Aspecte Lexicale Si Terminologie Medicala

ASPECTE LEXICALE ȘI TERMINOLOGIE MEDICALĂ

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I – CURRENT BASIS. RESEARCH MOTIVATION

1.1. Topicality

CHAPTER II – HISTORY, MEDICINE AND LEXICOLOGY

2.1. Evolution of medical and pharmaceutical terminology

2.2. The evolution of medical and pharmaceutical terminology

2.3. Examples of medical and pharmaceutical terms assimilated in their original form or transcription in Romanian

2.4. Lexical apects on medical terminology and anatomy

2.4.1. Formation of medical terms and farmeceutici

2.4.2. Lexical medical and pharmaceutical terms

CHAPTER III – MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY REFERRING TO ALTLETS DOPING SUBSTANCE

4.1. A brief history of anti-doping

4.2. Glossary

4.2.1. Anti-doping glossary

4.2.2. Glossary of english-to-romanian translations

CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

CHAPTER I

CURRENT BASIS. RESEARCH MOTIVATION

Topicality

Globalization, the speed of movement of persons, labor migration and the Internet are just four aspects that define society. These challenges have led to a major interest in foreign languages. A good knowledge of foreign languages today make the difference between succe or failure. Increasingly more English language imposes itself as the main communication tool. If in the end times English was the language of trade, today became equally common tool of communication in science. Medicine is one of the most important branches of modern science, English iarcunoașterea practitioners no longer a privilege, but a necessity.

In this context, the use of English in the medical field requires precision and experitiză. People's lives are at stake.

A good knowledge of English medeicale requires obordare learning lexical phenomenon. Focus on lexical archeology is Benfica. Semantic understanding of the terms and their retention is easy.

The evolution of medical English is common with other current languages because it has roots in the deouă great cultures of antiquity, Greek culture and Latin culture.

As you can see, major medical and pharmaceutical terms are rooted in Greek and Latin. These terms are based on ancient medicine and modern pharmacy, because in antiquity, science or under the influence of Greek and Latin, which led to the universal scientific language.

Other basic terms were formed later in the Middle Ages, under the influence, although limited, which had Arabic language, especially in chemistry and pharmacy.

Other languages, such as German, French and old glory have also influenced medical and pharmaceutical terms, contributing to the formation of specific medical and pharmaceutical vocabulary.

After the Second World War until today many pharmaceutical and medical terms are derived from English, and now in American English has become a universal language that prevails in all fields. However, most terms referring to diagnosis, surgery or therapy are of Greek origin, and many come from Latin anatomical terms.

Since compeltă approach involves compiling terminology clash of specialized treaties, work Lexical Aspects on Medical Terminology (reffering to Athletes Doping Substance) proposes a niche approaches.

Sport is a universal language itself, and the temptation to use doping substances is increasingly present in sports. Pharmacology developments have led to diversification synthesis products and their characteristics may enhance sports performance users. Meanwhile, the use of these substances are major risks and ethical sport is doping trends knees.

English is the language most often used in sport but also in medicine. Knowledge of specialized terminology in English has become a necessity. Prospectuses name several substances, therapeutic guidelines, medical protocols are in English. A poor understanding of the terminology in this area could bring major harm athletes and reed, destroying their career. At the same time, updating knowledge and terms the recent reports are coming in English.

Prospectuses name several substances, therapeutic guidelines, medical protocols are in English. A poor understanding of the terminology in this area could bring major harm athletes and reed, destroying their career.

The method proposed study has two fundamental objectives. Presentation of general lexical aspects, which helps in understanding the terms used in addressing niche and play concepts and terminology in the proposed uzulae terrminologiei. The two approaches call preceded by a brief history of the evolution of medical terminology and neologisms from a presentation of the Romanian language in English. This "preface" aims to demonstrate the importance of learning English for understanding medical terminology.

CHAPTER II

HISTORY, MEDICINE AND LEXICOLOGY

2.1. Evolution of medical and pharmaceutical terminology

Medical and pharmaceutical terminology history interffers with the evolution of the drugs/medicine.

It is believed that the disease is earlier human medicine also, therefore, and pharmacy, since animals were first to use certain plants when suffering. But medicine has emerged with the man who used different formulations of natural materials – minerals, plants, animals – from the environment, for the treatment and care of patients.

This practice is known from ancient times. We are known references remedies terminology used by primitive man in Prehistory.

With the emergence of the first civilizations, people began to communicate among them, even millennia in a row discoveries have circulat weight, they remained at "medical cult objects", which is the first written information with "scientific "reference plant products, animals or minerals used in therapy.

This empirical medical and pharmaceutical profession was exercised by one person. In its early years, mankind has not silent differentiations within the meaning of specialization namely, between the person able to recognize and prepare a cure and the person authorized to prescribe one first and one applied to the patient, for his healing.

We do not know which medicine is the oldest: the Egyptian, Chinese or the Mesopotamian.

This explains why we find elements of Chinese civilization in Mesopotamia and India or at various times in Egypt, then to the Greeks, the Romans or the Arabs, historians making it difficult or impossible to draw precise lines between these civilization, although some have occurred for centuries away from each other.

Between the end of the fourth millennium and millennium Il century BC, these people were pharmacological much a fund established and used.

The Egyptian texts, a medical person recorded as the priest-physician, physician and scribe, sole repre¬zentant of "medical science". The knowledge and writing had their divinity in the person of Thoth, the god of medicine and patron medi¬ lodging, honored with the epithet ph- would-maki, which means "reassuring", believed to be the origin of the Greek word pharmakon. The root of "pharmacological" it is the basis of many medical and pharmaceutical terms commonly used today.

The oldest medical text dating and pharmaceutical nearly 5,000 years, was discovered in the Middle East, at Nippur, Babylon (ancient Mesopotamia), and was written at the end of the third millennium BC, on clay tablets with cuneiform writing. It contained the most important medicines known as mineral, vegetable, animal, but not mentioned diseases for which the users.

In China, during the first millennium BC, appear the actual work of medicine and pharmacy; best known is called Pen-Tsao work, giving the basic data of the pharmaceutical act: choosing and harvesting medicinal plants, their use various pharmaceutical forms and information on acupuncture, ignipunctura, general anesthesia variolizarea.

Between 1000 BC and 900 AD medicine and pharmacy are dominated by the personality of Greek physicians, and then the Romans, so that a large part of the terms of Greek and Latin in origin.

In ancient Greek medicine was deified; Apollo, god of the sun and of medicine, and his son, Asclepius, was worshiped in temples. The healer Asclepius is the god of medicine and chief, he was leaning engravings represented a stick that serpent coils, a symbol of connection with the land, the source of cures. in other engravings Hygeia was accompanied by his daughter, who was holding a cup of drinking snake (this representation has become the symbol of pharmacy) or Panaceea goddess who heals all diseases.

Gradually, medicine is laicizează and Pericles century (fifth century BC), philosophers like Plato, Socrates and Aristotle discussing public art medical markets (gr. Agora), which gave both the medical term "agoraphobia "morbid fear of empty spaces, wide, with a tendency to avoid them and other roots as -ager, -egor, -egur: category, panagiric, allegory etc.

Doctors laity are grouped into "medical school", being appointed asclepiazi, in honor of Asclepius, the patron of medicine. Therapeutic ancient Greece is dominated by the personality of Hippocrates, considered the "father of medicine".

He was born in the island of Cos (450-377 BC) and his school was inaugurated rationalism, with its obsessive "what happens" without which no progress.

The works of Hippocrates and his students were gathered in the III century BC in medicine during the flowering period of Alexander the Great, in a collection called Corpus Hippocraticum, which included nearly 300 drugs.

We owe the formation of the first Hippocratic medical terminology consistent, organized into a genuine system, separation of magic and witchcraft medi¬cinei and turning it into a branch of philosophy and science. He took everything medi¬cală significant art and magic of the Greeks, Egyptians, Arabs, Sumerian and Hebrew, developing medical basic terms that have persisted over the centuries.

Hippocratic conception, the same drug can have special effects and was used by two principles – that of opposites, to displease {contrariis curantur symptoms), or the effects like disease (similia similibiis curantur), principles that are the basis for today drug therapy – allopathy and homeopathy.

A particularly important aspect is the ethical and professional concerns expressed in the "Hippocratic Oath", in which it is found that the two disciplines, medicine and pharmacy, were charged by the same person.

School science and medical practice and pharmaceutical therefore belonged appointed doctors pharmacists IATROS ("physician"), they were held in their home, called iatreion ("den of care") and stock of medicines was kept in a special area, called apothiki (gr. apothiki, "pantry deposit").

2.2. The evolution of medical and pharmaceutical terminology

The root iatro- survived over the centuries; it underlies the formation of pharmaceutical and medical terms used today: pediatrician (doctor), pediatrics, cosmiatrie, iatrochimie, iatrofizică, iatrogenic.

The greek origin is the Latin term apothiki apoticaricus, arrived today \ apotheke (germ. "pharmacy") and apoticairie (fr. old "pharmacy") and apotheker (germ. "Pharmacist") or apothicaire (fr. old "pharmacist") ; apteka (russian "pharmacy"), aptekar (russian "pharmacist") șipatikus and paiika (hungary.).

Along with doctors properly so called, who had prepared themselves remedies, there were healers who practiced healing empirically country practice: healers, HERBORIST appointed rhizotomos (gr. rhiza, "root" + tomao, "to cut"), prepararea dealing with and selling remedies, doctors laymen appointed pharmakopolis (gr. pharmakon, "cure, medicine" + poleo "sell").

In ancient Greek word used was derived from gr.phero pharmakon, "wear", which gave nouns as pharma and Pharmacon. Originally meant "that which bears the earth," and then to have the sense of "cure", "drug" , being taken as pharmacum Latin, which has come down to us; it underlies many terms, being the root for pharmacological and medical terms far¬maceutici today with reference to medicine: farmacografie, pharmacology, pharmacodynamics, pharmacy, pharmared themselves remedies, there were healers who practiced healing empirically country practice: healers, HERBORIST appointed rhizotomos (gr. rhiza, "root" + tomao, "to cut"), prepararea dealing with and selling remedies, doctors laymen appointed pharmakopolis (gr. pharmakon, "cure, medicine" + poleo "sell").

In ancient Greek word used was derived from gr.phero pharmakon, "wear", which gave nouns as pharma and Pharmacon. Originally meant "that which bears the earth," and then to have the sense of "cure", "drug" , being taken as pharmacum Latin, which has come down to us; it underlies many terms, being the root for pharmacological and medical terms far¬maceutici today with reference to medicine: farmacografie, pharmacology, pharmacodynamics, pharmacy, pharmacopoeia etc.

From the ancient Greeks remained mithridatism term, the poisons habit; it comes from Mithridates Eupator sixth, King of Pontus (132-63 BC), who, to protect from poisoning, ingest daily doses of increasingly large poisons.

