Cruise passengers experiences in a Mediterranean port of call. The [624488]

Cruise passengers' experiences in a Mediterranean port of call. The
case study of Valencia
Silvia Sanz Blasa, Elena Carvajal-Trujillob,*
aDepartment of Marketing, University of Valencia, Avda de los Naranjos s/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain
bDepartment of Business Administration and Marketing, University of Huelva, Plaza de la Merced, 21002 Huelva, Spain
article info
Article history:
Received 21 April 2014Received in revised form
15 October 2014
Accepted 15 October 2014Available online
Keywords:
SpainCruise passengersPartial Least SquaresPromotional toolsSurvey dataabstract
Most cruise tourism studies have been restricted to one geographical region, the Caribbean, to a single
cruise line, and to onboard experiences. Despite their relevance there has been little research on the
Mediterranean region, on speci fic ports of call and on off-board experience. Furthermore, in the cruise
context, there have been no studies on the role of culture in consumer behavior. Hoping to help fill this
void, this research analyzed the in fluence of cruise passengers' image of a Mediterranean port of call on
visit satisfaction and future behavioral intentions, and the moderating role of culture in causal re-
lationships among these constructs. Data were collected in the port of Valencia, one of the main inter-national tourist destinations in Europe, between April and July 2013. The proposed model was assessed
by Partial Least Squares technique. Furthermore, individuals with low uncertainty avoidance and a high
individualism, composed of British and American cruise passengers, and individuals with high uncer-tainty avoidance and less individualism, made up of German and Italian cruise passengers, were
compared. The results showed that image has a direct in fluence on satisfaction and satisfaction has a
direct effect on future behavioral intention. In addition, in fluence on future behavioral intention derived
from cruise passenger satisfaction differs between the Germans/Italians and the British/Americans.Theoretical and managerial implications and opportunities for future research are discussed.
©2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Cruise tourism is the fastest growing tourism subcategory
(Papathanassis and Beckmann, 2011; Sun et al., 2011 ), with an
average annual passenger growth rate of 7.6% since 1980 ( Cruise
Lines International Association, 2011 ). This subcategory of
tourism accounts for approximately 2% of worldwide tourism. This
rapid growth of cruise tourism ( Brida et al., 2012, 2014 ) has been
due to the incorporation of mega-cruise ships and new ports of call
(Douglas and Douglas, 2004 ). Thus, in 1990 four million people took
a cruise, while in 2011 there were 16 million cruise passengers. At
this point, the number of worldwide passengers estimated for 2013
is over 21 million ( Brida et al., 2012, 2014 ). In the last decade
(2001e2011), passenger capacity of cruises in terms of bed places
has grown 82.4% and it is expected to continue growing in the
future ( Brida et al., 2014 ).Despite its relevance, cruise tourism has received very limited
attention in research ( Papathanassis and Beckmann, 2011; Sun
et al., 2011 ). Moreover, most research studies have focused on a
limited geographical region, the Caribbean ( Andriotis and
Agiomirgianakis, 2010 ), due to its popularity. In 2013 the Carib-
bean accounted for 37.3% of all global itineraries ( Florida-Caribbean
Cruise Association, 2013 ). The next most popular choice is the
Mediterranean, which accounted for 19.9% of global itineraries in
2013 ( Florida-Caribbean Cruise Association, 2013 ) and 13% in 2009
(Florida-Caribbean Cruise Association, 2009 ), amounting to a
considerable increase in itineraries in this region. Regardless of the
importance of this increase, there is a lack of research in this region
(Andriotis and Agiomirgianakis, 2010; Pranic et al., 2013 ).
Similarly, most studies on cruising have been focused on a single
cruise line ( Andriotis and Agiomirgianakis, 2010 ) and there are only
a few studies on cruising in speci fic ports of call. Besides, most
studies have centered on the characteristics of the Caribbean ports
of call ( Gabe et al., 2006 ) while very few of them have analyzed the
Mediterranean ones ( Andriotis and Agiomirgianakis, 2010; Pranic
et al., 2013 ). On the other hand, Xie et al. (2012) point out the
need to conduct research on the attributes of off-board activities at
ports of call. Pranic et al. (2013) also agree on this matter and*Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: silvia.sanz@uv.es (S. Sanz Blas), carvajal.trujillo@dem.uhu.es
(E. Carvajal-Trujillo).
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highlight the fact that all cruise research is focused on onboard
experience. They state the need to carry out some studies on cruise
passengers' off-board experience and its in fluence on future
behavioral intention.
1.1. Port of call
In the cruise context, a port of call is a place where a cruise ship
stops on a travel itinerary and cruise passengers can visit different
destinations or ports of call during the cruise ( Andriotis and
Agiomirgianakis, 2010; Hwang and Han, 2014 ). Attractive ports of
call that appeal to tourists can increase overall satisfaction with a
cruise and can also result in cruise passengers returning or rec-
ommending the visit to others.
Ports of call are the main reason for choosing a speci fic cruise
destination ( Andriotis and Agiomirgianakis, 2010 ). Cruise lines
select particular ports to provide positive off-board experiences to
their customers in the port of call. In the same way, cruise lines can
drop a port of call if the customer experience has been unsatis-
factory ( Henthorne, 2000 ).
Cruise passenger tourists spend less time at a port of call
destination ( Larsen et al., 2013 ), since they tend to stay about 5 or
6 h at the destination they visit ( Brida et al., 2012 ). Other tourists,
by contrast, stay for a few days ( Larsen et al., 2013 ). The limited time
cruise passengers stay in a port of call and the fact that most cruise
passengers spend their time onboard explain why cruise passenger
revenues for port of call are lower than that of other tourists ( Larsen
et al., 2013 ). However, in the long term cruise passengers can
provide additional income if they return or recommend the visit to
others.
