Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and [613010]

3
Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

ORGANIZATIONAL INTERVENTION ON THE INTEGRATION
OF NEWS
EMPLOYEES WITHIN THE ORGANIZATION

Senior Lecturer Ph.D. Bacter Ramona Vasilica *

* University of Oradea, Faculty of Environmental Protection, 26th Ge n. Magheru St.,
410048, Oradea, Romania, email: [anonimizat]

ABSTRACT

This paper aims to present the theoretical aspects regarding the integration of a new
employee within an organization, but also to elaborate a program on fa cilitating the integration
process. Many authors have shown that integration is a stressful proce ss, which is why it is important
for the new employee to be presented with the conditions and requiremen ts as clearly as
possible. Integration can be considered a process of exchange between the organization and the
individual because each comes with its own values, conceptions, and p urposethis process is to ensure
the cohesion unit of the work teams. Integration is also considered a comp lex social process that is
very important for the individual because if the relationships that the work place develops are
satisfactory then he lives with the feeling that within that framework, respectiv ely the workplace, he
can develop himself and his skills.
These relationships are not always harmonious, and at this moment the integration is more
difficult, raising difficult problems to solve, but there are also good relati ons between the members of
the group, and in this case the integration of an individual will no t suffer1

Key words : new employee , integration, job , organization

INTRODUCTION

"Professional integration is a later phase of employment. The new
employee will have to be introduced to the organization, to the work group
and to his / her place of work and from this moment it can be talked about
the integration of the new income. During the integration period the new
employees receive information about the duties of the new job, about their
job, about colleagues, boss ” or subordinates and about the entire
organization2 ".
In order to make the integration of a new employee as easy as
possible, it is important for the employee to be presented with clear and
concise working conditions, work requirements, and not least, the employee

1 Cindrea, I. (2008). Managementul resurselor umane. Sibiu: Editura Univer sității „Lucian
Blaga" din Sibiu.
2 Abrudan, MM. (2003). Managementul resurselor umane. Oradea: Editura Un iversității din
Oradea. Pagina 103

4
must be confident about his successes and ability to carry out and complete
the tasks received.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

The methods used in this study were different: the historical method,
the comparative method, the sociological method, the logical method and
the analytical one, their aim was the systematic analysis of the information
selected from the sources studied in order to develop personal points of
view and conclusions about the stated objectives.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Professional integration represents a step that the individual has to
go through in his professional life. Also, integration can be considered a
process of exchange between the organization and the individual because
each one comes with its own values, conceptions, and the purpose of this
process is to ensure the unity of the cohesion of the work teams3.
In order to make the integration of a new employee as easy as
possible, it is important for the employee to be presented with clear and
concise working conditions, work requirements, and not least, the employee
must be confident about his successes and ability. to carry out and complete
the tasks received. Integration is an important operation, which raises many
problems and cannot succeed without a specific program, for two reasons:
– Any individual who changes a job is subjected to psychological
pressure, by demonstrating their abilities in a new environment. It is
therefore necessary to take into account these additional difficulties that the
new employee is going through and try to reduce them
– During the integration a normal adaptation takes place the new
work tasks and a phase of successive accumulations, until the yield becomes
the normal one; reducing the duration of this phase can be achieved through
rapid integration4".
The way in which the new employee integrates into the workplace is
important for the company because the degree of integration can have an
influence on productivity, it can increase or otherwise it may decrease. An
increase in productivity brings with it many advantages (high remuneration,
improvement of human resources, job stability, etc.). Therefore, "integration

3 Leher, V și Deaconu, A. (2008). Managementul resurselor umane: Teorie ș i practică.
București: Editura Economica. Pagina 97 -98
4 Roșca, C. Costurile recrutării, angajării și integrării în Roșca, C., Vărzaru, M. & Roșca,
I.G.(2005) Resurse Umane: Management și gestiune. București: Editura Economica. pagina
183

5
represents the gathering together of several components, activities,
production units or persons, in order to achieve a common result5".
“Professional integration is a post-employment phase. It consisted of
the intense and active integration in a group, in the mentality, its specific
lucrative and aspirational activities, the Integration in a group will have
forms, nuances, conformities and admissibilities, which will be expressed
on the one hand by the person in cause, and on the other hand the degree of
acceptance of the group.6 "
The socio-professional integration of the new employees is a specific
task of the Human Resources Department, and the introduction of the
employee in the organization represents the first stage of this process. "The
introduction of a new employee in the organization is realized from the
moment of the recruitment of the candidates by the company in order to fill
one or more vacancies. In general, each candidate acquires the first
information about a company when reading the employment
announcement7".
Also, the interview, the knowledge of the organization, the internal
regulation, the organizational chart are aspects that cannot be missing from
an integration process.
– the department / department / office where he will work
– the tasks and responsibilities related to the job
– superiors / subordinates (if applicable) and the persons with whom
he / she will collaborate
– evaluation criteria, but also the benefits and possibilities of
advancement8
The new employee should not be "bombarded" with all the
information from day one. The transfer of information can be graded and
carried out by several persons. Starting a new job remains a stressful
process, even if the integration and installation actions are well
designed. The period of integration of a new employee can take, depending
on the case, from a few months to a year9

5 Leher, V și Deaconu, A. (2008). Managementul resurselor umane: Teorie ș i practică.
Bucureșt i: Editura Economica. Pagina 96
6 Scholz, M.M. (2000). Managementul resurselor umane. București: Editura Econo mlca.
19. Sulea, C. (2004). Latura întunecată a organizațiilor: Comportamentul contrap roductw la
locul de muncă.pagina 90
7 Leher, V și Deaconu, A. (2008). Managementul resurselor umane: Teorie și p ractică.
București: Editura Economica. Pagina 329
8 Leher, V și Deaconu, A. (2008). Managementul resurselor umane: Teorie ș i practică.
București: Editura Economica
9 Cuc, S. (2008). Managementul resurselo r umane. Oradea: Editura Universității din
Oradea. Pagina 161

6
The third stage is the training in the workplace. The employee
receives information from the supervisor or another member of the
organization about the way of working, the priority of the duties and the use
of the work equipment. This training can be done at the workplace and even
outside it10.
For Schein integration is "the process by which a new employee
learns: the main goals of an organization, the means by which these goals
can be achieved, the responsibilities that lie with the organizational role
held, the behavioral models required for the performance of the role, the
rules and principles that allow maintaining it" the identity and integrity of
the organization, the philosophy that guides the organization's policy
towards employees and customers, the climate in which the members of the
organization interact11".
The last stage is the administration of the role, where “the employee
becomes a full member of the organization, not considering an option for
the position. Moreover, the employee carries out activity at the level of the
respective position, and his results in work are analyzed and recognized by
the organization. During this stage, the employee can become a model,
being involved in the process of integrating into the work of other
employees12 " .Also, here it can form its own way of working, of arranging
the Space, of organizing the activities to carry out the tasks received in the
most optimal way.
The specialized literature offers us a multitude of integration models
among which we meet: the welcome map, the seminar, the visit to the
company, the guidance films, the work under tutorship, etc. "The integration
models differ depending on the purpose of the employment. Thus, a person
can be hired for a certain position (especially for executives) or for his
potential (knowledge, creativity, mobility, adaptability)13 ".
The welcome map contains a series of general information about the
organization and, respectively, specific information about the organizational
subdivisions with which it will come into direct contact. In addition it will
contain other elements such as: the list of telephones in the organization, the
internal addresses of those with whom it will come into contact in its
activity, to facilitate the receipt and transmission of documents, the daily

10 Manolescu, A., Lefter, V. & Deaconu, A.( 2007). Managementul resurselo r umane.
București: Editura Economica.
11 Pânișoara, G.și Pânișoara, I. (2007).Managementul resurselor umane. Iași : Editura
Polirom. 12. Paina, NB (2003). Managementul resurselor umane. Cluj Nap oca: Editura
Accent. Pagina 60
12 Manolescu, A., Lefter, V. & Deaconu, A.( 2007). Managementul resurselo r umane.
București: Editura Economica. Pagina 331
13 Voicu, M. Integrarea profesion ală în Mathis,R., Nica, P., & Rusu, C. (1997)
Managementul resurselor umane. București: Editura Economica. Pagina 154

7
activity programs (the breaks provided in the program will be mentioned ),
the regulations within the organization, regulations and instructions in force,
etc.
Even if it is one of the most used methods of integrating it, in
addition to its advantages, it also has disadvantages:
Table no. 1. Welcome map – advantages and disadvantages

BENEFITS DISADVANTAGES
– The complete set of documents
that make up the content of the welcome
map
– Offers the employee the
opportunity to form their own image
regarding the working climate within the
organization
– The new employee has the
opportunity to analyze in detail, the
content of each document in the welcome
map – The formal and equidistant
character of the process of integration into
the work of a new employee
– Ease of applying the method
– The appearance of some
misunderstandings or confusion at the level
of the new employee regarding certain
information about the company.
– Lack of feeling of belonging of the
new employee to the organization
– Lack of direct dialogue between
the new employee and a person who has
experience and knows very well the
respective company14
The seminar , as well as the welcome map, offers very useful
information to the new employee, only that it will be carried out in an
organizational framework (in the form of class hours) where the company
history, the specific activity of the position, the methods will be presented to
perform certain actions and even certain mistakes made by the old
employees that must be avoided15.
The seminar can also be held in the form of a presentation of the
video projector, the projector, pictures, videos, etc.
Table no. 2. The seminar – advantages and disadvantages
BENEFITS DISADVANTAGES
– The new employee has the
opportunity to better understand the content
of the information presented
– The attractive character of the
presentation
– The possibility of using modern
means of presentation
– The interactive character of the
presentation
– the possibility to simulate real – Relatively long time needed to
prepare the presentation
– The relatively high cost of this
method: the cost of renting or cleaning and
equipping a room, the hourly rate of the
person designated for this purpose, the cost
of editing the teaching materials
– The risk of the appearance of the
state of boredom at the level of the
employee, generated by the monotonous

14 Manolescu, A., Lefter, V. & Deaconu, A.( 2007). Managementul resurselo r umane.
București: Editura Economica. p 334
15 Manolescu, A., Lefter, V. & Deaconu, A.( 2007). Managementul resurs elor umane.
București: Editura Economica. pagina334

8
situations, from the company
– The retention of the new
employee of some useful information by
means of logical schemes or images character of the presentation
– The need to remove from the
production of the respective employee16

The visit to the company is the method most often used by the
organizations and it gives the new employee the opportunity to see each
department / office / department to understand as much as possible the
structure and the activity carried out in the respective company. This tour of
the company is carried out with the chief of staff or a designated person,
where they are provided with information about the company, rules and
even short or long term goals17.
Table no. 3. Visit to the company – advantages and disadvantages
BENEFITS DISADVANTAGES
– Allows direct contact and
familiarization of the new employee with
the real working environment
– Obtaining additional information
that could be omitted in a simple
description of the organization, during a
discussion
– It gives the new employee the
opportunity to form his own image
regarding the working climate within the
organization
– Direct contact of the new
employee with the team he is part of
– Familiarity with the route to be
taken by an employee within the
organization, up to the workplace – The subjectivism that drives the
visit to the company
– Long time required to visit the
company
– Wide and efficient applicability,
especially for small companies
– High volume of information that
the employee is familiar with during the
visit. Which may exceed the assimilation
capacity of the new employee
– The state of physical and mental
fatigue that can intervene at the level of the
new employee18

"Every organization shows a certain degree of resistance to a new
employee. This process, up to a certain level, is considered nonnal,
considering that the group needs a certain period of time to know the new
income and to accept it. Hofstede identifies an open system (the
organization and its employees are open to newcomers, they are easily
received in the organization) and a closed system (the organization and its
employees are closed and secretive, the new employee must be encouraged
and supported in the first days of its activity) ".

16 Manolescu, A., Lefter, V. & Deaconu, A.( 2007). Managementul resurselo r umane.
București: Editura Economica. , pagina 334
17 Manolescu, A., Lefter, V. & Deaconu, A.( 2007). Managementul resurselo r umane.
București: Editura Economica. pagina335
18 Manolescu, A., Lefter, V. & Deaconu, A.( 2007). Managementul resurselo r umane.
București: Editura Economica., p 333

9

CONCLUSIONS

Professional integration represents a step that the individual has to
go through in his professional life. Also, integration can be considered a
process of exchange between the organization and the individual because
each one comes with its own values, conceptions, and the purpose of this
process is to ensure the unity of the cohesion of the work teams. Integration
is also considered a complex social process which is very important for the
individual because if the relationships he develops in the workplace are
satisfactory then he lives with the feeling that within that framework,
respectively the workplace, he can develop himself, his skills, he can value
his knowledge and he can gain experience, thus realizing his vocation
through his activities and responsibilities daily.
According to the literature, the stages of the integration process are:
introducing the employee into the organization, accommodating the
employee within the organization, training at the workplace and managing
the role. Also, the specialized literature provides us with a series of
integration models, the most common being the welcome map, the seminar
and the visit to the company.
Professional integration can be considered an easier process only if
the organization implements a professional integration program. To this end,
some organizations offer new employees manuals or guides in which
employees find all the information a new employee needs. Thus, within an
organization, several persons / departments are responsible for integrating
the new employee: the Human Resources department, the employee, the
work colleagues, the head of the hierarchy and the training staff.
In order to make the integration of a new employee as easy as
possible, it is important for the employee to be presented with clear and
concise working conditions, work requirements, and not least, the employee
must be confident about his successes and ability. to carry out and complete
the tasks received.

REFERENCES

1. Abrudan, MM. (2003). Managementul resurselor umane. Oradea: Editura
Universității din Oradea.
2. Abrudan, MM. (2001). Managementul resurselor umane. Oradea: Editura
Universității din Oradea.
3. Armstrong, M. (2003). Managementul resurselor umane. București: Editura
Codecs.
4. Cindrea, I. (2008). Managementul resurselor umane. Sibiu: Editura Unive rsității
„Lucian Blaga" din Sibiu.