Many terms are coming from greek roots, especially in the field of anatomy, such as:

– bronchial from bronkhos, "bronchus";

– cit-, cyto- from kytos, "hollow object, the body";

– the diaphragm, the diaphragm, -atos, "barrier" in dia, "through" + phragma, -atos, "closure";

– the brain, the enkephalon, "brain";

– phalanx of laphalanx, -agos "battle formation";

– pneumococcal, pneuma, -atos, "breath," and "spirit";

– pilot, the lapyloros, "goalkeeper" in pyle, "bear" + auros, "guard";

– tor pins, the thorax, "the breastplate of greek warriors'

Also, some formulations have names from Greek:

– snouts, from bolos, "snowball";

– enema the neogr. klysma, "enema" in kluzein, "wash";

– eyewash, from collorion "flattened paste" eyewash, the kolla, "glue";

– beauty from kosmetikos, "on ornaments" in kosmos, "order, ornament"

– patches from emplastron, "grease, plaster 'of emplattein," trimming, applying the ";

– gargles, from gargarisein, "he rinsed his mouth";

– pasta, from neogr. pasta.

Equally old is the term atom from gr. atom "indivisible" from the "deprivation" + Tomos, "cut" from temnein,"to cut".

After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, the science center will move from Greece to Alexandria and then Rome. The Romans were inspired by ancient peoples, and particularly medicine from the Greeks, from whom they borrowed many terms as they were just beginning the development of science, but also because the Greek language is more appropriate than the Latin terms for creating new terms.

The largest physician-pharmacist of antiquity was Claudius Galen (130-210 AD), was born in Pergamum near Smyrna in Asia Minor (Turkey); he comes to Rome as physician to Marcus Aurelius and Septimius Severus.

Galen developed the art to heal, creating study medicinal preparation. He composed more than 500 works of medicine; of these, 14 books of Ars magna became a valuable guide hundred years later for preparing medicaments. Even in 1550 his work appeared in Venice yet complete.

He remains a forerunner of modern experimental medicine, but is counted and "father of pharmacy" and homage "science that transforms drugs in drugs" was named Pharmacy galenic name that has been preserved until today fran-cofone countries.

Followers medication with medicinal remedies and formulas vegetable, mostly known from antiquity, were appointed galeniști and their medicines called galenic concepts that today are maintained for all medicinal products, regardless of origin.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, appear spargirice drugs, chemicals, first name, but that is no longer used, being given by Paracelsus.

Initially, the romans latinized greek origin some terms by changing the ending greek latin endings, as in the words craniom -> cranium, theke -> theca, bronkhos – »bronchus or aden, which is becoming glans.

Many come from classical latin medical terms, especially in anatomy, such as:

– areola, the areola, "small yard" for both the small space in the tissue or in the ring, around an inflamed lesions, as well as in the mammary areola;

– vestibule, the vestibulum, "confined space entry from the street into the house": vestibule buccal, nasal (nostril), the duodenum, the larynx;

– atrium, the atrium room where the fire was in the middle of the room, the romans; he has black walls; from ater, "black";

– auric from auriculla, "lug"

– cell of cellulite, "closet", celle, "pantry";

– duet from ductus lead tuli, "channel, channel";

– pit, the x & fauces, "walkways"

– fountains, the occupant font to "small fountain" of lafontana, "fountain"

– gland, the glans;

– pilot, the pylorus, "house keeper" stomach that controls entry into the gut;

Pharmacy dictionary

– september, the septum, "partition of the boards";

– juice from succus, -i "juice, sap";

– alcohol, from spiritus, "breath," and "soul";

– brush from penicillium, "brush", hence the name mold penicillium notatum from which penicillin is obtained;

– trabecular from trabeculum, "low beam" means a series of fine filaments anastomosed.

Many formulations and other terms used today have names in latin:

– capsule, the capsule, "small box", the staple, "box";

– eyewash from collirium, "eyewash";

– compressed to tablets, "the press";

– decoction from decoctum and "broth"

– grain, from granum, granulum, "grain";

– emulsion, from emulgeo, emulsifiers, "to make milk";

– pill from parva pill "small ball";

– powder, \ apulvis, -eris, "dust, dust";

– juices from succus, -i, "juice";

– suppository, from suppositorius, "sat beneath" the supponere, "place underneath";

– suspension from suspensio, -onis, "lifting suspension";

– ointment from unguentum, -i, "grease ointment, essentially perfume";

– tablets from tabula, "whiteboard, flipchart, tablet", which suggests form of preparation;

– spray from pulvero, -are "dust cover;

– site, screeners from cibric, "screen";

– supernatant from super, "above" + nato, -has, "swim".

After the fall of the Roman Empire, medical traditions have been preserved in monasteries, where monks copied old recipes (XII-XVI). Classical Latin will be preserved in the immortal works of Romanian writers. During this time, various forms of Roman origin languages and classical Latin remains to be used in most European territories, in school, in administration and by the clergy. Latin remains the language of doctors and pharmacists, which made communication possible between different medical schools and study in different countries.

In Europe begins a stage in human history called the Dark Ages that lasted until the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, with periods of stagnation, but with slow progress, under the power of the Church and the Inquisition.

From the Middle Ages until the sixteenth century, all findings are based on observation and experimentation, without which no progress is conceivable, but medical and pharmaceutical terminology is dominated by the writings of Galen.

A significant contribution to the development of medical and pharmaceutical sciences had an Arabic and alchemists. Although limited in modern medicine have survived a few words that refer to chemicals: sugar (sugar) syrup (siraph), alcohol (koh the 7 = subtle, penetrating), alkali (base of quali alkaline) elixir (of Iksir = stone philosophy), naphtha (naphtha = bitumen) or some synonymous as natrium for sodium, of the Nature of, kalium for potassium, the qaliy, as well as chemical symbols of the two elements.

During this period, the most famous doctor and pharmacist was Avicenna (Abu Ali Ibn Sina, Ibn Avicenna, 980-1037), which has assimilated in his work all that was important in medicine ancient Greek, Latin, Byzantine and Arabic. All Arabs invented distillation apparatus and distilled, steam train (aromatic waters, perfumes), isolate alcohol, aldehydes, a number of alkaloids, discovers sugar cane, sublimation.

The origin of the term chemistry is alchemy. Arabic name philosopher's stone was the kimiya, which gave alcheimia terms and alchemy. The term came from the Arabic kimiya koma "keep secret" or chymeia from the Greek word "mix, black magic" practices in relation to secret name, magical. The word comes from the ancient Egyptians call "black country", a name given by egip¬teni their homeland.

From the Arabs remained few medical terms:

– nuch, which means "neck";

– name veins basilica Basilika from the Arabic word "inner house", and cephalic, the Arab alkifal, "Waterproof External"

– mater (dura and piamater), meaning membrane (mother) protecting the brain.

All the Arabs, during the reign of al-mansur, the first public pharmacy founded in 754 in Baghdad, with specialists in prepa¬rarea medicines. European countries, public pharmacies were nonexistent. Although at this time the pharmacy is taking shape as a separate specialty, it took another several centuries until the medicine and pharmacy will be totally separate.

By their expansions in Europe, the arabs brought with them alchemy and magic, along with many medicines, and established the first pharmacy.

The contact between arab and european medicine had important consequences for the development of Western medicine and pharmacy.

Under their influence, and differentiation occurs in Europe medicine pharmacy professions and their establishment in separate well defined. So, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and Europe is distinct from pharmacy medicine.

In Europe, is the first pharmacy in Naples in 1140; then in Paris in 1180 in Prague in 1278, in Basel, 1250, at cologne in 1248 and in Trogir (Croatia) in 1271.

With the appearance of the first pharmacies in southern France, the medical profession is separated from the pharmacist by a law enacted in Arles city.

Legal document that sets the legal basis of pharmacy in Western Europe is given by King Frederick II in 1240. From now on, in the historic battle to preserve human health and healing the sick, the pharmacist is beside the doctor.

Separating the two professions imposed legal and ethical measures and the emergence of specific legislation on pharmaceutical activity:

The evolution of medical and pharmaceutical terminology:

– setting up pharmacies;

– relationships between physicians and pharmacists;

– regulating the operation of pharmacies;

– the preparation, control of drugs and raw materials;

– method of drug delivery;

– the price of medicines.

Because both arabic influence and knowledge development pharmaceutical lay pharmacists appear first appointed apothicarius, speciatorius or confectionarius; with them, we find sellers of spices and medicinal products: pebrarii vendors pepper, aro-matting vendors aromatic substances.

In Italy, among traders of spices to the spezieri categori differ from medesine, pharmacists properly so called.

From the Renaissance period, the fourteenth century, there is a developing specialty vocabularies, including medicine and pharmacy, renew relationships with greek medicine, Hippocrates's works are reprinted with comments ample. Hellenization medical lim¬bii during the Renaissance was a great improvement because medical science has given a set of roots, suffixes, prefixes, types of derivation and precise composition and international use.

In the fourteenth century, new medical terms appear anatomy (the \ atomic "section" and ana "into many pieces"), apoplectic (from apoplektos, "paralyzed" in apo-, "apart "+ gr. plege," blow "), asthma (from asma," panting "), poultice (from plasma, 'shaped object" and kata, "top-down"), cephalic (from kephale "head "), cinocefal (" head dog "from kyon, kynos," dog "), cautery (from kauterion," iron red "), climate (from klima, -atos," tilt, inclination "), diabetes (from diabetes, "condition in which water passing through the body" of diabenai, "cross"), hypochondrium (from kondraty, in the sense of "grain" and "cartilage" + hypo, "below"), phlegmon (from gr. phlegm, derived from pheregein, "the fire, the fire", meaning hot abscess), phlegm (from lat. phlegm, "in cold blood", which gave the word phlegmatic).

In pharmacy, a leading figure of the Renaissance was Paracelsus (Philippus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim Aureolus, 1493-1541), who founded the extraction plant, developing processes for the preparation of dyes and metaloterapiei; first introduced the idea of active principle, discussing the need for research quintessence of plants.

In XV century, population growth of cities, the frequency of outbreaks, demand for drugs, the establishment of public pharmacies, need to introduce uniform rules on the preparation, distribution, control and drug delivery have led the first official codes, which were named Pharmacopoeia (from gr. pharmakon, "cure, medicine" and poein, "doing").

The first pharmacopoeia in the world, carried out by the pharmacist Jacques Sylvius, is considered a work of Aromatariorum Thesaurus, apă¬rută in Milan in 1512.

XVl from th century, discoveries in natural sciences, medicine and pharmacy have taken a large and fast moving.

in medicine, the newly-formed terms directly derived from the Greek prefix plus to give proper meaning:

– apathetic, the prefix of "privative" + pathetikhos, "passionate";

– apoflză from apophysis, the physis, "growing nature" apo- + "from"; Similarly they were made and the terms "dia-metaphyseal", "epiphysis" and "symphysis";

– hygiene, from hygiainein, "to be in good health";

– symptoms of \ & piptein, "come" + suffix syn, "together", which gave symptom.

Other terms have been preserved in their original form as:

– sphincter, the sphincter, "at the close, gather '.

