has suggested severalrepresentative rhetorical competencies to teach in technical writing. Someof these are appropriate diction, economy of ,phrasing, paragraphing,parallelism, and emphasis (Fearing and Sparrow, in preparation).
Appropriate DictionEvery rhetorical handbook affords guidelines on word choice: Avoidnonstandard, colloquial, slang, jargon, and technical words in general13

Subjects
Abstracts andSummariesLettersLiterature ReviewsMemorandumsProposalsReports:AccidenterAnalyticalFeasibilityField TripEvaluationInspectionInvestigationOralPeriodicPhysicalProgressResearchSmeyHow to Write forthe World ofWork, Pearsall andCunningham,
1982Repbrting Technical Information,Houp and Pearsall,
1980Technical Foglish.Pickett and Laster,
1980
IsI
Is
Is*I
1* SS
continuedLTechnical Writing;Lannon,1982Technical Writing;A Guide withModels, Brinegarand Skates, 1983
I
I
I
ro
p.

,stow toforthe Woiid ofSubjectsWork. Pearsall andCunningham,1982
Technical Modes;Comparison andContrastcause and EffectDefinitionDivision and'ClassificationInstructionsMechanismDescriptionProcessDescriptionVisualsHandbook
ramwedlaam1Mkagmm.II
SO
1*
$*Reporting Techtil.cal Information.Houp and Pearsall,1980Technical English.Pickett and Laster,1980
*Has widecoverage of the basic form or topic indicated,"Exceptionallyigoodsource in the area indicated.
Figure 2,Standard Sources for Technical Writing Instructional Materials
0Technical Writing.Lannon,1982Technical Writing:A Guide withModels. Brinegarand Skates, 1983

Bertie E. Fearing and Jo Allenwriting; select words with the proper connotation; prefer the specific tothe abstract word; and avoid malapropisms, cliches, and trite language.Each guideline offers sound advice for writers in general and for technicalwriters in particular.As Joseph Ulman and Jay Gould (1972) tell us, "every technicalcommunication has one clear purpose: to convey information ancrideasaccurately and efficiently," and this purpose requires that technical writingbe "as clear as possible, as brief as possible, and as easy to understand aspossible." Yet, as Joseph Williams (1981) has found, "the single mostserious problem that mature writers face" is "a wordy, too-complex prosestyle." The initial culprit is word choice. General Motors asserts that ithas "never had a report submitted . ..in which the explanations andterms were too simple," and during their many years as consultants tobusiness and industry, Gordon Mills and John Walter (1970) "have neverheard of a complaint that the vocabUlary in a report was too simple."If "instant clarity at first, rapid reading" (MacIntosh, 1976) is One ofthe hallmarks of good technical writing, the first step toward that instantclarity is plain and simple language. In a technical writing class, studentscan be taught to select the simple over thettiiplex word, to recognizeand avoid tautologies, and to prefer the concffd over the abstract word.Influenced as they are by inflated language Of-business, industry,and government, students often ape their elders and erroneously selectthe -impressive over the expressive word. A list of such word choicesfollows:Expressivexpressiveaccrue add, gainactivate startascertain learn, find outassist helpattempt trycognizant awarecomprehend understandconcentrate focusconceptualize thinkdelineate listdemonstrate showendeavor tryenumerate count, list16

Theory and Researchexpertise skill, knowledgefacilitate helpfinalize complete, finishfurnish giveinception start, beginninginitial firstinordinate excessiveinquire askminimize decrease, reduceoptimum bestprioritize rankproficiency skillsufficient enoughultimate finalutilize useShorter-vv-ad§ not only take less time to write or typeset, they save the busy reader time and mental energyenergy betterspent in considering-or acting upon the message rather than in deciphering the code.A second way to enhance clarity in 'writing is to point out thetautologies. Many of these expressions have been around so long and areso pervasive that they sound _correct. A closer look, however, beliestheir logic:advanced planningawkward predicamentbasic fundamentalsclose scrutinydirect confrontationempty space 'end resultexact oppositesfalse pretensefirst begano'cgeneral consensusintegral partold adagepast experiencepersonal opinionplan aheadpostpone until laterpreplan;protest againstreason whyspecific instancestill persistssudden explosionsum total17,

10 Bertie E. Fearing and Jo Allen
join togethermajor crisisnatural instincttrue factunexpected surpriseunintentional mistakePointing out tautologies actually helps student writers clarify theirthoughts and become word watchers, if not wordsmiths.Helping students convert abstract words into concrete words is not asimple process. Abstract words abound in business, technical, and govern-ment writing. Governmentinstitutions, for instance, develop "missionstatements," their administrators engage in "functional task analysis," andtheir field coordinators "interface" with various "publics." Student writerswho read widely in official documents, specialized textbooks, and profes-sional journals will undoubtedly pick up on these abstract terms, incor-porating them into their classroom writing assignments. It is importantthat teachers point out the need for specificity:Abstract Specifica short summary a 60-word summarynear accuracy 98 percent accuracya generous margin ale/2" margingood-quality paper 20-weight paper,a medium oven 350° ovensoon by 5:00 p.m.oil frequently oil every 30 daysWhen a writer, for .example, refers to a "facility," the reader has the rightto know if the facility is amanufacturing plant, a classroom, a Girl Scoutcamp, or a shipyard. Eventhe more specific phrase "training facility"adds little unless the writerspecifies whether the facility is a bootcamp, awriting center, a lecture hall, or a potty.Specificity is an imperative in technical writing, raising the question ofwhen to use technical terms.. Ron S. Blicq (1981) explains that wordchoice is a matter of selecting the appropriate level for the intendedaudience. If the reader is an expert in the field, the writer can certainlyuse technical terms.If, however, the reader is a layperson with only apassing acquaintance with the field, the writer should use more. geneialterms (1981). To illustrate,apply your knowledge of technical terms tothe exercise "What Time of Day, What Time of Year?" on page 24, in thePractice section.A sureway for the writer to sabotage the threefold objective of clarity,brevity, and understandability is to use gobbledygookthat moras's of
.
E18

Theory and Research
pseudoliterate pomposity known variously as officialese, legalese, educa-tionalese, Pentagonese, bafflegab, and so on. The following, a plea fromeducation to business, says it all (The Underground Grammarian, 1980):Due to changing demographics and stagflation, the synergistic impact of the education system flowing into the industrial system is breaking apart…The private sector has to intervene with a number of interventions beginning in junior high school. … If we are going to have synergism continue, the private sector has to getinto the business of developing innovative structures and assist in a variety of joint venturing. [Wow!}
EconomyAgain using the criterion of "instant clarity at the first, rapid reading" as a measure, economy not only in word choice but also in sentence struc- ture is a must in teaching the technical writing unit. Sentence combining and generative grammar have a place in any writing unit, for they teach students how to subordinate and add detail; however, thereare certain constructions to monitor for the sake of economy. Michael Adelstein (1971) is concerned with constructions that often add more words thanmeaning. Some of these offenders are the following:I.Prepositional PhrasesOriginal: The representative of the college gave a catalog to eachprospective student.Edited: The college representative gave each prospective student acatalog. (reduced 25 percent)Original: In the near future, career opportunities in the area oftechnical writing will be expanding.Edited: Career opportunities in technical writing will soon beexpanding. (reduced 40 percent)Original: Enclosed is our check in the amount of $5.Edited: Enclosed is our check for $5. (reduced 33 percent)Or: Enclosed is our $5 check. (reduced 45 percent)2.Who, Which, That ClausesOriginal: Any student who has a lot of talent should apply for the scholarship.Edited: Any talented student should apply for the scholarship. (reduced 39 percent)Original: Anyone who has a plan that is feasible will be recognized.Edited: Anyone with a feasible plan will be recognized. (reduced 28 percent)19

12 Bertie E. Fearing and Jo AllenOriginal: At the end of the .day, you may put the letters that youhave typed on Mrs. Thomas's desk.Edited: At the end of the day, you may put the typed letters onMrs. Thomas's desk. (reduced 16 percent)3.Weak Verb + Noun CombinationsOriginal: Janet Holliday gave a presentation of the findings to thecommittee.Edited: Janet Holiday presented the findings to the committee.(reduced 27 percent)Original: Professor Allen makes frequent references to M*A*S*H.Edited: Professor Allen refers frequently to M*A*S*H. (reduced14 percent)Original: This section is an explanation of how to achieve clearwriting.Edited: This section explains how to achieve clear writing. (re-duced 27 percent)4"There Are," "It Is" False StartsOriginal: There are many teachers on the faculty who want addi-tional A-V equipment.Edited: Many teachers want additional A-V equipment. (reduced50 percent)Original: There are two students waiting in the principal's office.Edited: Two students are waiting in the principal's office. (reducedII percent)Original: It is essential to proofread each report for spelling errors.Edited: Proofread each report for spelling errors. (reduced 40percent)5.Passive VoiceOriginal: Every and of his footnotes was carefully checked by him.Edited: He carefully checked each of his footnotes. (reducedi 22percent)Original: A ten percent interest rate on their money is received byall depositors.,_\ Edited: All depositors receive ten percent interest, on their money.(reduced 31 percent)Original: It was eventually discovered by alchemists that gold couldnot be made.Edited: Alchemists eventually discovered that they could not ;makegold. (reduced 25 percent)Obviously we are not advocating that students never use the aboveconstructions, only that they become aware of such constructions, and20

