Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence

PROFESOR COORDONATOR: BĂJENARU OANA

ELEV: SECU RĂZVAN MARIN

CLASA: A XII-A F

Introduction in Artificial Intelligence

In this certificate, I would try to cover all the aspects of artificial intelligence and its use in our day by day lifes.

By definition, Artificial intelligence, shortly known as A.I. is a form of intelligence used by machines or any kind of software. John McCarthy invented the first form of artificial intelligence in 1955 and defined it as the science and engineering of making intelligent machines.

As a short history, in the early 1880s, A.I. research was an early form that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills. In the 1990s and the 21st century, A.I. achieved its greatest successes. This form of intelligence is used for logistics, data research, medical operations, military weapons, and in many other areas throughout the technology industry. On 11 May 1997, 'Deep Blue' which was a computer developed by IBM became the first computer chess-playing system to beat world chess champion, Garry Kasparov. Also, an exemplar of AI hardware is the Microsoft's Kinect which provides a 3D body-motion interface for the Xbox console. It uses algorithms that revolutionalized AI research such as intelligent personal assistans in some smartphones.

The central goals of A.I research are to make hardware robots more 'human'.

Those goals include: reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning and language processing and the ability to move and manipulate objects. In the course of 50 years of research, AI has developed a large number of tools to solve the most difficult problems in computer science.

Another important aspect which made me choose this subject is artificiall neural networks. Nowdays it is in its early development forms because it’s the most complex level that artificial intelligence can achieve. Just imagine a world where we could communicate with one another only by using our mind. Of course, this will happen with the help of integrated chips which will make the connection between them and our brains. A good example is the DNI ( Direct Neural Interface) which allows a certain individual to have complete control over their physiology as well as to interact with computer systems.

Chapter I. Artificial Intelligence Today

Artificial intelligence (AI) research has explored a variety of problems and approaches since its inception, but for the last 20 years or so has been focused on the problems surrounding the construction of intelligent agents – systems that perceive and act in some environment. In this context, the criterion for intelligence is related to statistical and economic notions of rationality – colloquially, the ability to make good decisions, plans, or inferences. The adoption of probabilistic representations and statistical learning methods has led to a large degree of integration and cross-fertilization between AI, machine learning, statistics, control theory, neuroscience, and other fields. The establishment of shared theoretical frameworks, combined with the availability of data and processing power, has yielded remarkable successes in various component tasks such as speech recognition, image classification, autonomous vehicles, machine translation, legged locomotion, and question-answering systems.

This research is by necessity interdisciplinary, because it involves both society and AI. It ranges from economics, law, and philosophy to computer security, formal methods and, of course, various branches of AI itself. The focus is on delivering AI that is beneficial to society and robust in the sense that the benefits are guaranteed: our AI systems must do what we want them to do.

Today developers can build systems that meet the advanced information processing needs of government and industry by choosing from a broad palette of mature technologies. Sophisticated methods for reasoning about uncertainty and for coping with incomplete knowledge have led to more robust diagnostic and planning systems. Hybrid technologies that combine symbolic representations of knowledge with more quantitative representations inspired by biological information processing systems have resulted in more flexible, human-like behavior. AI ideas also have been adopted by other computer scientists – for example, "data mining," which combines ideas from databases, AI learning, and statistics to yield systems that find interesting patterns in large databases, given only very broad guidelines.

AI began as an attempt to answer some of the most fundamental questions about human existence by understanding the nature of intelligence, but it has grown into a scientific and technological field affecting many aspects of commerce and society.

Even as AI technology becomes integrated into the fabric of everyday life, AI researchers remain focused on the grand challenges of automating intelligence. Work is progressing on developing systems that converse in natural language, that perceive and respond to their surroundings, and that encode and provide useful access to all of human knowledge and expertise. The pursuit of the ultimate goals of AI – the design of intelligent artifacts; understanding of human intelligence; abstract understanding of intelligence (possibly superhuman) – continues to have practical consequences in the form of new industries, enhanced functionality for existing systems, increased productivity in general, and improvements in the quality of life. But the ultimate promises of AI are still decades away, and the necessary advances in knowledge and technology will require a sustained fundamental research effort.