A number of terms are formed using suffixes:

– arthritis, from arthron, "articulation" + -ita, meaning sickness, or prefix – root and suffix

– pericarditis, from peri-, "around" kardia, "heart" + -ita.

Some words, logos, were commonly used for making new terms.

And in pharmacy name newly discovered substances are formed from Greek or Latin terms:

– glycerin, discovered by Karl Wilhelm scaffolding from Glykeria, "sweetened" in glykys, "sweet" + -ină;

– glucose, discovered in Germany in 1658 by pharmacist and chemist JR Glauber, the wt. glykys, "sweet" + -oză, suffix indicating a sugar.

Between 1742 and 1786, K.W. Scaffolding discover more substances and items as:

– phosphorus and phosphoric acid, from w. phos, photos, "light" + gr. pherein, "wear" just as prevalent element combinations;

– chlorine, the wt. khloros, "green, yellow-green gas";

– arsenic, for arsenic, from gk. arsenikon of arsenic, "strong, manly," so named because of its (erythropoietic effect, but also poison);

– oxygen at gr. oxys, "acid" + gennan, "to produce" one of the most abundant elements in nature;

– hidrogemd, the wt. hydor, hydatos, "water" + gennan, "produce" the first element in the periodic table, discovered by M. Cavendish in 1776;

– citric acid, from wide. citrus, "lemons";

– tartaric acid, in grams. tartaron, "black deposit left by wine in pots";

– lac tic acid, from lat. lacquer, tis, "milk".

JB Pharmacy Dictionary van Helmont exhibit on preparation and experience the action of drugs in the work, published in 1648 Pharmacopolium Ac Dispersatorium, Modernum {modern pharmacy and drug preparation). 1691 is important for the appearance of the first edition of the Pharmacopoeia Universal Nicolas Lemery, French chemist and pharmacist, and In 1698 appears Dictionnaire des Drogues Universelle Simples.

In the seventeenth century, it publishes more pharmacopoeia:

– Pharmacopoeia Augustana – 1613 Vienna;

– Codex Medicamentarius sive Parisiensis Pharmacopoeia – 1638;

– Dispensatorinm Boruso-Brandenburgicum in 1698 in Berlin.

From now on, fast moving discoveries. Uncover iodine, bromine, magnesium, terms of origins:

– Iodine in grams. ioeides, "violet";

– Bromine, in grams. brom, "fetid smell";

– Magnesium, from lat. medieval magnesia, the take lat. gr. magnes magnetic stone brought from the region of Magnesia, in Asia Minor, metal widespread in nature.

They prepared pure active ingredients of plant origin, main alkaloids:

– Morphine (from gr. morpheos, the greek god of sleep + Ana) – hypnotic action given name (lat. sopor "deep sleep" + facere, "to do") to its isolated FW Serturner 1806, opium;

– Strychnine (from gr. strykhnos, "shadow of death" + -ină) – alkaloid isolated from PJ Pelletier and JB Caventou in 1818;

– Emetine (from lat. emeticus, gr. emetikos, "which produces vomiting" in gr. emein, "vomit" + -ină) – ipecacuanha alkaloid extracted from Uragoga isolated in 1807;

– Quinine (from kinakina, the indigenous language of Peru, Quechua, through the Spanish version: quinaqiuna) – alkaloid extracted from the bark of the Cinchona tree and other species succirubra in 1818;

– Caffeine, caffeine (fr. caffeine in italy. caffe, from qahwa pronounced in Turkish Kahve) – main alkaloid in coffee (coffea arabica) and tea (thea sinensis) isolated FI Runge in 1820;

– Codeine (from gr. kodeina, "poppy capsule" + -ină) – opium alkaloid isolated from PJ Robiquet in 1832;

– Papaverine (from lat. papaver, -eris, mac + -ină) – opium alkaloid isolated from GF Merck in 1848;

– Cocaine (from the Spanish word coca in La Plata) – erythroxylon plant alkaloid extracted from coca, by A. Nieman in 1868;

– Digitalina (lat. digitus, "finger" due to the shape of flowers in the "glove finger") – extract from Digitalis lanata in 1868 by F. Nativel;

– Nicotine alkaloid extracted from the plant Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco); the name comes from the name of Jean Nicot of Viilemain (1530-1600), Ambassador of France Take Lisbon, which makes tobacco Catherine de Medici in 1560 (Queen of France) + -ină. smoking is called in Spanish tabaco, the indigenous language of Tahiti: tzibatl tube used to inhale tobacco smoke, smoke.

The term alkaloid derived from it. al-kali qaliy or "potash" + gr. eidos = "form".

Since the eighteenth century French terminology in Europe is necessary due to the impetuous development of all sciences, including medicine, medical center and the Paris of civilization. They are published in French language dictionaries and treated, most medical and French language was used both in speech and in the school and medical practice.

In this period the French doctor Louis Pasteur discoveries require (1822-1895), which establishes bacteriological and enzimologiei and French physician Claude Bernard develop experimental medicine theory and practice, laying the foundation of modern physiology. in chemistry, J. Berzelius introduce new terms in 1830 as:

– Monomer, the wt. monos, "single" + meros "Party";

– Polymer, the wt. polly, "many" + meros "Party";

– Oligomer, the wt. oligos, "rare" + meros "Party".

Real Frenchman developing extraction and in 1833 the brothers Bollay, all French, propose leaching (lat. per, "through" + lat. there, -has, 'streaming') cold on the principle of displacement extraction solvent (alcohol) ; In 1866, Squibb propose fractional leaching. 1913 W. Ostwald introduce terms:

– dispersed system, from gk. systema, -atos, "ensemble" of gr. syn, "together" + ystem, "placing" + lat. despersio, -onis, "spread &" in dispergo, -are "spread, to scatter ";

– the degree of dispersion, from lat. gradus "step, step," the grade, "to walk, to go" + dispersion '

– dispersion medium from the wide. medius, "located in the middle" + dispersion.

In our country, as attested documents, as well as throughout Europe, there were two possibilities for health care: one classical, provided by doctors princely courts, and an empirical one, where people call.

During the Middle Ages, between the provinces of our country there have been close ties in medicine and pharmacy. No pre-written data remains thirteenth century, but there were medical and pharmaceutical concerns – pickers and vegetable vendors empirical folk cures, which resorted population.

Also monastic medicine practiced in monasteries, which had infirmaries (and. Diseases, "disease") for the clergy sick, everything is based on the popular medical matter.

For centuries on end, people had to rely on their own healers, empirical, village fairs, which were at the same time and herb gatherers: doftoroaie, descântătoare, empirical midwives.

The first public pharmacy in Sibiu was founded in the XIV century and its existence attests a document from 1494. In the sixteenth century, Valerius Cordus pharmacopoeia of Austria, called dispenser or Pharmacopolarum ium was official in Transylvania.

Transylvania old documents, the pharmacist is registered with the Latin name of apothicarius and drugs are indicated by terms in Italian, Medicamentum, or German, arztnei.

Romanian provinces, the IEA XVIIth century were used for the ear and pharmacist terms (1651), recorded during the reign of Matei Basarab, or spicear, during the reign of Constantin Brancoveanu.

Through neo-Greek terms, from the Italian word Speziale, respectively spezieria derives old Romanian words: apothecary (pharmacist) and apothecary (pharmacy).

Romanian Paper & Education (1646) and straightening law (1652) for drug use term vracevanie (and. quack "doctor").

In Cantemir's work appears doftoroaie name, usually in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, reached today as medicine; con¬comitent was using the term cure.

In Bucharest, the first public pharmacy was established in 1740 by pharmacist J. Traugott-Seuler sas and in Moldova in 1757 in Iasi, in addition to hospital "St. Spiridon ".

In the nineteenth century, each larger city have a pharmacy, and in addition there were the so-called booths that was selling herbs, drugstores, paints and drugs (hence the word drug).

Dohtorii sold in grocery stores, selling, even where toxic substances have been many accidents. Terms far¬macie and pharmacist under the influence of French, appearing for the first time mentioned in the Romanian in 1819, in far¬maciști The order for the 20 items, under Prince Alexandru Sutu guidance given in Muntenia.

Only a few years after the unification of the Principalities (1859) in Moldova and the Romanian Country Romania unitary state, national pharmacopoeia was published first, Romanian Pharmacopoeia in 1862, edited by CC. Hepites pharmacist in Braila.

The primacy of French in the field of medicine and pharmacy takes about 300 years, until after the Second World War, when suddenly its place is taken by English and American English currently.

The globalization of English is due to scientific research strength, scale funds for research, capacity edito¬riale large and powerful American, who consecrated and medicine and pharmacy.

So, the language of medicine is a specialized vocabulary used by health care providers. Many current medical word elements originated as early as the 4th century B.C., when Hippocrates practiced medicine. With technological and scientific advancements in medicine, new terms have evolved to reflect these innovations. For example, radiographic terms, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and ultrasound (US), are now commonly used to describe current diagnostic procedures (Popovici, Iuliana, Dictionar farmaceutic, 22).

2.3. Examples of medical and pharmaceutical terms assimilated in their original form or transcription in Romanian

acut (lat. acutus, „ascuțit”); engl. acute – referitor la evoluția rapidă și scurtă a unei afecțiuni.

amper (engl. ampere) – unitate fundamentală din S.I., de măsura a intensității curentului electric, de la numele fizicianului francez, profesor la Paris – Andre Marie Amplere (1775-1836). Un curent de 1 amper transportă un coulomb pe secundă.

blotting (engl. blot, „pata”, blotting paper, „sucativa”) – transfer de macromolecule dintr-un gel pe o membrana, unde acestea se fixeaza.

blister (engl. blister, „basicuta, bula”) – folie termoformala, care prezinta godeuri, unde se plaseaza comprimatele sau capsulele si sunt inchise cu o alta folie, prin termosudare.

blistering (engl. blistering, „formare de umpluturi, goluri”) – defect de acoperire a tabletelor, cauzat de evaporarea rapida a solventilor pe sambure (nucleu).

by pass, bypass (engl. by. „langa”+ pass, „trecere”; sin. : pontaj) – 1. procedeu chirurgical pentru a restabili circulatia in aval de o obliterare arteriala limitata, prin utilizarea unui grefon plasat intre segmentul supra- si cel subiacent, fata de obliterare (tub de calibru diferit din plastomer – teflon, dacron); 2. „prin ocolire”, termen folosit pentru reactii imune care se produc indirect (prin antrenarea altor cai reactionale).

carrier (engl. carrier, „caraus, transportator”) – termen utilizat pentru notiunea de transportor medicamentos, vector medicamentos.

clearance (engl. clearance, „epurare, purificare”; sin.: coeficient de epurare) – parametru farmaceutic care arata viteza de epurare, in functie de concentratia medicamentului in lichidele biologice.

drog (engl. dryge, oland. trook, „uscat” sau oland. droog, „lucru uscat”); engl. drug, medicine – 1. Termeni vechi care desemneaza un produs vegetal (drog vegetal); 2. termen actual sinonim cu „medicament”; 3. Stupefiant, narcotic, substanta care produce o stare de dependenta fizica si/sau psihica, ce poate genera o toxicomanie.

