DEPOSITION AL ENVIRONMENT DURING HOLOCENE OF THE RED [630628]

1

DEPOSITION AL ENVIRONMENT DURING HOLOCENE OF THE RED
RIVER DELTA, NORTHERN VIETNAM

Tuan HOANG VAN & Gheorghe C. POPESCU
Dept of Mineralogy, Faculty of Geology and Geophysics, University of Bucharest, 1, Nicolae Balces cu Blvd.,
Bucharest; tuanhvdmt@g mail.com, [anonimizat]

Abstract : The Red River Delta (RRD) is located in the western coastal zone of the Gulf of Tonkin
(Vietnam ). The Holocene sedimentary of RRD are influenced by rives, wave and tidal processes and more
recently to grain -size distribution . In this study, sediment core (~ 36 m ) was collected in the wave –
dominated region of RRD. The parameter of sediment used to reconstruct the sedimentation environments
of RRD, sediment facies can be classified into silt, sandy silt , and silty sand. Besides , the mean grain -size
Md) values show that the sediment in core samples included from fine silt to very fine sand with a
dominance of very coarse silt and coarse silt. According to the lithological character istics, sediment grain –
size distribution the sediment core sample can be divided into six deposition environments which consisted
of sub -tidal flats and inter -tidal flats (from 36 to 30.1 m ); she lf-prodelta (from 30.1 to 18.9 m); delta front
slope (from 18. 9-11.7 m) ; delta front platform (from 11.7 to 4.1 m) , tidal flat (from 4.1 to 0.5 m) and flood
plain (from 0.5 m to surface of sediment) . The textural characteristic s of the core sample were closely
correlated with the core sample from previous study in RRD . In a sediment core from 30.1 to 18.9 m,
sediment showed erosion surface during th e transgression at 8860 cal. y ear BP. The textural parameter of
the RRD has resulted of the interaction between sea level rise and fluvial inputs. In addition, the dominance
of very coarse silt and coarse silt can be indicated the prevalence of comparatively from l ow to high energy
condition in the RRD .

Keyword : Sediment, g rain-size distributio n, deposition al environment, Red R iver Delta (RRD) , Vietnam

1. INTRODUCTION

The reconstruction of environmental changes
during the Holocene in coastal zone aims to clarify
the characteristics the environments and climate in
the past which related to sea lev el rise (Wilson, et al.,
2005 ), climatic change, and monsoonal variability
(Li, et al., 2006 , Meyers, 1997 , Zong, et al., 2006 ).
Studies on environmental change during the
Holocene provide crucial information for simulating
and predicting future effects of climate and
environmental change s (Wanner, et al., 2008 ), and
understanding the correlation between the
environment and humans (Li, et al., 2006 ).
Climate change (CC) and sea level rise (SLR)
have already had an observable effect on ecosystems,
biodiversity and natural resource, it changed life on a
global scale. Vietnam is one of the most impacted by
climate change includes climate extremes, sea level
rise, disaster (Schmidt -Thomé, et al., 2015 , Thao, et al., 2014 ). In the last 50 years, the average annual
temperature in Vietnam increased by 0.5 °C, sea level
tends to fluctuations along the shoreline of Vietnam
around 2.8 mm/year, climate extremes as drought, the
number of heavy rainfall days, tropical cyclones tend
to increase . Studying characteristics of CC was the
most important for Vietnam, it will help to build high-
resolution capacitance for CC, that way only real
effective if it based upon a large amount of new and
more comprehensive data about characteristic s of
climate and environment in the past time (Jansen, et
al., 2007 ). We need to building the data system s in the
last time and comparing with characteristics climate
and environmental at the moment which supply for
assessment and predicting of climate change in the
future.
The coastal zone of Vietnam is rich in natural
resources, with high population densit y and
concentration of many economic activities, but this
area is highly vulnerable by sea level rise and climate