Theory and Research 13delete them when this does not obscure meaning or change the desired tone. For example, deletion of a relative clause can obscure meaning as in:Ambiguous: Mr. Dockpoint needed the letter [that was] sent out yesterday.The passive is acceptable and even preferred when the actor is unknown or irrelevant.Emphatic: The unruly student was suspended.The passive is also preferred when the writer wishes to achieve a neutral tone:Not: You failed to complete and return the form.But: The form should have been completed and returned. Economy is a plus in technical writing, but it should never sacrifice clarity or courtesy.
Paragraphing"Lack of paragraph development" is a frequent marginal notation that teachers write on student essays. Almost the opposite is true in technical docuMenti where writers strive to present information in logically organ- ized, bite-sized, easy-to-read paragraphs. Again, the need to conserve reader's time by increasing the documents' readability is the prime consideration.Although the role of the paragraph is complex, theory and research have contributed to our understanding of paragraph organization. For example, recent-research substantiates the theory that an organized para- graph is more easily understood than a disorganized paragraph and that putting the main idea first ina paragraph increases reader comprehension (Felkner, 1981).The ideal length of a paragraph is still a fuzzy point, however, Blicq(1981) offers several astute pointers about paragraph length:Variety in paragraph length has a lively visual effect.A series of equal-length paragraphs creates the impression of dullness.Readers attach importance to a paragraph that is clearly longer orshorter than those surrounding it.Paragraph length needs to be adjusted to 'suit the complexity ofyour topk and the technical level of your readers. Generally, com- plex topics demand short paragraphs containing small portions of information.

14 Bertie E. Fearing and Jo Allenlf, as Andrews and Blickle (1982) state, complex content should bepresented in short sentences and simple content in longer sentences, thena similar guideline 'should hold true for paragraphs. Sometimes, however,using a long paragraph for a simple subject detracts from the meaning, asthis example shows:How tr, Choose a Car DealerIdeally, you want a car dealer who performs reliable service andwho offers fair prices. There are several precautions you can take.Look at a dealer's service area. It should be two to three times thesize of the showroom. If not, the dealer is not serious about repairs.Check around for diagnostic equipment, such as an engine oscillo-scope, that can take expensive guesswork out of repairs. You want ashop where the dealer has spent a lot of money to equip properly.Make price comparisons among several dealers. The difference cansave you money on repair and maintenance bills. Ask friends andrelatives about the service their dealers give. Personal testimony isamong the best of guarantees. If a dealer consistently gets a highrating, then buy whatever kind of car that dealer sells. Finally, don'tdo business with a dealer who misleads you during the Felling pro-cess. Unethical sales representatives usually mean unethical repairpersonnel.Although simple in content; the above paragraph is too long andcumbersome. It buries important information in continuous lines of proseunrelieved by white space: Blicq suggests that students of technical writingsplit out important information in long paragraphs by "subparagraphing."Using the subparagraphing technique, the revised paragraph looks likethis:Ideally, you want a car dealer who performs reliable serviceand who offers fair prices. There are several precautions youcan take:1. cLook at the dealer's service area. It should be two tothree times the size of the showroom. If not, the dealeris not serious about repairs.2.Check around for diagnostic equipment, such as anengine oscilloscope, that can take expensive guessworkout of repairs.You want a shop where the dealer has spent a lot ofmoney to equip properly.3.Make price comparisons among several dealers. Thedifference can save you money on repair and mainte-nance bills.22

Theory and Research 154.Ask friends and relatives about the service their dealersgive. Personal testimony is among the best of guarantees.If a dealer consistently gets a high rating, then buywhatever kind of car that dealer sells.Finally, don't do business with a dealer who misleads you during the selling process. Unethical sales repregentativesusually mean unethical repair personnel.
ParallelismOne of the most aesthetically pleasing rhetorical devices is parallelism,that knack of pairing and joining words, phrases, clauses, and sentencesin like grammatical structures. Parallelism is balance and symmetry; it is order and pattern. Many of history's best-known phrases are memorablebecause they were cast in parallel form:I see one-third of a nation ill-housed, ill-clad, ill-nourished. (FranklinDelano Roosevelt)Death and sorrow will be the companions of our journey; hardshipour garment; constancy and valor our only shield. We must beunited, we must be undaunted, we must be inflexible. (Sir WinstonChurchill)Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country. (J. F. Kennedy)Conventional textbooks readily point out the advantage of parallelismas an aid to clarity, consistency, and continuity.. Students should con-tinually develop their skills in composing parallel structures in the technicalwriting unit. They should balance "a word with a word, a phrase with aphrase, a clause with a clause, a sentence with a sentence" (Hodges andWhitten, 1982).She is intelligent, witty, and lively. (Not: full of life)Employees are expected to arrive on time, to work productively,and to be pleasant. (Not: smile a lot)Yesterday, I was a student; today, I am the teacher. (Not: Yesterday,I was enrolled in school)Students should also learn the special uses of parallelism particular totechnical writing: in lists and subparagraphs, in instructions and directions,in headings and captions, and in outlines and tables of contents.

16 Bertie E. Fearing and Jo Allen
Lists are a clear, concise method of conveying information:When you go to the testing center, be sure to take the following:an I.D. carda blue examination bookleta number 2 pencila pocket calculatorLike lists, subparagraphs should be presented in parallel form. Thefollowing two illustrate:Three methods for stopping bleeding are the direct pressure method,the pressure point method, and the tourniquet method:I.Direct pres,sure method: In this method, you apply pressure ….2.Pressure point method: In this method, you apply pressure ….3.Tourniquet method: In this method, you apply pressure . …The government inspectors found four cases of safety violations:In the first case …In the second case . ..In the third case …In the fourth case . ..When writing instructions and directions, writers can wreak havoc whenthey violate the rules of parallelism. Notice how the following exampletends to confuse, or slow down, the reader at first, rapid reading:If you are considering buying a used car, there are several precautionsyou can take to ensure the best buy:1.Go in the daytime to inspect the car .. .2.Check the tires for wear . ..3.Rust spots may be apparent . ..-4.. A repainted car may indicate that the car has been wrecked . ..5.Open and close the doors, the trunk, and the hood . ..6.Start the engine . ..7.Check the dashboard controls and the electrical switchesfor …8.To check for worn shocks . ..24

Theory and Research 17
.Items 1, 2, 5, 6; and 7 are direct and predictable; they are written in theimperative mode. Items 3, 4, and 8 break with the expected form., Headings and captions, as well as outlines and tables of contents, profit from parallel structure. In theexample given earlier, about buying a used car, one can readily see where the eight precautions fit in the following system 9f headings:Inspecting a Used CarOn the LotOn the RoadWith the MechanicHeadings, of course, evolve from the table of contents, which evolves from the outline. If students never before saw the need, for parallelstructures in outlines written for essays, they will quickly see that need in outlines written for technical documents. Parallelism not only maintains the orderliness of entries; it also indicates the hierarchical relationship among levels of entries. For example, a pamphlet on "Writing ResearchPapers" might loolesomething like this:1.How to Use the Library1.1Using the Card Catalogue1.2Using Periodical Indexes1.3Using Computer Databases2.How to Record Information2.1Making Bibliography. Cards2.2Making Note Cards2.2.1Precis2.2.2Summary2.2.3Paraphrase3.How tb Write the First Draft3.1Organizing the Information3.2Writing the Outline3.3Writing the Draft4. "How to Revise the First Draft4.1Checking Organization4.2Editing for Clarity and Style4.3Editing for Grammar and MechanicsThe parallel structures are consistent within equal-level entries but are differentiated among varying levels How to" for first-level headings vs.the participle -ing for second-level headings). When these entries which
25

18 Berrie E. Fearing and Jo Allencompose the table' of contents are incorporated as headings within thedocument itself, the consistently differentiated parallel syntax reinforcesthe hierarchical relationship among the headings.
EmphasisIn helping students highlight key ideas, teachers can incorporate twoapproaches in the technical writing unit: (I) rhetorical techniques and(2) mechanical devices.Rhetorical techniques for emphasizing key points are prominent posi-tion, economy of phrasing, use of vigorous words, and use of compactsentences. Busy readers of technical documenti expect to find the mainpoints in the most prominent positionthe beginning. Therefore, keyideas should come first in a_sentence, in a paragraph, and in a letter orreport. Key ideas may also be reemphasized at the end of a sentence,paragraph, letter, or report.Economy in the use of words is a second technique for emphasis. Aswe mentioned earlier, too many words and too much detail can obscureimportant material. Clear out the clutter, and main points stand out.Short, concrete words, short sentences, and short paragraphs tend tohighlight information. Parallelism and active voice, also help to spotlightkey points by presenting them in a structured, forceful manner.In preparing this section on style, the authors had to decide where toplace the topic of emphasis. We chose the last positionnot only,becauseit is emphatic, but also -because emphasis nicely sums up the point wewanted to make: simple diction, economy, active voice, compact para-graphs, and parallelismall contribute to emphasis. (And repetition does,too.)Traditional composition textbooks rarely touch upon the use ofmechanical devices for emphasis: typography, headings, and enumeration.Teachers can show students how to emphasize key points typographicallywith underscoring, italics, SMALL CAPITALS, LARGE CAPITALS, ITALICLA RGE CAPITALS, boldface, and LARGE and SMALL CAPITALS.Headings have a threefold value: they highlight important material,they visually outline a document, and they indicate the sequence of_thedivisions within the subject-matter. When writers use_ typography andindentations to show degree, headings and subheadings help readers seethe hierarchical relationships among the parts of a document, allowingthem to zero in on needed information.Enumeration is another device for highlighting important material.The reader's eye is drawn to items set off by white space and spotlightedby numbers (I. 2. 3.), bullets (), blocks (), or arrows ().26