dumping (engl. dumping, de la to dump, „a descarca, a arunca in cantitate mare”) – termen care desemneaza o practica comerciala constand in vanzarea unui produs (medicamentos) sub cursul sau normal sau chiar in pierdere, in scopul de a eliminaconcurenta si de a asigura un monopol. Aceasta practica este interzisa.

feed-back (engl. to feed, „a mânca, a se hrăni” + back, „înapoi”); sin.: „conexiune inversă, legătură inversă, recontrol” – mecanism fiziologic prin care activitatea unui sistem este influențată chiar de produsul funcționării sale. De exemplu, creșterea nivelului unui hormon frânează secretarea stimulinei corespunzătoare de către hipofiză; glanda endocrină nestimulată reduce, la rândul său, producerea hormonului.

fiabilitate (engl. fiability, fr. fiabilite, din lat. fidere, „a se încrede”, de la fidus, „de încredere”) – caracteristica unui material de a-și menține proprietățile, după solicitări de ordin fizic (mecanic) sau chimic.

imunocompromis (engl. imunocompromised) – scăderea apărării imunologice cauzată de o tulburare a imunodeficientei sau terapiei cu agenți imunosupresori, iradierii, subnutriției sau bolilor.

imunodeficienta (engl. imunodeficiency, fr. immundeficience; din lat. immunis, „scutit, apărat”, de la in, „lipsit de”+ munus, „obligație” + deficientia, „slăbire, sleire” [de la deficere, „a lipsi, a slăbi”]) – stare de deficiență la răspunsul imun, datorită reducerii numărului de celule limfocite.

imunosupresie (engl. fr. immunosuppression; de la lat. immunis, „scutit, apărat”, de la in, „lipsit de” + munus, „obligație” și suppressus, de la supprimere, „a afunda”, din sub, „sub” + premere, „a apăsa”) – prevenirea sau diminuarea răspunsului imun prin procedee ca: iradiere, administrare de antimetabolice, ser antilimfociar sau anticorpi specifici. Sin.: imunodepresie.

imunosupresor (engl. immunosuppressant, fr. immunosupresseur; din lat. immunis, „scutit, apărat”, de la in, „lipsit de”, munus, „obligație” + suppressus, de la supprimere, „ a afunda”, din sub, „sub” și premere, „ a apăsa”). Substanță care scade sau suprimă răspunsul imunitar. Sin.: imunodepresor.

inbred (engl. inbred, „înnăscut, rezultat din încrucișări selective”) – populații descendente dupa mai multe generații dintr-un grup extrem de redus de genitori, deci cu o rată mare de consangvinitate.

inlay (engl. inlay, „încrustație”) – obturație dentară pregătită în laborator după amprenta cavității, realizată din mentol, porțelan sau acrilat.

kairomon (engl. kairomonte) – substanță chimică sintetizată și eliberată de organisme dintr-o anumită specie, ce acționează ca semnal olfactiv pentru organisme care aparțin unei alte specii.

kit (engl. kit, „echipament”) – ansamblu de materiale și produse necesare efectuării unei determinări, investigații sau manevre terapeutice; conținut într-un recipient adecvat naturii materialelor care îl compun.

linkage (engl. linkage, de la to link, „a lega, a uni”) – asociere de gene care manifestă tendința să rămână renumite în descendenta, în loc să prezinte o segregare independentă conform legii a treia a lui Mendel.

lonzegi (engl. lozenges, „romb, pastila”) – preparate farmaceutice solide ce conțin una sau mai multe substanțe active, uzual cu baza dulce, aromatizată, care sunt destinate să se dizolve sau să se dezagrege lent în gură, pentru o acțiune locală. Lozengii preparați prin turnare se mai numesc pastile, iar cei preparați prin comprimare se mai numesc trochisti.

mapping (engl. mapping, „cartografie”, de la map, „hartă”). Sin.: cartografie.

marker (engl. marker, fr. marqueur, din scand. merki, „marcă”) – sens inițial de indicator ce permite depistarea unei substanțe pe care este fixat. Se cunosc diferite tipuri: m. radioizotopici, m. biologici, m. fluorescenti, m. de spin, m. genetici etc.

medline – sistemul MEDLARS online care asigură accesul la baza de date începând cu 1966 de Biblioteca Națională de Medicină din USA. Cuprinde referințe publicate în aprox. 3700 periodice. Datele pot fi accesate online (pe internet) sau se pot primi periodic pe CD-ROM.

marketing (engl. to market [participiu prezent], „a desfășura tranzacții pe piață, a cumpăra și a vinde”) – studiul pieței: își găsește necesitatea în trecerea de la o economie de producție: cerere-ofertă, la o economie de consum: ofertă – cerere.

pacemaker (engl. pace, „ritm” + maker, „cel care face”, de la to make, „a face”, engl. pacemaker) – stimulator cardiac.

patch (engl. patch, „petic, plasture”) – dispozitiv terapeutic transdermic (formă presosensibilă).

promotor (fr. promoteur, „inițiator, promotor”); engl. enhancer, promoteur – 1. substanță care pune în libertate radicalii liberi, cu rol de a iniția reacții în lanț, în procesele de polimerizare, autooxidare; 2. promotor de absorbție – substanță auxiliară cu rol de a influența favorabil absorția substanței active din forma farmaceutică.

rebreathing (engl. rebreathing, „respirație”) – desemnează inspirația unei fracțiuni sau a totalității gazului expirat.

releasing factor (engl. to release, „a elibera” + hormone, „hormon”; sin. releasing hormone) – hormon secretat de o structură anatomică (hipotalamus), al cărui efect este eliberarea unui hormon dintr-o altă structură (de obicei hipofiză).

smog (engl. smoke, „fum” + fog, ceață) – aer atmosferic ca o ceață deasă, impurificat cu fum și praf industrial, produși iritanți (acizi), în regiunile puternic industrializate sau marile centre urbane, de obicei în zonele cu climat oceanic. În perioada de ceață poluanții au difuziune redusă.

scanare (engl. to scan, „a scruta”); engl. scanning – deplasarea, baleiajul („măturarea”) cu un dispozitiv care detectează sau emite un agent fizic, a unei suprafețe investigate; ex. microscop electronic cu baleiaj.

scavenger (engl. scavenger, „măturător, gunoier”) – celule fagocitare care captează o serie de deșeuri din organism, iar ulterior termen extins la substanțele care inactivează sau distrug toxinele cât și la enzimele sau substanțele care inactivează radicalii liberi.

screening (engl. screening, „cernere, triere”) – sensul mai larg în limba română este de selectare, depistare. În farmacologie are drept scop găsirea de noi substanțe chimice cu anumite proprietăți farmacodinamice.

stepaj (engl. to step, „a păși”, steppage-gait) – tulburare de mers, consecință a paraliziei mușchilor din loja externă a gambei.

stress (engl. stress, „constrângere, solicitare, presiune”) – solicitare foarte puternică a organismului, cât și reacțiile și ripostele acestuia.

stroke (engl. stroke, „lovitură”; sin.: cu accident vascular cerebral) – sindrom clinic care apare brusc, grav și neașteptat, consecutiv unei ischemii cerebrale sau unei hemoragii cerebrale.

trial (engl. trial, „încercare, experiment”) – testarea și compararea eficacității uneia sau mai multor terapii pe grupuri de pacienți. (faza I-IV).

trigger (engl. trigger, „trăgaci de armă”) – definește stimulul care declanșează un proces sau fenomen.

trochisti (engl. troches, de la gr. trochos, „rotund”; v. Lozengi).

turnovel (engl. turnover, „întoarcere”) – termen care definește intensitatea și viteza de metabolizare a unei substanțe; se mai numește și reînnoire biologică (Ochiuz, Lăcrămioara, Tehnologie medicală și farmaceutică, 40).

2.4. Lexical apects on medical terminology and anatomy

2.4.1. Formation of medical terms and farmeceutici

A medical word consists of some or all of the following elements:

• Word root

• Combining form

• Suffix

• Prefix

How these elements are combined, and whether all or some of them are present in a medical term, determines the meaning of a word. To understand the meaning of medical words, it is important to learn how to divide them into their basic elements.

As we see in the previous chapter, the ancient Greeks were the first to systematically study the field of medicine (including anatomy) and to develop a suitable vocabulary.

The Romans continued this study, usually adopting the Greek terms which they modified as necessary to fit their alphabet and grammar. Latin then continued as the language of science, the law, and the Church throughout Western Europe until the eighteenth century. As a result, the vast majority of the vocabulary of scientific medicine in use today derives directly from these Latin roots. Other significant word sources include Arabic and the Romance languages (whence terms of Latin origin sometimes reemerge in the guise of French, Italian or Spanish words). The German, Scandinavian and other languages have made lesser contributions to the medical lexicon.

Many anatomical terms have both Latin and Greek equivalents (see Table 1 ), although some of these are used in English only as roots. Thus the tongue is lingua (L.) and glossa (Gk), and these are the basis of such terms as lingual artery and glossopharyngeal nerve. In the case of English, Anglo-Saxon may provide a third form, particularly in everyday words such as hand and foot. A good instance is book (Old Saxon), liber (L., as in library), biblos (Gk, as in bible). The following examples illustrate this trilingual system in anatomy and show some English derivatives from Latin and Greek. (Gylys, Barbara, Medical Terminology Systems,2)

Tabelul 1

As a result, particular attention has to be paid to the formation of the genitive (possessive) case and to plural forms. Latin nouns are divided into five classes (termed declensions), and their cases vary, as shown by the following plurals: papilla, papillae; nucleus, nuclei, but ligamentum, ligamenta; os, ossa, but dens, dentes; sinus, sinus, but cornu, cornua. Examples of genitive singular are seen in levator scapulae, arrector pili, semispinalis capitis, and articulatio genus. Instances of genitive plural are levatores costarum, extensor digitorum, vincula tendinum, and confluens sinuum. Moreover, adjectives must agree with their nouns: thus, ramus communicans, rami communicantes; and foramen ovale, fossa ovalis.

Anatomic terminology is undergoing standardization according to a system known as the Nomina Anatomica (N. A.). The general rules of the system are that there should be one term for each structure and that the term selected should have some informative or descriptive value. Thus, eponyms are excluded. Latin was chosen as the official language but translation to the vernacular is permitted for teaching purposes. Despite the standardization, a large number of nonconforming words remain in use. Some of these are holdovers from older terminology, others are short-cut words used to avoid more complex terms and still others are simply the result of convenient habits. It will be noted that, although many of these Latin forms are used in English, others are not. For example, rectus femoris and lamina terminalis are never translated, whereas plexus brachialis and corpus ossis ilii (body of the ilium) always are. This is a matter of common usage: canalis caroticus and foramen jugulare are always translated, whereas foramen lacerum and dorsum sellae are not. In the case of those that are retained in Latin, it is prudent to consult an appropriate dictionary. In this way it will be found that the plural of diverticulum is diverticula (not -ae); that the plural of meatus remains meatus in Latin or becomes meatuses in English (similarly sinus and fetus); and that the genitive singular of epididymis is (ductus) epididymidis (extra syllable -id-), whereas the (nominative) plural is epididymides. Other examples of Greek plurals are pharynx, pharynges; and ganglion, ganglia. (https://www.dartmouth.edu/~humananatomy/resources/etymology.htm)

WORD ROOTS

Like all words, anatomic terms are composed of one or more roots. These may be preceded by prefixes and/or followed by suffixes. Determination of the root meaning will usually establish the main thrust of the term.