10
5. Comescu, V. Mihăilescu, I. & Stanciu, S. (2003). Managementul organizației.
București: Editura All Beck.
6. Cuc, S. (2008). Managementul resurselor umane. Oradea: Editura Universității
din Oradea.
7. Leher, V și Deaconu, A. (2008). Managementul resurselor umane: Teorie și
practică. București: Editura Economica.
8. Manolescu, A., Lefter, V. & Deaconu, A.( 2007). Managementul resurselor
umane. București: Editura Economica.
9. Martin, M. și Jackson, T. (2008). Practica de personal. București: Editura
Codecs.
10. Modrea, A. (2013). Managementul resurselor umane. Târgu Mureș: Editura
Universitatea Petru Maior.
l 1. Pânișoara, G.și Pânișoara, I. (2007).Managementul resurselor umane. Iași:
Editura Polirom. 12. Paina, NB (2003). Managementul resurselor umane. Cluj
Napoca: Editura Accent.
13. Prodan, A. (1999). Managementul de succes: Motivație și comportament. Iași:
Editura Polirom.
14. Popa, M. (2008) . Introducere în psihologia muncii. Iași: Editura Polirom.
15. Robinson, S.L., Bennett R.]. (1995). A tipology of deviant workplace
behaviours: A multidimensional scaling study. Academy of Management Journal.
16. Roșca, C. Costurile recrutării, angajării și integrării în Roșca, C., Vă rzaru, M.
& Roșca, I.G.(2005) Resurse Umane: Management și gestiune. București: Editura
Economica.
17. Schiffer, J., Baltador, M., Tabără, M. (2005). Managementul capitalului uman
în administrația publică din România și Germania. Sibiu: Editura Universită ții
„Lucian Blaga" din Sibiu
18. .Sch olz, M.M. (2000). Managementul resurselor umane. București: Editura
Economlca. 19. Sulea, C. (2004). Latura întunecată a organizațiilor:
Comportamentul contraproductw la locul de muncă. Psihologia Resurselor Umane.
20. Voicu, M. Integrarea profesională în Mathis,R., Nica, P., & Rusu, C. (1997)
Managementul resurselor umane. București: Editura Economica.
21. Zamfir, C. și Vlăsceanu, L. (1993). Dicționar de sociologie. București: Editur a
Babel.
22. Zapf, D. (1999). Organisational, work group related and personal causes of
mobbing/bulling at work.lnternationa1Joumey of Manpower.

12

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Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

STUDY ON THE PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF APPLES IN
BIHOR COUNTY

Chiurciu Irina-Adriana
University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest, Faculty of Management and
Rural Development, 59 Marasti Blvd, 011464, District 1, Bucharest, Romania,
E-mail: irina.chiurciu@yahoo.ro

Abstract
The aim of this study was to highlight Bihor County's position within the existing
Romanian context, in the period 2014-2018, regarding the pro duction and trade of apples. Thus it
is noted that Bihor County had 620,150 apple trees in 2018, which represented only 2.16% of the
romanian total apple trees. This County obtained only 2.44% of the total Country production, that
is 15,721 tons compared to 643,856 tons in Romania. The n ational trade balance for apples was
deficient in 2018. Bihor County can improve its production and tra de with apples by using the
appropriate measures which support the production sector, such as PNDR 2014-2 020.

Key words: apple production, apple trees, Bihor County, Romania

INTRODUCTION

Romania is a country with tradition regarding the cultivation of fruit
trees. Fruit production and marketing is an important sector of activity,
because it provides the products needed for the population consumption.
According to Eurostat, Romania is in the last places in terms of fruit
consumption, although their benefits are well known.
Since joining the European Union, the fruit-growing sector has been
supported by structural funds and measures that help the development of the
rural area. ( Dona I., 2015, AFIR, PNDR 2014-2020 ).
According to MADR, quoting NIS, apple is the second most
cultivated fruit tree at the country level.
The North-West Region, of which Bihor County is part of, obtained
the largest apple production in the country ( Chiurciu I.A. et al., 2018 ).
In this study, will be presented, the number of apple trees, the apple
production, as well as the yields obtained and the average selling price of
apples in the agri-food markets in Bihor County.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The information required for writing the paper was gathered by
accessing databases with increased visibility, such as the National Institute
of Statistics and specialized romanian and international sites. The indicators
used are: apple trees number, apples production (tons), average apple

15
production (kg/tree) and average annual prices of apples sold in the agri-
food markets, in the Bihor County. The studied period is 2014-2018. The
methods used in the study were the documentation, the comparison, the
percentage method. The information colected was presented in tables,
illustrated graphically and interpreted.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

From the data collected from NIS, the fruit sector represents only
1.30% of the area occupied by the main crops in Bihor county. In 2018 the
area occupied by orchards was of 3,969 ha, from which the individual farms
mean 3,926 ha, in decline in the last years.
The total number of apples in 2018 was 2,015,494, of which 620,150
were cultivated in Bihor County that is 2.16% of the Romanian total apple
trees (NIS).
Of the total trees in the county, 607,702 were cultivated in individual
agricultural holdings (97.99%).
Figure 1 shows the number of apple trees raised in Bihor County,
between 2014-2018. There is a slight increase of this number. In 2018, they
increased by 0.65% more apple trees than in 2014. The highest number was
recorded in 2015, of 644,498, and the lowest in 2014, of 616,169.
Fig. 1. Dynamics of the apple trees number in the period 2014- 2018
Source : Own graphics based on NIS, Tempo On-line Database, 2019

Apples ranked second in the top of the most cultivated fruit tree
categories in Bihor County, in 2018. The first place was occupied by plums,
with 721,204 pieces (NIS), despite the fact that most apple trees are found in
the North West Development Region ( Soare E., Chiurciu I.A., 2018 ).
Regarding the total fruit production in Bihor County, in the last year,
2018, it increased to 49,928 tons ( NIS). 616.169 644.498
630.834 632.819
620.150
600.000610.000620.000630.000640.000650.000
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018number of apple trees

16
In the last 2 years, the apple production has registered an upward trend
(figure 2), although the number of apples is decreasing (figure 1). Compared
to 2014, in 2018, the production was 24.3% lower.
Fig. 2. Dynamics of the apple production during 2014- 2018
Source : Own graphics based on NIS, Tempo On-line Database, 2019

Of the 15,721 tons harvested in 2018, 15,363 tons represented the
contribution of individual agricultural holdings (97.72%).
The highest production of apples was obtained in 2014, of 20,768 tons
and the smallest in 2016 – 12,124 tons.
Apple production in 2018 in Bihor County represented 2.44% of the
total Country production (643,856 tons).
Analyzing the data presented in figure 3, it is found that the average
production obtained for apples, in kg/tree, has varied during the analyzed
period. Thus, the highest quantity of apples/tree was obtained in 2014, of 34
kg / tree, and the smallest in 2016, of 19 kg/tree.
Fig. 3. Dynamics of the average apple production in Bihor County du ring 2014-
2018
Source : Own graphics based on NIS, Tempo On-line Database, 2019

The increase of the average production of apples/tree, due to the
inputs and favorable climatic conditions, led to the increase of the total
production of apples in the county (figure 2), under the conditions in which
the number of apples was decreasing (figure 1). 20.768
15.071
12.124 12.370 15.721
05.00010.00015.00020.00025.000
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018production, tons
34
23
19 20 25
0510152025303540
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018average production, kg/tree

17

Fig. 4. Dynamics of the average annual prices of apples, sold in the agri-foo d markets, in
the Bihor County during 2014- 2018
Source : Own graphics based on NIS, Tempo On-line Database, 2019
The average selling prices of apples in Bihor County have been rising.
It is noted that they increased by 16.73% in 2018, compared to 2014 and
2015, when the same value was recorded.
The balance of apples for Romania, in 2018, registered negative
values – 46,875 thousand Euro, exports worth 1,935 thousand Euro and
imports worth 48,810 thousand Euro ( DG Agri, ITC ). Being part of the
Development Region with the largest production of apples, Bihor county
must exploit its potential.

CONCLUSIONS
The main trends in the production and marketing of apples in bihor county
during 2014-2018 were:
 the highest number of apple trees was 644,498 (2015), and the
lowest number was recorded in 2014 (616,169 apple trees);
 the highest apple production at bihor county level was 20,768 tons
(2014) and in 2016, the smallest – 12,124 tons.
 19 kilograms/tree was average apple production, in 2016 and in
2014, the highest average apple production (34 kg/tree) was
achieved.
 3.21 lei/kg was the highest average annual prices of apples, sold in
the agri-food markets, in the bihor county during 2014-2018.
Romanians consumed a smaller quantity of apples compared to other
states and yet, the balance of apples in 2018 had negative values.

REFERENCES

1. AFIR, https://www.afir.info/ , accessed on 04.10.2019
2. Chiurciu I.A., Chereji A.I., Soare E., Chereji I. Jr., 2018, Study on the evolution of
agriculture in the North-West Development Region. Annals of the University o f
2014 2015 2016 2017 20182,75 2,75 2,79 2,97 3,21 average annual prices, lei/kg

18
Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxicology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVII/A, 9- 16
3. DG Agri, Dashboard: Apples, https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/food-
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%
7c%7c%7c%7c%7c0401%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c2%7
c2%71 , accessed on 03.10.2019
7. MADR, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development,
https://www.madr.ro/ horticultura/fructe- si-legume.html, accessed on
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accessed on 04.10.2019
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https://www.pndr.ro/ , accessed on 04.10.2019
10. Soare E., Chiurciu I.A. 2018, Trends in the production and mark eting of apples in
Romania. Scientific Papers. Series "Management, Economic Engineering in
Agriculture and rural development", Vol. 18 Issue 1, Print ISSN 2284-799 5, pp 465-
472

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Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

THE EVOLUTION OF THE FRUIT-GROWING SECTOR IN BIHOR
COUNTY

Chiurciu Irina-Adriana*, Chereji Aurelia-Ioana**, Soare Elena*, Che reji Ioan Jr.**, Dana
Daniela***, Daniela Răducu****

*University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest, Faculty of Management and
Rural Development, 59 Marasti Blvd, 011464, District 1, Bucharest, Romania, e -mails:
irina.chiurciu@yahoo.ro; economiegen2009@yahoo.com
** University of Oradea, Faculty of Environmental Protection, 26 Gen. Ma gheru St., 410048, Oradea,
Romania, e-mails: aureelia_brinaru@yahoo.com, i.chereji83@yahoo.com
***Ion Maiorescu National College, Giurgiu, Romania, e-mail: daniela_da na7810@yahoo.com
****National Research and Development Institute for Soil Science, Agroc hemistry and Environment
– ICPA, 61 Marasti Blvd, 011464, District 1, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail : daniela.raducu@icpa.ro

Abstract
This paper analyses the main indicators reflecting the evolutio n of the fruit-growing
sector in the Bihor County for the period 2014-2018. The most important indicators which are
analyzed are the areas occupied by fruit orchards, the number of fruit trees, the production of fruits,
the average level of production for each of them, the average level o f price for each of them. It can be
observed that the total areas occupied with -fruit plantations on bearing and the total fruit production
are decreasing. From an economic point of view, plum plantations have a particular importance,
occupying the first place in the County, as number of fruit trees and as production obtained. The data
used in the paper was taken from the National Institute of Statistics and specialized
international sites. The results of this analysis have been highlighted in relevant tables and graphics.

Key words: Bihor County, fruit production, fruit-trees sector

INTRODUCTION

Bihor County is located in the western part of Romania, in the historical
region, Crisana, on the border with Hungary. The varied relief consists of
mountains, hills and plains and is crossed by the rivers Ier, Barcau, Crișul Repede,
Crișul Negru and its tributa ries. The total area of this county is 7,544 km2 (Bihor
County ).
According to Annex I of the EC Regulation No. 1059/2003, Bihor County is
one of the six counties – NUTS 3 – which compose the North-West Development
Region, North Transylvania ( Aurelia Ioana Chereji, 2016 ).
Bihor County ranks second in terms of GDP in the North West Region and
tenth in the top of counties in terms of contribution to national GDP ( Invest in
Bihor )
After Chiurciu et al., 2018, citing Condei R. et al., 2015, and North-West
Region Presentation, in the North-West Development Region, of which the
analyzed county is part of, agriculture is on the third place in the top of t he
economic sectors that participate to the regional GDP. Also, the labor employments
in agriculture rank third the North-West Region.

21
The most developed branch of the agricultural sector in the county is the
cultivation of cereals, Bihor County having the largest arable area, ( Manole Al.et
al., 2014 ).
The fruit-trees sector represents only 1.30% of the area occupied by the main
crops in Bihor County, although the North-West Development Region has
remarkable results in the number of cultivated apple trees, being first in the c ountry
(NIS).
In this context, the paper will present in the following the total area occupied
with orchards on bearing, the fruit production, as well as the yields obtained a nd
the average selling price of fruits in the agri-food markets in Bihor County.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In order to present the evolution of the fruit-trees sector in Bihor county , the
following indicators were analyzed: orchards on bearing- total areas, area s of the
private sector, areas of individual agricultural holdings, total number o f fruit trees
and number for each fruit species, total production obtained and fruit production by
fruit species, average production for the fruit species analyzed and the average
selling price of the fruit in the agri-food markets. The indicators in this st udy were
analyzed for the period 2014-2018.
All the results in this paper were presented in tables, illustrated graphic ally
and interpreted.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In Romania, an important sector of activity is represented by the fruit
production and marketing sector because, firtsly, it provides the fruit quantities
needed by the population for consumption and, secondly, it represents a part of
the agri-food products export. Since joining the European Union, this sector
became sustained by structural funds and measures to help developping the rural
space ( Dona I., 2015 ).
From the data taken from NIS, it can be seen that, in 2018, from the total of
261.5 thousand people engaged in activities that contribute to the national economy
in the Bihor County, 23.98% worked in agriculture, forestry and fishing.
Thereby, Figure 1 shows the total areas cultivated with orchards on fruit, in
the period 2014-2018.
4,027
4,005 4,082
4,030
3,969
3.9003.9504.0004.0504.100
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018total, ha

22
Fig. 1. Dynamics of the orchards on fruit, total area (ha) in Bihor Cou nty,
2014 -2018
Source: NIS, Tempo On-line Database, 2019

In 2016 the largest area occupied by orchards was registered, of 4,082 ha,
and the smallest in 2018, of 3,969 ha, in the total category. It is noticeable that
from 2016 the orchards on fruit are declining. Compared to 2014, the decrease in
2018 was of 1.44%.
Table 1 analyzes the surfaces of the private sector with orchards on fruit and
highlights those of the individual agricultural holdings in the period 2014-2018.
In the private sector, the same trend of decreasing the cultivated areas w ith
orchards on fruit (-1.44%) is noted. For orchards in individual farms, the decrease
was of 0.86%, in 2018 compared to 2014.