Theory and Research 19In summary, to highlight key points in technical writing, studentsshould learn to use a combination of rhetorical techniques and mechanicaldevices:1.Rhetol:cal Techniques 2.Mechanical DevicesProminent position TypographyEconomy HeadingsVigorous words EnumerationCompact sentences
Professional ResourcesHaving read Part 1 on Theory andlResearch and armed yourself with theclassroom exercises in Part 2,.yoii are well on your way t ward develop-ing a useful, pragmatic unit ton technical writing. Remember, though, thatthis ERIC book is just a beginping. Expecting to learn everything abouttechnical rEiting from one boa is as naive as expecting to learn every-thing about technical writing from a two-week'wodcshop.The successful teacher continues io read and learn. We have, therefore,prepared the following list of professimial development resources to meetyour continuing professional -ueeds. The list is divided into three cate-gories: books, jourpals,.and summer institutes. By using these resources,you can learn and borrow froth the most knowledgeable technical writingteachers in the field. I
Books,Anderson, Paul, ed. Teaching Technical Writing: Teaching AudienceAnalysis. Morehead State University, Morehead, Ky. 40351: Associa-tion of Teachers of Technical Writing, 1980.Anderson, Paul V. and R. John Brockmann, eds. New Essays in Technicaland Scientific Communication: Theory, Research, and Practice. 120Marine Street, Box D, Farmingdale, N.Y. 11735: Baywood PublishingCompany, 1983.Cunningham, Donald H. and Herman A. Estrin, eds. The Teaching ofTechnical Writing. 1111 Kenyon Road, Urbana, Ill. 61801: NationalCouncil of Teachers of English, 1975.Douglas, George H., ed. The Teaching of Business Communication. 608South Wright Street, Urbana, 111. 61801: American Business Communi-cation Association, 1978. J

20 Bertie E. Fearing and Jo AllenHarris, John S., ed. Teaching Technical Writing: Thaining Teachers ofTechnical Writing. Morehead State University, Morehead, Ky. 40351:Association of Teachers of Technical Writing, in preparation.Pearsall, Thomas E. Teaching Technical Writing: Methods for CollegeEnglish Teachers. 815 15th Street N.W., Suite 506, Washington, D.C.20005: Society for Technical Communication, 1977.Sawyer, Thomas M., ed. Technical and Professional Communication:Teaching in the Two-Year College, Four-Year College, ProfessionalSchool. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.: Professional Com-munication Press, Inc., 1977.Sparrow, W. Keats and Nell Ann Pickett, eds. Technical and BusinessCommunication in Two-Year Programs. 1111 Kenyon Road, Urbana,Ill. 61801: National Council of Teachers of English, 1983.
JournalsA BCA Bulletin and Journal of Business Communication, published bythe American Business Communication Association, University ofIllinois, 608 South Wright Street, Urbana, Ill. 61801. Dues $30.Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, published by Bay-wood Publishing Company, Inc. 120 Mirine Street, Box D, Farming-dale, N.Y. 11735. Subscription $50 (institution), $24 (individual).Teaching English in the Two-Year College, published by National Councilof Teachers of English, 1111 Kenyon Road, Urbana, Ill. 61801. Sub-scription $15.Technical Communication, published by the Society for Technical Com-munication, 815 Fifteenth Street, NW, Suite 506, Washington, D.C.20005. Dues $40, nonmember subscriptions $23.The Technical Writing Teacher, published by the Rhetoric Department atthe University of Minnesota for the Associated Teachers of TechnicalWriting. Send membership dues to Nell Ann Pickett, English Depart-ment, Hinds Junior College, Raymond, Miss. 39154. Dues $12.Summer InstitutesInstitute in Technical CoMmunication (Southeastern Conference on Eng-lish in the Two-Year College). Nell Ann Pickett, English Department,Hinds Junior College, Raymond, Miss. 39154.(1984)Teaching Technical and Professional Communication. Conference Coor-dinator, Department of Humanities, Collegeof Engineering, University2,of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. 48109.28`;;A

Theory and Research 21Teaching Technical and Professional Communication. Offices of Continu-ing Studies and Special Programs, P.O. Box 1892, Rice University,Houston, Tex. 77001.Teaching Technical and Professional Writing. Director, Scientific andTechnical Communication, 14 Loew Hall, FH-10, University of Wash-ington, Seattle, Wash. 98195.Teaching Technical and Professional Writing Workshop. School of Con-tinuing Education, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA. 23508.Technical Writing Institute for Teachers. Technical Writing Institute,Division of Continuing Education, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,Troy, N.Y. 12181.University of Minnesota Institute in Technical Communication: AdvancedSeminar for Teachers. Department of Rhetoric, 1364 Eckles Avenue,University of MinneSota, St. Paul, Minn. 55108.
29

2 Practice
You now have a theoretical background on which to base classroomdiscussions of technical writing. Attention to style combined with a senseof audience, a clear purpose for writing, and an organized approachshould produce clear, readable technical prose.As Epictetus (circa A.D. 100) said, ". ..if you wish to be a goodwriter, write." The ;following exercises are designed to sharpen students'writing skills. The exercises for teaching. writing ,are divided into threesections: Style, Prewriting, and Writing. The Style section presents somebasic composition skills necessary to good techniCal writing: appropriatediction and voice, economy, paragraphing, parallelism, and emphasis.The skills learned in the Style section are necessary for successfullyaccomplishing the tasks in the other two sections. In the Prewritingsection, students learn to analyze audiences, determine the purpose ofwriting each assignment, and organize material for a logical and coherentsequence. In the Writing section, students try their hand at writing, first,in short reports and then in formal reports. The book concludes, as itshould, with a brief discussion o revision.Each section should be' covered to devejop better writing skills. Forexample, mastery of diction and economy may be wasted if the writerloses control of the organization or emphasis of the writing. If a writerdoesn't keep the intended audience in mind, the writing may be toosimple, ing'ulting the reader, or too complex, confusing or losing thereader. And, if the audience is lost, it hardly matters that the purpose wasachieved and the facts were clearly organized and presented, leading to alogical and useful recommendation.Finally, students often learn remarkably well from each;other. Afterthe students have completed each assignment, encourage them to comparetheir writing with one another, as a way of pointing out techniques ofgood writing. Remind the students to look for clarity, conciseness, andsuccessful accomplishment of purpose.
StyleWe've all known people who have no sense of style. They may wear nice'clothes, but something just doesn't look right. We've all listened to2330

'24 Berrie E. Fearing and Jo Allencomedians who simply were not funny, or watched horror films thatbored rather than scared us, or heard singers whose songs were inappro-priate for them. And, we've all known people who invariailly say thewrong things. These people simply lack style.Style in writing is just as importantand °flee as trickyas wearingthe right clothes, saying the right things, and otherwise favorably pre-senting oneself to others. Techniques of style are probably the mostimportant skills a writer possessesand often the most difficult to acquireand refine.The following exercises give students an opportunity to develop someof the elements of good writing style: diction, economy, appropriatevoice, paragraphing, parallelism, and emphasis.
Appropriate DictionAppropriate diction means using,common words that will not inflatewriting to some abstract level of pomposity. For example, there is noneed to explicate when you may explain, to illustrate when you maydraw, or to dispatch when you may send.I.To show students how frustrating it is to cope with technical wordsthey do not understand, duplicate the exercise below (from TheEditorial Eye, August 1982):What Time of Day, What Time of Year?Match each word with the season, time of day, or date(s) towhich it refers. Answers will be given at the conchision of theexercise.1.vernal a.summer2.aestival b.winter3.hiemal c.autumn4.hibernal d.spring5.meridian e.morning6.matutinal f.twilight7.crepuscular g.noon8.vespertine h.evening9.auroral i.afternoon10.equinox j.about June 2211.solstice k.about September 23about December 22about March 211.m.31

Practice 25
The answers are:1. d2. a3. b4. b5. g6. e7. f8. h9. e10. k, m11. j, 1II.Have students rewrite sentences, replacing the pompous words orphrases with words more commonly used. Sample sentences follow,but others abound in local newspapers, magazines, books, andschool memorandums, and in the speech of newscasters, politicians,and colleagues.1.The group plans to finalize the recommendations and pro-cedures this afternoon.2.I've asked my secretary to prioritize my appointments so I canspend more time at home this week.3.If the members of the committee will verbalize their misgivingsabout the prOject, we can begin to conceptualize remedies.4.Be sure to remunerate the foreman for fixing the belt online 2.5.Explicate the transition to the new secretary, please.6.The findings of the researchers are legitimate under thes,conditions.7.I would respond affirmatively to Rachel's nomination forpresident.8.Be tenacious with your money.9.In its totality, our company has increased its profits by 10percent over last year.10.If John and Mary would synthesize their findings, we couldprobably ascertain a simple recourse for our dilemma.11.Joanne's stultification of Betsy in front of the president wascertainly tactless.12.He is quite diligent in his studies.13.Please modify your recommendations to incorporate Tom'sinsightful suggestion.14.Vicki attributed credit for her idea to a book she once perused.15,The manager has dominion over the other employees in thisdepartment.16.Next year, we plan to diversify our product line.17.The plans for the new library should crystallize before the endof summer school.18.The lawyer asked the defendant to characterize the persona ofthe plaintiff.32