A word root is the foundation of a medical term and contains its primary meaning. All medical terms have at least one word root. Most word roots are derived from Greek or Latin language. Thus, two different roots may have the same meaning. For example, the Greek word dermatos and the Latin word cutane both refer to the skin. As a general rule, Greek roots are used to build words that describe a disease, condition, treatment, or diagnosis. Latin roots are used to build words that describe anatomical structures. Consequently, the Greek root dermat is used primarily in terms that describe a disease, condition, treatment, or diagnosis of the skin; the Latin root cutane is used primarily to describe an anatomical structure

Examples of word roots as well as their phonetic pronunciations.

Latin is a highly inflected language in which nouns have different endings depending upon their assigned gender and their use in a sentence. Every Latin noun is either masculine, feminine or neuter, but the basis for the choice may not be immediately obvious. The most common endings for Latin nouns when they appear as subjects (the nominative case) are as follows:

For example, one speaks of a single scalenus muscle, but of several scaleni. Or a patient may have one inflamed diverticulum among many noninflamed diverticula.

In addition, the ending of a noun may change depending on its use in a term. For example, the Latin words for great toe and hammer are  hallux  and  malleus  respectively. Hallux malleus is, therefore, a hammertoe of the big toe. But, the long muscle that extends the great toe is called extensor hallucis longus or the long extensor of the big toe. Here the word for great toe is in a form that indicates possession (the genitive case).

Continuing in this vein, digitus is the Latin word for finger. And extensor digiti minimi is the extensor muscle of the least, or minimal, finger. Here the singular form of the genitive case of the word digitus is used to indicate that the muscle extends only one finger. But there is also an extensor digitorum longus that is the long extensor of the fingers. The ending -orum (genitive plural) indicates that the muscle is the extensor of more than one finger. Be aware that there are many variations on this basic theme and that other less common noun declensions take different endings.

Like all words, anatomic terms are composed of one or more roots. These may be preceded by prefixes and/or followed by suffixes. Determination of the root meaning will usually establish the main thrust of the term. Many roots, prefixes and suffixes occur repeatedly in anatomical terminology.

COMBINING FORMS

A combining form is created when a word root is combined with a vowel. The vowel, known as a combining vowel, is usually an o, but sometimes it is an i. The combining vowel has no meaning of its own but enables two or more word elements to be connected. Like a word root, a combining form is the basic foundation to which other word elements are added to build a complete medical word. In this text, a combining form will be listed as word root/vowel (such as gastr/o).

Examples of Combining Forms

This table illustrates how word roots and vowels create combining forms. Learning combining forms rather than word roots makes pronunciations a little easier because of the terminal vowel.

For example, in the table below, the word roots gastr and nephr are difficult to pronounce.

SUFFIXES

A suffix is a word element placed at the end of a word that changes the meaning of the word. In the terms tonsill/itis, and tonsill/ectomy, the suffixes are -itis (inflammation) and –ectomy (excision, removal). Changing the suffix changes the meaning of the word. In medical terminology, a suffix usually describes a pathology (disease or abnormality), symptom, surgical or diagnostic procedure, or part of speech. Many suffixes are derived from Greek or Latin words.

Examples of Suffixes, pathological suffixes as well as their phonetic.

PREFIXES

A prefix is a word element attached to the beginning of a word or word root. However, not all medical terms have a prefix. Adding or changing a prefix changes the meaning of the word. The prefix usually indicates a number, time, position, direction, or negation. Many of the same prefixes used in medical terminology are also used in the English language. (Gylys, Barbara, Medical Terminology Systems,3)

Examples of Prefixe well their phonetic pronunciations.

2.4.2. Lexical medical and pharmaceutical terms

To understand the linguistic aspect terminlogia used in niche approach proposed is necessary insight into voacabularul morpho-functional apparatus of the human body and in the way of composing the terms.

Basic Anatomical Terms and Abnormal Conditions

Mini-Glossary

Root Words

abdomin/o (abdomen) ot/o (ear)

cephal/o (head) pelv/i (pelvis)

chol/e (bile, gall) phob/ia (fear)

cocc/i (coccus) py/o (pus)

crani/o (cranium, skull) rhin/o (nose)

cyst/o (bladder, sac) staphyl/o (grape)

dipl/o (double) strept/o (chain)

hydro (water) therap/o (treatment)

lith/o (stone, calculus) thorac/o (thorax)

metr/o, meter (measure)

Prefixes Suffixes

ab- (away from) -ar (pertaining to)

ad- (toward) -centesis (puncture of a cavity)

-genesis, gen/o (produce, originate)

-meter (measuring instrument)

-orrhea (flow, discharge)

(Shirley,Steiner, Quick medical terminology,25)

The Genitals and the Urinary Tract

Mini-Glossary

Root Words

angi/o (vessel) fibr/o (fiber)

arter/i/o (artery) hem/o, hemat/o (blood)

blast/o (embryo) hyster/o (uterus)

colp/o (vagina) kinesi/o (motion)

crypt/o (hidden) lys/o (destruction)

men/o (menses) pyel/o (pelvis of the kidney)

my/o (muscle) salping/o (fallopian tube)

nephr/o (kidney) scler/o (tough, hard)

neur/o (nerve) spermat/o (sperm)

o/o (egg, ovum) ureter/o (ureter)

oophor/o (ovary) urethr/o (urethra)

orchid/o (testes) ur/o (urine)

peps/o, peps/ia (digestion)

Prefixes Suffixes

a-, an- (without) -blast (embryonic)

dys- (pain) -y, -ia (noun ending)

-orrhagia (hemorrhage)

-orrhaphy (suture)

-pexy (fixation)

-ptosis (drooping)

-spasm (twitching)

-sperm (sperm) (Shirley, 65)

The Gastrointestinal Tract

Mini-Glossary

Root Words

cheil/o (lip, lips) hepat/o (liver)

col/o (colon) pancreat/o (pancreas)

dent/o (teeth) proct/o (anus and rectum)

esophag/o (esophagus) rect/o (rectum)

gingiv/o (gums) stomat/o (mouth)

gloss/o (tongue)

Suffixes

-clysis (irrigation) -scope, -scopy (look, examine)

-ectasia (dilation, stretching) -toxin (poison) (Shirley, 93)

The Heart

Mini-Glossary

Root Words

algesia (sense of pain) arteri/o (artery)

angi/o (vessel) cardiac arrest (stopped heart)

dactyl/o (fingers) myel/o (spinal cord, bone marrow)

defibrillation (heart shocked phas/o (speech)

to a regular heartbeat) phleb/o (vein)

embolism (obstruction of a blood vessel) plas/o (formation)

embolus (foreign particle in the thrombosis (blood clot occluding a vessel)

bloodstream)

esthesia (feeling, sensation) thrombus (a blood clot)

fibrillation (very fast,irregular

heartbeat)

Prefixes Suffixes

a-, an- (absent, without) poly- (many)

brady- (slow) sym-, syn- (together)

dys- (bad, difficult, painful) -orrhexis (rupture, bursting apart)

macro- (large) -tripsy (rubbing, crushing)

micro- (small, very small) -emia (blood)

tachy- (fast) (Shirley, 113)

Symptoms, Diagnoses,Treatments, Communication Qualifiers, and Statistics

Signs Qualifiers Word Parts

atrophy acute anti- (against)

edema central chlor/o (green)

hypertrophy chronic erythr/o (red)

pulse generalized melan/o (black)

respiration localized pyret/o (fever)

temperature paroxysmal xanth/o (yellow)

peripheral

Symptoms Treatments Diagnoses

anorexia active prodrome

dyspnea palliative prognosis

malaise prophylactic syndrome

nausea systemic

tinnitus Statistics

vertigo morbidity

mortality (Shirley, 137)

Growth and Development, and Body Orientation

Mini-Glossary

Root Words

cyst benign distal

lesion infiltration dorsal

polyp malignant lateral

papilla metastasis medial

papilloma neoplasm proximal

papule ventral

Prefixes

ecto-, exo- (outer side) epi- (over, surrounding)

end-, endo- (inner, within) sub-, hypo- (below, under)

meso- (middle) supra-, super- (above, over)

circum- (around) infra- (below, beneath)

peri- (around about) (Shirley, 169)

Gynecology, Pregnancy, and Childbirth

Mini-Glossary

Root Words

amni/o, amniot/o (fetal sac) mast/o (breast)

gravid/a (with child) men/o (menses,

gyn/o, gynec/o (woman) menstruation)

hyster/o (uterus) metr/o (uterus)

mamm/o (breast) para (bear, bring forth)

Prefixes

multi- (many) pre- (before)

nulli- (none) primi- (first)

oligo- (little, small, scanty) secundi- (second)

post- (after)

Suffixes

-ary (of or pertaining to) -mania (madness)

-atrophy (undernourished, -pathy (disease)

wasting) -phobia (excessive fear)

-dynia (pain, painful)

Important Words

climacteric episiotomy

conception fetus

embryo gestation (Shirley, 195)

The Eye

Mini-Glossary

Root Words

blephar/o (eyelid) ir, irid/o (iris)

core, core/o (pupil) lacrim/o (tear)

corne/o, kerat/o (cornea) ophthalm/o (eye)

cycl/o (ciliary body) retin/o (retina)

dipl/o (paired, double) scler/o (sclera) (Shirley, 223)

The Respiratory Tract

Mini-Glossary

Root Words

bronch/i (bronch/o, bronchus) pne/o (air, breathe)

laryng/o (voice box) pneum/o (air, breathe)

ment/o (chin) pneumon/o (lung)

nas/o (nose) thorac/o (thorax)

pharyng/o (throat) trache/o (windpipe) (Shirley, 237)

CHAPTER III

MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY REFERRING TO ALTLETS DOPING SUBSTANCE

4.1. A brief history of anti-doping

Doping in sport is a major challenge, as it not only threatens the integrity of sport but also puts athletes’ health at risk. Only by taking a concerted and comprehensive approach to the fight against doping in sport is it possible to protect the integrity of sport and the health of athletes worldwide.

The word doping is probably derived from the Dutch word dop, the name of an alcoholic beverage made of grape skins used by Zulu warriors in order to enhance their prowess in battle. The term became current around the turn of the 20th century, originally referring to illegal drugging of racehorses. The practice of enhancing performance through foreign substances or other artificial means, however, is as old as competitive sport itself.