Table 1
Surface occupied with orchards on fruit in the private sector, in the Biho r County during the
period 2014-2018 (ha)
Nr.
crt. Specification 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2018/2014
%
1. Private
sector,
from which:
individual
farms 4,027 3,995 4,072 4,030 3,969 98.56
3,960 3,892 3,924 3,912 3,926 99.14
Source : Own calculation based on NIS, Tempo On-line Database, 2019

Of the total orchards on fruit, those from the individual agricultural hol dings
held 98.92%, in 2018, increasing compared to 2014, when they represented
98.37%.
The orchards on fruit of the individual agricultural holdings, which have the
largest share of the total area of orchards in Bihor county, represented in 2018
17.51% of the total area of orchards in the North-West Development Region.
Figure 2 shows the total number of fruit trees in Bihor County, for the period
2014-2018. For the analyzed period there is a slight decrease of this number. In
2018, 0.79% less trees were cultivated compared to 2014. The highest number was
registered in 2016, of 2,036,239, and the lowest in 2018, of 2,015,494.

23

Fig. 2. The dynamics of the total number of fruit trees in the period 20 14-2018
Source: NIS, Tempo On-line Database, 2019

Table 2 contains data on the number of trees from the main fruit trees
species grown in the county, for the period 2014-2018.
The largest decrease in the number of trees is recorded in the category
nectarines, of 27.40%, and the highest increase in the category "other fruit tr ees" –
84.02%. Decreases in the number of trees grown are also noted for plums, peaches
and nuts.
Analyzing the centralized data in table 2 we notice that plum is the most
cultivated fruit species in Bihor County. In 2014, a number of 730,191 plums were
cultivated, so that this number would decrease, in 2018 being registered 721,204
plums, with 1.23% less.
According to Dana D. et al., 2018, plums are not the most numerous fruit
trees in Macroregion One, which ranks 3rd in this category. In contrast, they are
the most cultivated in the North-West Development Region, which owns 74.76%
of the total plums grown in Macroregion One ( NIS).
Table 2
Number of fruit trees, by fruit species, in the Bihor County during 2 014- 2018
Nr.
crt. Category
of fruit
trees 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2018/2014
%
1. Plums 730,191 727,009 724,080 722,322 721,204 98.77
2. Apples 616,169 644,498 630,834 632,819 620,150 100.65
3. Pears 125,141 125,486 125,906 125,606 125,780 100.51
4. Peaches 224,759 209,947 222,579 205,009 205,030 91.22
5. Nectarines 13,031 8,868 9,492 9,463 9,460 72.60
6. Cherries
and sour
cherries 131,494 130,368 132,179 131,746 132,487 100.76
7. Apricots 113,146 113,542 115,737 114,874 114,855 101.51
8. Walnuts 65,347 63,439 63,460 64,636 63,901 97.79
9. Other fruit
trees 12,296 12,172 11,972 11,428 22,627 184.02
Source : Own calculation based on NIS, Tempo On-line Database, 2019 2,031,574 2,035,329 2,036,239
2,017,903 2,015,494
2.005.0002.010.0002.015.0002.020.0002.025.0002.030.0002.035.0002.040.000
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018Total fruit trees

24

The following fruit species commonly found in the county are apples and
peaches. The number of apples increased during the analyzed period by 0.65%,
while the number of peaches decreased by 8.78%.
Although in the North-West Development Region are cultivated the most
apples in the country ( Soare E., Chiurciu I.A., 2018 ), in Bihor county this species is
ranked 2nd.
Other fruit species grown in the county, which registered in 2018 over
100,000 copies were: cherries and sour cherries – 132,487, pears – 125,780, apricots
– 114,855. At all these fruit species there were seen slight increases in 2018,
compared to 2014.
Regarding the fruit production, figure 3 shows the total quantity harvested in
Bihor county during 2014-2018. In 2018 the total fruit production decreased by
5.04%, compared to 2014.

Fig. 3. Dynamics of total fruit production during 2014 -2018
Source : NIS, Tempo On-line Database, 2019

The highest amount of fruits was obtained in 2014 – 52,577 tons. This
production (t) does not correspond to the largest area (ha), but is influenced by the
total production obtained for each species and by the average production / tree. The
lowest production was recorded in 2017 – 35,807 tons.
As expected, the largest fruit production was obtained from plums (Table 3).
In 2018 there was an increase of 38.38%, compared to 2014. The year in which the
smallest quantity was harvested was 2016 – 9,314 tonnes.

Table 3
Fruit production (tonnes) in Bihor County during 2014- 2018
Nr.
crt. Category of
fruits 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2018/2014
%
1. Plums 14,087 15,622 9,314 11,263 19,493 138.38
2. Apples 20,768 15,071 12,124 12,370 15,721 75.70
3. Pears 2,373 2,095 2,212 1,912 1,772 74.67
4. Peaches 7,992 7,569 7,349 4,749 6,537 81.79
5. Nectarines 412 197 229 117 126 30.58
6. Cherries and 1,843 1,703 1,726 1,230 1,869 101.41
010.00020.00030.00040.00050.00060.000
2014 2015 2016 2017 201852,577
45,383
36,288 35,807 49,928 production, tons

25
sour cherries
7. Apricots 3,523 1,573 1,634 1,877 1,905 54.07
8. Nuts 945 850 999 1,565 1,747 184.87
9. Other fruits 427 493 421 339 405 94.85
Source : Own calculation based on NIS, Tempo On-line Database, 2019

Other categories of fruit that saw increases in production are cherries and
sour cherries – 1.41% and nuts.
The decrease in the production of cherries and sour cherries at the level of
the Macroregion, in the first part of the analyzed period, followed by the increas e
of the production, was also manifested at the county level, as shown in the table
above ( Soare E., Dobre I. 2018 ).
The production obtained from nuts had the highest increases, of 84.87%.
This fact is due to the non-reimbursable European funds, accessed through the sub-
measures PNDR 2014-2014 ( AFIR ). Walnut was one of the favorite fruit-tree
species when setting up new orchards.
For the other categories of fruits there were decreases in production, and the
largest decrease was at nectarines – 69.42%.
Although they are appreciated by consumers, the production of pears in the
year 2017, in Romania, occupied only 4.61% of the fruit production realized
(Soare E., et al., 2019 ), and due to the small production obtained in Bihor county
(1,912 tonnes in 2017, 1,772 tonnes in 2018).
Average production (kg / tree) recorded fluctuations during the analyzed
period (Table 4). There have been increases in plums and nuts and decreases for all
the other fruits found in the Bihor County culture.
The largest increases in average production were recorded at nuts -92.86%,
and the largest decreases at nectarines (59.37%).
Table 4
Average fruit production (kg / tree) in Bihor County during 2014 -2018
Nr.
crt. Category of
fruits 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2018/2014
%
1. Plums 19 21 13 16 27 142.11
2. Apples 34 23 19 20 25 73.53
3. Pears 19 17 18 15 14 73.68
4. Peaches 36 36 33 23 32 88.89
5. Nectarines 32 22 24 12 13 40.63
6. Cherries and
sour cherries 14 13 13 9 14 100
7. Apricots 31 14 14 16 17 54.84
8. Nuts 14 13 16 24 27 192.86
9. Other fruits 35 41 35 29 18 51.43
Source : Own calculation based on NIS, Tempo On-line Database, 2019

For cherries and sour cherries, although the average production recorded
variations during the analyzed period (in 2017, 9 kg / tree represented the most
average production for all the analyzed fruit-tree species), in 2018 14 kg / tr ee were
also obtained, as in 2014.

26
As shown in Table 5, average prices of fruits sold in Bihor County increased
in 2014-2018. Apricots had the highest growth (34.46%), followed by peaches,
29.49%, a fact also due to the decrease of the total production and of the average
production.
Table 5
Average annual prices of fruits sold in the agri-food markets, in the Bihor County during
2014 -2018, (lei / kg)
Nr.
crt. Category of
fruits 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2018/2014
%
1. Plums 2.5 2.54 2.52 3.36 2.85 114
2. Apples 2.75 2.75 2.79 2.97 3.21 116.73
3. Pears 4.92 4,55 4.88 5.21 5.13 104.27
4. Peaches 3.73 3.77 3.9 3.86 4.83 129.49
5. Cherries 7.06 6.65 7.88 8.12 7.74 109.63
6. Sour cherries 5.34 5.06 5.71 6.5 5.74 107.49
7. Apricots 4.15 4.92 5 4.27 5.58 134.46
8. Nuts 8.04 9.29 7.13 8.8 9.12 113.43
Source : Own calculation based on NIS, Tempo On-line Database, 2019

In 2018, the highest average selling price was for nuts, 9.12 lei / kg and
cherries, 7.74 lei / kg. Plums recorded the lowest price of 2.85 lei / kg.
Today, worldwide, there is a particular emphasis on the consumption of
fruits and vegetables. Specialists recommend that one should eat more than 400
grams of fruits and vegetables per day ( Pirvutoiu I., Popescu A., 2013 ).

CONCLUSIONS

Located in the historical region Crisana, Bihor County is one of the six
counties that compose the North West Development Region.
Fruit growing is not the main branch of agriculture practiced in the County,
although the development region of which it is part of, has the largest number of
fruit trees in the country.
The orchards on fruit of the individual agricultural holdings held 98.92%, i n
2018 out of the total area occupied by orchards. For the analyzed period there is a
decrease of these surfaces.
The most cultivated fruit-tree species in bihor county is plum, although w e
notice a decrease in the number of these trees, as well as in the total number of fruit
trees.
The total fruit production decreased by 5.04%, in 2018 compared to 2014.
However, in the following categories there were increases: plums, nuts, cherri es
and sour cherries.
Between 2014-2018, average prices of fruits sold in bihor county increased.
The apricots had the highest growth, followed by peaches and apples.

REFERENCES

1. AFIR, https://www.afir.info/, accessed on 04.10.2019

27
2. Chereji A.I., 2016, Rural development. Ed. Primus, Oradea, 23- 25
3. Chiurciu I.A., Chereji A.I., Soare E., Chereji I. Jr., 2018, Study on the
evolution of agriculture in the North-West Development Region. Annals o f
the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxicology, Animal Husbandry and
Food Science and Technology, Vol. XVII/A, 9- 16
4. Condei R., Popescu A., Bălan A., Tudor V. 2015, Aspects of emp loym ent in
agriculture in the main development regions of Romania. Scientific Papers.
Series "Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and rural
development", Vol. 15 Issue 2, Print ISSN 2284-7995, 67- 74
5. Dana D., Chiurciu I.A., Voicu V., Soare E. 2018, The Management of the
plots and of the plum orchards using an Expert System-Crom. Scientific
Papers. Series "Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and rural
development", Vol. 18 Issue 1, Print ISSN 2284-7995, 137-142
6. Dona I., 2015, Rural economy, Ed. Economica, 74- 75
7. Invest in Bihor, https://investinbihor.com/economie/, accessed on 03.10. 2019
8. ICPA Bucuresti, Bihor County, https://www.icpa.ro/proiecte/Proiecte%
20nationale/sicomant/SICOMANT_Raport2_2.pdf, accessed on 04.10.2019
9. Manole Al., Diaconu A., Anghel M. G., 2014, General aspects concerning the
development of the North-West Region of Romania. http://www.revistade
statistica.ro/supliment/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/RRSS19_2014_A11.pdf,
accessed on 03.10.2019
10. NIS, National Institute of Statistics, Tempo On-line Database, 2019,
www.insse.ro, accessed on 04.10.2019
11. North-West Region Presentation, http://www.adrnord-vest.ro/DESPRE-
NOI%20Agentia- de-Dezvoltare-Regionala-Nord-Vest/REGIUNEA-
TRANSILVANIA-DE%20-NORD/Prezentare-Regiune.html, accessed on
04.10. 2019
12. Pirvutoiu I., Popescu A., Trends in Romania ’s fruit market, 2013. Annals
of the University of Craiova – Agriculture, Montanology, Cadastre
Series/Analele Univ ersității din Craiova, seria Agricultură – Montanologie –
Cadastru, Vol. XLIII 2013, 164-169, http://anale.agro-
craiova.ro/index.php/aamc/article/view/86/82, accessed on 03.10.2019
13. Soare E., Chiurciu I.A. 2018, Trends in the production and mark eting of
apples in Romania. Scientific Papers. Series "Management, Economic
Engineering in Agriculture and rural development", Vol. 18 Issue 1, Print
ISSN 2284-7995, pp 465- 472
14. Soare E., Chiurciu I.A., Balan A.V., David L. 2019, Market analysis of pears
in Romania. Scientific Papers. Series "Management, Economic Engineering in
Agriculture and rural development", Vol. 19 Issue 1, Print ISSN 2284-7995 ,
551-556
15. Soare E., Dobre I. 2018, Research on cherries sector in Romania. Scientif ic
Papers. Series "Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and rural
development", Vol. 18 Issue 2, Print ISSN 2284-7995, 431-440

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Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

REFERENCE POINTS AND TEACHING INSTRUMENTS IN THE
TEACHING-LEARNING ACTIVITY
prof. Climpe Elena Manuela*

Colegiul Economic „Partenie Cosma ” Oradea, Str. Armatei Române nr. 1F, Oradea, Romania, e-
mail: manuela_larayahoo.fr

ABSTRACT
The construction of the training strategies is done starting from the educ ation policy , from
the needs of the pupils training and professional development of the teacher, their application having
a specific context : the school culture and the access to the modern communication and informational
means. In the development and application of the training strategy , as in any strategy , the strategic
analysis ( social and school context, expectations of the beneficiarie s , at local level – students,
parents, employers – and resources available in material plan, psycholog ical, content); strategic
choice (conditioned by opportunities, evaluation, decision); stra tegic implementation ( which
involves planning , organization and change).
The training strategies are defined and adapted following the strategic op tions of
implementing the curricular reform, in the sense of promoting the educatio nal policy at the level of
school institution, but also in relation to the methodological conc ept of each teacher. An innovative
teaching-learning-assessment system is based today on a modern conceptio n of learning and a set of
IT equipment and tools. At the same time, the system relies on the c oncept of integrated curriculum
and on inter- or transdisciplinary educational approaches, oriente d by competences specific to the
knowledge society. The specialists in the education sciences state that it is n ecessary to focus the
training on the students ' acquisition / final results , with an emph asis on competences (correlates
with all forms of education) and attitudes, by emphasizing the action dimension in forming the
personality of the students. However, experts and the researchers an d educators level support that
organization of the education offer must be built against the interests, skills, expectations of the
beneficiaries (students, parents, employers ) and the expectations of soc iety. The strategy is a unitary
structure of efficient pedagogical functioning that involves an articulated se t of decisions aimed at
adapting the methods, means and forms of organization of learning to a spe cific educational situation
.
KEY WORDS : strategy, training, reform , education, skills, methods, training .
INTRODUCTION
According to D. Potolea , the strategy is a specific and superior form
of the pedagogical normativity, which ensures the instructive-educational
activity internal coherence, compatibility with the objectives and the
complementarity of the effects. Teaching strategies do not fully coincide
with learning strategies, because students learn and independently of
teaching leadership through teaching. It should be noted that an active
pedagogy involves the involvement of students, from a certain age, but as
early as possible, in the option for a certain teaching strategy, starting from
proposals of the teacher. According to Ioan Neacșu , teaching strategies
require flexible switching between the teacher's and the student's actions,
between the modes of organization: frontal, group and individual, the
combination of methods, means, practical principles . The general