2 change (Mai, et al., 2008 ). Therefore, reconstruction
of relative sea level in coastal environments is
fundamental to understanding past, present and
prediction the change of environment in this area.
Investigation of paleoenvironmental change can
provide a mean to develop sea level rise model which
used to explain a pattern of climate -driven across
coastal areas and to calculate and predict future
climate scenarios (Lambeck&Chappell, 2001 ).
Sedimentary records in the large river deltas
along Asian coast are useful to reconstruct the
environmental and sea level change during Holocene
epoch (Liu, et al., 2014 , Ta, et al., 2002 , Tanabe, et
al., 2003 , Tanabe, et al., 2006 , Zong, et al., 2006 ). In
these studies, Asian deltas had experien ced multiple
transgression, regressions , and climate. The
environmental and sea level change of the deltas
effected by hydrody namics, sediment discharge,
moon soon variability and acceleration of sea level
rise (Tanabe, et al., 2006 , Zong, et al., 2006 ).
Spanning some 150 km in width, the Red River
Delta (RRD) is located in the western coastal zone of
the Gulf of Tonkin. The RRD with about 120 km long
and 140 km wide is the fourth -largest delta in
Southeast Asia, after the Mekong, Irrawaddy, and
Chao Phraya deltas (Chan, et al., 2012 ). Its catchment
covers parts of China and Vietnam and its water and
sediment discharge greatly influence the hydrolog y in
the Gulf of Tonkin (Fig. 1).
In this paper, we present new data from newly
collected drilling core taken from the RRD. We then
compile data on sediment in the previous study which described sediment cores taken from the delta
previously. Base on the textural parameters as mean
grain -size (Md), sorting ( So), skewness ( Sk), kurtosis
(KG), we reconstruct the depositional environment of
sediments during the Holocene.

2. M ATERIAL AND METHODS

2.1. Regional setting of Red River delta
(RRD)

2.1.1 . Geographical setting

The RRD plain can be divided into three
subsystems based upon surface topography and
hydraulic processes, including of fluvial -dominated,
tide-dominated, and wave -dominated
(Mathers&Zalasiewicz, 1999 , Tanabe, et al., 2006 ).
The fluvial -dominated subsystem includes
meandering rivers, meandering levee belts, flood
plain, and fluvial terraces. It is located in the western
part of the delta, where the fluvial flux i s relatively
stronger than others. The wave -dominated system
spreads in the southwestern section of the delta,
where wave energy is high due to strong summer
monsoon. The system is characterized by alternating
beach ridges and muddy tidal lagoon deposit.
Besides, tide -dominated subsystem reaches into the
northeastern part of the delta, where Hainan Island
shelters the coast from strong waves. The system
consisting of tidal flats, mar shes, and tidal
creeks/channels .

Figure 1. Location of Red river delta, Vietnam (modified from Tanabe et al., (2006) )

3 The regional climate is characterized by a
tropical monsoon climate with four seasons (spring,
summer, autumn, winter) and humidity averaging from
84-100 % throughout the year (Lieu, 2006 ). While in
the summer monsoon from May to October with heavy
rainfall, hot and humid weather. In the dry season lasts
from November to April of the following year, the
clima te is dry and cold . The avera ge temperature is 29
– 30 °C the highest is 42 °C in summer (but it lasts a
few days per month): May, June, July and the lowest is
9 °C (but it lasts a few days per season) between
January and February. The climate in the investigation
area is therefore by cool, dry winters (December until
March) and warm, wet summers (May until October)
characterizes (Pruszak, et al., 2005 , Van Maren, et al.,
2004 ).
The behavio r of wave nearshore part is varied
from direction west -southwest (from June to
September) to west, northwest (from December to
March of the following year ). The mean tidal in this
area ranges 1.9 -2.6 m with t he maximum height of the
wave is 2-3 m (in the winter ) and 5 -6 m (in the
summer ). The tidal is characterized by there is one time
of high level and one time of low level. The range of
the tide at the coast is about 4 m. In the summer
monsoon season, tidal influences within the delta are
restricted because of the overwhelming effect of the
high freshwater discharge, but in the dry season, tidal
effects are evident in all of the major distributaries
almost as far inland as Hanoi (Mathers, et al., 1996 ).
According to the data given by the General
Department of Meteorology and Hydrology
(Vietnam), from 1884 to 198 9, there were 1,993
storms and tropical depressions influenced on
Vietnam territory (about 5 storms/tropical
depressions per year) and 148 of which (30 %) came
to the RRD (Lieu, 2006 ). The statistics of data
showed an increase in the frequency and duration of
storms and typhoons during the second half of the
20th century . The increased storms and tropical
depressions lead to the raising of the annual average
wave height. It results in changi ng the
geomorphology and sedimentology (erosion,
accretion, shoreline, distri bution of sediment) of this
area (Lieu, 2006 ).