Ancient Greek athletes are known to have used special diets and stimulating potions to fortify themselves. Strychnine, caffeine, cocaine, and alcohol were often used by cyclists and other endurance athletes in the 19th century. Thomas Hicks ran to victory in the marathon at the 1904 Olympic Games, in Saint Louis, with the help of raw egg, injections of strychnine and doses of brandy administered to him during the race…

By the 1920s it had become evident that restrictions regarding drug use in sports were necessary.

In 1928 the IAAF (athletics) became the first International Sport Federation (IF) to ban doping (use of stimulating substances). Many other IFs followed suit, but restrictions remained ineffective as no tests were performed. Meanwhile the problem was made worse by synthetic hormones, invented in the 1930s and in growing use for doping purposes since the 1950s. The death of Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen during competition at the Olympic Games in Rome 1960 (the autopsy revealed traces of amphetamine) increased the pressure for sports authorities to introduce drug testing.

In 1966 UCI (cycling) and FIFA (football) were among the first IFs to introduce doping tests in their respective World Championships. In the next year the International Olympic Committee (IOC) instituted its Medical Commission and set up its first list of prohibited substances. Drug tests were first introduced at the Olympic Winter Games in Grenoble and at the Olympic Games in Mexico in 1968. In the year before, the urgency of anti-doping work had been highlighted by another tragic death, that of cyclist Tom Simpson during the Tour de France.

Most IFs introduced drug testing by the 1970s, however, the use of anabolic steroids was becoming widespread, especially in strength events, as there was no way of detecting them yet. A reliable testing method was finally introduced in 1974 and the IOC added anabolic steroids to its list of prohibited substances in 1976. This resulted in a marked increase in the number of doping-related disqualifications in the late 1970s, notably in strength-related sports such as throwing events and weightlifting.

Anti-doping work was complicated in the 1970s and 1980s by suspicions of state-sponsored doping practices in some countries, which were substantiated by the former German Democratic Republic. The most famous doping case of the 1980s concerned Ben Johnson, the 100-metre champion who tested positive for stanozolol (anabolic steroid) at the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul. Johnson's case focused the world's attention to the problem of doping to an unprecedented degree. In the 1990s, there was an evident connection between more effective test methods and a remarkable drop in the level of top results in some sports.

While the fight against stimulants and steroids was producing results, the main front in the anti-doping war was rapidly shifting to blood doping. "Blood boosting," removal and subsequent re-infusion of the athlete's blood in order to increase the level of oxygen-carrying haemoglobin, has been practiced since the 1970s. The IOC banned blood doping as a method in 1986.

Other ways of increasing the level of haemoglobin were being tried, however. One of these was erythropoietin (EPO). EPO was included in the IOC's list of prohibited substances in 1990, however the fight against EPO was long hampered by the lack of a reliable testing method. An EPO detection test (approved by WADA) was first implemented at the Sydney Olympic Games in 2000.

In 1998 a large number of prohibited medical substances were found by police in a raid during the Tour de France. The scandal led to a major reappraisal of the role of public authorities in anti-doping affairs. As early as 1963, France had been the first country to enact anti-doping legislation. Other countries followed suit, but international cooperation in anti-doping affairs was long restricted to the Council of Europe. In the 1980s there was a marked increase in cooperation between international sports authorities and various governmental agencies. Before 1998 debate was still taking place in several discrete forums (IOC, Sports Federations, individual governments), resulting in differing definitions, policies, and sanctions. One result of this confusion was that doping sanctions were often disputed and sometimes overruled in civil courts.

The Tour de France scandal highlighted the need for an independent international agency, which would set unified standards for anti-doping work and coordinate the efforts of sports organizations and public authorities. The IOC took the initiative and convened the First World Conference on Doping in Sport in Lausanne in February 1999. Following the proposal of the Conference, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) was established on November 10, 1999.(https://www.wada-ama.org/en/who-we-are/a-brief-history-of-anti-doping)

Doping in modern sports was reliably reported since the second half of the 19th Century.

The dawn of the 21st century is characterized by many examples of Athletes being accused for doping. Examples are sprinters like T. Montgomery, D. Chambers, M. Jones to name only a few of the numberless known cases.
Unfortunately, doping is not only history but evidently is continued by new substances and techniques nowadays. (http://www.doping-prevention.sp.tum.de/doping-in-general/history-of-doping.html)

4.2. Glossary

4.2.1. Anti-doping glossary

A

Adverse Analytical Finding (AAF)

A doping control sample that shows the presence of a prohibited substance or its metabolites or markers (including elevated quantities of endogenous substances) or evidence of the use of a prohibited method following testing and its subsequent report. An adverse analytical finding does not necessarily lead to an anti-doping rule violation, since an athlete may have a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) for this particular substance.

Anti-Doping Organisation (ADO)

An organisation responsible for adopting and executing rules for initiating, implementing or enforcing any part of the doping control process. This includes, for example, the International Olympic Committee, the International Paralympic Committee, other major event organisations that conduct testing at their events, the World Anti-Doping Agency, International Sports Federations, and National Anti-Doping Organisations.

Athlete Biological Passport (ABP)

The concept of an athlete biological passport (ABP) is the monitoring of selected biomarkers which indirectly reveal the effects of doping, as opposed to the traditional testing model.  Biological tracing throughout an athlete’s sporting career should make doping far harder to achieve undetected.

Athlete Whereabouts

Information provided by or on behalf of an athlete detailing the athlete’s location on a daily basis in order to enable unannounced testing.

B

Beta-2 agonists

Beta-2 agonists are a group of medications primarily used to treat asthma. They act on smooth muscle to relax the muscles (and therefore in the case of asthma, dilation of the airways).

Blood Collection Officer (BCO)

An experienced phlebotomist (person trained to collect blood) authorised by an anti-doping organisation to conduct blood sample collection duties.

C

Caffeine

Alkaloid substance extracted from coffee (or tea leaves), used in medicine as an incentive.

Case management

The stages for handling doping cases. It includes deciding if athletes have a ‘case to answer’ for a potential doping violation and presenting that case before a tribunal.

Code Compliance

Term used when a sports organisation has adopted the rules and policies to respect the mandatory articles and principles of the World Anti-Doping Code and is enforcing them.

Code Implementation

Means that a sports organisation amends its rules and policies to include the articles and principles of the World Anti-Doping Code.

D

Doping Control

The process that includes test distribution planning, sample collection and handling, laboratory analysis, Therapeutic Use Exemptions, results management, hearings and appeals.

Doping Control Officer (DCO)

Official trained and authorised by an anti-doping organisation with delegated responsibility for the on-site management of sample collection.

Doping Control Station

Location where the sample collection session is conducted. For example, this may be a changing room at a sports venue.

E

Erythropoietin

Hormone that arises in blood and has great importance in medical practice, serving the functional exploration of the bone marrow, anemia study

G

Global Drug Reference Online (Global DRO)

Website providing athletes and support personnel with information about the status of
medications (purchased in the UK, USA, Canada or Japan) and their ingredients based on the current WADA Prohibited List.

Gene Doping – the following, with the potential to enhance sport performance, are prohibited:

The transfer of nucleic acids or nucleic acid sequences;

The use of normal or genetically modified cells;

The use of agents that directly or indirectly affect functions known to influence performance by altering gene expression.

H

Haematological Profiling

The longitudinal assessment of an athlete’s blood variables e.g. haemoglobin or reticulocytes.

Hormones

A substance secreted by the adrenal glands or other tissues that stimulates and coordinates the activity of certain organs or the whole body.

I

Informed-Sport

Informed-Sport is a quality assurance programme for sports nutrition products offering a UK risk minimisation scheme for athletes. Testing is carried out on products to certify that they have been tested for banned substances by the laboratory at LGC.

Insulin

The hormone secreted by the pancreas that regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, parotids and minerals from the body.

International Federation (IF)

International non-governmental organisation administering one or more sports at global level.

International Standard for Testing and Investigations (ISTI) – the purpose of the International Standard for Testing and Investigations (ISTI) is to plan for effective testing and to maintain the integrity and identity of samples, from notifying the athlete to transporting samples for analysis.

M

Masking Agent

A type of drug that is prohibited not because it is performance enhancing, but because taking it may help to hide the present of performance enhancing drugs. Masking Agents are used to avoid detection of other banned substances.

Metabolite

A substance that contributes to metabolic processes.

Methylhexaneamine (MHA)

Used as a stimulant and is frequently found in nutritional supplements. Nutritional supplements frequently claim MHA can promote mental and physical performance, and aid weight loss. In 2010, the WADA expanded the list of prohibited substances by adding Methylhexaneamine to the ‘Non-Specified’ stimulant category of the Prohibited List. 

Missed Test

Term used when an athlete has failed to be available for testing on any given day at the location and time specified in the athlete whereabouts filing.

N

Narcotics

Substance with which it can cause somnul.Care cause narcosis.

National Intelligence Model (NIM)

The National Intelligence Model is the national model for analysis of Police intelligence which has been adopted by the Intelligence team at UK Anti-Doping.

Non-Analytical Positive

Terminology sometimes used to describe an anti-doping rule violation other than the presence of a prohibited substance or its metabolites or markers in an athlete’s bodily specimen.

P

Paternalism

Protection, protection, excessive guardianship of their child.

Prohibited List

List identifying the substances and methods prohibited in sport. The Prohibited List is one of the four WADA International Standards and is mandatory for signatories to the World Anti-Doping Code. The Prohibited List is consulted on annually and updated every year on 1 January.

R

Regional Anti-Doping Organisation (RADO)

Anti-Doping Organisation established by a group of countries to coordinate, manage and deliver the mandate of doping-free sport within a specific region. WADA’s anti-doping development programme aims to facilitate the creation of such entities in order to ensure implementation of anti-doping programmes in all parts of the world.

Reticulocytes

Young red blood cell without nucleus.

S

Sample/Specimen

Any biological material (blood or urine) collected for the purposes of doping control.

Specified Substance

Specified substances are those that, if found to be present in an athlete’s bodily sample, may be more likely to have a credible, non-doping explanation.

Stimulants

Medicines, which excites the activity of an organ or system, or take as comforting against fatigue.

Supplements

Although there is no official definition, supplements might be regarded as products used to enhance the levels of nutrients in the body, in addition to those obtained from the diet.

T

Testing Authority

The International Olympic Committee, the International Paralympic Committee, WADA, an International Federation, a National Sport Organisation, a National Olympic Committee, a Major Event/Games Organisation, or another authority responsible for sample collection and transport either in-competition or out-of-competition and/or for management of the test result.

Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE)

Permission granted to an athlete by an Anti-Doping Organisation to use, for therapeutic purposes, a substance or method included in the Prohibited List. TUEs are granted by an expert TUE Committee.

Testosterone

The primary male sex hormone that promotes the development of male characteristics. Present in females as well. Also influences muscle development, metabolism, and reproduction.

U

UNESCO Convention

The International Convention against Doping in Sport (UNESCO Convention) was developed by governments under the aegis of UNESCO and unanimously adopted by UNESCO General Conference on 19 October 2005. It is currently being ratified by governments individually. It is a legal tool enabling governments to align domestic policy with the World Anti-Doping Code.