Chapter II. Artificial Intelligence Mechanisms

Generally speaking AI systems are built around automated inference engines including forward reasoning and backwards reasoning. Based on certain conditions ("if") the system infers certain consequences ("then").

In terms of consequences AI comes under two categories:

Conventional AI

Computational intelligence

Conventional AI:

Conventional AI research focuses on attempts to mimic human intelligence through symbol manipulation and symbolically structured knowledge bases.

Methods include in conventional AI are:

Expert systems: apply reasoning capabilities to reach a conclusion. An expert system can process large amounts of known information and provide conclusions based on them.

Case based reasoning: stores a set of problems and answers in an organized data structure called cases. A case based reasoning system upon being presented with a problem finds a case in its knowledge base that is most closely related to the new problem and presents its solutions as an output with suitable modifications.

Computational intelligence:

Subject involved in Computational intelligence is Neural network.

Neural networks: systems with very strong pattern recognition capabilities.

Pattern recognition:

A complete pattern recognition system consists of a sensor that gathers the observations to be classified or described; a feature extraction mechanism that computes numeric or symbolic information from the observations; and a classification or description scheme using statistical (or decision theoretic) analysis that does the actual job of classifying or describing observations, relying on the extracted features.

Chapter III. Applications

APPLICATIONS:

Artificial intelligence found in many applications like:

Cybernetics

Business

Robotics

Cybernetics:

Cybernetics means "the art of ensuring the efficacy of action". It is the study of communication and control in living organisms, machines and organizations. Its focus is how anything (digital, mechanical or biological) processes information, reacts to information and changes or can be changed to better accomplish the first two tasks.

Business:

Banks:

Banks use artificial intelligence systems to organize operations, invest in stocks, and manage properties.

Medical clinic:

A medical clinic can use artificial intelligence systems to organize bed schedules, make a staff rotation, and provide medical information.

Robotics:

Robotics is the science and technology of robots, their design, manufacture, and application.

A robot is a mechanical or virtual, artificial agent. A typical robot will have several, though not necessarily all of the following properties:

Is not 'natural' / has been artificially created.

Can sense its environment.

Can manipulate things in its environment.

Has some degree of intelligence or ability to make choices based on the environment or automatic control / preprogrammed sequence.

Is programmable.

Can move with one or more axes of rotation or translation.

Can make dexterous coordinated movements.

Appears to have intent or agency (reification, anthropomorphisation or Pathetic fallacy)

Robots have become common in many industries. They are often given jobs that are considered dangerous to humans. Robots have proven effective in jobs that are very repetitive which may lead to mistakes or accidents due to a lapse in concentration and other jobs which humans may find degrading.

Japan is the leader in using and producing robots in the world.

Increased productivity, accuracy, and endurance

Jobs which require speed, accuracy, reliability or endurance can be performed far better by a robot than a human. Hence many jobs in factories which were traditionally performed by people are now robotized. This has lead to cheaper mass-produced goods, including automobiles and electronics. Robots have now been working in factories for more than fifty years, ever since the Unimate robot was installed to automatically remove hot metal from a die casting machine. Since then, factory automation in the form of large stationary manipulators has become the largest market for robots. The number of installed robots has grown faster and faster.

Chapter IV. Intelligent behaviour and machine ethics

As a minimum, an AI system must be able to reproduce aspects of human intelligence. This raises the issue of how ethically the machine should behave towards both humans and other AI agents. This issue was addressed by Wendell Wallach in his book titled Moral Machines in which he introduced the concept of artificial moral agents (AMA). For Wallach, AMAs have become a part of the research landscape of artificial intelligence as guided by its two central questions which he identifies as "Does Humanity Want Computers Making Moral Decisions" and "Can (Ro)bots Really Be Moral". For Wallach the question is not centered on the issue of whether machines can demonstrate the equivalent of moral behavior in contrast to the constraints which society may place on the development of AMAs.