2.1.2 . Geological setting

The RRD is surrounded by mountainous areas
formed of Precambrian crystalline rocks and
Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks and the
structure is dominated by NW -SE aligned faulting
trending sedimentary basin approximately 500 km
long and 50-60 km wide . RRD developed overlying
one trough valley which was formed by faults. The NW-SE aligned Red River fault system regulates the
distribution of the mountainous areas, the drainage
area, and the straight course of the Song Hong.
However, fault movements have been considerably
minor since the la te Miocene (Pruszak, et al., 2005 ).
The trough valley was developed from early
Cainozoic and filled with Neocene and Quaternary
sediments with a thickness of more than 3 km and the
subsidence rate of the basin is 0.04-0.12 mm/year
(Mathers&Zalasiewicz, 1999 ).
The Quaternary sediment, which
unconform ably overlies the Neogene deposits and
consists mainly of sands and gravels with lenses of
silt and clay. In the RRD, the sediment is thick
approximate 100 m beneath Hanoi and thickens
eastwards to attain 200 m beneath parts of the coastal
area (Mathers&Zalasiewicz, 1999 , Pruszak, et al.,
2005 ). In the coastal area of delta , the shallow water
depths in the Gulf of Tonkin (< 50 m) suggest that
much of the sequence is preserved in the floor
(Mathers&Zalasiewicz, 1999 ). The Quaternary
depression in the RRD was mainly filled by
continental deposits in five geological cycles as
follows: early Pleistocene (Lechi formation), middle
to late Pleistocene (Hanoi formation), late Pleistocene
(Vinhphuc formation), early to middle Holocene
(Haihung formation) and late Holocene ( Thaibinh
formation) (Nghi, et al., 1991 ) (Fig. 2).
The simplified onshore and nearshore
Quaternary stratigraphy developed by Vietnamese
workers comprises two main series: sea -level
lowstand sediments (Pleistocene) and sea -level
highstand sediments, the latter building the modern
delta (Holocene) (Tran&Nguyen, 1991 ).

2.1.3. Hydrology

The catchment area of the Red River (RR) is
about 169.000 km2 with the annual discharge of the
RR is about 137 × 109 m3 of water and 116 × 106 tons
of suspended sediment, ranking among the 15 largest
sedimentary discharges in the world
(Milliman&Meade, 1983 , Pruszak, et al., 2005 ). The
Red River distributes its flow through five branches
with 25% of the flow of the Red River discharging
into the sea via the Ba Lat mouth (Song Hong mouth).
The water discharge in RRD region varies seasonally
because most of the drainage area is under a
subtropical monsoon climate regime. The averages of
year precipitation in the summer is about 1,600 mm
(occupy 85 -95 % of the total yearly rainfall occurs).
Approximately 90 % of the annual sediment
discharge occurs during the summer monsoon season,
when the sediment concentration may reach 12 kg/m3
(Mathers&Zalasiewicz, 1999 ).

4
Figure 2. Simplified onshore Quaternary stratigraphic column of the RRD Basin (Modified from Tran & Nguyen , 1991)

2.2. Sediment core sampling processing

The core sample was collected by a rotary drill
(diameter 10 cm) from the wave-dominated system in
the RRD. The geographical location was
106°24'7.46" E, 20°25'39.86" N (core VL) with an
altitude of 0.5m. Immediately following collection,
the core sample was placed in PVC tubes and
transported to t he laboratory in cool condition .
In the laboratory, sediment cores were
processed within 12 h of collection by first removing
of the outer layer (0.5 cm in thick ness), then sliced
into 154 sample s at 20 cm intervals. The sediment
samples were packed in labeled polyethylene bags for
further analysis.