26, Berne E. Fearing and Jo Allen
19.Plans call for a centralized computing center to be availablefor the entire staff's utilization.20.The designer received a fee for her idea.21.Dr. Thomas altered her original assignment to allay the stu-dents' anxiety.22.The smell of burnt biscuits permeated the kitchen.23.Rita was chagrined over not being invited to the prom.24:The man was incarcerated for mugging old Mrs. Stansmith.25.His circumlocution quickly bored everyone in the room.26.The conflagration damaged thelouse beyond restoration.27.It was quite fortuitous that I ran into my old friend fromcollege.28.Beth has succumbed to the influence and power of herposition.29.Did you notice how reticent Don was tonight?30.Will you please deliver this term paper to Dr. Parramoreprior to tomorrow morning's 10:00 class? ,III.Have students keep a style journal. Each week, students read anarticle in a magazine or professional journal. For each article used,students enter the following items in their style journals:–1-1–The-bibliographical information.2.The main point of the article.3.Four new or interesting words from the article.4.The best stylistic sentence.5.The worst stylistic sentence.On designated dayssay Fridaysselect several students and askthem to write items 3, 4, and 5 on the board. You can then leadan impromptu discussion of diction, word effectiveness, etymology,connotation and denotation, word abuse, and so forth;why a sen-tence is particularly good or bad; and how to revise bad sentences.[Source: Philip Sbaratta. "Reading Meets Writing in FreshmanEnglish." TETYC 8 (1982), pp. 131-33.]IV.The following exercise grew out of a classroom incident: A studentwho was having trouble writing a comparison and contrast essaywas told to use one of the essays in the rhetorical reader as a model.33

Practice 27The student looked up the word model and found it meant "anexample that may be used for imitation." The student looked up theword imitate and found it meant "to copy." So, for her next assign-ment, she copied word-for-word the essay in the reader.To help students discover levels of diction and also nuances of words,duplicate sentences like the following and ask students to list all of thesynonyms of the underlined words. (Have them use a thesaurus.) Studentsthen look up the meanings of each synonym in a dictionary to determinewhich synonyms are appropriate for a given content and audience, andwhich are not.Building on later assignments, also ask students to list antonyms, tolook up their meanings, and to rewrite the sentences using various ant-onyms. The variety of appropriate and inappropriate word choice isalmost infinite and helps students tune in to the impact of words on theintended message. Here's how it works:"It was not an auspicious start for the corning year: on New Year'sEve, six people … werekilled in a spree of violence near Bulawaya,Zimbabwe's second largest city."auspiciousof good omen, propitiousSynonyms: favorableboding well or promisingpromisinggiving promise of good.results ordevelopmentpropitiousboding well for the futurefortunate=lucky or favored with fortuneFortunate is the least appropriate choice. Propitious and auspiciousare appropriate as are favorable and, promising. The levels of thetwo sets of words are obvious.Antonyms: unfortunatenot fortunate, unhappy, unsuccessful, etc.;causing or attended by ill fortune; disastrousuntimelyoccurring at the wrong time"It was an unfortunate start . .." is understated."It was an untimely start . .." is clearly inappropriate."Banking institutions have long vied with one another to attractinvestors."vieto strive for superiority, contend, competeSynonyms: rivalto strive to equal or excel!, to competeemulateto try to equal or surpasscontendto strive in competition, to struggle or fight;
34

28 Berrie E. Fearing and JoAllen'to make an earnest effort, to contendstrivefight, to vie or emulate -compete to contend with others as for a prize, toengage in a contest or competition, to vieVied and competed are the best choices. Rival and emulate couldmean equal as well as to surpass; "to equal" does not fit the sense ofthe sentence. Contend connotes fighting. The first meaning of strivemakes this choice inappropriate.Antonyms: Would not be appropriateA random selecton of words from two pages in a thesaurus shovii theinfinite possibilities of this assignment in teaching appropriate diction:bookwormscholar, pendant; bibliophilebourgeoismiddle-class; conservativeboycottshun, blackball, ostracizebraincerebrum, cerebellum; mentality, intelligence, mind; graymatter; intellectbravadobluster, braggadocio, boastingEconomyStudents should learn the importance of economy in their writing. Re-dundancy has no place in any type of writing, but especially not intechnical writing when the readers are reading for information. In addi-tion, excess verbiage often gets in the way of the meaning or sense of thesentence. Learning to be direct and exact are two of the most importantbasic skills needed for technical writing.I.In the following sentences, unnecessary words fog messages that caneasily be made clear when the sentences are rewritten. Studentsshould look for the simplest means of communicating the messageof each sentence.
1.It will be of great benefit for the engineers to keep their certi-fications currently up-to-date.2Tomorrow there may be some precipitation in the form ofrain.3.The reason why the machine broke down is due to causesunknown.4.All officers should be aware of a planning session to be heldat the morning hour of 10:00 a.m.5.The report,clearly shows that the cost of producing electricalparts has risen to twice last year's costs.35

Practice 29
6.The commitment of this company to quality -coupled with itscommitment to lower prices is an explanation of the company'scontinued high rate of growth.7.Corporate management requests that all vacation time betaken within the 12-month period of one year.8.Please accept my apologies for the misunderstanding.9.Our situation is such that we cannot ship the merchandise youordered at the present time.10.Due to the fact that our president is out of town, she will beunavailable to speak at this point in time.11.Rotate the red knob to the "off" position.12.Please present a summarized report to account for these travelexpenses.13.John was very congratulatory towards Howard on his promo-tion.14.Apologies are in order for my behavior last night.15.In response to your question, I would have to say that Icouldn't considerranother positon at this time.16.We are all cognizant of the fact that Mrs. Parker will bevirtually irreplaceable.17.Breakfast will be served at 7:00 in the morning.18.I am certainly honored that you thought enough of me to askme to be your traveling companion for your trip to theBahamas.19.Nathan has offered to render his services as our lawyer in thisventure.20.In this day and time, one can never be too careful on thestreets at night.21.His possessive jealousy over his wife was making everyone feeluncomfortable.22.He admitted he was guilty of stealing the silver tray.23.The unexpected surprise of having a party in his honor com-pletely overwhelmed Mr. Myers.24.Sally left the party when she heard of the major crisis at theoffice.25.The thunderstorm activity scared us all.
,26.Jason threw the javelin a distance of 200 yards.
\L,3 6

30 Bertie E. Fearing and Jo Allen
27.Even though they are twins, Jack and Peter are certainly exactopposites.28.Please refer back to the earlier pages concerning freedom ofspeech.29.Nancy introduced for the first time a new way of collectingaccounts receivable that had not been paid.30.Terri and Bish announced the birth of their baby boy.II.Writing abstracts, also called summaries or synopses, is an excellentway for students to practice economy while learning more about theworld.A.Have students select a career field they are interested in pursu-ing. Ask them to submit a list of five periodicals devoted tothat topic. Have them read one article a week from one of themagazines and write an abstract of that article. Call on fouror five students at random each week to give oral reports ontheir articles.Students reporting on articles are usually excited aboutwhat they read and their enthusiasm is contagious. Becausestudents listening to the reports are full of questions, you willneed to limit the report and question-and-answer session.B.Ask students to read a high-interest article of 2000-3000 wordsand have them write a 75-100-word abstract of it. Collect theabstracts, select five or six of varying quality, and transferthem to overhead film or duplicate them on a ditto master.Lead a discussion of what is good and poor in each (students'names removed, of course). Some abstracts will be too concise,some too wordy or detailed, and some too vague. Some willmiss the point entirely. If the last three abstracts discussed havegood featuresand they should if you've selected correctly'ask the class as a group to take the best features of each andcombine them into a "perfect" abstract.C.Have each student select a topic of interest; locate ten totwelve current articles on that topic; and abstract each articleon a separate note card, headed by the appropriate biblio-graphical information. Have students arrange the cards alpha-betically and prepare an annotated bibliography. The bibli-ography should have a title and an introductory paragraph ortwo, followed by the entries.This assignment is excellent for leading up to the LiteratureReview (stkpage 51).
(37