1.2. Destination image, satisfaction and loyalty
Image is a relevant factor in customer evaluation of a service
(Barroso Castro et al., 2007 ) and plays an important role in subse-
quent travel behavior. According to Bign /C19e et al. (2009) destination
image is the overall image or representation in the tourist's mind of
what he/she knows and feels about the destination.
Some authors point out that the image of a destination is formed
from images of its attributes ( Seaton and Benett, 1996 ) while other
authors focus on the holistic nature of the image, a global
impression that is greater than the sum of its constituent parts
(Calantone et al., 1989 ).
The destination image formed from images of its attributes (the
multi-attribute approach) has been the most frequently used ( Chi,
2012; Sun et al., 2013 ). The multi-attribute approach evaluates
the destination image through a list of attributes assessed by means
of a Likert scale and the overall image as an average or sum of the
attribute scores ( Sun et al., 2013 ). There is no consensus about the
list of attributes to measure a destination image ( Sun et al., 2013 ).
The lack of a conventionally accepted scale leads to the following
issue: dimensions that form destination image vary between
studies. All the same, as a general rule there are four dimensions
that are repeated in most studies: (1) natural and cultural re-
sources; (2) infrastructure and socioeconomic context; (3) social
conditions and (4) environment. Their relative importance variesfrom study to study ( Beerli and Martín, 2004a,b ;San Martín and
Rodríguez, 2008 ). The first two dimensions, natural and cultural
resources, and infrastructure and socioeconomic context, have
more functional attributes and are the most representative for
having been analyzed in a large number of studies. The other two
dimensions, social conditions and the environment, have a greater
psychological relevance ( Gallarza et al., 2002 ).
Regarding destination image components, relevant marketing
research considers two parts: a cognitive component that includesfunctional or tangible elements; and an affective component that
covers psychological or intangible elements ( Baloglu and McCleary,
1999a,b; Beerli and Martín, 2004a,b; San Martín and Rodríguez,
2008, 2010 ). The combination of those two interrelated compo-
nents, cognitive (beliefs) and affective (feelings), provides a tour-
ist's overall image of a destination ( Bign /C19e et al., 2009 ). Most
research studies only consider the functional or cognitive compo-
nent ( Echtner and Ritchie, 2003; Lee and Lee, 2009 ).
In the cruise context, we only find two studies that have
analyzed image. Both of them refer to cruise vacation image. The
first one is a study by Park (2006) , who developed a conceptual
model based on destination image literature. The findings were
that non-customer current cruising biases and negative images of
cruise vacations could be the underlying factors that in fluence their
decisions not to choose cruise vacations over other kinds of vaca-
tion. The second study by Hung and Petrick's (2011a) identi fied a
model that integrated two streams of research: destination image
and congruity. They referred to the difference between self-
congruity (self-images and affective image of destination) and
functional congruity (perfect images of cruising attributes and
cognitive images of cruising) to explain travel intentions. Proposedhypotheses were supported.
Previous studies, in the tourist context, show an important link
between destination image and satisfaction ( Bign /C19e et al., 2009 ).
Satisfaction is present in most studies as a consequence of image
(Barroso Castro et al., 2007; Sun et al., 2013 ) and there is a direct
positive relationship between both variables. In the cruise context,
not a single study has analyzed the relationship between image and
satisfaction. Therefore we posit that:
H1. Port of call destination image positively in fluences cruise
passengers' satisfaction with the port of call destination.
Satisfaction, in turn, is an antecedent of loyalty ( Prayag and
Ryan, 2012 ). It is likely that satis fied tourists return to destina-
tions and that they also share their experiences with their friends
and relatives ( Chen and Tsai, 2007 ). Regarding ports of call, only the
study of Pranic et al. (2013) based on a micro-cruise, veri fies and
confirms these relationships. Due to the lack of studies in this area,
we will verify the relationship between cruise passengers' satis-
faction and their intention of returning and/or recommending the
visit to the port of Valencia to friends and relatives. The hypothesis
will be:
H2. A cruise passenger's satisfaction with a port of call desti-
nation positively in fluences his/her port of call destination
loyalty.
Another antecedent of loyalty is destination image ( Barroso
Castro et al., 2007 ) and we chose this antecedent because it was a
suggested area of research ( Xie et al., 2012 ). In the literature, there
is evidence to support a causal relationship between image and
loyalty ( Barroso Castro et al., 2007 ). In the cruise context, for cruise
lines, Hung and Petrick (2011a) con
firm a relationship between
image and loyalty. However, no study has applied this relationship
to ports of call. The hypothesis is:
H3. Port of call destination image positively in fluences port of
call destination loyalty.
1.3. Culture
Culture is a relevant factor in the field of tourism and a growing
number of papers have incorporated this variable ( Forgas-Coll et al.,S. Sanz Blas, E. Carvajal-Trujillo / Ocean & Coastal Management 102 (2014) 307 e316 308

2012; Frías et al., 2012 ). However, scholars indicate that cross-
cultural research is still scarce, especially in the fields of tourism
and hospitality ( Li, 2014; Pantouvakis, 2013 ).
According to Hofstede (1997) culture is the collective pro-
gramming of the mind which differentiates the members of one
group or category of people from another. Culture is a variable that
focuses on the differences in consumer behavior, which are not
easy to explain through tangible elements ( Buzzell, 1968 ).
The literature has used different cultural assessment approaches
(Li, 2014 ).Hofstede's (1993) theory is one of the most relevant and
it has been used in business and marketing studies related to the
role of national culture ( Forgas-Coll et al., 2012; Torres et al., 2014 ).
Hofstede's (1993) theory has had a great impact on cross-cultural
management and has been mainly used to identify cultural differ-
ences among countries ( Soares et al., 2007 ).