31
orientation of the strategy is determined by the emphasis placed on learning
, not on the aspect of teaching .
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The use, mainly, of didactic strategies of interactive- participative
and metacognitive type places the one who learns in the center of the
instructional-educational process, stimulating him to be effectively involved
in the development of the theoretical and applied activities, valuing his spirit
of, tolerance of opinions, beliefs colleagues, developing capacity cited self-
evaluation; strategies for active interaction between participants in the
activity (student-student, student-teacher). initiative, independence and
creative potential, demanding its investigative capabilities .
The use of strategies that lead to metacognitive skills and an
intrinsic, positive motivation creates the premises for students to be able to
achieve a conscious, autonomous, systematic learning. Interactive didactic
strategies , as group strategies, involve the collaborative work of the
students organized on microgroups or work teams , in order to achieve the
expected objectives; it is based on mutual support; stimulates the individual
participation by chance; and the effort to adapt to group norms

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The strategies are constructed starting from the types / characteristics of
the learning :
– learning by passive reception / listening (logocentric model);
– learning about discovery, empirically, factually ( empirical model);
– learning through direct practical action, from experience (experiential
model);
– game learning (simulation);
– learning through experimentation, repetition or imitation.
The strategies based on the research action are based on the notion of
problem-situation and problem-solving. A problem can be defined as an
obstacle or a cognitive difficulty that involves an unknown (or more) and to
which the repertoire of responses gained in previous experience appears
insufficient or inadequate .
The differentiated training strategies have as a priority the activity in
the group that you know several variants, of which we can list:
a) the identical activity for all the members of the group;
b) differentiated activity with the addition of identical tasks;
c) activity imposed by dividing a more complex theme into simpler
and easier topics to be approached by children;
d) activity in which each group deals with a precise way of
approaching the problem, etc.

32
The groups may be homogeneous in relation to the component ( with
students having a similar level of performance ) or they may
be heterogeneous groups , the students being different in terms of
performance level . Important are , in one case and another , mutual
collaboration , acceptance of the other and fairness of the results.
The group makes a significant contribution to educating creativity,
socializing and structuring the intellectual activity optimally.
The concrete forms of differentiation
involve : individual activities and individualization of training
sequences ; activities in small groups, of 2-5 members, homogenized
groups with relative stability, with variable working time , so as to avoid
"stigmatizing" some or, on the contrary , overestimating others; training and
exercise programs, with objectives and methodologies negotiated
beforehand, with individualized content; self-taught learning ,
individual training path within distance education .
A special situation is presented by the gifted children and young
people for whom accelerated forms of training are needed , which
means early admission ; obtaining credits for school entrance
examination ; individual studies by correspondence, etc.
Getting students to use reflection strategies on their own learning
means, in a certain sense, a step towards self-knowledge, that must be self-
research, for development and fulfillment. Reflection on the water review,
plan, improve and control / regulate own their cognitive mechanisms cause
increased take some metacognitive strategies, in other words , strategies that
followed specific objectives: capacitaty to anticipate the results of
thr actions; the ability to analyze causes, effects, contexts; the ability to
evaluate their own efforts; the ability to learn from the wrong ; the peace of
transferring acquisitions, meanings in new situations; that the water of being
able to work independently and learn from one's own mistakes,
without discouraging oneself, counting mistakes , as a resource in
learning, etc. ,Taking points of view and of the various solutions etc.
The metacognitive strategies aim at both learning planning and the
dose of time or effort, as well as the awareness of their own limits, by
correctly evaluating their own results, in relation to the objectives.
Essentially, the methods of teaching and learning methods devotion
or learn teaching methods has -evaluation, its curricular sense, can be
considered practical ways to use teaching methods and techniques of
education, organizational and conducting the educational-educational
activity.
The didactic process can be defined as element of detail, sequence of
the method, particularization of it, component of it, corresponding to an
operation to be performed , within the application of the method.

33
The combination of procedures, their quality and nature, their
functionality as a whole using a teaching method determines , in the most
direct way , the efficiency of the method.
The notion of methodology has at least two meanings:

a) all the methods used in the educational process, structured on the
basis of a unitary pedagogical conception;

b) the science that studies the nature, functions and status of the
educational methods, discovering, from a dynamic and open perspective, the
principles of their effective use. The term of technology tries to answer the
question how to proceed , what methods to use in order to achieve maximum
efficiency of the educational process , technology is defined as a set of
teaching tools and techniques along with ways to use them.
The active-participatory method , introduced in the pedagogy
of the active school paradigm , centered on the student and his / her interests
of knowledge , mobilizes the energies of the learner / training, emphasizes
the process and not the product of knowledge. This method is seeked and
involves a knowledge conquered student.
The interactive methods , in turn, focus on the educational
interaction and take solutions and techniques specific to other fields than
traditional school training (communication techniques, training of trainers
and management, creativity stimulation, group techniques, etc.), the
diversification produced taking, for example, the form of the Phillips
6/6 process , ice breaking games , focus group technique , interactive
listening , etc., methods mainly used in the activity with adolescent students
and in adult teaching .
The pedagogy classical surrender first theory and then
built situation problem , while pedagogy modern takes as its starting
point the situation problem – starting from her presentation of information.
The main directions for the modernization of the methods are:
enlargement, diversification of the repertoire of methods and procedures
(a quantitative extension ), instrumentalization and technicalization of the
methodology, preparation for lifelong learning.
Priority directions for the renewal of the methods are also
considered: in the sense of a differentiated pedagogy , of an education, as
well , the individualization of the methods; customizing learning
conditions; selecting methods by objectives we formative that visa ase
intellectual capabilities; cognitive attitudes, thinking qualities , a certain way
of thinking freely, openly, autonomously; understanding the student as an
active partner, co-participant , co-author of his own training; consulting
students in choosing and using methods; highlighting the full cognitive

34
potential of the student, based on formative diagnosis; gradual
empowerment of students by encouraging independent, creative work; the
emphasis placed on learning, not teaching, in the spirit of a
reform of Romanian education; acquiring, conquering a science from
experience , by capitalizing on the informal experience of the student, as
well as the non-formal one, through independent exploration, spiritual
autonomy; encouraging teamwork, cooperative learning, appreciation of
work; organization of learning conditions by a teacher , counselor,
facilitator; the focus on developing the intrinsic motivation of learning ,
the joy of knowing and the pleasure of learning ; the construction of the
intellectual activity of the student.
In this regard, it can be appreciated that the methodology is
constantly enriched, especially by the valuable contributions of some
researchers in the education sciences, by the innovations promoted by the
best teachers or by the theoretical contributions of renowned educators, etc.
Depending on the specific teaching disciplines is used, there are
various methods wich were inspired by intergroup communication
techniques, social psychology or the social and human sciences-specific
methodologies.
For example, for the teaching of the Romanian language, it can be
used in specific combinations: the double entry journal, the triple entry
journal, the author's chair, the synelg (I know – I want to know – I learned),
rotary, pyramid discussion, puzzle, gallery tour, early reading, mosaic,
project, cube, VENN, tour in chess, portfolio,
investigation, quintet , horoscope , clusters , thinking hats , inspired by the
specific methodologies of the trainers training.
The reading journal with double or triple entry is an individual work
tool of the student by which the capacity for reflection can be encouraged
and stimulated. In the case of the double entry, there are two sections: on
one side a text is transcribed or text fragments are selected that have aroused
their interest, which they liked or disliked, etc., and in the other I write
personal comments on the respective fragment.
The three-section journal includes: personal comments, ideas for
lessons or discussions and questions for teachers.
The Sinelg implies the adoption of a learning guide: what the student
remembers about a certain concept or a certain situation / problem; what he
would like to know; what was new at the end of the lesson / activity.
Depending on the particularities of the object of education can
achieve classification methods which are fit to content specifically is:
a) methods for oral communication Methods shows –
DESCRIPTION, explanation, the arguments, the exposure of the
opponent, lecture , discussion of , story of, training of

35
foundation; the method of essays; interrogative methods:
conversation, heuristic and catechetical conversation,
problematization; the method of discussions and debates;
b) methods of written communication: reading, as a technique of
information and documentation, reading and interpreting the biblical
text, the report, etc .
c) m action methods: exercise, teaching game, learning through
dramatization (carols, choir, religious plays), learning by researching
vestiges, documents (visits to monasteries, churches).
The case study is also a method of active learning and learning,
which allows direct confrontation with a real situation , having a great
heuristic and applied value , a special training role; involves capacities for
critical examination of the different strategies and variants for solving real
cases, from everyday life.
To collect data are used: study of files, archives, interview,
questioning of specialists, those who were present (assisted, witnesses of
what happened and can provide an image of what was really), document
study: letters , denominations, and biographical

CONCLUSIONS

Into an training activty oriented by constructivism, the
effective evaluation of training strategies targetst the capacity of
investigation and the capacity of conceptualization, the ability to solve
problems, thinking ability, capacity evaluation and especially self-
evaluation .
The lesson remains, at least for now, the main way of organizing and
carrying out the didactic activity, an authentic pedagogical microsystem,
which reproduces the image of the educational process as a pedagogical
macrostructure.
The diversification of the teaching-learning strategies evaluation can
be realized only if the focus is on transforming the learner into the subject
of the training, independent explorer of the real and / or virtual environment
and constructor of the learning.
Open learning environment, its diverse and rich in resources,
complete the picture.

REFERENCES
1. Cerghit, I, Neacșu, I., Negreț -Dobridor, I., Pânișoară, I.O., Prelegeri pedagogice ,
Editura Polirom, Iași, 2001
2. Căpiță, Laura, Căpiță, Carol , Tendințe în didactica istoriei , Editura Paralela 45,
2005;
3. Cerghit, I., Metode de învățământ , Editura Polirom, Iași, 2006;

36
4. Cucoș, Constantin, Pedagogie , Polirom, Iași, 2002;
5. Dulamă, Maria Eliza, Strategii didactice , Editura Clusium 2000;
6. Ionescu, M., Radu I., Didactica modernă , Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2001;
7. Ionel, V., Pedagogia situațiilor educative , Polirom, Iași, 2002;
8. Ionescu, M. (coord.), Schimbări paradigmatice în instrucție și educație , Cluj-
Napoca: Eikon, 2006;
9. Oprea, Crenguța Lăcrămioara, Strategii didactice interactive , EDP, București,
2007 ;
10. Maciuc, I . Clasic si modern în pedagogia actuală . Tratat. Craiova, Editura Sitech.,
2007;
11. Michaela Logofătu, Mihaela Garabet, Anca Voicu, Emilia Păușan, Tehnologia
Informației și a Comunicațiilor în școala modernă , Editura Credis, București,
2003;
12. Miron Ionescu, Ioan Radu, Didactica modernă , Editura Dacia, Cluj Napoca, 2004;
13. Moise, C., Concepte didactice fundamentale , Ankarom, Iași, 1996;
14. Păcurari, Otilia, Târcă, Anca, Sariv an, Ligia , Strategii didactice inovative , suport
de curs, Centrul Educația 2000, București;
15. Ștefan, M.A., Facilitarea și îndrumarea învățării pedagogiei. Rolul seminariilor
specifice în formarea inițială a profesorilor, Craiova, Editura Universitaria, 200 8;
16. Văideanu, G., Pedagogie- ghid pentru profesori , Editura Universității Al. I. Cuza,
Iași, 1986;
17. Website: http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice;
18. www.elearning.ro (portal de e-learning din Romania);
19. http://www.google.com/;
20. http://www.yahoo.com

38
Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

FAUNISTICAL DATA FROM THE WESTERN PART OF
ROMANIA DURING 2019

Ilie Aurelian Leonardo, Marinescu Mariana

Nicolae Jiga Theoretical High School,36A Republicii St., Tinca, Romania
e-mail:aurelian_ilie@yahoo.fr

Abstract .
This paper present the faunistical researches from the western part of Roman ia, during 2019. There
were presented some faunistical and ecological data, unpublished in lite rature (phenological
anomalies, the size of the clutches, additional yearly clutches, chromatic v arieties, rare or accidental
species).

Key words : faunistical data, Romania.

INTRODUCTION

The dissapearance of species or the diminution of their population,the
emergence of new species either accidental in a territory,insuficient faunal
data,observing some ecological aspects not published in the scientific
literature are just a few reasons that make it absolutely necessary to publish
the faunal data observed in nature. Data about the fauna from the western
part of Romania area were published by Ilie (2011, 2015, 2017).