Practice 31Appropriate VoiceBefore writing, students should consider their topic ant decide whether itrequires active or passive voice. Some topics should be hondled delicatelyrejecting a proposal, cancelling a contract, denying a request, for instance.Otherssuch as placing an order, hiring someone, congratulating, acolleaguecan be handled more straightforwardly. This does not meanthat passive voice is used solely for bad news and active voice for goodnews. Passive voice may be used when the doer is unknown or irrelevantto the subject matter.
1.In the first ten sentences, students should decide whether the sen-tence is in active or passive voice, then rewrite the sentence into theopposite voice.1.It should be decided before tomorrow whether or not you willbe promoted.2.The board voted against the recommendation.3.Dr. Petri's program was funded through the U.S. BiologicalSociety.4.The laboratory has found nothing unusual in the compound.5.Mr. Bassett edits all our in-house reports.6.Delivery will not be accepted after 5:00 Tuesday.7.After voting against the amendment, the committee still hadto decide what to do about underpaid employees.8.Ms. Grimsley has been named one of the top buyers for ourcompany.9.Janet should be rewarded for her patience with slower students.10.Bill, responded admirably to the announcement of Steve'spromotion.ILHave students copy a paragraph from their favorite magazine. Is itwritten in active or passive voice? Have students rewrite the para-graph into the opposite voice and compare the relative effectivenessof each.III.Using a magazine or newspaper, have students find two ads that arewritten in active voice and two written in passive voice. Ask whythey think the ads were written in passive voice; in active voice.Examples:Passive Voice: "Our people have been trained to help you takeadvantage of these savings in ways that will work best in your
r…38

32 Bertie E. Fearing and Jo Allen.particular situation." This .sentence is written in passive voicebecause it is not important who trained "our people." What isimportant is how "our people" can serve you, the customer.Active Voice: "Only Emery kM. delivers your small, your big,and your in-between to most of Amerida the very next morning."This ad is written in active voice to emphasize the doer [Emery],what it does [delivers], plus its additional infOrmationdeliverswhat? to whom? when?IV.In the following exercise, students must decide whether active orpassive voice is needed. Then, ask the students to write a paragraphfulfilling the assignment.
1.Although John has been a good employee, your company ishaving to cut back in his department. You must tell John he isbeing laid off.2.Suzie has been your friend since you began firit grade to-egether. Lately, however, you've noticed a lot of her friendshave been avoiding Suzie because she is so critical of others.As her best friend, you must tell Suzie why she is losing somany friends.3.Mr. Struthers has been an exceptional teacher for the pastthirty years. Tonight he is being honored at a retirementbanquet. As president of the senior class, you've been asked togive a brief speech.
Paragraphing.Just as a sentence has one thought, a paragraph has only one topic. Thestandard formula for writing a good paragraph is as follows:Topic Sentence ± SupporitingSeatence(s) + ExamplesOften, however, a writer puts more than one topic in a paragraph; orthe information may be too dense to be handled in a single paragraph.Subparagraphing, the process of splitting out information from a singleparagraph into several paragraphs, becomes a useful concept for thetechnical writer who faces this situation.I.Ask students' to rewrite the following paragraphs. They may splitout the information by layout (enumeration of points or steps) orby grouping the information into smaller paragraphs.1.The Republican platform of 1856 complained that the nationalDemocratic administration had sanctioned violation of the
c39

Practice 33constitutional rights of the people of the Kansas Territoryincluding the right to keep and bear arms; the right of anaccused to a speedy trial by an impartial jury; the right ofthe people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, andeffects from unreasonable searchei and seizures; the right notto be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due processof law; and the right to freedom of speech and of the press.The closing paragraph of the 1856 Republican platformasserted that "the spirit of our institutions as well as theConstitution" guaranteed "liberty of conscience and equalityof rights among citizens" and opposed "all legislation impair-ing their security." [Source: Michael Kent Curtis. "The Bill ofRights as a Limitation on State Authority: A Reply to Pro-fessor Berger." Wake Forest Law Review, 14 (Feb. 1980), 53.]2.Today the smooth oblong nuts [pecans] are a big business forgrowersalthough even now cultivated varieties have notcompletely crowded out the wild pecans that are still highlyregarded in many family orchards in the South. Productionon a commercial scale is centered in Alabama, Louisiana,Oklahoma, and especially Georgia and Texas. Hundreds ofvarieties have been developed; constant improvement in culti-vation and harvesting has resulted in nuts that are superior insize, flavor and color, and kernel content in relation to shell.Along with these developments, gathering pecans has changedfrom a manual to a largely mechanized operation using me-chanical shakers and harvesters, a reflection of the huge con-tinuing demand for, pecans both to be eaten alone and to beput to any number of-cooking uses. [Sources:, Kay ShawNelson. "Pecans." Cuisiite, 11 (Nov. 1982), 60.]3.Today, Reid's clientele is decidedly international, but is stilloffered every amenity, thanks to the gracious expertise ofGeorges C. A. Hangartner, the hotel's Swiss general manager.To get down to specifics: There are 15 suites and 168 rooms,most with their own sea-view balconies, all with immensemarble baths and whole walls of closet space (rates beginbetween $82 and $94 a day, depending On the season; for, reservations, call 800-223-6800; in New York, Alaska, Hawaii,and Canada call 212-838-3110 collect). Then there are tworestaurants, plus a superb rooftop Grill Room with magicalviews over Funchal; three cdcktail bars, two tennis courts; twoimmense saltwater pools shelved on a promontory high abovesea; sea-level bathing terraces, and a jetty where boats are
40.

34 Bertie E. Fearing and Jo Allenmoored, And, of course, there are all those acres of orchidsand araucarias. [Source: Jean Anderson. "Madeira: Portugal'sLush and Lovely Isle." Travel & Leisure, 12 (July 1982), 67.]4..The Rosenberg house is, hi many ways, a classic solar design.It is long and narrow with all its rooms along an east-westaxis to take full advantage of solar heating in the winter, andto avoid the summer sun. . ..Running the length of- thehouse-is-an-intetiorTeonerete-bloek-wall-that-stores-solar-heat–and stabilizes interior temperatures. The roof is a single shedwith exposed rafters, purlins and decking..The 61/2-ft. ceilingon the north side rises to 9 ft. on the south. The south wall,except for the garage, is floor-to-ceiling glass. . ..This wall,which is more than 100 ft. long, lets in a lot of sunlight, andgives the feeling that the trees and sky are an integral part oftheouse. [Source: Helen J. Kessler. "In the Solar Vanguard."Fine Homebuilding, 11 i(Oct.-Nov. 1982), 30.]II.Ask students to look for pobr paragraph structures in their favoritemagazines. Have them bringin two paragraphs in the original formand rewritten.
ParallelismAs human beings we generally. like things. to be ordered. Even peoplewhose homes or rooms are messy would probably prefer less,chaoticarrangements. So it is with writing; we prefer constrictions that areharmonious, equal, and ordered.In geometry, lines are parallel if we can pick one line up, place it ontop of the other line, and see that they match exactly. Likewise, in writinga series, we should be able to pick up one construction, place it over theothers, and see that they match. Of course, the words will not be thesame, but the constructions will be. So, a noun clause will fit on ,top ofanother noun clause, a phrase over another phrase, an adjective overanother adjective, an infinitive over. another infinitive, and so on. Whenthis matching process fits, writers have created a parallel construction.Example: The Smiths planned to fix the old house by reroofing theback of the house, by painting the shutters, and by rewiring the electricity.The by phrases followed by the gerunds make the sentence completelyparallel.I.In the following exercise; have your students rewrite the sentence sothat all the elements are parallel.

Practice 35
1.If you want to be a better student, you must learn to studyhard, ask questions when you don't understand, and by keep-ing up with daily assignments.2.Ralph really likes to jog, to ride in the car, and being with his\ girlfriend.3.If you want to have friends, you can offer youtktkme, yourfriendship, and, be loyal.4.Wherever you go, people will want to-know your name, yourage, and whether or not you're married.5.Holding a good job requires three things: attention to detail,promptness, and that you are always considerate of yourcoworkers.6.I especially enjoy- reading works by John Irving, WilliamStyron, and Graham Greene's novels.7.The SAT will test your math skills and how well you can read.8.From here, the flight goes to New York, Denver, and lands inLos Angeles.9Because she worked hard for her grades, and being a veryproud girl, Veronica was upset when she was not namedvaledictorian.10.Jenny was certain to be a good writer and would make lots ofmoney.11.Newsweek often presents articles, on world news, nationalnews, and news that occurs in Washington, D.C.12.To hurt someone's feelings and never apologizing is a goodway to lose friends.13.Chickadees are birds that are small, brown, and have squeakylittle chirps.14.While you were out, the telephone rang six times, the doorbellrang twice, and the dog was scratching at the back door theentire time.15.Buying rose-smelling air freshener is not the same as if youbuy a rose.16.To read something and understanding it are two different.things..17.My favorite television shows are M*A*S*H, Hill Street Blues,and I like 60 Minutes, too.42

36 Berrie E. Fearing and Jo Allen
18.With your common sense and since you know a lot aboutpeople, I would suggest you enroll in some psychology courses.19.Within the continental United States, there are often hurri-canes, tornados, and earthquakes sometimes tremble the earth.20.In the backyard, the squirrels were washing their faces, scam-pering up trees, and they chased each other.21. –Your-shoes-are-either-in the-closet;- under-the-bed -oryou-may°have left them in the den.22.According to my schedule, I have math at 9:00, English at10:00, and I go to gym class at 11:00.23.Our profits show a 2% increase over 1980, a 12% increaseover 1979, and we made 16% more money than we did in1978.24.The car came by the house twice, honked its horn, but startedto leave when my father went to the door. .25.Barbara spent most of her vacation catching up on sleep,writing letters to friends, and she watched television.
EmphasisIt is generally pretty simple for a writer to decide what should be empha-sized in a sentence, paragraph, or report. Often the difficult part is findinga way to emphasize that important point. As discussed in the theorysection of this book, emphasis comes at the beginning of a sentence or inthe main clause of a sentence, but it is never buried in the sentence. Topicsentences of paragraphs are traditionally the first sentences of, the para-graphs, though some writers place topic sentences at the end of a para-graph of inductive reasoning.I.In the following exercises, ideas are listed as complete sentences.Have your students decide which sentence deserves the most em-phasis. Then, students should write one sentence with the mostimportant thought in the most strategic position in the sentence.Because students' opinions of which sentence is most important willvary, their sentences will not be alike. Discuss with the studentshow the sentence variations affect meaning.I.IBM makes computers.2.IBM employs thousands of people.3.IBM is headquartered in New York.43'