2.3. Sample preparation and analysis

Variation of the grain -size distribution can be
an important facies indicator , sedimentary
development and environmental change (Blott&Pye,
2001 , Bui, et al., 1989 , Folk&Ward, 1957 , Friedman,
1979 ).
In the laboratory, five grams of fresh sediment
was put into a beaker. Then, the sediment sample was pretreated with H 2O2 solution (10 %) and HCl 1N to
assure complete removal of organic matter and
carbonates. In these processes , organic matter
fragments and roots were removed by a stainless steel
forceps. Prior to analysis, 10 ml of distilled water was
added and dispersed using an ultrasonic cleaner for
three minutes. Sediment grain -size was used laser
beam diffraction, using a Particular LA -950 (Horiba)
instrument at the GEO – CRE (Key Laboratory of
Geo-environment and Climate Change Response),
Vietnam National University (VNU). This device can
measure suspens ion samples liquid in the grain -size
range 0.01 -3000 μm. Each sediment a sample was
analyz ed in triplicate to yield the percentages of the
related fraction of a sample with a relative error of
less than 1 %. Mean, mode, sorting, skewness and
other statis tics were calculated by a grain -size
distribution and statistics program (GRADISTAT
program) (Blott&Pye, 2001 ).

3. RESULTS

The parameters shows sediment grained size
distribution, which used to reconstruct the sediment
environments (McLaren&Bowles, 1985 ). They are

5 controlled by the direct of transport and the
sedimentary processes. In this study, Md values
showed the sediments were classified from the fine silt to very fine sand, with a dominance of very coarse
silt and coarse silt followed geometric Folk and Ward
graphic measures (Folk&Ward, 1957 ).

Figure 3. Photographs of typical sediment facies of the VL core in the RRD, Vietnam

Figure 4 . Tri-plot for textural analysis of all sediments in core sample RRD

6 Sediments of core samples mainly consist of
sand, silt and clay, which ranged from 3.3 -73.4, 22.9 –
87.2, and 1.5 -25.5 %, respectively. Sediment facies of
core sample can be classified as sandy silt, silty sand
and sand (Fig. 4). Base on litholo gy, color and grain –
size parameters, the sediment can be divided into six
section s and two second sedimentary units with the
following depth range: unit 1 – estuarine sediments
(from 36 m to 30.1 m); unit 2 – deltaic sediment (from
30.1 m to 0 m) (Fig . 6). The depositio nal environment
during the Holocene of the RRD was resulted of the
interaction between sea level rise and fluvial inputs.

3.1. Core section 1: at the depth from 36 to
30.1 m

This section is characterized by reddish gray
and consisted of very fine sand a nd clay lamination
(as faint lenses 3 -8 mm thick) and a large portion of
this facies is bioturbated. Mud content of the sediment
slightly decrease s from the core bottom to the
smallest valu e at the depth of 32.3 m (Fig. 6). The
mean grain -size (Md) tende d to gradually increase
upward with average value was 18.39 µm. The
average value of sorting (So) was 4.45±0.46 and a
large portion of value is classified as very poorly
sorted. The mean of skewness (Sk) ranged -0.29±0.1,
it divided into very fine skewness and fine skewness
sediment. Kurtosis (KG) values tended to increase
upward with two high value were 1.65, 1.28 at the
depth 32.3 m, 31.3 m, respectively. The KG value can be divided three, but a large portion value indicated
platykurtic sediment (Fig . 5). The lithological
characteristic of core sample was closely correlated
with the core sample from and previously study by
Tanabe el al. (2006). Therefore, the geochronology of
the sediment was calculated according to the
sedimentation rates with the result of accelerator mass
spectrometry (AMS) 14C for RRD (Tanabe, et al.,
2006 ) (Fig. 6).
In the early part of the Holocene, the sea level
in Vietnam was about 31 m below prevent and
increased at a relatively constant rate of about 9 mm
per year (Tjallingii, et al., 2014 ). The reddish -gray
color of the sediment showed erosion processes
during low stands. In addition, below 30.1 m in depth,
sediments consist of the reddish -gray color, which
correspond s to erosion processes during low -stands.
The sedimentary parameters illustrated a large
portion of coarse silt and fine sand sediment whic h
were mainly formed in high energy environments
(McLaren&Bowles, 1985 , Rajganapathi, et al.,
2013 ).
Plant and shell fragments are scattered in core
sediment and a large portion of shell fragments is
concentrated from 31.6 to 32.5 m. Therefore, this
section was interpreted as a sub-tidal and inter -tidal
flat environment with a high frequency of tidal
flooding (Tanabe, et al., 2006 ). Sedimentation rates in
this section interpreted as 0.42 cm/year (Li, et al.,
2006 ).

