Drago ș Pînzaru [631938]

Drago ș Pînzaru
Anul 2 Seria B Grupa 17

​ The war on drugs – a comparison.
Psycho-social distress or biological factors to blame for
addiction?

1. Subjects to be discussed
1.1 Suggested impact on patients
2. Experimental variables – participants, environments, other study
conditions
2.1 Findings
3. Conclusion

1

1. Subjects to be discussed

​ Throughout the paper I will attempt to convey two of the theories that explain
different causes for drug addiction, and to what degree the vast majority of western society
supports each of them.

● The first theory relies on experiments conducted on rats during the 1960’s and replicated
later on, the last of replications being carried through in 2009. ​ The supporters of this 1
theory claim that the environment (which also comprises relationships created
and activities experienced therein) of the supposed drug addict greatly affects the
likelihood and severity of addiction, and that the biochemical component should
be addressed second to the one aforementioned ​ . As Bruce K. Alexander, a former
professor and researcher at Simon Fraser University, puts it: “The Demon Drug Myth
has survived almost intact. In its most recent incarnations, it says that all or most people
who take one of the demon drugs (including crack cocaine and methamphetamine, as
well as heroin and prescription opiates) lose their will power and are converted into
hopeless addicts.” He advocates for seeing people using drugs as a mere coping 2
mechanism in certain situations, not as a disease.

● The second theory has seen a promising development in recent times and is regarded
as the status quo. ​ It argues that a biochemical increase or decrease in certain
neurotransmitter receptors or enzymes, partly due to the expression of various
alleles, has certain individuals more or less prone to develop addiction. ​ Richard A.
Friedman, director of psychopharmacology at the Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic,
explains that “ ​ people with the variant FAAH gene are less anxious and are thus less
inclined to like marijuana. They actually experience a decrease in happiness when
smoking marijuana, compared with those with the normal FAAH gene, who find it
pleasurable.” The bottom line to this example would be that less FAAH to break down 3
anandamide, a neurotransmitter that binds to a cannabinoid receptor, would result in a
fraction of the population being less inclined to rely on the calming effects of marijuana.

1 Solinas, M., Thiriet, N., El Rawas, R., Lardeux, V. and Jaber, M., 2009. Environmental enrichment
during early stages of life reduces the behavioral, neurochemical, and molecular effects of cocaine.
Neuropsychopharmacology ​ , ​ 34 ​ (5), pp.1102-1111.
2 http://www.brucekalexander.com/articles-speeches/rat-park/282-rat-park-versus-the-new-york-times-2
3 https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/08/opinion/sunday/the-feel-good-gene.html
2

1.1 ​ ​ Suggested im pact on patients

As of now, it is arguable that the western society is slowly heading towards a more
accepting view on drugs that are traditionally regarded as dangerously addictive, as shown by
decriminalization of marijuana in states such as Nevada, Oregon and California; at the same
time, ​ people who abuse them should start being seen as ​ in need of support rather than
worthy of discrimination. ​ A better understanding of ​ why people develop addictions to drugs 4
could lead to a ​ rejuvenation in policing drug-use towards mutually ​ beneficial results for
both the ​ user and their respective ​ community ​ . The availability of verified scientific information
in an accessible format concerning drugs with a high risk of generating a dependence should be
a priority once more data is researched and a consensus is reached, in order to facilitate a
better drug-related education to the general public.

2. Experimental variables – participants, environments, other study conditions

Psycho-social distress 5

● Long-Evans rats
● 24 isolated, 17 group housed
● From weaning, 6 week period of testing
● 16 of the isolated rats received cocaine HCl
● 11 of the group housed rats received cocaine HCl (same dose as ones above)
● Food and water were available at all times save for testing
● Self administration of cocaine via a lever that would cause the drug to course through a
catheter and into the rats

Biological factors 6

● 12 adult male Rhesus monkeys, dominant and subordinate, 1 year period of testing
● Individually housed
● Limited access to Purina Monkey Chow
● Vitamin tablets, fresh fruit 2–3 times per week
● Catheter inserted into one of the central veins
● Measurement of baseline D2 receptor and later values using PET imaging
● Self administration of cocaine via levers, through a catheter, with food reinforcement
being also granted
4 http://www.independent.co.uk/news/health/united-nations-world-health-organisation-drugs-decriminalised
-a7818726.html
5 Schenk, S., Lacelle, G., Gorman, K. and Amit, Z., 1987. Cocaine self-administration in rats influenced by
environmental conditions: implications for the etiology of drug abuse. ​ Neuroscience letters ​ , ​ 81 ​ (1),
pp.227-231.
6 Nader, M.A., Morgan, D., Gage, H.D., Nader, S.H., Calhoun, T.L., Buchheimer, N., Ehrenkaufer, R. and
Mach, R.H., 2006. PET imaging of dopamine D2 receptors during chronic cocaine self-administration in
monkeys. ​ Nature neuroscience ​ , ​ 9 ​ (8), pp.1050-1056.
3