In order to identify cultural differences, Hofstede (1993) pro-
posed five dimensions where cultures differ from one another.
These dimensions are: power distance, individualism/collectivism,
masculinity/femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term/
short-term orientation. Power distance is the degree of hierarchi-
cal power distribution in a society. Individualism versus collec-tivism refers to the dialectical relationship between groups and
individuals. Masculinity versus femininity explains the gender
differences that exist in a society and that men dominate a sub-
stantial part of the power structures. Uncertainty avoidance refers
to the degree to which people are tolerant of uncertainties. Long
term versus short term orientation refers to the values of saving and
perseverance related with the long term and respect for tradition
related with the short term. Hofstede (2011) proposes a value for
each of these dimensions in every country. These dimensions have
been applied to compare cultures or countries ( Pantouvakis, 2013 )
and they are essential to analyze cross-cultural consumer behavior
(Forgas-Coll et al., 2012; Frías et al., 2012 ).
The different cultural values in fluence images and experiences
that have a relevant role in tourists' destination image ( Lee and Lee,
2009 ), satisfaction ( Turner et al., 2002 ) and loyalty ( Lee et al., 2008 ).
Based upon Bourdieu's theory ( 1977 ), it is likely that individuals
from different cultural backgrounds judge the same experience
from different points of view ( Torres et al., 2014 ).Lee and Lee
(2009) recognize those differences in images between tourists
from different cultural backgrounds. For Forgas-Coll et al. (2012) ,
cultural differences cause different levels of perception in variousaspects of tourism services and those differences lead to several
levels of satisfaction and loyalty.
In tourism, only the moderating in fluence of culture on the
relationship between satisfaction and loyalty has been analyzed
(Forgas-Coll et al., 2012; Pantouvakis, 2013 ). According to the liter-
ature, culture can also moderate the relationship between destina-
tion image and satisfaction and between destination image and
loyalty. In the cruise context, there have been no studies on the role
of culture in consumer behavior. All this leads us to propose culture
as a moderator for the model with the following hypothesis:
H4. Culture has some moderating effects on the relationship
between (a) destination image and destination satisfaction, (b)
destination satisfaction and destination loyalty, and (c) desti-nation image and destination loyalty.
InFig. 1 we have a graphic representation of the conceptual
model, the proposed hypotheses and moderating effects.
Speci fically, the main objectives of this research are:
1) Analyze the dimensions that form the destination image of
cruise passengers of Valencia as port of call and their
importance;
2) Examine the in fluence of destination image on cruise passen-
gers' satisfaction with a port of call destination;
3) Study the in fluence exerted by the cruise passengers' satisfac-
tion with a port of call destination on the port of call destination
loyalty;
4) Assess the impact of destination image directly on the port of
call destination loyalty (return intention, intention to recom-
mend to friends and relatives);
5) Examine the moderating effect of the cruise passengers' culture
of origin on the relationships between destination image and
cruise passengers' satisfaction with a port of call destination,
cruise passengers' satisfaction with a port of call destination and
loyalty, and destination image and port of call destination
loyalty.
Lastly, the findings of this research will assist destination
managers in ensuring higher levels of destination image, cruise
passenger satisfaction and intention to return and/or to
recommend.
Fig. 1. Research model and hypotheses.S. Sanz Blas, E. Carvajal-Trujillo / Ocean & Coastal Management 102 (2014) 307 e316 309

2. Methodology
2.1. Data collection
Valencia was chosen as a port of call because it is one of the main
international tourist destinations in Europe ( Rausell, 2010 ) and it
has had signi ficant growth over recent years. This growth is re-
flected in the fact that in 1999 Valencia hosted its first cruise, 12
stops and 3169 cruise passengers, while in 2013 it reached 233
stops and 514,295 cruise passengers ( Ministerio de Fomento, 2013;
Observatorio Turístico de la Comunitat Valenciana, 2013 ).
The target population of this study was cruise passengers who
disembarked in Valencia port of call in order to visit the city of
Valencia between April and July 2013. Because the population size
was unknown for this research, several different non-random
samplings were made to choose the sample ( San Martín and
Herrero, 2012 ). First, a quota sampling procedure was utilized to
match the target population in terms of age and nationality ( San
Martín et al., 2013 ). Second, a convenience sampling procedure
was used for the sample selection ( Hung and Petrick, 2011b )i n
order to match the several different quotas in terms of age andnationality ( San Martín et al., 2013 ).
Data has been personally collected on a multilingual question-
naire filled in by a group of trained interviewers who were fluent inthe different questionnaire languages (English, Italian, German and
French). They selected cruise passengers who had finished their
visit to Valencia city and were waiting at the departure lobby in
order to embark. The interviewers con firmed that all respondents
had visited Valencia city during their stop in Valencia port of call.
We selected cruise ships of several sizes that belonged to different
port companies ( Xie et al., 2012 ) to ensure sample variability. There
were 526 completed questionnaires. Some of them could not be
used because they had not been properly filled in, so we finally had
a sample of 492 valid respondents.
The sample was made up of 54.8% males and 45.2% females.
Group ages were represented as follows: 29.7% were 35 and under;
37% were 35 e54; 33.3% were 55 and over. The main countries of
residence were Germany (19.92%), United Kingdom (17.1%), Italy
(14.63%), and USA (12.2%). These countries represented 63.85% of
the sample. The rest of the cruise passengers came from a varied
range of countries, so we grouped them under “other countries ”.I n
terms of age and nationality, this sample accurately represents the
current pro file of cruise passengers in Valencia port of call, since
data collected by Valencia Tourism (2012) confirm that most cruise
passengers come from Germany, UK, Italy, and USA and are from 35to 54 years old.