MATHERIAL AND METHOD

The insects were collected with the entomological net.For the identification
of species were used different sources (Warchalowski, 2003; Pîrvu et al.,
1985; Hoeher, 1973; Valenciuc, 2002; Fuhn et al., 1961; Dijkstra, 2006;
Svensson, 2017).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

During 2019 , were identified the following species:
The Gastropoda Class
– Helix lucorum Linnaeus, 1758-one specimen, Oradea(BH), June 11.
Relatively common species in Romania.
– Helix pomatia Linnaeus, 1758-one specimen, Tinca(BH), September 16.
Common species at national level.
The Insecta Class
The Coleoptera Order

39
-Clytra laeviuscula Ratzeburg, 1837 – one female specimen, Oradea(BH),
May 21. Common species in Romania.
-Galeruca tanaceti Linnaeus, 1758 – one female specimen, Oradea(BH),
September 29; one female, Tinca(BH), October 5, one femele specimen
feeding on spicules and seeds of Agropyron cristatum Linnaeus, 1758,
Tinca(BH), October 12. This is an accidental host plant species for this
species. Common species in Romania.
The Lepidoptera Order
-Inachis io Linnaeus, 1758- one specimen, Leș(BH). July 30; one specimen,
the edge of Tinca forest(BH), October 12. Common species at national
level, but more rarely in this year.
-Vanessa atalanta Linnaeus, 1758-one specimen, Tinca(BH), September 18,
24, 29; one specimen, Tinca(BH), October 2, 5 and 12 (the edge of Tinca
forest-BH), 17(Tinca-BH). Very common in Romania, but rare in this year.
-Oclodes sylvanus Esper, 1777-one male specimen, Oradea(BH), May, 21.
Relatively common species in Romania.
-Papilio machaon Linnaeus,1758 – one specimen, Leș(BH), July 30.
Relatively common species in Romania, but rare in this year.
-Lycaena dispar rutila Werneburg,1864 – one female specimen, Leș(BH),
July 30. Relatively common species in Romania, but protected at national
level.
-Hyles euphorbiae Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen, Tinca(BH), September
24, 30. Common species in Romania.
-Vanessa cardui Linnaeus, 1758 – five male specimens, Oradea(BH), June
11; two specimens, Tinca(BH), October 8. Frequent species in 2019,
common species in Romania.
-Pieris brassicae Linnaeus, 1758 – rare specimens during April-May
because the rains, relative many specimens during June-August in all
western part of Romania. Common species in Romania.
-Macroglossum stellatarum Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen, Tinca(BH),
September 24, 30. Migratory species in Romania, sometimes relatively
common species in Tinca area, during August-September.
-Colias erate Esper, 1803 – one male specimen, Tinca(BH), October 4 and
7; many specimens, the edge of Tinca forest(BH), October 12. Relatively
common species in Romania. It is noted that the flight period is extented by
one month (Rakosy, 2013).
-Cupido alcetas Hoffmannsegg, 1804 – one female specimen, Tinca (BH),
October 4. Almost endangered species in Romania (Rakosy, 2013).
-Maniola jurtina Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen, Tinca (BH), October 5.
Common species in Romania.

40
-Plebejus argus Linnaeus, 1758 – one male specimen, Tinca (BH), October
7. Common species in Romania. According to literature (Rakosy, 2013), it
is noted that the flight period is extented by one month.
-Lasiommata megera Linnaeus, 1758 – two male specimens, Tinca (BH),
October 7. Common species in Romania.
-Issoria lathonia Hubner, 1819 – two male specimens, Tinca(BH), October
8, 12. Relatively common species in Romania.
-Colias croceus Fourcroy, 1785 – one female specimen, Tinca (BH),
October 8; many specimens, the edge of Tinca forest (BH), October 12.
Common species at national level, but relatively rare in this year.
-Argynnis paphia Linnaeus, 1758 – one male specimen, Tinca(BH), October
11. Common species in Romania.
-Argynnis adippe Dennis et Schiffermuller, 1775 – two specimens, the edge
of Tinca forest (BH), October 12. Common species in Romania. It is noted
that the flight period is extented by almost two monhs (Rakosy, 2013).
-Lycaena phleas Linnaeus, 1758 – many specimens, the edge of Tinca
forest(BH), October 12. Common species in Romania.
-Brenthis daphne Bergstrasser, 1780 – one male specimen, the edge of
Tinca forest (BH), October 12. Relatively common species in Romania, it is
noted that the flight period is extented by two months (Rakosy, 2013).
The Odonata Order
-Sympetrum sanguineum Muller, 1764 – one male specimen, Tinca (BH),
October 7. Generally, common species in Romania. Flight season: April-
August, although some may persist well into November (Dijkstra, 2006).
-Aeshna mixta Latreille, 1805 – one male specimen, the edge of Tinca forest
(BH), October 13. Relatively common species in Romania, flight season:
April-September.
The Mantodea Order
-Mantis religiosa Linnaeus, 1758 – one green female specimen, Tinca(BH),
October 16; one brown female specimen, Tinca(BH), October 17. Common
species in Romania.
Pisces Class
-Tinca tinca Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen,Tăut (BH), Crișul Negru river,
September 26. Very rare species in Romania.
Amphibia Class
-Hyla arborea Linnaeus, 1758 – one male specimen singing, Tinca (BH),
September 13, 18, 24, 28, 29; October 1, 13.Common species in Romania.
-Salamandra salamandra Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen, Ucuriș(BH),
April 10. Common species in hilly and mountainous areas from Romania.
Reptilia Class
-Lacerta viridis Linnaeus, 1758 – one male specimen, Tinca forest(BH),
October 12. Common species in Romania.

41
-Lacerta agilis Linnaeus, 1758 – two specimens, the edge of Tinca forest
(BH), October 12. Common species in Romania.
Aves Class
-Circaetus gallicus Gmelin,1788 – one specimen, Drobeta Turnu-Severin
(MH), September 12. Summer visitor, species became relatively rare at
national level.
-Buteo buteo Linnaeus,1758 – ten specimens observed along Salonta (BH) –
Craiova (DJ) route, September 11; one specimen, Leș(BH), September 29.
Common species in Romania.
-Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus, 1758 – two male specimens, Salonta(BH); one
male specimen, Vinga (TM); one female specimen, Timișoara (TM); one
male specimen, Ciumeghiu (BH), September 11; one male specimen,
Oradea (BH), September 29. Relatively common species in Romania.
-Phylloscopus collybita Vieillot, 1817 – one male singing, Tinca (BH),
September 18. Summer visitor, relatively common species in Romania.
-Athene noctua Scopoli, 1769 – one pellet, L=5cm, l=1.5cm, contained
beans of Apodemus sylvaticus Linnaeus, 1758 and remains of little
coleopterans, Tinca(BH), September 19. Common,sedentary species in
Romania.
-Phasianus colchicus Linnaeus, 1758 – three eggs and two nestlings, Aleșd
(BH), August 25. Probably, this is the third yearly generation, observed by
Ilie even in Tinca area (BH) but in September-November in the last years.
Common,sedentary species in Romania.
-Mergus serrator Linnaeus, 1758 – one male specimen, Tinca (BH), Crișul
Negru river, September 19. Surprising the presence of the species at this
date, being winter visitor at national level.
-Netta rufina Pallas, 1773 – one male specimen, Tinca (BH), Crișul Negru
river, September 19. Summer visitor, rarely in winter in Romania.
-Falco vespertinus Linnaeus, 1766 – one female specimen, Tinca(BH),
September 18. Summer visitor,relatively rare species in Romania.
-Delichon urbica Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen (probably the last of this
year), Tinca(BH), September 21. Summer visitor, common species in
Romania.
-Corvus corax Linnaeus, 1758 – one pair, Tinca(BH), September 21; one
male specimen, Tinca(BH), October 5; one pair, Tinca forest (BH), October
12. Sedentary, relatively common species in Romania.
-Anser anser Linnaeus, 1758 – one female specimen with three goose
bumps, Oradea (BH), September 12. In this case this is an additional clutch
(the second), unmentioned in the scientific literature. Partial migratory
species in Romania.
-Carduelis cannabina Linnaeus,1758 – one pair, Tinca (BH), September 21.
Partial migratory, relatively common species in Romania.

42
-Panurus biarmicus Linnaeus, 1758 – five male specimens, two female
specimens, Tinca (BH), September 21. Sedentary species in Romania.
-Cygnus olor Gmelin, 1789 – two immature specimens, Drobeta Turnu-
Severin (MH), Danube river, September 11; one adult specimen, the same
place, September 14. Partial migratory species at national level.
-Phalacrocorax pygmaeus Pallas, 1773 – three specimens, Drobeta Turnu-
Severin-MH (Iron Gates), September 14. Summer visitor, rarely in winter in
Romania.
-Phalacrocorax carbo Linnaeus, 1758 – two specimens, Drobeta Turnu-
Severin(MH), Danube river, September 14; one specimen, Tinca (BH),
September 30; seven specimens, Tinca (BH), October 12. Summer visitor,
rarely in winter at national level.
-Larus ridibundus Linnaeus, 1766 – many immature and adults along the
Danube river, on Orșova -Drobeta Turnu-Severin route (MH), September
11-14. Partial migratory species.
-Tachybaptus ruficollis Pallas, 1764 – one specimen, Drobeta Turnu-
Severin-MH (Iron Gates), September 14. Summer visitor, rarely in winter in
Romania.
-Falco columbarius Linnaeus, 1758 – one male specimen, Tinca (BH),
September 4. Surprising the presence of the species at this date, being
winter visitor at national level.
-Columba palumbus Linnaeus, 1758 – one adult and four juvenile
specimens, Oradea (BH), September 16, near Peța rivulet. In this case this is
the fourth yearly generation unmentioned than in the book of Hoeher (1973)
who mentions this clutch in September. Probably the clutch was deposited
at the end of August.Generally, the number of eggs is two, rarely one or
three (in this case, this clutch presented four eggs,case unmentioned in the
scientific literature).
-Podiceps cristatus Linnaeus, 1758 – one male specimen, Miersig lake(BH),
September 22. Summer visitor in Romania.
-Hirundo rustica Linnaeus, 1758 – 21 specimens (probably northern
specimens being in migration), Tinca (BH), September 24; twenty juvenile
specimens (probably northern specimens), Tinca (BH), September 30.
Summer visitor, common species in Romania.
-Accipiter brevipes Severtzov, 1850 – one male specimen, Cheșa (BH),
September 25; one male specimen, Tinca (BH), October 13. Summer
visitor, relatively rare species in Romania.
-Certhia familiaris Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen, Belfir (BH), September
25. Sedentary species, relatively common species in deciduous forests from
Romania.
-Oriolus oriolus Linnaeus, 1758 – one male specimen, Cheșa (BH),
September 24; one male specimen, Râpa (BH), September 26; one male

43
specimen, Tinca spa (BH), October 3. Summer visitor, relatively common
species in Romania.
-Parus cyanus Pallas, 1766 – one specimen, Cociuba Mare forest (BH),
September 26; one specimen, Râpa (BH), October 3. Winter visitor
(surprising the presence of the species at this date!), accidental,very rare
species in Romania.
-Aegypius monachus Linnaeus, 1766 – one immature specimen, Belfir (BH),
September 26. Accidental, very rare species in Romania.
-Parus cristatus Linnaeus, 1758 – two specimens, Brad (AB), September 26.
Sedentary, common species in the mountains areas from Romania.
-Accipiter nissus Linnaeus, 1758 – one juvenile specimen, Tinca (BH),
September 24, 27 and Belfir (BH), October 13. Sedentary, common species
in Romania.
-Parus ater Linnaeus, 1758 – four specimens, Râpa (BH), October 2.
Sedentary, relatively common species in the hilly areas of Romania.
-Eremophila alpestris Linnaeus, 1758 – one male specimen, Belfir (BH),
October 1. Summer or winter visitor, relatively common species in the
mountainous areas of Romania.
-Ficedula hypoleuca Pallas, 1764 – one male specimen, Tinca (BH), October
2. Summer visitor, rare species at national level.
-Sturnus roseus Linnaeus, 1758 – two specimens, Râpa (BH), October 1.
Summer visitor, relatively rare species in Romania.
-Accipiter gentilis Linnaeus, 1758 – one female specimen, Tinca (BH),
October 5. Sedentary,common species in Romania.
-Platalea leucorodia Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen, Tinca (BH), Crișul
Negru river, October 3. Summer visitor, relatively common species in
Romania.
-Phoenicurus phoenicurus Linnaeus, 1758 – breeding species inside the
Râpa village, during 2018-2019. Summer visitor, relatively common species
in the deciduous forests from Romania.
-Grus grus Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen, Măgești (BH), October 5.
Passage species and winter visitor at national level.
-Coccothraustes coccothraustes Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen, Tinca
(BH), October 8. Sedentary, common species in the deciduous forests from
Romania.
-Hippolais icterina Vieillot, 1817 – one specimen, Tinca (BH), October 8;
one specimen, Tinca forest (BH), October 12. Summer visitor, relatively
common species in the plain areas from Romania. Probably,this is the latest
mention for this species in Romania.
-Anas plathyrhynchos Linnaeus, 1758 – 62 specimens, Tinca (BH), October
8. Sedentary, common species near waters in Romania.

44
-Aythya nyroca Guldenstadt, 1770 – one female specimen with five duck
buds, Cheșa(BH), Crișul Negru river, October 8. This is the second yearly
clutch, unmentioned in the scientific literature. Summer visitor, rarely in
winter in Romania, near waters.
-Luscinia svecica Linnaeus, 1758 – one male specimen, Tinca (BH), October
8. Summer visitor or passage species in Romania.
-Hirundo daurica Laxmann,1769 – one specimen, Belfir(BH), October 9.
Summer visitor, rare species in Romania.
-Plectrophenax nivalis Linnaeus, 1758 – one female specimen, Tinca (BH),
October 7. Surprising the presence of this species at this date, being winter
visitor (probably,this is the earliest mention for this species in Romania!).
-Carpodacus erythrinus Pallas, 1770 – one male specimen, Râpa(BH),
October 8. Summer visitor, relatively rare species in Romania.
-Coturnix coturnix Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen, Cheșa(BH), October 10.
Sedentary, common species in the plain areas from Romania.
-Alauda arvensis Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen, Cheșa (BH), October 10.
Partial migratory species, common in the plain areas from Romania.
-Sylvia curruca Linnaeus, 1758 – one male specimen, Tinca (BH), October
10; one male specimen, Cheșa (BH), October 12. Summer visitor, relatively
common species in the hilly and plain areas from Romania.
-Troglodytes troglodytes Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen, Tinca forest (BH),
October 12. Summer visitor, rarely winter visitor, common species in the
deciduous forests from Romania.
-Turdus pilaris Linnaeus, 1758 – four specimens, the edge of Tinca forest
(BH), October 12. Sedentary or winter visitor, relatively common species in
Romania.
-Parus major Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen with entirely yellow abdomen
(without the characteristic black spot, being no juvenile specimen), the edge
of Tinca forest (BH), October 12. Sedentary,common species in Romania.
-Parus montanus Baldenstein, 1827 – two specimens, the edge of Tinca
forest(BH), October 12. Sedentary, common species in the mountainous
areas from Romania.
-Hippolais pallida Ehrenberg, 1833 – one specimen, Oradea (BH),
October15. Summer visitor in Romania, this is the latest mention for this
species in Romania.
-Buteo rufinus Cretzschmar, 1829 – one specimen, Cheșa (BH), October 14.
Summer visitor or passage species in Romania.
-Tarsiger cyanurus Pallas, 1773 – one male specimen, Cociuba Mare (BH),
October 14. Passage species or rarely winter visitor,very rare species in
Romania.
-Pernis apivorus Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen, Cheșa (BH), August 15.
Summer visitor,relatively rare species in Romania.