Figure 5 . Sedimentary parameters in grain -size distribution from core sample showing variations with depth in sediment core

7 3.2. Core section 2: at the depth from 30.1 to
18.9 m

In the section , surface erosion formed during a
transgression and separated by others section (depth
core sample about 30 m) (Tanabe, et al., 2006 ).
Sediment was characterized by blue-gray bioturbated
clay and consisting of laminated fine sand, silt with
reddish -gray in color. Besides, sediment was
bioturbated by gray clay and rich in sh ell fragments.
Mud values in this section ranged from 69.16 to 95.48
%. Md values tended to gradually increase upward
from the erosion surface to 27.5 m and decreased to
the depth 18 .1 m. The value of sorting (So) were
divided into two types with a high portion of values
were very poor sorted sediments (30 -21.9 m of the
depth sediment core) and other was poorly sorted
sediments. Based on Sk values, sediments can be
divided into 4 types, consisting of very fine skewness,
fine skewness, symmetrical and coarse skewed
sediments. KG values showed the stability of values
which indicated for platykurtic sediments (from 30 –
26.5 m in the depth) and the upper layer fluctuated in
a high range which indicated form very platykurtic t o
leptokurtic.
In the middle part of the Holocene , the
sediments can be divided into two part. At the lowest
part, sediment facies suggested as a ravinement surface
during the transition (Tanabe, et al., 2003 , Tanabe, et
al., 2006 ). Between 30.1 and 27.5 m in depth sediment
core show ed the transgressive sand sheet was overlain
the erosion surface, characteristics of Sk corresponds
to lower energy environment and abundant sources of
sediment input s. Between 26.7 and 18.7 m in depth of
core sediment , the Md and Sk values varied over a
small range , which corresponds to low hydrodynamic
energy condition . A large portion of mesokurtic and
leptokurti c sediments suggested continuous addition of
coarse grain -size after the winnowing and retention
action of tidal currents.
The environment of this section was
interpreted as shelf to pro -delta sediments because
shell fragments in this section were decreased than
lower layers and the increased mud content (Tanabe,
et al., 2006 ). The sedimentation rate in this section
ranged from 0.06 to 1.14 cm/year (Li, et al., 2006 ).

3.3. Core section 3: at the depth from 18.9 to
11.7 m

This section was characterized by reddish gray
or black and laminated silt clay that was rich in shell
fragment and plant matter. Mud content tended to
slightly decrease with ranged from 70.77 to 96.70 %.
Md values between from 6.40 to 20.49 µm and tended to gradually increase upward. Sk values were
gradually decrease d upward and classifying it as
symmetrical and coarse skewed sediment. The values
of kurtosis showed relative low variation from 0.69 –
1.29, classified as platykurtic, mesokurtic and
leptokurtic sediment. Between 18.9 and 11.7 m in
depth sediment core, values of Md an d sand content
slightly increased upward which indicated higher
hydrodynamic energy .
The sediment with abundant shell and plant
fragments is typical of delta , therefore the
environment of this section changed to delta front
slope sediment (Tanabe, et al., 2006 ). The
sedimentation rate in this section ranged from 0.26 to
2.13 cm/year (Li, et al., 2006 ).