2.2. Measurement
Destination image has been calculated by a multi-attribute
approach for measuring the overall image, since most studies
have followed this approximation. This study measures cognitive
aspects of destination by an attribute set of 15 items extracted from
the literature and adapted to the speci fic context of this study
(Barroso Castro et al., 2007; Beerli and Martín, 2004b; Echtner and
Ritchie, 1993 ).
An exploratory factor analysis of the image scale enabled us to
reduce the information to four dimensions: Tourism resourcesTable 1
A comparison of Hofstede cultural dimensions scores.
Dimensions Country absolute score
Germany United Kingdom Italy USA
Power distance 35 35 50 40
Individualism 67 89 76 91
Masculinity 66 66 70 62Uncertainty avoidance 65 35 75 46Long versus short term 31 25 34 29
Table 2Measurement model evaluation.
Construct/dimension/indicator VIF Weight Loading t-value Composite reliability AVE
Image (second-order factor) n.a n.a
Tourist Resources 1.426 0.234 0.904 0.704
Restou1. Tourist information is wide and adequate. 0.904 51.76
Restou2. Tourist signs are appropriate. 0.858 28.93
Restou3. Tourist services provided for the cruise
(shuttle bus, tourist of fice, etc…) are suf ficient.0.887 36.15
Restou4. Tourist attractions/places to visit are varied. 0.710 12.87
Infrastructure of the city and atmosphere 1.838 0.726 0.944 0.600
Infatm1. There is a rich and varied gastronomy/a wide
variety of restaurants.0.7409 24.86
Infatm2. There is a good variety of shops and many
facilities for shopping.0.824 39.05
Infatm3. There are enough leisure activities. 0.758 24.32
Infatm5. It is a quiet city. 0.734 25.52
Infatm6. Residents are friendly and welcoming. 0.735 25.57Infatm7. The weather is nice. 0.731 25.28
Urban environment 1.371 0.212 0.910 0.835
Urbenv1. There is a good urban environment with low
levels of environmental pollution (traf fic, noise, fumes, etc.).0.908 36.33
Urbenv2. Street/area cleaning is optimal. 0.919 46.25
Socioeconomic Environment 1.816 0.027 0.926 0.863
Socenv1. Shops have a good price equality relationship. 0.953 71.98
Socenv2. Restaurants have a good price equality relationship. 0.904 32.47
Satisfaction (re flective) 0.976 0.932
Sat1. I am satis fied with my visit to Valencia. 0.957 71.20
Sat2. My decision to visit Valencia was good. 0.967 82.57
Sat3. I feel good about visiting Valencia. 0.972 103.84
Behavioral intention (re flective) 0.911 0.777
Int1. I would say positive things about Valencia to my friends and relatives. 0.955 128.57Int2. I would recommend Valencia to anyone who asks me for advice. 0.959 176.72Int3. I would visit Valencia on another occasion. 0.706 15.24S. Sanz Blas, E. Carvajal-Trujillo / Ocean & Coastal Management 102 (2014) 307 e316 310

(Restou); infrastructure of the city and atmosphere (Infatm); urban
environment (Urbenv); and socioeconomic environment (Socenv)
(Table 2 ). In the suggested model for this research, image has been
conceived as a first order multidimensional re flective construct and
as a second-order formative construct. Thus, image dimensions
(tourist resources; infrastructure of the city and atmosphere; urban
environment; and socioeconomic environment) were considered
to interact with their items in a re flective way and with the desti-
nation image in a formative way.
We have measured overall satisfaction using three items
(Table 2 ) and they have been adapted to the speci fic context of the
studies of Oliver (1980), Flavi /C19an et al. (2006) andJanda et al. (2002) .
Future behavioral intention has been measured by using two
proxies: intention to revisit the destination and intention to
recommend the destination ( Table 2 ) and they have been adapted
to the speci fic context following Zeithaml et al. (1996) and Cater
and Zabkar (2009) .
The factors have been evaluated on a 5-point Likert-scale
ranging from “strongly disagree ”(1) to “strongly agree ”(5). The
questionnaire also incorporated respondents' demographic infor-
mation such as gender, age and country of residence.
In order to carry out the cross-cultural analyses, we measured
cultural differences between countries using the theory of Hofstede
(1993) . In order to identify sample cruise passengers' nationality,
we used the country of residence instead of the country of birth or
the citizenship, since it is the scale that best represents cultural
differences ( Forgas-Coll et al., 2012 ).Hofstede (1993) determines a
score for each dimension and country.
Our study, however, calculated the score for the main countries
of residence of the cruise passengers who visited Valencia port of
call ( Table 1 )(Forgas-Coll et al., 2012; Frías et al., 2012 ). Of the 492
passengers who visited Valencia as a port of call, 314 cruise pas-
sengers came from the key passenger countries of residence. These
countries were selected to carry out the cross-cultural analysis.
Regarding data values for each dimension and country, and based
upon data available from previous studies ( Forgas-Coll et al., 2012 ),
we grouped countries into two groups ( Frías et al., 2012 ) according
to the most contrasted absolute values for each country following
Hofstede's dimensions ( Forgas-Coll et al., 2012 ). The selected di-
mensions were individualism/collectivism and uncertainty avoid-
ance: (1) individuals with low uncertainty avoidance and a high
individuality, composed of British and American cruise passengers,
and (2) individuals with high uncertainty avoidance and less indi-
vidualism, made up of German and Italian cruise passengers.