45
-Gyps fulvus Hablitz, 1783 – one immature specimen, Belfir (BH), October
11. Accidental, very rare species in Romania.
-Erithacus rubecula Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen, Râpa(BH), October 14.
Summer visitor or rarely winter visitor, common species in the deciduous
forests from Romania.
-Phalaropus lobatus Linnaeus, 1758 – one specimen with winter plumage,
Tinca(BH), Crișul Negru river, October 12. Passage, rare species in
Romania.
-Streptopelia decaocto Frivaldszky, 1838 – one broken egg, Tinca (BH),
October 16. This egg belongs to the sixth yearly clutch, confirming again
the observations of Ilie in Tinca area in the last years. Sedentary, very
common species in Romania.
-Motacilla cinerea Tunstall, 1771 – three specimens, Tinca (BH), October
17. Summer visitor, rarely in winter, relatively common species in the
mountainous areas from Romania.
Mammalia Class
-Rhinolophus ferrumequinum Schreber, 1774 – four specimens, Tinca(BH),
September 22-24; two specimens, Tinca(BH), September 29; three
specimens, Tinca(BH), October 1. Common species in Romania.
-Pipistrellus pipistrellus Schreber, 1774 – one specimen, Tinca(BH),
September 23-25; one specimen Tinca(BH), October 1, 9. Common species
in Romania.
-Mustela nivalis Linnaeus,1758-one excreta, L=2.5cm, l=2.2mm, contained
remains of little coleopterans, Tinca(BH), September 22. Common species
in Romania.
-Talpa europa ea Linnaeus, 1758- one specimen, Leș(BH), September 29.
Common species in Romania.
-Vulpes vulpes Linnaeus, 1858-one male specimen, 100% black (melanistic
specimen), Cheșa(BH), August 16. This chromatic variety is very rare in
nature. Common species in Romania.
Legend: BH-Bihor county, MH- Mehedinți county, DJ -Dolj county, AR-
Arad county, TM- Timiș coun ty; AB=Alba county.

CONCLUSIONS

During 2019 in the western part of Romania were recorded 98
species belonging to seven classes and 84 genera. There were obtained
ecological data of these species ,some of them unknown in the scientific
literature about phenological anomalies,additional yearly clutches,the size of
the clutch, chromatic varieties. Frequent species of butterflies in 2019 in the
western part of Romania: Vanessa cardui L.

46
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2. Fuhn I., Vancea Șt., 1961, Fauna R.P.R. Reptilia. vol XIV. fasc.2. Ed. A cademiei
R.P.R., București.
3. Hoeher S., 1973, Nids et oeufs des oiseaux d Europe centrale et occidentale,
Ed.Delachaux et Niestle, Paris-Lausanne.
4. Ilie A.L., 2011, Jurnal faunistic feroviar, Universitatea din Oradea. D.P.P.P .D.
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5. Ilie A.L., 2015, New researches about the ornithofauna from the wes tern half of
Romania. Universitatea din Oradea. D.P.P.P.D. Revista Educația omului de azi
pentru lumea de mâine. No.12, pp.99- 101. Ed.Pro Universitaria, București.
6. Ilie A.L., 2017, Data about the fauna of vertebrates from the western hal f of
Romania during 2016-2017. Universitatea din Oradea. D.P.P.P.D. Revista
Educația omului de azi pentru lumea de mâine. No.14, pp.75 -82. Ed.Pro
Universitaria, București.
7. Pîrvu C., Godeanu S., Stroe L., 1985, Călăuză în lumea plantelor și anim alelor,
Ed.Ceres, București.
8. Rakosy L., 1996, Die Noctuiden Rumaniens, Linz.
9. Rakosy L., 2013, Fluturii diurni din Romania,cunoaștere, protecție, conservar e,
Ed.Mega, Cluj-Napoca.
10. Svensson L., 2017, Ghid pentru identificarea păsărilor.Europa și zona
mediteraneană.A II -a ediție. Versiunea în limba română Societatea Ornitologică
Român ă. Tipărirea:Trento,Italia.
11. Szekely L., 2010, Moths of Romania 1, Tipografia Disz Tipo, Săcele -Brașov.
12. Valenciuc N., 2002, Fauna României. Mammalia. Chiroptera. vol. XVI, fasc.3,
Ed. Academiei Române, București.
13. Warchalowski A., 2003, Chrysomelidae. The leaf beetles of Europe and the
Mediterranean area, Natura optima dux Foundation, Warszawa.
14. www.en.wikipedia.org (accesed July 31, 2019)

48
Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

STUDY ON THE PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF
SUNFLOWER SEEDS IN THE CENTER REGION

Soare Elena

*University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Bucharest, Faculty of Management,
Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development, 59 Marasti Blvd, 0 11464, District 1,
Bucharest, Romania , soare.elenausamv@gmail.com

Abstract

The present paper highlights the main aspects regarding the productio n and marketing of
sunflower seeds in the Center Region of Romania. At present, a special emp hasis is placed on the
production of sunflower seeds, as they have a double importance. Sunflower seeds provide, on the
one hand, a significant share for the animal feed, and on the o ther hand they are used for human
consumption. According to studies conducted sunflower seeds contain a number of v itamins
necessary for the human body. In order to carry out a study as rea listic as possible, the most
appropriate indicators were analyzed, such as: the areas cultivated with sunflower seeds; total
production of sunflower seeds; average production per hectare of sun flower seeds; prices for
sunflower seeds. The analyzed indicators targeted the Center Region of Ro mania for the period 2012-
2017. The statistical data used in this research were provided by the Na tional Institute of Statistics.

Key words : commercialization; sunflower seeds; total production of sunflower seeds; prices; Center
Region

INTRODUCTION

Sunflower comes from the Central and North America, being part of the
Order Compositales, the Compositae family and the genus Helianthus1 L. In
Romania, sunflower represents an oil plant that has a high degree of spread in th e
territory. The most significant surfaces cultivated with sunflower are found
especially in the Romanian and Western Plains, as well as in Dobrogea
(https://www.agro.basf.ro/ro/stiri/fermier- in-romania/cultura-de-floarea-soarelui-
toate-informatiile-de-care-ai-nevoie.html).
At present, the sunflower represents a plant with many uses such as:
feeding the population; feeding animals; industry. Worldwide, plants such as
sunflower, rapeseed, hops, soybean and sugar beet present a wide range of uses in
the food industry in order to obtain various and high-quality products for human
consumption ( Chiurciu I. A., 2015), (Dona I., 2015) (Soare E., et al., 2018).
It is necessary to specify that the sunflower oil also presents
energetic uses. It can be used as an additive or a substitute for fuel,
especially due to the physical properties equivalent to those of the diesel
fuel (https://www.pestre.ro/blog/floarea-soarelui-de- la-plantare- la-
recoltare/#Importanta_culturii_de_floarea_-_soarelui).

49
In Romania, the sunflower is the most important plant for the honey
production that is characterized by: increased number of flowers on the
inflorescence and a good secretion of nectar ( Stefan V., et al., 2008).
In addition to the many uses that have been highlighted for sunflower, the
aspects that make this crop plant attractive to farmers have been identified. Of
these, we specify two key aspects that directly contribute to increasing the
profitability of the sunflower culture: total mechanization and low costs per hect are
compared to other crops, which at the end of the season are sold at very close
prices, ( Soare E., Chiurciu I.A. 2018).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present study analyzed a series of indicators that best reflect the
evolution of the sector of production and marketing of sunflower seeds in the
Center Region. The indicators analyzed in this study are: the areas cultivated w ith
seeds in the Center Region; global production of sunflower seeds; average
production per hectare of sunflower seeds; prices for sunflower seeds. The
statistical data used in the present research were taken from the National Inst itute
of Statistics. The period for which the current study was conducted was 2012-2017.
The present study was based on a series of books, articles, statistical dat a that
provided a series of information regarding the production and marketing of
sunflower seeds. The most important information on the one hand, are presented in
the current research, and on the other, the citations related to the materials tha t
provided the information can be found.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Surface cultivated with sunflower. The surface cultivated with sunflower
in the Center Region recorded changes during the analyzed period (see fig. 1). In
2012, the smallest area cultivated with sunflower in this region was registered, of
5,455 ha. In 2013, there was a significant increase of 50.8%, compared to 2012. In
2014, compared to 2013, there was an increase in the area cultivated with
sunflower (+ 16.0 hectares). In 2015, compared to 2014, the cultivated area
decreased (-217.0 hectares). In 2016, compared to 2015 the area with sunflower
increased by 8.44%. In 2017, in the Center Region the area cultivated with
sunflower reached the maximum level (11,367 hectares) during the analyzed
period. In 2017, compared to 2012, the cultivated area increased by 108.3%. The
oscillation of the cultivated areas with the sunflower in this region was d ue,
especially to the interests of the farmers.
In the Center Region, in 2017, 1.14% of the area cultivated at national level
could be found. From the data presented, it can be easily observed that in this
region a small area is cultivated with sunflower, compared to the areas cultivated in
the other development regions. This region has a low degree of favorability for the
sunflower culture. At the national level, in 2017, 998,415 hectares were cultivated
with sunflower, which placed Romania at the top of the ranking of sunflower
cultivating countries at European Union level.

50

Fig. 1. Dynamics of the surface cultivated with sunflower
in the Center Region, between 2012-2017 (hectares)
Source : Own graphic based on the data from the National
Institute of Statistics, 2019

Regarding the areas cultivated with sunflower in the counties from the Center
Region, they have registered changes from year to year (see fig. 2). It is necessary
to specify that the county of Mures has the largest areas with sunflower. In 2017, in
this county was registered the largest area cultivated with sunflower, of 5,770 h a.
The area cultivated in this county in 2017, represented 50.8% of the area cultiv ated
in the Center Region. In Alba county the cultivated areas ranged between 1,683-
4,680 ha. In Sibiu county, the largest area with sunflower was 1,173 ha (2013). In
2016, in the county of Brasov was registered the largest area with sunflower, of
228 ha. In Covasna county, in 2016, the smallest area cultivated with sunflower
was registered, of only 6 hectares.

Fig.2. Dynamics of the surface cultivated with sunflower
in the counties from the Center Region,
between 2012-2017 (hectares) 5,455 8,227 8,243 8,026 8,704 11,367
020004000600080001000012000
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017Surface cultivated with sunflower
in the the Region Center (ha)
Year
01000200030004000500060007000
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017Surface cultivated with sunflower
in the counties from the Center
Region (ha)
Year Alba Brasov Covasna
Mures Sibiu

51
Source: Own graphic based on the data from the National
I nstitute of Statistics, 2019

Production of sunflower seeds. Sunflower seeds production in the
Center Region between 2012-2017 recorded oscillations from year to year
(see fig. 3). The highest production was 30,975 tons (2017). This increased
production was due on the one hand, to the cultivated areas and on the other,
to the yields achieved per hectare (Lilea C.P.F., et al. , 2018).
The production of sunflower seeds in 2017 represented 1.06% of the
national production. In 2017, in the Center Region the total production of
sunflower seeds increased by 315.9%, compared to 2012. At the opposite pole, the
lowest production of sunflower seeds was recorded in 2012 (7,448 tones). This
reduced production was in close correlation with the number of hectares cultivated
with sunflower, in 2012.

Fig.3. Dynamics of sunflower seed production in the
Center Region, between 2012-2017 (tones)
Source : Own graphic based on the data from the National
Institute of Statistics, 2019

In the counties from the Center Region the production of sunflower seeds
in the period 2012-2017 has changed from year to year (see fig. 4). These changes
were due to both the sunflower cultivated surfaces and the climatic factors. As
expected, during the period under analysis in Mures County, the most significant
sunflower seed production was recorded. In 2017, the maximum point of sunflower
seed production at the county level of 17,064 tones was reached.
7,448 12,173 19,102
16,875 19,667 30,975
05000100001500020000250003000035000
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017Sunflower seed production in the
Center Region (tones)
Year

52

Fig.4. Dynamics of the sunflower seed production in counties
from the Center Region, in the period 2012-2017 (tones)
Source : Own graphic based on the data from the National
Institute of Statistics, 2019

In Alba county, the sunflower seed productions ranged from 2,099 tones to 11,830
tones. In Sibiu County, in 2016 the largest production of sunflower seeds, of 1,078
tons, was registered. In Brasov County in 2017, compared to 2015, the sunflower
seed production increased by 9.9%, but in absolute value the production ranged
from 252 tons to 435 tons. The lowest production was achieved in 2015 (10 tons),
in Covasna county. Also, in this county, in 2017 there was a production of 982
tones, which represents a substantial increase, compared to 2015.
Average production per hectare of sunflower seeds. During the analyzed period
the average production per hectare of sunflower seeds in the Center Region vari ed
from year to year (see fig. 5). The lowest average production per hectare was
recorded in 2012 (1,365 kg / ha). Between 2012-2014 the average production per
hectare for sunflower seeds has been on an upward trend from 1.365 kg / ha
(2012), to 2.317 kg / ha (2014). In 2015, there was a decline for the average
production per hectare for sunflower seeds, compared to 2014. Between 2015-
2017 the average production per hectare for sunflower seeds was on an upward
trend, from 2,103 kg /ha (2015), the 2,725 kg/ ha (2017). The average production
per hectare for sunflower seeds in the Center Region in 2017, compared to 2012,
increased by 99.6%. This increase was due to the combination of several factors:
favorable climatic conditions; the use in culture of some productive varieties and
the application of specific incentives for the sunflower culture.

05000100001500020000
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017Sunflower seed production
in counties from the
Center Region (tones)
Alba Brasov Covasna
Mures Sibiu
1,365 1,480 2,317
2,103 2,260 2,725
050010001500200025003000
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017Average producton per hectare of
sunflower seed in the Center
Region (kg/ha)
Year

53

Fig.5. Dynamics of the average production per hectare
of sunflower seeds in the Center Region, in the period
2012 -2017 (kg / hectare)
Source: Own graphic based on the data from the National
Institute of Statistics, 2019

In the period 2012-2017, in the counties of the Center Region we have witnessed
changes regarding the average yields per hectare for sunflower seeds (see fig. 6). In
Alba county, in 2013, the smallest average production per hectare was registered
from all the counties of the Center Region, of 638 kg / ha. In 2014, in this count y
there is a substantial recovery of the average production per hectare for sunflower
seeds, reaching 2,514 kg/ha, exceeding the average production per hectare of 2,317
kg achieved in the Center Region, as well as the average production recorded
nationally, of 2,187 kg.