Practice 37
1.Many people are unable to afford the high price of gasoline.2.More people are carpooling than ever.3.More people are taking the bus than ever.
1.Jan really enjoys classical music.2.She buys tickets to the symphony every season.3.She pays $50 for the best seat in the house.1.It snowed 10 inches last night.2.School has been cancelled today.3.All the neighborhood kids are sledding down the hill behindour house.1.John really knows how to study.2.He has been studying for this history test for a week.3.Tonight, he merely has to review his notes.1.Mr. Peterson is my favorite teacher.2.He teaches English. I.3.That doesn't mean that English is my favorite subject.1.I have to take math, science, and English to complete my'requirements.2.I can't decide if I want to take a business course or a foreignlanguage as an elective.1.Kay and Doug are two of my favorite people.2.They are always willing to listen to my problems.1.Bilbo is a huge cat.2.Bilbo belongs to a good friend of mine.1.One of my favorite pastimes is reading.2.I especially like books by early 20th century authors.3.I do not like science fiction.II.Have your students write a brief paragraph for each of the follow-ing exercises. Remind them that they, should use appropriate dictionand economical language and write in the appropriate voice.A.Explain your poor grades to your parents. Emphasize yourstrong areas, extracurricular activities, and so on. Deempha-size your social life.44

38 Bertie k Fearing and Jo Allen
B.Emphasize your desire to .attend the college of your choice,not the one of your parents' choice. Be careful not to offendyoUr parents.C.Emphasize your strong points. Deemphasize your weaknesses.D.Emphasize your need for a new car, new clothes, or-other-new .items.E.Emphasize yOur progress on apirticular.project. Deemphasizethat the project is behind schedule.F.Refuse someone a job. Emphasize their qualifications anddeemphasize your company's financial inability to employthat person.
PrewritingJust as people prepare for going to work, for giving a party, and forcooking a meal, writers prepare for writing. Prewiiting involves morethan finding some paper and a pen; it involves analyzing the audience,determining the purpose of writing, and organizing ideas and information.Audience analysis is the prqcess of learning as.much as possible aboutthe intended readers. Audience analysis is knowing, for example, that onedoesn't need to explain a cam shaft to a group of mechanics, the dis-advantages of aging to a group of senior citizens, or the power of thepress to a politician.Before beginning to write, a writer must have a clear idea of why sheor he is writing. Should the audience be persuaded or merely informed?Because some persuasive writing uses facts to persuade, often the purposeof the writing may seem to be bothinformative-and-persuasive.ll,–howeveronelifdgeglinrpose by what the readers do with the informa-tion. If they learn some new information, as from instructions, the writingis informative. But if they form or- change- an-opinion,-or if they- aremotivated to act, the writing is persuasive. For example, when the FederalDrug Administration informs the public of a new drug, its purpose isinformative; but when the pharmaceutical firm advertises its new drug, itspurpose is persuasive.The last step of prewriting is to organize ideas and information. Out-lines help writers group topics for logical presentation: Although studentsusually balk at outlines, writing without an outline usually has the sameresult as trying to build a house without a blueprint: a lot of frustration,wasted time, and chaos.45

Practice 39,
The purpose of the following exercises is to show students the impor-tance of prewriting, and also to teach the methods of prewriting. Oncemastered, prewriting invariably produces better writing.AudienceAhalysisStudents are accustomed to writing for one specific audience: the teacher.They are fully aware that you grade them, and most of them try to figureout what you like and dislike. Then they try to adjust their writing toimpress you.In technical writing, writers rarely know as much about their audienceas students know about their teachers. Yet, a few considerations regard-ing the intended reader may well determine the success or failure of awritten communication. A good writer should learn as much as possibleabout the following:the reading level of the audience. Are the readers children? adults?teenagers?the audience's knowledge of the subject-matter. Are the readerstotally unfamiliar with this subject, or are they experts, or do theyjust have some general knowledge?After answering these questions, the writer should have a basic knowl-edge of the audience's needs. Keeping those needs in mind, the writer isone step closer to beginning to write.The following exercises are designed to help students understand thatwriting differs according to the intended audience. Remind students touse their techniques for good style to fulfill the objective of theseassignments.I.The following two paragraphs are taken from encyclopedias. Thefirst is from a children's encyclopedia and the second excerpt isfrom an adult-level source. Have. your students_read both para-graphs. Then ask them to write their own paragraphs, pointing outthe differences in the two accounts. Specifically, students shouldlook at vocabulary, tone, sentence length, and sentence complexity__Worm (werm) In general, worms seem to be useC1 onlywhen they are wanted as bait for fish. Actually they aremuch more important. Among them are found some ofman's best friends as well as his most serious enemies.The friends are the earthworms, which by burrowinginto the soil, loosen it for the effective growing of crops.(See Earthworm.) The enemies are the parasitic worms,,\
46

40 Berrie E Fearing and Jo Allenwhich bring disease to their hosts, both men and ani-mals, and sometimes even cause death. (See Parasiteand Saprophyte.) [Worm, Britannica_Junior__Encyclo–pedia: For Boys and Girls, 1968 ed.]Worm, popularly almost any kind of elongated, appar-ently limbless creature, from a lizard, such as the blind-worm, to the grub of an insect or an earthworm. TheLatin term for worms, vermes, was employed as ataxonc Ilk unit to include practically invertebrates byLinnaeus in his system of classification of animals. Theterm, in a somewhat restricted sense, continued to beapplied off and on during much of the 19th century to aheterogeneous assemblage of wormlike invertebrates.The concept of a phylum Vermes has been abandonedby zoologists as, an impossibility because the animalstermed worms belong to many different groups andhave widely varied origins, body plans, and life histories.[Worm, Encyclopedia Britannica, 1968 ed.]Next, ask students to choose their own topics of interest and make asimilar comparison.II.Prepare a list of topics of general scientific interest (e.g., whales,black holes, Jupiter, volcanoes, computers). Ask each student" toselect a topic and find two articles on that.subject in two differentmagazines with different readerships (for aainple, Ranger Rick andScientific American). After students have read their two articles, askthem to do an analysis of word choice, use of definition, sentenceand paragraph length, use and kind of graphics, and layout.III.Ask students -to compare. a news story featured in The WeeklyReader, Senior Scholastic, or other student newspaper and a newsstory featured in an adult-level newspaper, such as the WashffigtonPost.IV.Ask students to bring to class their favorite magazine or journal. Itmay be a popular,Aechnical, or academic magazine. With luck,you'll get a variety of Seventeengerm nue-to-Popti–lar Mechanics and Hi Fi to Harpers and National Geographic.1,Have students exchange magazines so that they do not havetheir own. Then ask students to classify the advertisementsaccording to product, and to count the number of ads perproduct (e.g., 15 cosmetic ads, 3 movie ads, 5 health ads, 7book ads, 4 soft-drink ads).47Ij

Practice 41
2.Next, have the students analyze to what human need the adsappeal,_basecLon_the_pictures_and-words -used-(e.-g:,-cosmeticadsattractiveness and youth; °movie adsentertainment;book adsintellect).3.Have students write a profile of the average reader of themagazine, based on the kinds of prodUcts advertised and onthe advertisements' appeal to human 'feeds.4.Then, ask the students to go to thelable of contents in themagazine. Judging solely from the articles, is their initialcharacterization of the average reader correct? Have studentspoint out similarities and differences. Obviously, the readersof Parents Magazine and Today's Health will differ markedlyfrom the readers of, say, Cosmopolitan and Playboy. ,V.Writing directions not only teaches students about audience analy-sis, but also provides practice in one of the modes of technicalwriting.A.Ask students to give directions to their homes from school,first to someone who has never been in their area before.B.'Ask.students to give a complete stranger to their schooldirections to an out-of-the-way, hard-to-find room on campus.C.Ask each student to write his or her name on a slip of paper,to leave the classroom and hide the slip of paper somewhereon campus, and to return to the classroom within ten minutes.when they return, ask them to write a set of instructionsdirecting another student to the slip of paper. Students signtheir directions, exchange them, and, following the directionsonly, try to find the hidden slip of paper.D.Tell students that before the next class, they should go to theschool library and select one book on the shelves, recordingits title, edition, author(s), copy number (if applicable), andcall number. Have students bring to class a set of directionstelling another student where to find the_book,- assuming-thatstudent is standing at the front door of the library. Theinstructions may not include The subject matter, title, edition,author(s), copy number, or call number of the book, althoughthey may include. a physical descxiiiition of the book (e.g.,"The book is 51/2" x 81/4" x 11/2", hardback in black cloth, witha nine-word title in gold letters on the spine). Instructionsshould be signed.48;