2.3. Data analysis
In order to analyze the measurement model and the hy-
pothesis testing we have used Partial Least Squares (PLS). We
decided to use this technique for the following reasons: (1) this
study is oriented towards the prediction of the dependent var-
iables ( Chin, 2010 ); (2) PLS is appropriate for analyzing mea-
surement models with both formative and re flective items
(Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer, 2001 ); and (3) compared to
covariance-based SEM, PLS presents a number of advantages in
terms of interaction effects estimation ( Chin et al., 2003 ). In
order to carry out the PLS analysis, we have used the SmartPLS
2.0 M3 software ( Ringle et al., 2008 ).
The moderating effects of culture have been analyzed through a
multi-group comparison approach, since the cultural variable is
categorical ( Henseler and Fassott, 2010 ). In order to determine the
significance of differences between the estimated parameters for
each group, we have applied Henseler's non-parametric ap-
proaches ( Henseler et al., 2007; Sarstedt et al., 2011 ).3. Results
3.1. Measurement model
For the constructs with re flective measures we examined the
loadings. For the constructs made up of formative measures,
weights provide information related to the importance of each
indicator in the component creation/formation.
Individual re flective item reliability is considered adequate
when an item has a factor loading that is greater than 0.70 on its
respective construct. This implies a greater shared variance be-
tween the construct and its measures (indicators) than that
resulting from the error variance ( Carmines and Zeller, 1979 ). In our
final models, all re flective individual item loadings are above 0.70,
except for the Infatm4 (0.571), which has been eliminated for
presenting a value that is less than 0.6. Besides, we checked the
significance of loadings with a bootstrap procedure (5000 sub-
samples) for obtaining t-statistic values and con firmed that they
were all signi ficant ( Table 2 ).
Construct reliability analyzes internal consistency for a given
block of indicators. This is assessed by using composite reliability.Composite reliabilities for multiple re flective indicators are well
over the recommended level of 0.7 ( Nunnally, 1978 ), which shows a
high internal consistency ( Table 2 ).
Finally, the average variance extracted (AVE) ( Fornell and
Larcker, 1981 ) assesses the amount of variance that a construct
captures from its indicators, owing the rest of variance to mea-
surement error. Discriminant validity is assessed by stipulating that
the square root of the average variance extracted (AVE) by a
construct from its indicators should be at least 0.7 (i.e., AVE >0.5)
and should be greater than all correlations of the constructs. All
latent constructs ful filled these conditions ( Table 3 ).
Traditional reliability and validity assessment cannot be applied
to formative constructs ( Bollen, 1989 ). Formative models are based
on a multiple regression and, therefore, a high collinearity among
dimensions would produce instability estimates. That would make
it dif ficult to separate the distinct effect from the individual di-
mensions on the construct ( Buil et al., 2009 ). With this in mind, a
collinearity test was performed through SPSS software: a variance
in
flation factor (VIF) test. According to Kleinbaum et al. (1988) a
result of over five on the VIF can be a concern and if it is over ten, it
indicates a problem. Our data are far below the common cut-off
threshold of five (Table 2 ). Thus, there is no multicollinearity
among the manifest variables and dimensions for those variables
modeled with a formative style.
3.2. Structural model
Algebraic sign, magnitude, and signi ficance of the structural
path coef ficients, R2values and Q2test for predictive relevance are
taken into account when doing an evaluation of the structural
model. Consistent with Hair et al. (2011) , bootstrapping (5000 re-
samples) is used to generate standard errors and t-statistic
values. This allowed us to assess the statistical signi ficance of the
path coef ficients. Fig. 2 shows the variance explained ( R2) in the
Table 3
Discriminant validity coef ficients.
Image Satisfaction Behavioral intention
Image n.a
Satisfaction 0.4952 0.96Behavioral intention 0.4367 0.8250 0.88S. Sanz Blas, E. Carvajal-Trujillo / Ocean & Coastal Management 102 (2014) 307 e316 311

dependent constructs, the path coef ficients ( b) for the model and t-
statistic value.
The outcomes analysis shows ( Table 4 ) H3 is not supported.
Direct effect of image on the behavioral intention is not signi ficant.
H1 and H2 are supported. This shows that satisfaction is a relevantmediating variable on the present model. Image has a direct, pos-
itive and signi ficant in fluence on satisfaction. And satisfaction has
also a direct, positive and signi ficant in fluence on behavioral
intentions.
The weights provide information about how each formative
dimension contributes to image ( Table 4 ). In this way, we can
observe how the infrastructure of the city and the atmosphere
dimension (Infatm, weight ¼0.7269) have contributed to the
destination image more than other dimensions (Restou,
weight ¼ 0.2341; Urbenv, weight ¼ 0.2120; Socenv,
weight ¼0.0276). Socioeconomic environment is a non-signi ficant
formative indicator ( p¼0.177). Nevertheless, we decided to keep
this indicator because removing a formative indicator would imply
the eliminating of a part of the composite latent construct ( Roberts
and Thatcher, 2009 ).
In addition, our research model appears to have an appropriate
predictive power for all dependent variables (satisfaction and
behavioral intention). Hence, the behavioral intention dimension
attains the explained variance (0.690). We have also evaluated the
model through a cross-validated redundancy index (Q2) for
endogenous re flective constructs ( Chin, 2010 ).Chin (1998) pro-
poses this measure for examining the predictive relevance of thetheoretical/structural model. A Q2 that is greater than 0 implies
that the model has a predictive relevance. The results con firm that
the structural model has a satisfactory predictive relevance for both
dependent variables: satisfaction and behavioral intention
(Table 5 ).
3.3. Multi-group analyses
Once we had tested the structural model, we carried out the
multi-group analyses. For this purpose, as we mentioned before,
responses have been divided into two groups: (1) individuals with
low uncertainty avoidance and a high individuality, composed ofBritish and American cruise passengers, and (2) individuals with
high uncertainty avoidance and less individualism, made up of
German and Italian cruise passengers.