Urine Steroid Profiling

The longitudinal assessment of endogenous steroids in an athlete’s urine sample.

W

WADA

The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) is the international independent organisation created in 1999 to promote, coordinate and monitor the fight against doping in sport in all its forms at the international level. WADA is composed and funded equally by the Olympic movement and governments of the world.

World Anti-Doping Code

The World Anti-Doping Code (the Code) is the core document that provides the harmonised framework for anti-doping policies, rules, and regulations within sport organisations and among public authorities. (http://www.ukad.org.uk/new-to-anti-doping/glossary/; http://sportsanddrugs.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=002245)

4.2.2. Glossary of english-to-romanian translations

A

Adaptation = Adaptare

proces prin care un organ de simț are un răspuns diminuat gradual la stimularea continuă sau repetată.

Absorption = Absorbție

reținerea lichidelor sau a altor substanțe de către țesuturile corpului. Cea mai mare parte a absorbției hranei are loc în intestinul subțire.

Abstinence = Abstinență

reținerea voluntară de la consumul unor alimente, alcool, droguri sau de la activitatea sexuală.

Adenoidectomy = Adenoidectomie

intervenție chirurgicală care constă în excizia vegetațiilor adenoide la pacienții cu dificultăți de respirație pe nas sau otită exsudativă.

Amphetamine = Amfetamină

amină simpatomimetică, sub formă de lichid incolor, cu efect stimulator asupra SNC și SNP, ameliorând starea de oboseală și producând o stare de bine.

Androgen = Androgen

despre o substanță de regula endogenă, care promovează masculinizarea.

Anticoagulant lupus = lupus anticoagulant

prezența acestor anticorpi în cantitate crescută în sânge, duce la o stare de coagulabilitate crescută.

B

Bone = Os

structură rigidă, puternic mineralizată, constituind scheletul omului și vertebratelor având rol de susținere și „rezervă” de calciu a organismului (element indispensabil pentru numeroase funcții fiziologice).

C

Caffeinism = Cafeinism

intoxicație cu cafeină manifestată prin: neliniște, tremurături, agitație psihomotorie, insomnie, creșterea diurezei, înroșirea feței, crampe abdominale.

Cartilage= Cartilaj

țesut conjunctiv elastic întâlnit la nivelul articulațiilor, căilor aeriene, urechii s.a.

Catabolism = Catabolism

suma proceselor de degradare a substanțelor energetice din organism (lipide, proteine, glucide); este un proces în urma căruia rezultă dioxid de carbon și apă și care este producător de energie.

CT scan = CT computertomografie

examinare radiologică excelentă pentru organe parenchimatoase și osoase. Se efectuează nativ și cu substanță de contrast.

Cutaneous ulceration = Ulcerație cutanată

pierdere de substanță de la nivelul pielii ce poate afecta mai multe straturi cutanate ( epiderm, derm, hipoderm) având cauze de origine circulatorie, infecțioasă sau malignă.

D

Depurativ = Depurativ

plantă sau produs care are un efect purificator, detoxifiant al organismului.

Diuretic = Diuretic

substanță care ajută la eliminarea urinară de apă și ioni de sodiu, corectând stările de retenție hidrosalină.

Doping = Doping

creștere trecătoare a rezistenței la suprasolicitare fizică în concursuri sportive, provocată artificial prin diferite substanțe (cafeină, stricnină, amfetamine)

E

Edema = Edem

acumulare de lichid în țesuturi

Embolism = Embolie

astuparea unui vas sangvin cu un cheag de sânge.

Emphysema = Emfizem

umflătura produsă prin infiltrarea aerului în țesuturi

Extrasystoles = Extrasistole

bătăi premature, neregulate, izolate sau cuplate și care pot fi generate la nivelul atriilor sau ventriculilor.

Electrocardiogram = Electrocardiogramă

procedură medicală prin care se detectează activiatatea electrică de repaus și pe moment a inimii; se tipărește pe o hârtie medicală și este interpretată de un medic.

Exophthalmia = Exoftalmie

ieșire în afară a globilor ocular.

Expiratory flow = Debite respiratorii

parametrii utilizați în spirometrie, necesari pentru precizarea caracteristicilor ventilatorii pulmonare ale unui subiect.

F

Fatigue = Oboseală

stare tranzitorie, consecință a unui efort fizic sau intelectual, caracterizată prin scăderea potențialului funcțional al organismului și printr-o senzație subiectivă caracteristică de indiferență și incapacitate de acțiune.

Femur = Femur

osul coapsei

Fibrillation = Fibrilație

tulburare a ritmului cardiac, generată la nivelul atriilor care constă în bătăi neregulate ale inimii;

Fever = Febră

creșterea peste valorile normale ale unui organism, de cauze patologice, prin tulburarea funcției de termoreglare și a echilibrului dinamic între producția de căldură sau termoreglarea chimică și pierderea de căldură sau termoreglarea fizică.

Flatulence = Aerofagie

deglutiția unei cantități mari de aer, cu distensie abdominală consecutivă.

Forearm = Antebraț

porțiunea membrului superior între articulația cotului și articulația pumnului;

G

Glycogen = Glicogen

substanță zaharoasă din mușchi și ficat, rezervă de glucoză a organismului

Glucosuremia = Glicozurie

prezența glucozei în urină

Glomerulonephritis = Glomerulonefrită

afecțiune a rinichilor caracterizată prin lezarea predominantă a glomerulelor de către un focar infecțios.

Glucose = Glucoză

prezența glucozei în sânge

Granulocytosis = Granulocitoză

creșterea numărului de granulocite sangvine peste valoarea normală.

Good medical practice guide = Ghid de bună practică medicală

articol științific întocmit de o comisie de experți în domeniu care pe baza datelor statistice și experienței clinice acumulate recomandată o conduita terapeutică adecvată în diferite situații clinice specifice

H

Hypertension = Hipertensiune

creșterea valorilor tensiunii arteriale peste 140/90 mmHg și peste 135/80 mmHg la persoanele care sunt diagnosticate cu diabet.

Hallucination = Halucinație

tulburare psihică constând în perceperea unor lucruri sau fenomene care nu există în realitate.

Hallucinogen = Halucinogen

substanta care produce halucinații.

Halo = Halou

inel colorat în jurul luminii văzut de persoanele cu glaucom acut congestiv și uneori, de pacienții cu cataractă.

Heart failure = Insuficiență cardiacă

o stare clinică cu semne și simptome variate, cu etiologie diversă, care se datorează incapacității inimii de a face față nevoilor la care este supusă.

Hyperglycemia = Hiperglicemie

creștere a cantității de glucoză în sânge

Hypoglycaemia = Hipoglicemie

scădere a concentrației glucozei în sânge.

Hirsutism = Hirsutism

creștere anormală de păr pe față, pe corp și pe membre, în special la femei, datorită unei tulburări endocrine.

Homeopathy = Homeopatie

terapeutică bazată pe administrarea de substanțe chimice în doze foarte mici, obținute prin diluții succesive, ce produc afecțiuni analoge bolii care se combate.

I

Ischemia = Ischemie

hipoperfuzia unui anumit teritoriu cu consecinte variate în functie de durata și extinderea stenozei care a produs ischemia;

Infection = Infecție

invazie a unui organism viu de către microorganisme patogene care acționează prin multiplicarea lor și eventual prin secretarea de toxine.

Immunity = Imunitate

capacitatea ereditară sau câștigată a organismelor de a rezista la acțiunea organismelor patogene sau la efectele nocive ale toxinelor produse de acestea.

Incoordination = Incoordonare

imposibilitatea de a efectua mișcări coordonate și precise. Coordonarea mișcărilor depinde de întregul sistem nervos, astfel încât orice afectare a acestuia poate determina apariția incoordonării.

Insomnia = Insomnie

imposibilitatea de a dormi. Se poate asocia cu o boală, în special cele însoțite de dureri, dar de cele mai multe ori este cauzată de stres, griji, excitanți nervoși.

Ischemic necrosis = Necroză ischemică

caracterizată printr-o oprire a circulației sangvine, se întâlnește în cazul infarctelor și arsurilor.

L

Leukocyte = Leucocit

element figurat al sângelui circulant, celulă nucleată, de dimensiuni variabile după tip și de formă în general rotunjită. Se disting trei categorii de leucocite: polinucleare sau granulocite, limfocite și monocite

Laxatives = Laxativ

medicament care produce purgație.

Lumbar = Lombar

regiunea situată în partea dorsală a trunchiului, între ultima coastă și pelvis.

M

Myalgia = Mialgie

durere muscular.

Medicine = Medicament

produs utilizat pentru prevenirea, diagnosticarea, tratarea unei boli, a unui traumatism sau pentru a restaura, a corecta, a modifica funcțiile organice.

Myocardial infarction = Infarct miocardic

necroza unui părți din mușchiul inimii, datorită lipsei de irigație în teritoriul respectiv;

Mucosa = Mucoasă

membrană care acoperă totalitatea tubului digestiv (de la gură până la rect), aparatul respirator, aparatul urinar, aparatele genitale masculin și feminin, precum și fața posterioară a pleoapelor și fața anterioară a globului ocular (conjunctiva).

Muscles =Muschi

țesutul unui mușchi este constituit din fibre musculare compuse din monocite, celule care cuprind în citoplasma lor numeroase filamente alungite paralel cu axa mare a celulei. 

Muscular dystrophy = Distrofie musculară

un grup de boli musculare progresive, non-inflamatorii, fără o patologie a nervilor centrali sau periferici. Boala afectează mușchii, producând degenerarea definitivă a fibrelor, dar fără dovezi de aberații morfologice. Progresele în metodele de biologie moleculară au arătat că la baza distrofiei musculare stau defecte genetice în codarea unei proteine musculare scheletice – distrofina.

Muscle tear = Ruptură musculara

ruptură a unui mușchi provocată de un efort prea intens. O ruptură musculară survine de cele mai multe ori la un sportiv insuficient antrenat / încălzit . Ea se manifestă printr-o durere acută, care poate provoca o sincopă. La câteva zile după traumatism, apare un hematom la suprafața mușchiului.

N

Necrosis = Necroză

moarte a unei celule sau a unui țesut organic.

Node = Nodul

leziune cutanată sau a mucoasei, bine conturată de forma sferică palpabilă.

Nerve impulse = Impuls nervos

activitate electrică a membranei neuronului ce reprezintă modalitatea prin care informația este transmisă în interiorul sistemului nervos, de-a lungul axonilor neuronilor.

Nistamgus = Nistagmus

stare patologică manifestată prin mișcări oscilatorii ritmice ale globilor oculari în toate direcțiile, din cauza contracțiilor mușchilor ochilor.

Nodosity = Nodozitate

formațiune accidentală sau patologica pe un organism (fr. nodosite)

Nosocomial infection = Infectie nozocomială

infecție care se produce într-un spital, fie între pacienți de boli diferite care ajung în contact unii cu alții, fie de la bolnavi sau purtători proveniți din rândul personalului de îngrijire.