2.1 Findings

Psycho-social distress

The rats that were isolated from the beginning of the experiment were found to
consume larger quantities of cocaine. The ones that were housed together failed to consume as
much as their counterparts, most likely due to growing desensitized to the positive
reinforcement mechanism of cocaine. The authors of the study propose that the ​ environmental
enrichment noted for the second group of rats generated a response in their dopamine system
that dulled the effect of cocaine and thus deterred them from using. Therefore, a change in 7
environment (with its variables being taken into consideration) ​ should ​ greatly contribute to
lowering or even discontinuing drug use ​ .

Biological factors

An isoform (D2Sh) of the Dopamine receptor 2 (D2) functions as an autoreceptor
responsible for balancing synthesis and release of dopamine in the synaptic cleft. Subordinate 8
monkeys have been recorded to have lower baselines of the D2 receptor compared to the
dominant type. Furthermore, their intake of the drug is also larger when compared to the intake
of the monkeys with higher baselines of the D2 receptor. Over time, and with the most
remarkable values at the 1 year mark after self-administering began, the levels of these
receptors fall with continued cocaine use. It is noteworthy that in humans who use cocaine
extensively, the same receptor is also in lower quantity compared to non-using, same-aged
counterparts. Therefore, a parallel could be drawn between a ​ lack of D2Sh receptors ​ , as was 9
the case with the subordinate monkeys, and a ​ higher likelihood of developing an addiction
for cocaine, which ​ seems to enforce a stronger ​ biochemical origin of dependence ​ , at least
for this particular case.

3. Conclusion

To summarize, there are still opposing views on how exactly certain drugs become
addictive. It could be the case that ​ some environments and ​ brain biochemistry could render
one weaker in front of a possible drug addiction and further research should be conducted; that
7 Schenk, S., Lacelle, G., Gorman, K. and Amit, Z., 1987. Cocaine self-administration in rats influenced by
environmental conditions: implications for the etiology of drug abuse. ​ Neuroscience letters ​ , ​ 81 ​ (1),
pp.227-231.
8 Beaulieu, J.M. and Gainetdinov, R.R., 2011. The physiology, signaling, and pharmacology of dopamine
receptors. ​ Pharmacological reviews ​ , ​ 63 ​ (1), p.187.
9 Nader, M.A., Morgan, D., Gage, H.D., Nader, S.H., Calhoun, T.L., Buchheimer, N., Ehrenkaufer, R. and
Mach, R.H., 2006. PET imaging of dopamine D2 receptors during chronic cocaine self-administration in
monkeys. ​ Nature neuroscience ​ , ​ 9 ​ (8), pp.1050-1056.
4

would in turn facilitate an easier understanding of a global phenomenon, with the ultimate goal
of offering better medical care and a more humane treatment to people in need.

Bibliography

Beaulieu, J. and Gainetdinov, R. (2011). The Physiology, Signaling, and Pharmacology of
Dopamine Receptors. ​ Pharmacological Reviews ​ , 63(1), pp.182-217.

Nader, M., Morgan, D., Gage, H., Nader, S., Calhoun, T., Buchheimer, N., Ehrenkaufer, R. and
Mach, R. (2006). PET imaging of dopamine D2 receptors during chronic cocaine
self-administration in monkeys. ​ Nature Neuroscience ​ , 9(8), pp.1050-1056.

Schenk, S., Lacelle, G., Gorman, K. and Amit, Z. (1987). Cocaine self-administration in rats
influenced by environmental conditions: implications for the etiology of drug abuse.
Neuroscience Letters ​ , 81(1-2), pp.227-231.

Solinas, M., Thiriet, N., Rawas, R., Lardeux, V. and Jaber, M. (2008). Environmental Enrichment
During Early Stages of Life Reduces the Behavioral, Neurochemical, and Molecular Effects of
Cocaine. ​ Neuropsychopharmacology ​ , 34(5), pp.1102-1111.

Rat Park versus The New York Times ​ . [online] Brucekalexander.com. Available at:
http://www.brucekalexander.com/articles-speeches/rat-park/282-rat-park-versus-the-new-york-ti
mes-2

Worley, W. (2017). ​ The UN and WHO just called for drugs to be decriminalised ​ . [online] The
Independent. Available at:
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/health/united-nations-world-health-organisation-drugs-decri
minalised-a7818726.html

Friedman, R. (2017). ​ Opinion | The Feel-Good Gene ​ . [online] Nytimes.com. Available at:
https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/08/opinion/sunday/the-feel-good-gene.html

5