Our results show that culture has not moderated positive re-
lationships between image and satisfaction (H4a not supported),
since there are no signi ficant differences between both groups
(British/American and German/Italian) ( p¼0.3760). However, re-
sults do con firm that culture moderates the relationship between
satisfaction and behavioral intention (H4b supported). Although
this relationship is positive and signi ficant for both groups, the
coefficient takes a higher value in the second group (German/Ital-
ian), con firming the existence of signi ficant differences between
both groups ( p¼0.0175) ( Table 6 ).
4. Discussion
The results of this study suggest a number of relevant findings.
First, the four destination dimensions: infrastructure of the city and
atmosphere, tourist resources, urban environment and socioeco-
nomic environment; have a positive and direct effect on cruise
passengers' image of the port of call destination. Of these di-
mensions, the first two, infrastructure of the city and atmosphere,
Fig. 2. Structural model results.
Table 4
Structural model results.
Ho Suggested
effect(b) t-value
(bootstrap)Supported Ho
H1: image /satisfaction ț 0.495*** 9.314 Supported
H2: satisfaction /behavioral
intentionț 0.807*** 18.373 Supported
H3: image /behavioral
intentionț 0.037ns0.621 Not
supported
Formative measuresRestou/image 0.2341*** 3.989
Infatm/image 0.7269*** 5.202
Urbenv/image 0.2120*** 3.824
Socenv/image 0.0276
ns0.177
Note: * p<0.05; ** p<0.01; *** p<0.001; ns enot signi ficant.Table 5
Variance explained and cross-validated redundancy index.
R2Q2
Satisfaction 0.245 0.2260
Behavioral intention 0.682 0.5031S. Sanz Blas, E. Carvajal-Trujillo / Ocean & Coastal Management 102 (2014) 307 e316 312

and tourist resources have contributed more than the other two
dimensions, urban environment and socioeconomic environment.
Second, the cruise passengers' image of the destination port of
call has a positive and direct in fluence on cruise passengers'
satisfaction with this destination, con firming that the image of port
of call destination is an antecedent of satisfaction with the
destination.
Third, the results show that cruise passengers' satisfaction with
a port of call destination has a direct and positive effect on their
future behavioral intention. This means that satisfaction with a port
of call destination is an antecedent of cruise passengers' future
behavioral intention.
Fourth, contrary to the hypothesized relationship, the image of
port of call destination has no in fluence on the cruise passengers'
future behavioral intention. Thus, satisfaction with a port of call
destination is a mediating factor between the image of port of call
destination and future behavioral intention.
Lastly, from the results of this study obtained regarding culture
as a moderator in the proposed model, we con firm that culture
moderates the relationship between satisfaction and future
behavioral intention, having a signi ficantly higher moderating ef-
fect on German/Italian cruise passengers than on British/American
cruise passengers. Contrary to the hypothesized relationship, we do
notfind a moderating in fluence of culture on the relationship be-
tween destination image and satisfaction. Thus, the image of port of
call destination, satisfaction with this port of call destination and
cruise passengers' future behavioral intention apply to the cruising
context in ports of call. Namely, this research con firmed the theo-
retical frame of image-satisfaction-behavioral intention for the
cruise tourism segment for a port of call. Furthermore, our research
makes a relevant contribution by incorporating the cruise passen-
gers' culture as a moderator variable in the formation of cruise
passengers' future behavioral intention for ports of call.
With respect to the first point, the dimensions that cruise pas-
sengers utilize to form their image of the destination, in order ofimportance are: infrastructure of the city and atmosphere; tourist
resources; urban environment; and socioeconomic environment.
Thus, the infrastructure of the city and atmosphere as perceived by
cruise passengers during their port of call visit is the strongest
dimension that contributes to the formation of the cruise passen-
gers' image of the port of call destination; and the socioeconomic
environment is the weakest dimension that contributes to this
image of the port of call destination. The dimensions obtained
confirm the results obtained by Beerli and Martín (2004a,b) and
San Martín and Rodríguez (2008) . Cruise passengers will use these
image dimensions to form their impressions.
Strategies to improve these image dimensions may be included
in the actions of destination managers. Thus, destination managers
should maintain and improve the infrastructure of the city and
perceived atmosphere by providing more gastronomic and shop-
ping offers, leisure activities, persuade residents for that they will
be friendly and raise awareness of residents for that the port of call
destination will be a quiet city. The destination managers should
raise awareness of local businesses such as shopping and restaurant
facilities that offer a good price equality relationship, and in this
way, will improve the socioeconomic environment, and so enhancethe perceived image of the port of call destination. It is recom-
mended that in order to increase the tourist resources dimension,
destination managers should increase the availability of informa-
tion provided to cruise passengers, the services provided for the
cruise as well as improve tourism signage and ensure that places for
tourists to visit are varied. Lastly, for improving the perceived image
of the port of call destination, the destination managers should
work to maintain low levels of environmental pollution and a clean
city. In this way, destination managers improve the cruise passen-
gers' perception of the urban environment of the port of call
destination.
The results indicate that the image of the port of call destination
has a positive and direct in fluence on cruise passengers' satisfaction
with the destination. This is consistent with the results of previous
studies in other contexts ( Barroso Castro et al., 2007; Sun et al.,
2013 ) and indicates that the image of a port of call destination
precedes cruise passengers' satisfaction with the destination.
These findings suggest that destination managers need to strive
to maintain a positive image of the destination in the minds of
cruise passengers who visit it during a cruise stop on the travel
itinerary. Therefore, any improvement in the dimensions of the
port of call destination's image will in fluence passengers' satisfac-
tion with the destination. That is, destination managers should bear
in mind such issues that contribute to the formation of the image of
the port of call destination. For this reason, it is suggested that the
port of call destination managers should implement strategies to
maintain and even increase the infrastructure of the city and
enhance the atmosphere, improve tourist resources and achieve a
more suitable urban and socioeconomic environment. For example,
during the Peking Olympic Games the Chinese Government took
actions to reduce the number of vehicles permitted in the city,
encouraging use of public transport, and trained residents to be
able to help visitors ( Rodríguez-Molina et al., 2013 ). In the cruise
context, actions of this kind would in fluence more cruise passen-
gers to form a stronger image of the port of call destination, thus, inturn, in fluencing more cruise passengers' satisfaction with the
destination.