Numbness = Amorțeală

dificulatate în a percepe un stimul tactil într-o anumită zonă a corpului;

O

Obesity = Obezitate

anomalie metabolică manifestată prin creșterea masei țesutului adipos consecutivă unui bilanț energetic pozitiv, cu predominanță consecutivă a lipogenezei față de lipoliză, și un exces ponderal de peste 20 % în raport cu standardele recomandate. Obezitatea este mai curând un simptom decât o entitate patologică, având cauze și mecanisme patogenice greu identificabile și, în consecință, dificil de prevenit și greu de tratat.

Obsession = Obsesie

prezența unor idei, amintiri sau acțiuni care se impun împotriva vointei subiectului pe primul plan al gândirii, în orice moment, în ciuda caracterului absurd, recunoscut de subiect.

Ossification = Osificare

totalitatea fenomenelor tisulare și biochimice ce conduc la formarea, regenerarea și repararea osului.

Overdose = Supradoză

doză excesivă dintr-un stupefiant sau dintr-un medicament psihotrop, susceptibilă să provoace moartea.

Oxygeno therapy = oxigenoterapie

tratament prin îmbogățirea în oxigen a aerului inspirat.

P

Paralysis = Paralizie

punerea în imposibilitate a unuia sau a mai multor mușchi de a-și exercita funcția motrică, originea acestia fiind de natură neurologică .

Peristalsis = Peristaltism

ansamblu de contracții ale intestinelor care provoacă înaintarea progresivă a continuțului din ele.

Phalanx = Falangă

fiecare dintre oasele care formează scheletul degetelor

Psychotherapy = Psihoterapie

tratament bazat pe influențarea psihicului (prin hipnoză, sugestie etc.)

Pulmonary edema = Edem pulmonar

acumularea de lichid la nivelul interstițiului pulmonar; este  o afecțiune  acută, cu etilogie variabilă, care necesită tratament de urgență.

Pulmonary hypertension = Hipertensiune pulmonară

creșterea presiunii în artera pulmonară peste o anumită valoare ( 20 mmHg acceptă cei mai mulți autori), poate fi primară sau secundară;

Pulmonary failure = Insuficiență pulmonară

închiderea incompletă a valvelor pulmonare în timpul diastolei, cu întoarcerea unei anumite cantități de sânge din artera pulmonară în ventriculul drept; este frecvent secundară unei afecțiuni congenital.

R

Resorption = Resorbție

dispariție lentă a unui lichid, țesut sau organ prin absorbția lui treptată în țesuturile vecine (fr. resorption).

Reflex = Reflex

răspuns motor scurt, instantaneu și involuntar al sistemului nervos la o stimulare senzitivă sau senzorială a terminațiilor nervoase

Regime = Regim

modificare a alimentației obișnuite în scopuri terapeutice sau pentru a satisface nevoile fiziologice specifice (ex. femei gravide, sportivi, persoane în vârstă ).

Risk factor = Factor de risc

un parametru clinic sau paraclinic, modificabil sau nu, care peste o anumită valoare prag se asociază cu un anumit risc al persoanei de a face boala cardiovasculară

Rotula = Rotulă

os de formă triunghiulară care participă la constituirea scheletului părții anterioare a genunchiului și permite mișcările de flexie-extensie ale articulației acestuia.

S

Symptomatology = Simptomatologie

totalitatea simptomelor unei boli

Subconsciously = Subconștient

totalitatea fenomenelor psihice care se desfășoară în afara conștiinței

Sedative = Sedativ

medicament care calmează activitatea unui organ sau a unui psihism.

Sedation = Sedare

utilizare a unor mijloace, în majoritate medicamentoase, care permit calmarea subiectului  în vederea asigurării confortului său fizic și psihic permitind îngrijirea lui.

Systemic lupus erythematosus = Lupus eritematos sistemic

boala de colagen care poate duce și la afectarea cardiac.

T

Transfusion = Transfuzie

introducere în venele unui bolnav a unei cantități de sânge sau de plasmă sangvină.

Trauma = Traumatism

ansamblu de tulburări fizice sau psihice provocate de o violența exterioară.

Tendon = Tendon

țesut fibros prin intermediul căruia un mușchi se prinde de un os.

Tendon rupture = Rupture tendon

ruptură a unui tendon. Un tendon se poate rupe ca urmare a unei contracții prea bruște sau violente (traumatism, salt, sprint), a unei plăgi (de cuțit sau corp ascuțit ), din frecări repetate îndeosebi la persoanele în vârstă, ori din cauza unei boli tendinoase preexistente: inflamație a unui tendon (tendinită recidivantă), poliartrită reumatoidă etc.

Tendinitis = Tendinită

inflamație a unui tendon.

Tissue = Țesut

totalitatea celulelor având aceeași morfologie și/sau îndeplinind aceeași funcție.

U

Ulcer = Ulcer

pierdere de substanță dintr-un înveliș epitelial . Un ulcer poate fi cutanat sau de mucoasă.

Ulceration = Ulcerație

proces de pierdere de substanță cutanată sau mucoasă.

V

Vascularization = Vascularizație

totalitatea vaselor sangvine care irigă o regiune a corpului, un organ sau un țesut.

Vasoconstriction = Vasoconstricție

micșorarea în diametru a vaselor sangvine.

CONCLUSIONS

Medical and pharmaceutical vocabulary is the largest of all specialized vocabularies and his studies estimate that between a student should remember the names of a number of terms and meanings equivalent to that required that required for learning six languages. To acquire medical terminology logic requires a significant cult luggage and lexical knowledge and evolutionary aspects of English.

Lexical aspect brings thorough knowledge has a favorable impact on both the classical understanding medical terms and, equally helps in understanding current phenomenon of linguistic evolution.

The process of developing new terms is continuously and scientific substantiation of any type of information is based on a definition of the terms.

Therefore, knowledge of medical terminology in English has a twofold purpose. On the one hand understanding of terms included in the latest jargon, on the other hand knowing the translation of other terms in order to enable competent in any field, and in our case, in the medical and sports.

REFERENCES

Barbara Gylys, Medical Terminology Simplified.

Barbara Gylys, Medical Terminology Systems.

Cambrige Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Cambridge Universitary Press,Cambridge, 2008.

Carmen Nedelcu, Ioana Murar, AndreeaBratu, Andrei Bantaș, Dicționar Englez-Român, Edit. Teora, București, 2007.

Carmen Nedelcu, IoanaMurar, AndreeaBratu, Andrei Bantaș, Dicționar Român-Englez, Edit. Teora, București, 2007.

Charles Van Doreen, A history of Knowledge, Ballantine Books,1992.

Constantin Paidos, Cristina Dana Paidos,Improveyour English, Polirom, Iași, 2014, p. 24-29.

Diana Elena Popa, English in Nursing, Editura Didactică și Pedagogică, București, 2003.

Francoise Grellet, The guide, (trad. Gabriel Cheșecu), Polirom, 2009.

Good News Bible, American Bible Society, New York, 1992.

H. A. Skinner, The Origin of Medical Terms, 2nd ed.,

Irina Ioniță, Secrets of English in Pharmacy,Performedica, Iași, 2007.

Johnatan Herring, Medical Low, Person Education Limited, Harlow, 2010.

Julie Apker, Communication in health organizations, Polity, Malden, 2012.

Lacramioara Ochiuz, Iuliana Popovici, Dumitru Lupuleasa, Terminologie medical și farmaceutică, Editura Polirom, 2011.

Michaela Bucheler, KathyJahning, Gloria Matzing, TanyaWeindler,English for thepharmaceutical Industry, Oxford University Press, London, 2014.

Mireille Mandelbrojt- Sweeney, Eileen Sweeney ,Limba Engleză pentru medici și asistente ( trad. Emanuela Stoleriu, Polirom, 2014.

Sireley Soltesz Steiner, Quick medical terminology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.New Jersey,2011.

Spring Hill College Press, Mobile, Alabama, 1959.

Viorica Dănilă, Engleza pentru medici, Editura Medicală, București, 1993.

Virginia Allum, Patricia McGarr,Cambridge English for Nursing, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011.

Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, 1961, P. H. Yancey, Introduction to Biological Latin and Greek, 5th ed.,

Electronic Sources

https://www.dartmouth.edu/~humananatomy/resources/etymology.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doping_in_sport

http://www.ukad.org.uk/new-to-anti-doping/glossary/; http://sportsanddrugs.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=002245

https://www.wada-ama.org/en/who-we-are/a-brief-history-of-anti-doping

http://www.doping-prevention.sp.tum.de/doping-in-general/history-of-doping.html

REFERENCES

Barbara Gylys, Medical Terminology Simplified.

Barbara Gylys, Medical Terminology Systems.

Cambrige Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Cambridge Universitary Press,Cambridge, 2008.

Carmen Nedelcu, Ioana Murar, AndreeaBratu, Andrei Bantaș, Dicționar Englez-Român, Edit. Teora, București, 2007.

Carmen Nedelcu, IoanaMurar, AndreeaBratu, Andrei Bantaș, Dicționar Român-Englez, Edit. Teora, București, 2007.

Charles Van Doreen, A history of Knowledge, Ballantine Books,1992.

Constantin Paidos, Cristina Dana Paidos,Improveyour English, Polirom, Iași, 2014, p. 24-29.

Diana Elena Popa, English in Nursing, Editura Didactică și Pedagogică, București, 2003.

Francoise Grellet, The guide, (trad. Gabriel Cheșecu), Polirom, 2009.

Good News Bible, American Bible Society, New York, 1992.

H. A. Skinner, The Origin of Medical Terms, 2nd ed.,

Irina Ioniță, Secrets of English in Pharmacy,Performedica, Iași, 2007.

Johnatan Herring, Medical Low, Person Education Limited, Harlow, 2010.

Julie Apker, Communication in health organizations, Polity, Malden, 2012.

Lacramioara Ochiuz, Iuliana Popovici, Dumitru Lupuleasa, Terminologie medical și farmaceutică, Editura Polirom, 2011.

Michaela Bucheler, KathyJahning, Gloria Matzing, TanyaWeindler,English for thepharmaceutical Industry, Oxford University Press, London, 2014.

Mireille Mandelbrojt- Sweeney, Eileen Sweeney ,Limba Engleză pentru medici și asistente ( trad. Emanuela Stoleriu, Polirom, 2014.

Sireley Soltesz Steiner, Quick medical terminology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.New Jersey,2011.

Spring Hill College Press, Mobile, Alabama, 1959.

Viorica Dănilă, Engleza pentru medici, Editura Medicală, București, 1993.

Virginia Allum, Patricia McGarr,Cambridge English for Nursing, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011.

Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, 1961, P. H. Yancey, Introduction to Biological Latin and Greek, 5th ed.,

Electronic Sources

https://www.dartmouth.edu/~humananatomy/resources/etymology.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doping_in_sport

http://www.ukad.org.uk/new-to-anti-doping/glossary/; http://sportsanddrugs.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=002245

https://www.wada-ama.org/en/who-we-are/a-brief-history-of-anti-doping

http://www.doping-prevention.sp.tum.de/doping-in-general/history-of-doping.html