Fig 6. Dynamics of the average production per hectare for
sunflower seeds in the counties from the Center Region,
between 2012-2017 (kg / hectare)
Source : Own graphic based on the data from the National
Institute of Statistics, 2019 0500100015002000250030003500
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017Average production per hectare
for sunflower seeds in the counties
from the Center Region (kg/ha) Year
Alba Brasov
Covasna Mures
Sibiu

54

In Brasov county, the average production per hectare ranged from 1,853 kg
/ ha to 1,979 kg/ ha. In Covasna county in 2017, compared to 2014, the average
production per hectare increased by 2.8%. In Mures county, the largest production
per hectare for sunflower seeds was 2,957 kg / ha. The average production per
hectare in Mures County in 2017 exceeded the average production per hectare for
sunflower seeds at the national level for the same period, which was 2,917 kg/ ha.
In Sibiu county the average production per hectare for sunflower seeds increased
by 92.0% in 2017, compared to 2012.
Average purchase price. In 2017, in the Center Region there was an
average purchase price of 1.23 lei/ kg for sunflower seeds. The average purchase
price registered in this region was lower, compared to the one registered at national
level for the same period, which was 1.37 lei / kg. In 2017, in the Center Region,
the average purchase price for sunflower seeds decreased by 6.8%, compared to
2016.

CONCLUSIONS

Following the analysis of the main indicators specific to the sector of
production and marketing of sunflower seeds in the Center Region for the period
2012-2017, the following were found:

 The smallest surface cultivated with sunflower was 5,455 ha (2012);
 The largest area cultivated with sunflower was registered in 2017 (11,367
hectares);
 In 2017, the most significant area cultivated with sunflower, of 5,770 ha
was registered in Mures county;
 In 2017, the production of sunflower seeds in this region represented
1.06% of the total production obtained internally;
 Mures County, in 2017, achieved the largest production of sunflower
seeds, of 17,064 tons;
 In 2017, compared to 2012, in the analyzed region the average production
per hectare for sunflower seeds increased by 99.6%;
 In 2013, in Alba county the smallest average production per hectare of the
analyzed period was realized, of only 638 kg / ha;
 The average purchase price for sunflower seeds in the analyzed region
decreased by 6.8%, in 2017, compared to 2016;
 The Center Region does not have an important place on the sunflower
seeds market, as this culture is not specific to the area, presenting a small
degree of favorability.

55

REFERENCES

1.Chiurciu I. A, 2015, Study on the evolution of the hop market i n Romania during the
period 2007-2014. Scientific Papers. Series "Management, Economic Engineeri ng in
Agriculture and rural development", Vol. 15, pp. 53- 56
2.Dona I., 2015, Rural economy (Economie rurală), Editura Econom ică, 313 -315
3.Lilea C.P.F., Stoica R., Samson T., Dumitru D., 2018, Evolution of the vegetable
production in 2017 (Evoluția producției vegetale în anul 2017), Revista Român ă de
Statistică – Supliment nr. 6 / 2018,
(http://www.revistadestatistica.ro/supliment/wpcontent/uploads/2018/06/RRSS_06_2 018_
A07_ro.pdf), accessed on 07.10.2019
4.Soare E, Chiurciu I.A, David L, Constantin (Oprea) D.M, Grigore E, Bogan E, Simon T,
2018, The main trends in the production and marketing of rapeseed in R omania, 31st
IBIMA Conference (http://ibima.org/accepted-paper/the-main-trends- in-the-production-and-
marketing- of-rapeseed- in-romania ), accessed on 10.10.2019
5.Soare E., Chiurciu I.A. 2018, Considerations concerning worldwid e production and
marketing of sunflower seeds. Scientific Papers. Series "Management, Economic
Engineering in Agriculture and rural development", Vol. 18 ISSUE 3, PR INT ISSN 2284-
7995, 421- 428
6.Ștefan V., Ion V., Ion N., Dumbrav ă M., Vlad V., 2008, Sunflower (Floarea-Soarelui),
Editura ALPHA MDN, Buzău, 5 -6
(https://www.agro-bucuresti.ro/images/Publicatii/manuale/Floarea-soarelui1.pdf ),
accessed on 09.10.2019
7.https://www.agro.basf.ro/ro/stiri/fermier- in-romania/cultura- de-floarea-soarelui-toate-
informatiile- de-care- ai-nevoie.html, accessed on 08.10.2019
8.https://www.pestre.ro/blog/floarea-soarelui- de-la-plantare- la-
recoltare/#Importanta_culturii_de_floarea_-_soarelui, accessed on 09.10.2019

56
Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

THE ACCOUNTING INFORMATION AND ITS ROLE IN THE
ADMINISTRATION OF BUSINESS

Sîrbulescu Claudia *, Pîrvulescu Luminița *

*Banat ’s University of AgriculturalSciencesandVeterinary Medicine "King Michael I of Roma nia"
fromTimisoara, Faculty of Management and Rural Tourism, Calea Arad ului, no 119, Timisoara,
Romania, e-mail:claudiasirbulescu@usab-tm.ro, pirvulescu_l@yahoo.com

Abstract
The world today is characterized as a society of knowledge , the natu re of information signed
the informed of quality, operative and timely gives power to those who possess it in other words "a
resource of the resources".
Beneficiaries and users of information provided by the company are ma nagers, boards of
directors of their suppliers , customers company etc. which can be used in a judicious and rational
these data for development and decision making. Since reglementation is in force, the information you
have in public are offered in accounting financial, and those of a particular they are the product
activities in l town and works OF THE accounting management .
Business man conduct the work in a universe of information . To d esign a business and
actions everyday posed this needed information actual , coge nt, both previous and current on the
domestic economic environment et and international, but also about publi c consumer.
Thefinancial accounting information is , in fact one of the mai n sources of information of any
decision-making system. Starting with reporting it is on production obtai ned or stocks held and
ending with annual reports, the goal is to support different types of users in choosing solutions
optimal.
We conclude that in order to meet the multiplicity of interests of users of information
accounting , they must : be available to anyone with notions abo ut business market and wants to
study information corrections ; allowing creditors and investors to form an opinion about the result
they entity and the causes that can alter; to provide information on liquidity , solvency movements
property items; complicated represent the state tool and the knowledge to de termine is correct
various fees and taxes.

Keywords: accounting information , users , business, decision

INTRODUCTION

The accounting information is situated in the center of the economic
information system and obtained through the use of information
technologies is the only source through which we communicate and know
the economic life.
In today's society, the firm and the accounting information system
are subjects studied by specialists on the one hand as a result of the desire of
the economic entities to align themselves with the current information
globalization, and on the other hand the effect of the restrictive requirements
imposed by the accounting science and practice.

57
Accounting is considered a system that has at the disposal of those
interested, information expressed value about economic units , intended to
be useful in decision making.
As a result of the globalization of economies we are witnessing an
increase in the value of information for economic entities and which has
offered new business opportunities. Nowadays, information technology
facilitates the communication and analysis of all information by providing
the economic entities with the necessary tools for organizing activities on a
global scale.
In our approach we started from a few definitions of information .
The information represents a communication, a message, which
contains new elements , in relation to what the user knew until then ,
regarding the characterization of a certain situation , phenomenon, fact,
economic process, etc., in order to trigger the action . ( DEX , 1998 )
Information is "the action of informing, communicating knowledge
or news about a fact or occurrence ; the act of saying or being told
something ” . (Oxford English Dictionary, 1989)
According to Galliers, information is "that collection of data which,
when presented in a certain way and in a timely manner, enhances the
knowledge of the person receiving it so that it is better able to perform a
certain activity or to base and take over a better decision ” . ( Galliers, R.,
1987 )
The broadest definition of information is related to its novelty :
"Information appears as the result of a complex process, whereby certain
data are assigned the significance of the state or dynamics of an object,
phenomenon or event, within formal processing procedures. It is the
element that links and conditions the different phases of the rational process
of coordination and control, it brings an increase of knowledge that
increases the degree of certainty of the individual in relation to the
environment ”(Paraschivescu, MD, Păvăl oaia, W , 1999) .
After Oprea information is "a set of data that is the basis of behavior
is comprehensible / used for carrying out an activity, including (but not
exclusively) decision-making". ( Oprea , D., Airinei , D., Fotache , 2002 )

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Research methods used by the authors consisted in an extensive
bibliography and the literature includes books, articles and papers . The data
was analyzed, processed , graphically represented and conclusions were
drawn to provide an overview of the role of accounting information in
business administration.

58
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The market for accounting information is interested in the demand
for information, which comes from the users of accounting information,
with the offer of information supported by the producers of accounting
information . (Pereș, I. et al., 2009 ; Malciu, Liliana, 1998 )
There is a lack of trust between the producers of accounting
information and their users, which is why those who verify and certify the
accounting information intervene. ( Sybulescu, Claudia , Tonea , Elena ,
2015)
In the context of the international accounting harmonization
phenomenon, the quality of accounting information is improving. The
wealth of information allows the economic agents to increase their
competitiveness parameters from an informational point of view in relation
to the competitors on the domestic and international market. Information is
the only inexhaustible resource, the power factor that determines the
prosperity level of a nation .

Qualitative features of information
Speed the time required for information to complete the route from the
issuer to the beneficiary;
Frequency the number of information of the same type in a unit of time,
determining the rhythm of the information;
accessibility it is determined by the means of communication, the training of
the personnel, the possibilities of storage, etc.
News a information capacity to present recent events;
intelligibility ownership of information to be perceived by users;
reliability the ability of information to ensure a real and secure image of
an event / object
relevance the quality of information to provide answers in a given
situation.
Fig.1 The characteristics that determine the quality of the information

The quality of information is characterized forced through a variety
of features shown in Figure 1: the speed, frequency, availability, timeliness,
intelligibility, reliability, relevance. ( Negescu, 2004 , Imbrescu, Carmen,
2008 )
Accounting information is provided by two types of information
systems: ( Georgescu, N., 1999 ; Diaconu, E. , 2010 )
• financial accounting that provides information to external users and
is subject to rules (regulations or standards) , being available to the public;
• Management acc ounting provides information to internal users for
the purpose of making decisions.

59
According to the General Framework of the IASB, the following
categories of users are listed : investors, employees, financial creditors,
suppliers and other commercial creditors, customers, the government and its
institutions and the public. ( General framework for preparing and
presenting the financial statements , 2001 )

The users of the accounting information and the objectives pursued
USERS OBJECTIVES FOLLOWED
1. Capital providers
shareholders
– the performance of the investment made;
– future profitability and profit per share;
– monitoring the orientation mode of the resource or c ompany ;
– the level of liquidity and solvency .
Investors in bonds – the liquidity and solvency level of the company;
– estimating the risk of investing in bonds;
– the ability of the company to generate long-term av ailability;
– profitability.
banks – monitoring the payment capacity and the degree of i ndebtedness
of the company;
– analyzing the value of the company, its liquidity a nd solvency;
– the risk of not being able to recover the borrowe d amounts;
– possibility of the company to pay its obligations, ev en in the
absence of profits;
2. Business and social partners
providers
– the financial security of their clients, by assessing th e financial
structure, solvency;
– future development of business with business partners, r esearch
of outlets.
customers – financial issues and issues, as they influence the qualit y of the
products / works / services or they can create supply
discontinuities, especially when long-term contracts are c oncluded.
Employees and trade union
organizations – job security;
– negotiation and salary size ;
– how much is added value?
3. The State
taxation authorities – determining the mass of the taxable profit, the tax on the profit,
the VAT, other taxes and taxes;
– control of the information provided through the acc ounting
summaries;
Government and other government
organizations – the financial rates of the industries and their analysi s;
– evaluating the performance of the economic sectors and
evaluating the feedback of the promoted policies;
– establishing subsidies to be granted for various eco nomic
activities.
Local authorities – use of the levers they have (bond issue, granting of facilities,
attracting investors).
4. Other users
Company's management

– the foundation of the research-development policy, the
marketing-promotion policy, the acquisition and merger p olicy,
based on the strategic diagnosis of the company;
– determining the position of the company within the b ranch of
activity;
– in the short term, it aims to increase the profit, and in the long
term, the value of the company;
Professional organizations

– reducing the involvement of the state in professional activities;
– adopting accounting rules and monitoring their prop er
application.
Analysts and consultants (also found
in the categories presented above) – follow the objectives set by the beneficiaries of the analysis.

60
auditors
– appreciation of the continuity of the operation;
– auditing and certifying financial statements.
The prosecuting bodies or the courts – the judicial accounting expertise for the resolutio n of any
disputes;
– evaluating the possibilities of recovery of a company in
difficulty.
The audience – the public interest is somewhat modest, especially since i ts access
is limited due to the specific language.

Another classification of users can be presented as follows: the
management of the company, the social partners (trade unions, staff), the
financial partners (current or potential shareholders, banks), the commercial
partners (suppliers and customers) and other partners (the central
administration). , N., 1999)
The categories of users who might be interested in financial
information about a large public company and the objectives pursued by
each in order to substantiate the decisions could be classified as presented in
table 1. (Sîrbulescu, Claudia et al, 2010; Matiș, D. , Fătăcean, Ghe, 2003)

Fig. 2. The areas of interest for the information provided by the company
Sources: Sybulescu, Claudia, Tonea, Elena, 2015

Users who request accounting information do not always succeed in
motivating their requests for information, which have an increasing
tendency for growth, are qualitatively better, more credible and better
processed, but which are more expensive.
By using a figure composed of three spheres of activity,
corresponding to the three categories of actors, seven areas result from their

61
intersection (figure 2): (Matiș, D., Fătăcean, Ghe, 2003; Burns, TJ,
Hendrickson, HS, 1996 ).
Zone 1 (obtained by the intersection of the three areas) summarizes
the interest grouping of the three categories of actors and summarizes
information that the company is willing to publish because the financial –
accounting sector can produce and supply them. Most of the information in
area 1 is provided by the financial accounting and is obtained from the
accounting summary and reporting documents.
In the 2 summarizes information on the company is willing to
provide the information requested by users, but that specialists in accounting
Health can not produce and can not control. Information them in zone 2
concerns : human resources, social relations and environmental phenomena.
Zone 3 includes the information that the company is willing to serve,
specialists in accounting Health can produce and check . However, this
information is not requested by users because they represent the absolute
and exact dimensions of the activity of the company, but they are not
important for users.
Zone 4 provides information that professionals in accounting
health can produce and requested by users, especially competitors . In the
case of information in this area, the company is not willing to make them
available to users . This information refers to product costs, resources
allocated to activities , etc.
In the five information can not be determined and verified by
experts in accounting , users do not require it, but the company is willing to
provide . This information is used in the fight with competition, because
through its dissemination it is desired to mask the information more
significant than the disseminated.
For area 6 , the accounting specialists can determine and control the
information, but the company does not want to disseminate them. This
information are interesting for users and are expensive (data are very
analytical).
Area 7 contains interesting information for users, but which the
company does not want to provide and exceeds the area of competence of
the accountants. Information in this area fall under the category specific
plan ui strategic company .
Accounting information , an important component of economic
information, is the basic component of the accounting information system .
Also , the information accountant complicated, the basis for calculating the
actual values on all transactions economic-financial and ensure the safety
required for the realization of projections viable .