Passengers' satisfaction with the port of call destination is a
factor that plays a relevant role as a direct driver of their future
behavioral intention, i.e., intention to return and/or intention to
recommend to others. This conclusion is consistent with results
from previous studies in the tourism context ( Prayag and Ryan,
2012; Sun et al., 2013 ), in the cruise context for cruise lines
(Duman and Mattila, 2005; Li and Petrick, 2010 ) and for ports of call
(Pranic et al., 2013 ).
Thus, destination managers should focus on increasing pas-
sengers' satisfaction with the port of call destination to increase
passengers' intention to return to the port of call destination and/or
recommend this destination to other people. It is very relevant that
destination managers focus on formulating strategies to manage
the recommendation of the destination to other people and the
word-of-mouth of satis fied tourists, which is one of the more
relevant ways for achieving future tourists ( San Martín et al., 2013 ).
As highlighted by San Martín et al. (2013) word-of-mouth has
increased in relevance owing to technological developments such
as blogs, social networks, and video and photo sharing platformsTable 6
Multi-group analysis. Test results.
Ho bAt-value bBt-value bA/C0bBp-Sig Supported Ho
H4a: Image /satisfaction 0.689c14.218 0.708c29.169 /C00.0195ns0.3760 No
H4b: Satisfaction /behavioral intention 0.573c9.604 0.776c11.825 /C00.2023a0.0175 Yes
Note:A:first group;B: second group;ap<0.05;bp<0.01;cp<0.001; ns: non-signi ficant.S. Sanz Blas, E. Carvajal-Trujillo / Ocean & Coastal Management 102 (2014) 307 e316 313

that should be managed by destination managers in order to in-
crease the positive in fluence from the word-of-mouth of satis fied
passengers on the intention of potential tourists to visit the desti-
nation. These findings indicate that passengers' satisfaction with a
port of call destination derives from their port of call destination
image and determines the extent to which cruise passengers
intended to return and to recommend the port of call destination to
others.
In contrast with the relationship hypothesized, passengers'
image of the port of call destination is found to not directly in flu-
ence future behavioral intention because although the relationship
is positive, it is not signi ficant. These findings con firm the results of
previous studies that have indicated that destination image has no
direct effect on future behavioral intentions ( Assaker and Hallak,
2013; Jin, Forthcoming ). There is, however, a signi ficant indirect
relationship between destination image and future behavioral in-
tentions that is mediated by satisfaction levels. This supports pre-
vious studies that have examined the role of tourist satisfaction
with a destination on intention to return and/or intention to
recommend the destination to others ( Jin, Forthcoming ).
Thus, this research re flects that satisfaction has a signi ficant
mediating role in the relationship between image of port of call
destination and future behavioral intention. In addition, although
passengers had a positive image of the port of call destination, that
does not determine they will automatically have an intention to
return and/or intention to recommend the destination to others.
And cruise passengers with a positive image of the port of call
destination may not revisit the port of call destination and/or
recommend this destination to others if the experience does not
meet expectations. In other words, satisfaction is a relevant moti-
vator for cruise passengers to revisit the port of call destination and
share positive experiences with others. It is recommended that
destination managers should increase the passengers' image of the
port of call destination and their satisfaction with this destination
to increase the intention of cruise passengers to return and inten-
tion to make positive recommendations to others.
Although different studies indicated relevant differences be-
tween tourist cultures, these failed to recognize the main reasons
for the differences, speci fically in the cruise context for ports of call.
This study provided an analysis of the moderating effect of culture
in the proposed model that was completed on the basis of two of
Hofstede's dimensions ( 1980, 1993, 2001 ), in which British/Amer-
icans and Germans/Italians are most widely separated according to
uncertainty avoidance and individualism.
Regarding the individualism dimension, the first group (British/
Americans), for example, has a higher degree of individualism due
to their Anglo-Saxon tradition (United Kingdom and USA) and the
second group (Germans/Italians) has a less individualist attitude
because of their German ( Forgas-Coll et al., 2012 ) and Latin/Cath-
olic tradition. With respect to the uncertainty avoidance dimension,
there is a relevant difference between both groups' countries.
Anglo-Saxon countries, like the United Kingdom and USA, are more
open to risk, more tolerant of beliefs, ideas, and thoughts, and less
regulated. The results of our study con firm that there are some
differences between the cultures studied, agreeing with previous
studies that used the work of Hofstede in the tourism context(Forgas-Coll et al., 2012; Pantouvakis, 2013 ).
This research revealed that the hypothesized moderating in-
fluence of passenger culture in the proposed model is partially
supported. The findings show that culture does not moderate the
positive relationship between image and satisfaction. Thus, the
strength of the relationship between passengers' image of the port
of call destination and their satisfaction with this destination will
not vary across passenger cultures, such as Germany or Italy andUnited Kingdom or USA.On the other hand, the findings support that culture moderates
the relationship between passengers' satisfaction with a port of call
destination and future behavioral intention, having a signi ficantly
higher moderating effect among cultures with higher levels of
uncertainty and less individualism, such as German and Italian than
among cultures with lower levels of uncertainty and individualism,
such as British and American. Thus, British/American passengers
satisfaction has a signi ficantly lower impact on their future
behavioral intention compared to German/Italian passengers. Ac-
cording to Forgas-Coll et al. (2012) , this result con firms previous
studies, in the tourism context, which highlight that the relation-
ship between satisfaction and future behavioral intention is
stronger in collectivist cultures with greater uncertainty avoidance,
such as in Germany and Italy. In the cruise context, our findings
coincide partially with Pranic et al. (2013) who con firmed that for
micro-cruises in different ports of call in Croatia, the British pas-
sengers were more satis fied, but had lower intention to return than
the German passengers. This con firms what the literature has
already indicated that culture can give information about many of
the variances on tourist behavior ( Frías et al., 2012; Pizam and
Sussmann, 1995 ).