42 Berrie. E. Fearing and Jo AllenAt the next clps, take up the instructions and distributethem at rarid,m;'making sure no student gets his or her own.Students slipuldhen proceed to the library and, using theinstruclionslonly, locate the book. (No talking, pointing, etc.,allowed!)` When students locate their books, they record thetitle, edition, etc., and return to the classroom.Determining PurposeAfter a writer h1determined who the audience will be, the next step is todetermine the pui pose for writing. Should the message be informative orpersuasive?I.Have yourIstudents determine whether the following should beinformative fir persuasive.1.A congressman returns home and explains his position againstthe building of the MX missile.2.The Junior-Senior committee has studied three sites for aspring trip or three bands for a spring dance.3.A teacher explains the procedures for responding to a fire drill.4.The librarian explains the procedure for checking out books.5.A student explains why his or her work was handed in late.6.A famous cook gives her recipe for lemon meringue pie.7.The IRS writes a pamphlet entitled "How to Cut Your Taxes."8.H&R Block writes' a pamphlet entitled "How to Cut YourTaxes."9.'National Geographic presents an article called The Whalesof the Pacific: A Vanishing Breed."10.In an editorial in Mother Jones, the author writes an article;"We Must Save the Whales."11.The IRA division of City Bank publishes apamphlet "Don'tGamble with Your Retirement."12.Sylvia Porter writes an article "How IRAs 'Work."II.Have students select a topic from the-list below, or one of their ownchoosing which you have approved. Ask them first to write aninformative paper on the subject. Then, ask them to write a persua-sive, or dissuasive, paper on the same topic.The Air We 'Breathe StereotypingCapital Punishment Platform Shoes49

Practice 43
Smoking BoxingCensorship HuntingCats Television ProgrammingRock Music Slang WordsTic first paper on smoking for example, might discuss the historyof smoking, the different forms of smoking (e.g., pipes, cigarettes,cigars), or even the effects of smoking on the human body,/conclud-ing that smoking is hazardous to one's health. This paper; however,is not to attempt to persuade the reader to stop smoking; that is thejob of the second paper.OrganizationAfter deciding who the audience is and what is the specific purpose forwriting, the student is ready to organize information for presentation.Organization is an essential step in prewriting. If the writer has notclearly organized information, the writing will not be organized either.Many composition handbooks offer patterns for organization, andthe process is the same for technical writing. Through organization,students soon see what information is or is not important, what informa-tion should receive the most emphasis, and what information shouldbe grouped.I.Have students group the following potpourri of goods into anorderly grocery list under six main headings (also found in the listbelow):Fresh produce CheeseGrapes Canned goodsFrench fries TV dinnersMilk DetergentApplesauce Popsicles.Frozen foods SardinesPaper towels Sour creamCabbage HamburgerMeats LettuceHousehold supplies Ice creamSoupsFurnurite polishDairy goods RoastsPork chops Yogurt50.

44 13enr 'eq.:, Fearing and Jo Allen
II.Have students assume that they are writing an article for a popularmagazine, a& ,sing readers how to borrow money from a commer-cial institution. Tell them to organize the following information intoan outline and be able to justify their arrangement:Types of loansInsurance policy loansCredit unionsUnsecured personal loansWhere to borrowI; Finance companiesSecured personal loansCommercial banksShop aroundPassbook loansSavings and loan associationsGet a simple-interest loanTips on ,borrowingPay on timeYou can add examples of your own by finding so-called how-toarticles and scrambling the outline of the article. Or, better yet,assign students the task of finding such an article, outlining it, andscrambling the outline :Jr others to reorganize.III.For the fdllowing topics, have students develop a specific audience,a specific purpose for writing, and a specific outline for meeting theaudience's needs and fulfilling the purpose of the writing.Example:Topic: Housing in our townAudience: College studentsPurpose: To inform_ college _students _about-housing -facilities -in–our townOutline:I.DormitoriesA.AvailabilityB.CostC.LocationD.AdvantagesE.DisadvantagesII.Rooms in Private HomesA. –MailabilityB.CostC.LocationD.AdvantagesE.Disadvantages"
1_151

Practice
III.ApartmentsA.AvailabilityB.CostC.LocationD.AdvantagesE.Disadvantages45
Topics:Types of stereo systemsFoods available in the school cafeteriaHow to choose a collegeProgramming on cable network TVReasons for doing volunteer.workHow to make extra moneyThe costs of going to the junior-senior prom (1) for girls and (2) for boysThe cost of owning an automobileJob possibilities in the field of technical w_ ritingHow to choose a form of exerciseIV.Have the students designate which organizational patterns theywould use in the situations described below. (Organizational patterns include chronological, spatial, comparison and contrast, problem-solution, cause and effect, classification.)1.An article in your local newspaper describing the origin_and–1financial growth of n community business.2.A report on the physical layout of your school library.3.An article in the school newspaper about the shortage oflockers for students and recommending a remedy.4.A memorandum from your school counselor's office explain-ing the steps for applying to college.5.A humorous essay on kinds of blind dates.6.A presentation by the school librarian on the possible conse-quences of censoring library materials.7.A presentation by the PTA president on the benefits vs. dis-advantages of censorship of library materials.8.A presentation by the principal of your school to the PTAtelling how reduced taxes have decreased course offerings thisyear.52

46 Berrie E. Fearing and to Allen
9.A report by the state board of education reviewing plans toconsolidate the city and county schools.
WritingDefinitionSince a.reader unfamiliar with a topic will probably be unfamiliar withthe terms related to that topic, a good place to begin is with definitions.Definitions' may be brief, defined parenthetically or in a glossary at thebeginning of a report; or they may be extended, running a paragraphor more.1.Have students write a formal definition (term, class, differentiae)for each of the words listed below (or draw up your own list).Students may need to refer to reference books.Example: Dramamine (term) is a drug (class) used for motionsickness (differentiae).furnace sausagesapphire criminologyutopia entrepreneurbullfrog nicotineasteroid _periwinkle-neutron septuagenariancrucifix florascabbard vermicelli2.Have students select three or more of the words or terms aboveor below and write extended definitions of them. Extehded defini-tions may be developed by using one or more of the following:etymology, history, negation, comparison and contrast, example,and description.influenza corfamdiplomat eddycornucopia serfearthquake cellophanewatershed immunizationlemming -perfumesocial security university53

Practice
life insurance retirementcalendar tobacconewspaper couturierInstructions47.
Teaching someone how to do somethingto set up a new department,operate a computer, develop a filing systemis a rather common func-tion of technical writing. The writer tells the reader step-by-step how toaccomplish the task.Writers must be careful to: (1) arrange all steps chronologicallyinthe order in which,they are to be performed, (2) include all stepsneverassuming the doer will already know to do something, and (3) explain allsteps thoroughly.1.Have students write instructions for the following processes. Tellthem to assume that the reader (doer) has never seen or done theprocedure before.Operate a pencil sharpener. Change a tire.Cook your favorite dish. Shuffle cards.Wash a car. Pop corn.Use a curling iron. Apply makeup.Operate a rod and reel. Operate a lawnmowerpush-Hook up a stereo system. type or riding.Operate a kerosene heater. Plant flowers.Balance a checkbook.Tie a shoe.Unclog a sink.Thread a needle.Sew on a button.Make along-distancetelephone call.Next, have students exchangeinstructions. Ask them to look for. I–(1) errorrm chronology, (2) poor explanations, or (3) omitted steps.They'll probably enjoy each others' errors. Have them discuss theconsequences of the errors.2..Ask students to bring to class a set of instructions from a homeappliance leaflet or a do-it-yourself book. Then have the studentsWash clothes.Wrap a gift.Clean a bathtub.Strike a match.Make up a bed.Operate an instamatic camera.
54

48 Bertie E. Fearing and Jo Allen
analyze the instructions for clarity, order, audience analysis, graphics,tone, and language. If students find the instructions lacking in any ofthese areas, have them rewrite or redesign the instructions.ClassificationEvery day we are confronted with masses of data that would overwhelm usif we did not organize them into some kind of classification system.Imagine shopping in a supermarket or drug or department store that didnot arrange the goods according to classification. Linnaeus was the masterclassifier, who positioned every known animal and plant into a system thatis still used and recognized the world over. Our students need not beLinnaeuses but they do need to know how to organize data in order toconquer-chaositrtheirwriting.I.Have students classify as many kinds of each of the following cate-gories as possible. Remind them that the classifications must. notoverlap.cars sports enthusiaststrees neighborhoodsdogs housescoats television showsathletes jobsshoes schoolsairplanes jewelryfoods musicfriends hair..parents indoor sportsA useful instructional technique is to assign the same topic and askstudents to write their outlines on the board. You can then discussvarious classification systems, point out overlappings within an out-line, and rearrange outlines to accommodate a writer's purpose andaudience.2.Have students write a paper based on one of the outlines. Assigningone of the more technical topics would be a good choice at this point.DescriptionStudents are most likely to be well versed in the use of description. Theydescribe the new outfit they've bought, a new girlfriend or boyfriend, a55