The field of machine ethics is concerned with giving machines ethical principles, or a procedure for discovering a way to resolve the ethical dilemmas they might encounter, enabling them to function in an ethically responsible manner through their own ethical decision making. The field was delineated in the AAAI Fall 2005 Symposium on Machine Ethics: "Past research concerning the relationship between technology and ethics has largely focused on responsible and irresponsible use of technology by human beings, with a few people being interested in how human beings ought to treat machines. In all cases, only human beings have engaged in ethical reasoning. The time has come for adding an ethical dimension to at least some machines. Recognition of the ethical ramifications of behavior involving machines, as well as recent and potential developments in machine autonomy, necessitate this. In contrast to computer hacking, software property issues, privacy issues and other topics normally ascribed to computer ethics, machine ethics is concerned with the behavior of machines towards human users and other machines. Research in machine ethics is key to alleviating concerns with autonomous systems — it could be argued that the notion of autonomous machines without such a dimension is at the root of all fear concerning machine intelligence. Further, investigation of machine ethics could enable the discovery of problems with current ethical theories, advancing our thinking about Ethics."Machine ethics is sometimes referred to as machine morality, computational ethics or computational morality. A variety of perspectives of this nascent field can be found in the collected edition "Machine Ethics" that stems from the AAAI Fall 2005 Symposium on Machine Ethics.

A superintelligence, hyperintelligence, or superhuman intelligence is a hypothetical agent that would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted human mind. “Superintelligence’’ may also refer to the form or degree of intelligence possessed by such an agent.

A common concern about the development of artificial intelligence is the potential threat it could pose to mankind. This concern has recently gained attention after mentions by celebrities including Stephen Hawking, Bill Gates, and Elon Musk. The opinion of experts within the field of artificial intelligence is mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superhumanly-capable AI.

Concern over risk from artificial intelligence has led to some high-profile donations and investments. In January 2015, Elon Musk donated ten million dollars to the Future of Life Institute to fund research on understanding AI decision making. The goal of the institute is to "grow wisdom with which we manage" the growing power of technology. Musk also funds companies developing artificial intelligence such as Google DeepMind and Vicarious to “just keep an eye on what’s going on with artificial intelligence. I think there is potentially a dangerous outcome there”.

Development of militarized artificial intelligence is a related concern. Currently, 50+ countries are researching battlefield robots, including the United States, China, Russia, and the United Kingdom. Many people concerned about risk from superintelligent AI also want to limit the use of artificial soldiers.

Chapter V. The Robot

A robot is a mechanical or virtual artificial agent , usually an electro-mechanical machine that is guided by a computer program or electronic circuitry. Robots can be autonomous or semi-autonomous and range from. By mimicking a lifelike appearance or automating movements, a robot may convey a sense of intelligence or thought of its own.

The branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, and application of robots, as well as computer systems for their control, sensory feedback, and information processing is robotics. These technologies deal with automated machines that can take the place of humans in dangerous environments or manufacturing processes, or resemble humans in appearance, behavior, and/or cognition.

From the time of ancient civilization there have been many accounts of user-configurable automated devices and even automata resembling animals and humans, designed primarily as entertainment. As mechanical techniques developed through the Industrial age, there appeared more practical applications such as automated machines, remote-control and wireless remote-control.

The first digital and programmable robot was invented by George Devol in 1954 and was named the Unimate . It was sold to General Motors in 1961 where it was used to lift pieces of hot metal from die casting machines at the Inland Fisher Guide Plant in the West Trenton section of Ewing Township, New Jersey.

Robots have replaced humans in performing repetitive and dangerous tasks which humans prefer not to do, or are unable to do because of size limitations, or which take place in extreme environments such as outer space or the bottom of the sea.

There are concerns about the increasing use of robots and their role in society. Robots are blamed for rising unemployment as they replace workers in increasing numbers of functions. The use of robots in military combat raises ethical concerns. The possibilities of robot autonomy and potential repercussions have been addressed in fiction and may be a realistic concern in the future.

Conclusion

In Conclusion, I think that I have reached all my targeted aspects regarding Artificial Intelligence and it’s applications in the differently fields of work. I also think that this theme was really interesting to develop and cover for my certificate, because, as a science passionate, I think that A.I will progress really fast in the close future and it will change the world as we know it today.

Bibliography & Siteography

Books:

“Artificial Intelligence Today” by Dave Michaels

“The A.I programming Bookshelf” by Jeff Orkins

Websites:

*https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1009/1009.4964.pdf

*http://alumni.media.mit.edu/~jorkin/aibooks.html

*https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot

*https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence

*http://www.journals.elsevier.com/artificial-intelligence/

*http://www.aaai.org/home.html

*http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/whatisai/