One possible explanation of this result is that, on the one hand,
passengers from high uncertainty-avoiding cultures, such as the
Germans and Italians, are risk averse and so they have a lower
novelty-seeking tendency compared to the low perceived risk or
low uncertainty avoidance cultures, such as the British and Amer-
icans, with a higher novelty-seeking tendency. Another possible
explanation is the cultural distance between countries. The coun-
tries of Germany and Italy are culturally much closer to Spain than
the United Kingdom or USA. According to San Martín and Rodríguez
(2008) , individuals might have more con fidence in those destina-
tions with cultures similar to their own cultural values, i.e. with a
lower cultural distance. Thus, German or Italian passengers have a
lower cultural distance with Spain and they will have a higher
intention to return and/or to recommend this destination. How-
ever, British or American passengers have a higher cultural distance
with Spain and they will have a lower intention to return and/or to
recommend this destination.
On the other hand, tourists from individualist cultures tend to be
more independent than tourists from less individualist cultures.
Furthermore, in individualist cultures, individuals expect to look
after themselves and their immediate family and place more rele-
vance on speci fic product attributes, while collectivist cultures give
relevance to close ties between individuals and value more the
opinions of others and prefer subjective and imagined information
(Sabiote et al., 2012 ). Thus, collectivist cultures, such as German and
Italian, act in a less independent way, so they may prefer visiting
the destination in groups or directed by others. This may lead to
them not being able to visit the different attractions/places in the
city compared to tourists who have visited the city more inde-
pendently. Besides these collectivist cultures having higher uncer-
tainty avoidance, the fact that these cultures do not wish to take
risks on their visit to the destination leads them to choose orga-
nized visits to safe places with positive word-of-mouth, which
again prevents them from being able to visit the different attrac-
tions/places compared to tourists who visit the city independently,such as individualist and low uncertainty avoidance passengers like
those from the United Kingdom and USA in this study.
On the basis of this finding, regarding culture as a moderator
variable, it is suggested that destination managers should elaborate
differentiated strategies according to passenger culture. Thus,
destination managers should minimize the differences in the
evaluation of experiences between passengers of different cultures,
for this they should train tourism professionals and local businesses
employees to adequately interact with the passengers of differentS. Sanz Blas, E. Carvajal-Trujillo / Ocean & Coastal Management 102 (2014) 307 e316 314

cultures, in the case of Valencia city with British and Americans,
and on the other hand, Germans and Italians. Thus, destination
managers should foster an understanding of passenger cultures
within the tourism professionals and local businesses that adapt
and develop services. It is recommended that destination managers
communicate to these two different cultures in fluencing the
emotional responses of each cultural group.
5. Conclusion
Cruises are an important tourism segment in the Mediterranean
region and the various destinations of cruise itineraries can be
promoted through intention to return and intention to recommend
the destination of cruise passengers. However, little is known about
the drivers of intention to return and intention to recommend the
port of call destination. The perceived image of a port of call during
its visit and satisfaction can in fluence future behavioral intentions.
Thefindings of this study taken together, recommend that
destination managers implement strategies to increase the various
positive perceptions of the destination dimension such as infra-
structure of the city and atmosphere, tourist resources, and urbanand socioeconomic environment in order to enhance the destina-
tion image and so to increase the destination satisfaction. Besides,
the destination managers should develop marketing strategies so
that the destination is satisfactorily evaluated by cruise passengers
in order to ensure their intention of returning and/or their inten-
tion to recommend the destination to others. In addition, it is
recommended that destination managers should enhance the
passengers' image of the port of call destination and their satis-
faction with this destination to increase the intention of cruise
passengers to return and/or the intention to make positive rec-
ommendations to others. Finally, destination managers should
elaborate differentiated strategies according to each passenger
cultural segment for emphasizing the adaptation and development
of services to each passenger culture and for communicating to
these two different cultures in fluencing the emotional responses of
each cultural group.
This study provided three relevant contributions to the broader
tourism literature. First, we address some of the de ficiencies in
previous cruise studies by examining the structure of the image-
satisfaction efuture behavioral intention for ports of call. Second,
we have analyzed the attributes that in fluence the perception of
cruise passengers of the image of the port of call destination. Third,
the relationships between destination image, satisfaction, and
future behavioral intentions are studied across groups of cruise
passengers with different cultures, measured by country of resi-
dence, to determine the moderating effects. Thus, this study pre-
sented empirical insights on whether satis fied passengers, who
hold a positive image of the port of call destination, return and/or
recommend the destination. From an applied perspective, this
research shows implications for helping destination managers to
improve destination management.
Future studies will be able to include affective components of
destination image to measure this construct and enable us to have amore complete representation of it. To understand the relationship
between image and consumer behavior, we should extend the
model by including other variables, such as perceived value and
service quality. It would also be convenient to analyze other
possible moderators such as first visit/repeat visit to ports of call,
external sources of information used (traditional, Internet), and
demographic variables, like age or gender. What is more, there
might be future replications of this study in other cultural contexts
(other Mediterranean and Caribbean ports of call) in order to
analyze possible variances in the in fluence of destination image on
satisfaction and on future behavioral intention. Finally, thisresearch analyzed future behavioral intention of cruise passengers
in a port of call destination at a single point in time; it would be
helpful to realize a longitudinal analysis to examine how this var-
iable changes over time.
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