Practice 49teacher, a new car on the market. Description involves expressing detailsof an object so clearly that the listeneror for our purposes, the readercan visualize it.To write an effective description, the writer must detail in an organizedfashion as much information as possible about size, color, shape, mea-surements, texture, chemical makeup, or other distinguishing features ofan object.
1.Have students write a description of any object in the classroomwithout actually naming it. Then ask them to exchange papers andsee how quickly they can find the object. Was there any confusion?Could something have been worded better and been more helpful?2.Ask the students to write a description of a:pencil cuppen postage stampknife dimeyardstick ballooncandle ballrug bird feederdictionary sock3.Ask students to describe a common object used at home. (Warning:the mechanism should not be a complex one at this stage.) Appro-priate items include:flashlight face of a radioPencil front of a television setcan opener scalesstove top ovenscissors blenderstapler folding chairtape dispenser sprinklerthermometer standard pencil sharpenerbill kerosene lantern
Pr' Tess DescriptionDescribing a process may seem to be the same as giving instructions. Thedifference, however, is that instructions are user-orientedthat is, written

50 Berrie E. Fearing and Jo Allenfor the doer to follow, step-by-step, to accomplish an objective. Processdescriptions, on the other hand, are written to explain how somethingworks. For example: how to operate a vacuum cleaner (instructions);how a vacuum cleaner works (process description).The style of writing is also different. With instructions, the writing hasa "you" approach. For example:' To bake a cake, first you. …Withprocess description, the third person is generally used. For example:In man, tooth decay is caused by bacteria in the mouth acting oncarbohydrates, chiefly sugar. This action produces an acid whichcan dissolve tooth enamel and so start a cavity. Usually the acidbegins to work where there is a scratch or crack in the enamel orwhere the enamel is hard to clean. As the enamel dissolves, a smallhole_ is lo rmed;_ arid_ d_egay _ [Source: .ffacith.r__Britannica _ …. . _Junior Encyclopedia: For Boys and Girls. 1968 ed., p. 31.]Exercise: Have students write a process description for the followingtopics. This is a good time to get the students to use the library or other\ out! ide resources.Explain how:a boomerang worksbattery worksadoctor examinesearsa sponge t7ksa bill is passed,t rough congressthe Electoral Col ege workswater is purifieda solar eclipse ha pensan earthquake occursa zipper worksShort Reportsa manual typewriter worksphotosynthesis occurssulphur is oxidizedplants are cross-pollinatedwaterfalls generate electricitythe liver workscoins are madefingernails growan automatic drip coffee makerworks
One of the most common documents in technical writing is the, report.Technical writers may have to define new terms, devise a classificationsystem, write up a set of instructions, or explain a new procedure in areport. A boss may ask thetechnical writer to study a certain problemand write recommendations for solutions. Or the writer may be as ed tofr-../ork with marketing. experts in developing the best marketing prom resfor a new product.The following case studies may be used as topics for short reports. Inaddition, ask your students to develop their own topics for short reportsbased on current events in their school, neighborhood, town, or' state.57

Practice 51Continue to remind students that their style is important here for com-smunicating their message. They should also apply the principles of audi-ence analysis, determining purpose, and organization, as in all otherassignments.A.You are a member of, your school's judicial board, a student orga-nization that sets up procedures for punishing those who violateschool policies. Lately there have been several instances of cheating.Your assignment is to report to the judicial board the extent of theproblem and possible actions- the board may adopt as policies forhandling offenders. You should address several questions in your report:1.r -What is cheating?2.What are the:limitations of the board's power?3.Will first:time offenders be punished? Will they be punisheddifferently from repeat offenders?4.What are your recommendations?5.Do you need the support of teachers, school board, or'princi-pal to enforce your%commendations?6.Why should these recommendations deter cheaters?B.A wealthy alumnus has donated $10,000 to your school. Yourprincipal has asked students to reco end\ ways to use the money.Your teachers want new books ,and a diovisual equipment for thelibrary. Students want a student lounge. In your report on behalf ofthe student bocAr, persuade your principal-of the need for a stildentlounge. Be prepared in your report to respond toy your principal'sconcerns that: .1.Students may cut classes to spend time in the lounge.2.Students may get involved in smoking, drugs, or alcohol inthe lounge.3.Students may be too loud in the lounge, disrupting classes.4.,A lounge won't help you as much in the long-run as newbooks and audiovisual equipment would.5.No one will clean the lounge.Formal ReportsLiterature ReviewTwo words need io be defined here: literature and review. Literature,in business and industry, does not mean belles lettres; rather, it refers
.v.o"58

52 Berrie E. Fearing and Jo Allen
to the collective body of knowledge that has been written on a particulartopic in the field. For example, medical journals publish the literatureon x-ray diagnosis, x-ray therapy, x-ray safety…A review is a summaryor synthesis of the most pertinent literature about a particular topic.Thus, a-literati:lie review on, say, the fast-food restaurant industry wouldsummarize the past growth, current status, and projected growth of theindustry. Likewise, a literature review on SAT scores would trace thetrends in scores over a designated period; whereas a literature reviewon whether the SAT is aculturally biased test would summarize theliterature presenting both sides.Literature reviews are used widely in business, industry, and the pro-fessions for readers wlio want a quick, accurate overview of the currenttrends or status of their profession.Writing -literature reviews is a rigorous assignment for students: Itrequires that they limit their topic; determine their purpose and scope;search the literature; and evaluate, interpret, and synthesize it.Have students select and narrow a topic from an earlier assignmentsuch as the annotated bibliography assigned on page 30 or their readingsfrom the exercise on page 30. Students will research the topic and fromthat research write a literature review. Appropriate kinds of topics include:
1.Trends in any fieldfashion design, nursing, petroleum, art, music,stereophonics, automobiles, office management, construction.2.Treatment of any disease or disordercancer, diabetes, alcoholism,depression.3.Theories prevalent in any areamanagement, sales, mathematics,physics.4.Uses of raw or synthetic materialssilver, rubber, sand, coal, poly-ester, plastic, fiberglass:Field StudyOne of the liveliest assignments, believe it or not, is the formal technicalreport, especially if the research involves field work rather than libraryresearch only. Figure 3 (pp. 53-54) shows the assignnient as we give it toour classes.
A Final Note: RevisionMost people think the hardest part of writing is getting that first word onthe page. Few things in this world are as intimidating as a blank sheet ofpaper that is waiting for the writer to spill ideas.59

Practice 53But even more dreadful than getting those first words onto paper ishaving to take those words outa process as painful to most writers as atooth extraction. All writers tend to believe that their words are precious.Part of becoming a good writer, however, is learning to look at one'swriting critically. And learning to be objective about it is one of the bestways to improve the writing: Is it really good? Can I say it better? Is thisword or phrase necessary? Do I need to explain more?Most technical writers agree that rewriting is at least half the processof producing .effective manuscripts. In the section on style, studentslearned to revise poor sentences and paragraphs to make those construe-,tions clearer, stronger, and more direct. As a teacher, encourage studentsto look at each sentence and paragraph they write, just as they didthe sentences and paragraphs in the style section. After this criticalreading, they should revise for appropriate diction, economy, appropriatevoice, proper emphasis, parallelism, and good sentence and paragraphstructure wherever necessary. With attention to style combined with a*sense of audience, a clear purpose for writing, an organized approachand perseverancestudents can produce clear, readable technical prose.
MemorandumTo:Technical Writing StudentsFrom:[Teacher's Name]Subject: Formal Technical ReportDate:[Current]For your formal technical report, choose a topic and submit it for myapproval. Ideally, your topic should be an actual problem faced by anorganization, group, or individual, because your report will be writtenspecifically for that limited audience. Do not choose a topic that keepsyou in the library; most of your information will be gathered from inter-views, questionnaires, or your own observation or experimentation. Youmay not change your topic-after the midway point for any reason.Your formal written report will be an analytical onethe relevant factsand findings plus interpretation, evaluation, and recommendations. Thiskind of report usually runs 8 to 12 pages for the body alone and requires 6weeks to complete.You may undertake the project alone, in pairs, or in groups of 3 to 5persons. I recommend the group.
Continued
Figure 3.Field Study Memorandum.60

54. Bente E. Fearing and Jo Allen
Report ProspectusOn [date], submit on one typed page:your tentative title;..a one-sentence statement of the purpose of your report;-an indication of who the readers are;sources and methods of collecting data; andmajor 'divisions (with subdivisions, if you like) of the body or textof yourreport.Progress ReportBe prepared within two days' notice to give me a progress report in memoform, indicating:what you have accomplished,what difficulties ;cm have encountered,what changes, if any, you have made from the prospectus,what remains to be done, andyour plans for finishing.Final ReportOn [date], submit two copies of the report with an appropriate cover, titlepage, letter of transmittal, abstract, table of contents, body (includingintroduction, findings and interpretations, conclusions, and recommenda-tions), bibliography (if applicable), and appendix, (if necessary)./As suggestions, here are some of the better topics chosen by formerstudents:A Comparison of the Price of Three Brand-Name Antihistamines atFive Town PharmaciesA Price Comparison of Eight Town SupermarketsHot Stuff: A Comparison of Six Energy Systems for an 1800-Square-Foot HouseChecking- It-0: -A Guide-for Opening a Checking Account in Youl.TownOpen Wide: A Survey of Dental Rates in Your Town[Adaptedfrom/C. W. Wilkinson, Peter B. Clarke, and Dorothy ColbyMenning Wilkinon, Communicating Through Letters and Reports, 7thed. Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1980.]
Figure 3.Field Study Memorandum (continued).

Sources Cited
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