3.4. Core section 4: at the depth from 11.7 to
4.1 m

The section was characterized by gray , fine
sand and clay sediment with rich of plant matter. Mud
values in sediment tended to decrease and the
minimum value at a depth of 8.7 m (32.4 %). Md
values tended to increase and ranged between 11.06
and 56.55 µm. So, values was a small range from 2.9 9
to 4.97 with mainly categorized very sorted sediment.
Sk value fluctuated and indicated as very fine skewed,
fine skewed and symmetrical sediment. KG values
fluctuated and predominantly indicating platykurtic
and mesokurtic sediment.
Between 11.7 and 4.1 m in depth sediment
core, the sedimentation rate markedly increased to the
high value of 1.94 cm/year within the study area (Li,
et al., 2006 ). The sediment volume supplied by the
Red River during the last 2000 cal. yr BP was much
higher than others, correspond to an incr ease in the
progradation of the delta system (Hori, et al., 2004 ).
The coarsening succ ession upward which sugges ted
that the energy of the environment increased.
The environment of this section was
interpreted as delta front platform sediment (Tanabe,
et al., 2006 ). The sedimentation rate in this section
ranged from 0.82 to 1. 94 cm/year (Li, et a l., 2006 ).

3.5. Core section 5: from 4.1 to 0.5m

This section consisted of gray fine sand, silt
and peat lenses 1 -5 cm thick. Mud content tends to
decrease. Inversely, sand content tended to slightly
increase upward with a maximum value at the depth
of 0.5 m (36.5 %). Md values varied in across a wide
range, continuously decreasing from underlying
facies to the depth of 1.7 m upward. The So values
tended to slightly increase from underlying facies and
reached a peak at a depth of 1 .7 m. In this layer, most

8 of the sediment was categorized as very poorly sorted.
Sk values continuously fluctuated widely from very
fine to fine -skewed sediments. KG values varied
marginally with the exception at depth 0.9 m in which
there was an indicatio n of platykurtic sediments. The
increasing of clay content and a decrease in Md
values suggested decreasing tidal and wave energy. Between 4.1 and 0.5 m in depth sediment core
sugges ted decreasing tidal and wave energy. In this
section, abundant plant frag ment and root and
laminated clay indicated it influenced by tidal
environmental (Tanabe, et al., 2006 ). The
sedimentation rate in this section interpreted 0.82
cm/year (Li, et al., 2006 ).

Figure 6. Sedimentary columns of the core sample in RRD . (A) Lithological characteristic of sediment core; (B) Mud
content in sediment core ; (C) Sedimentation rates were calculated by linear interpolation
between 14C ages (Li, et al., 2006 , Tanabe, et al., 2006 )

3.6. Core section 6: at the depth from 0 .5 to
the core surface

Sediments in this section consisted of reddish
brown clay silt, fine sand and abundance of fine roots
because it is corresponds to a lateritic weathering
profile develop in the floodplain (Tanabe, et al.,
2006 ). The mean of grain -size (Md) tended to
increase upward . Base on the changes in sediment
parameters, sediment in this section can be classified
as very poorly sorted, very fine skewed and
platykurtic sediment. Sand content was form 36.5 to
64.9 % and mud content markedly dropped to the
lowest levels of 35.08 % which suggest ed the
sediments we re mainly formed in high energy
environments. The Md values in the surface were
high because it was influenced by channel -levee
sediment at the land surface of the core site.
4. CONCLUSIONS

The depositional environment of the RRD
result of the interaction between sea level rise and
fluvial inputs . Base on lithological characteristics,
sediment grain -size distribution core sediment can be
divided into six depositional environment s during the
Holocene, including of (1) sub -and inter -tidal flats;
(2) shelf -prodelta ; (3) de lta front s lope; (4) delta front
platform ; (5) tidal flat and (6) flood plain. The
lithological characteristic of core sample was closely
correlated with the core s ample from and previously
by Tanabe el al. (2006) . The variation of sedimentary
parameters showed generally deposited at
environment conditions from low to high energy. In
the late part of the Holocene, the sedimentati on rate
increased to the maximum of value (1.94 cm/year)
with higher energy environment condition at the
depth from 11.7 to 4.1 m .

9 Acknowledg ments

This paper is supported by Vietnam National
University, Hanoi (VNU) under project number QG.16.16.
Thank to Dr. Nguyen Tai Tue for all logistic supports
during field sampling.

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