62
CONCLUSION

Accounting information is a component single important economic
information system at the level of each company because "every stakeholder
in the activity of the company resorts to accounting information, because it
is the only source that can provide image work and his situation, starting
from streams and monetary masses, which for a certain period interested
her. " ( Capron, M. , 1994 )
Accounting information is provided through financial statements in
order to meet the information needs of different user groups . Users may
have different information needs and interests and not all can be satisfied .
In the case of their managers , the responsibility lies with the owners /
shareholders for the efficient management of the business. They are
remunerated for their activity , and their compensation increases the
expenses of the company and reduces the profit due to the shareholders .
Banks have interests related to the profitability of the company and its
ability to pay the debts. Managers would like to use the borrowed amounts
for as long as possible and pay low interest rates . In the case of joining
them, their efforts have always contributed to the profit and they want salary
increases. In this situation there would be a major increase in the company 's
expenses and a decrease in the profit. We can conclude that there is always
accounting information of common interest, but also information that is
useful only to a certain category of users.

REFERENCES

1. Burns, T.J., Hendrickson, H.S., 1996, The AccountingSampler, Mc. Graw Hill
Book, Company
2. Cadrul general de întocmire și prezentare a situațiilor financiare, elaborate de
Comitetul de Standarde Internaționale de Contabilitate, Monitorul Oficial, nr. 85
din 20.02. 2001
3. Capron, M., 1994, Contabilitatea în perspectivă, Editura Humanitas, București
4. Diaconu, E., 2010, Contabilitate financiarăcurentă și de raportare. Bucur ești:
Editura Didactică și Pedagogică R.A.
5. Dictionar ul explicativ ala limbii române, ediția aII -a, Editura Univers
Enciclopedic, București, 1998 )
6. Dumitriu, F., 2001, Sistemul informațional contabil în întreprinderea modernă,
Editura Junimea, Iași, pag.55
7. Galliers, R., 1997, Information analysis: Selectedreadings, Addison-Wesley,
Wokingham,
8. Georgescu, N., 1999, Analiza bilanțului contabil, Editura Economică, București
9. Imbrescu, Carmen, 2008, Bazele contabilității, Editura Mirton, Timișoara
10. Malciu, Liliana, 1998, Cererea și oferta de informații contabile, Editura
Economică, București

63
11. Matiș, D., Fătăcean, Ghe, 2003, Considerații privind conflictul de interese între
producătorii și utilizatorii informațiilor contabile, Lucrări Simpozion Internațional
”Speci alizare, dezvoltare și integrare, Cluj – Napoca ”
12. Negescu, M.,D., 2004, Caracteristicile informației financiare în contextul
evoluțiilor contemporane, Revista Contabilitate și informatică de gestiune, nr.
9/2004, Editura ASE, București, p. 147
13. Oprea, D., Air inei, D., Fotache, M., Sisteme informaționale pentru afaceri, Ed.
Polirom, Iași, 2002, pag. 68
14. Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, edited by John Simpson and Edmund
Weiner, Clarendon Press, 1989
15. Paraschivescu, M. D., Păvăloaia, W.,1999, Contabilitateașidezvoltareaeconomico –
socială, Ed. Tehnopress, Iași, pag. 99
16. Pereș, I, Mateș, D., Popa, I. E., Pereș, C., Domil, Aura, 2009, Bazele contabilității.
Concepte șiaplicații practice, Editura Mirton, Timișoara
17. Sîrbulescu, Claudia, 2010, Contabilitate, Editu ra Eurobit, Timișoara
18. Sîrbulescu, Claudia, Ocnean, Monica, Tonea, Elena, Chirilă, D., Alda, Liana,
Chirilă, Mariana, 2010, Accountinginformationusers in thefinancialstatem ents,
Lucrări Științifice, Management Agricol, seria I, volumul XII (3), Timișoara
19. Sîrbulescu, Claudia, Tonea, Elena, 2015, The conflict
betweenproducersandusersaccountinginformation, ScientificPapers: Animal
ScienceandBiotechnologies, vol. 48 (1)

ING ALIMENTARA

64
Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

RESEARCH ON THE BEHAVIOUR AND QUALITATIVE CHANGES OF
GREEN BEANS

Ardelean Alina Grigorita*

*University of Oradea, Faculty of Environmental Protection, 26 Gen . Magheru St., 410048 Oradea,
Romania, e-mail: alina_popa_alina@yahoo.com

Abstract
Green beans are very suitable for preservation by freezing. During th e freezing and thawing
operations some physical-chemical and organoleptic characteristics are c hanged that are due mainly
to the changes in colour, structure-texture and degradation of some components, especially in
vitamin C.

Key words: green beans, freezing, colour change, structure-texture, organoleptic properties,
vitamin C.

INTRODUCTION

Beans are part of the legume family, being a high-nutrient vegetable that
derives from high protein content 22.3% (essential amino acids 8290 mg, non-
essential amino acids 12570 mg relative to the protein content) and other
components: 44% starch, 44% cellulose, 3.7% pectin, stachyose and raffinose 2%,
glucose and sucrose 1.5%, macroelements (potassium 1100, calcium 150,
magnesium 103, sodium 40, sulfur 159, phosphorus 541mg/100g product),
microelements (iron 5940, iodine 12, manganese 1340, copper 580, nickel 39.4,
selenium 24.9, zinc 3210, boron 490, cobalt 18.7, titanium 150, fluorine 44 µ/100 g
product) and vitamins (E 3.84 mg%, C 0.09%, biotin 2.10 µ%, niacin 1.20 mg%,
pantothenic acid 0.18 mg%, riboflavin 0.50 mg%), (Banu C, 2010).
Green beans have ten times times lower protein and carbohydrate content,
and the levels of the other components are reduced compared to the values
previously presented (Banu C, 2010).
The green beans are very suitable for preservation by freezing, being a
species that retains its pigmentation during the freezing process. Freezing can be
done for both scalded and unscalded pods (A. Ardelean, 2013).
Obtaining a quality finished product depends primarily on the quality of the
raw material. This quality of the raw material is a variety characteristic, being
greatly influenced by the applied agrotechnics and the pedo-climatic conditions in
the area and the respective year.
According to quality, the beans are classified into two quality classe s: I and
II. For freezing, those of the first quality class are suitable. Thus, the pods should
be characteristic of the variety, fresh, young, clean, fresh, whole, with the stem and

65
grains incompletely formed. Also, the pods should be fleshy, with a firm textu re
before and after scalding, with the slightest tendency to change color, succulent,
with a smooth break, without threads, which shows the degree of maturity. The
taste and aroma of the pods must be pronounced and specific. The varieties suitable
to freezing are those with a diameter of pods less than 10 mm, with a cylindrical
shape, and the connection line should be as visible as possible. The rubbed, beaten
or attacked pods by diseases and pests (Beceanu D., Chira A., 2003) are not
accepted.
During the processing by freezing, as well as during the defrosting,
important changes of physico-chemical and organoleptic nature take place.
Changes of a physical nature refer to the loss of water from frozen products
by evaporation, when the packaging allows this. If the packaging is impermeable to
water vapor and is tightly sealed, the evaporated water from the product
crystallizes on the packaging, and evaporation from the outside does not occur.
Evaporation occurs both during freezing and during storage. Bulk frozen products
lose 0.5 to 1.5% of the water they contain, depending on the nature of the pr oduct.
In this respect, fast freezing is effective. Water losses are also favored by the too
high temperatures in storage spaces and temperature fluctuations. The more
frequent and larger, the percentage of water lost from vegetables is higher ( Gh.
Mihalca et al., 1980).
The loss of water from the superficial tissues leads to another unwanted
phenomenon known as the cold burn, manifested by the browning of the tissues.
This phenomenon occurs because the oxygen from the atmosphere takes the place
of the water lost from the tissues and occurs mainly in improperly packaged
products, with leakage defects, due to the advanced dehydration of the superficial
tissues. In order to avoid this phenomenon, it is recommended to use waterproof
packaging and to ensure high humidity, as close to 100%, without variations (
I.Potec et al., 1983, 1985).
Another phenomenon encountered in frozen beans is the detachment of the
upper layers of the pod epidermis, which affects the commercial appearance of the
finished product and produces some unwanted turbidity in the boiling water. The
phenomenon is favored by long-lasting scalding or if boiling has continued longer
than necessary.
The colour changes can also occur in unscalded pods, and in the case of the
scalded ones it appears completely sporadic. Thus, the colour changes from green
to gray and even to brown, due to browning phenomena. These colour changes
occur under the action of oxidative enzymes, being more pronounced and
progressing rapidly in acidic environment and in divided products. For these
reasons, the scalding operation is performed in saline solution in a concentration o f
0.1 – 0.2%, which has the role of inhibiting the activity of these enzymes (G herghi
A., 1995, 1998, I.F.Radu, 1985, 1967).
The defects mentioned above can have other causes: storage of the raw
material at room temperature for a longer period; failure to perform the cooling
operation after scalding; partial defrosting during storage; storage of froze n
products for too long.

66
Also, the loss of water content in the products has the effect of reducing the
weight of the products.
The modification of the structure of the products is also included in the
category of physico-chemical modifications, especially those that are scalded. Due
to the scalding operation, performed to inhibit the activity of oxidative enzymes
and the operation of exposure to freezing by cold, a series of biochemical
transformations of esterification take place, which cause changes in the structure of
the pectic substances in cell membranes with role in tissue consistency. Thus, the
structure-texture becomes looser. The intensity of this phenomenon depends on the
species and variety (Mihalca Gh. Et al., 1980).
Among the important chemical changes that take place during the
technological flow are the losses of macro and micro elements, of vitamins and
especially of vitamin C.
Vitamin C being soluble in water undergoes quantitative changes and slight
chemical degradation. Studies have shown that vitamin C is exposed to more
severe degradation at – 180 °C, compared to – 250°C, which shows its better
stability (A. Monzini, 1970, quoted by Gh Mihalca et al., 1980).
Organoleptic changes refer to diminished losses of aroma, taste and colour.
The studies carried out on the scraped and frozen products allowed to draw
some conclusions. First of all the most important ultrastructural changes of the
cellular tissues are mainly due to the scalding operations and less to the freezing
speeds. However, the higher the freezing rate, the smaller these tissue changes.
Also, the young tissues are less affected compared to the aged tissues, and the raw
materials do not support better freezing speeds, respectively longer duration,
compared to the scalded ones. Referring to beans, heat treatment (scalding)
negatively affects the structure of the pods. Under these conditions, the advantages
and disadvantages of the scalding operation must be subjected to analysis.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

The research was carried out in 2019, at the Faculty of Environmental
Protection Oradea.
Narbone green beans (semi-late varieties) were used in the studies.
The raw material comes from the field culture, being harvested when 70-
80% of the pods reached technological maturity, at the beginning of July.
The research was carried out on fresh green bean pods as well as on frozen
beans at certain intervals.
The finished frozen product is intended for the preparation of various green
bean dishes.
The phases of the technological flow are: harvesting, transport, quantitativ e
and qualitative reception, refrigeration, conditioning (sorting, cutting ends,
splitting), scalding, cooling, freezing, packing preparation, packing, storage.
Refrigeration was performed at 40°C for one day, followed by the
technological flow.
The splitting was done by cutting into 2 cm long piece s.

67
Immediately after splitting the pieces of pods were soaked in hot water for
one minute, in which 0.2% salt was added to avoid the browning phenomenon.
The freezing was done in the home freezer at – 18șC, temperature that was
kept for two, four months respectively.
The main chemical indicators analyzed, for both fresh and frozen samples,
refer to the content in vitamin C. Also, the behavior of beans pods during the
technological flow was studied.
For the frozen samples the determinations were made after thawing and the
proper preparation of the samples.
The organoleptic properties of fresh and frozen pods were determined by
sensory methods. Thus, the appearance of the pods was analyzed in terms of
pigmentation and texture, but also the taste and aroma.

RESULTS AND DISSCUSIONS

Immediately after harvesting, analysis samples were carried out, and the
results show the average of the determinations.
The content of vitamin C analyzed in fresh and processed green beans are
presented in table no. 1
Table no. 1

Sample Vitamin C
(mg/100g)
Fresh sample Frozen sample
2 months Frozen sample
4 months

1

19
15.8
14.2

2
19
15.5
14.0

3
18
15.2
13.8

4
20
16.7
15.2

5
21
17.7
16.5

Average of
samples

19.4
16.18
14.7

68

From the obtained results we can see a decrease in the content of vitamin C
higher in frozen samples for two months, about 17% and 24.3% for frozen ones for
4 months.
This decrease of the vitamin C content of 17% is due on the one hand to the
scalding operation in hot water, the vitamin C being soluble, as well as due t o the
freezing operation with slow speed.
After another two months of freezing, the decreases in vitamin C content are
diminished, due to its stability at low temperatures. This diminished decrease and
stability of vitamin C after a period of 4 months of freezing at – 180°C can be
explained by maintaining the temperature recorded at this value, the finished
product not being exposed to temperature fluctuations.
Regarding the texture of scalded and frozen pods, changes are observed.
This has become much looser, due to changes in the structure of pectic substance s
in the cell membranes with a role in tissue consistency, changes that occur both
during scalding and by exposure to freezing. However, no detachments of the
superficial layers of the epidermis of the pods were reported, even though they
were scalded.
This is due, first of all, to the correct execution of the scalding operation as a
duration and temperature, but also due to the variety, which has no sensitivity to
heat treatments, being a variety that is well suited for industrialization.
The following indicators: colour, taste, aroma were also analyzed by
organoleptic methods.
The colour has undergone slight changes. Thus, the green colour lost its
shine, during the scalding and storage, the chlorophyll gradually turned into an
olive-green pheophytin.
Due to the sealed polyethylene packages and the lack of humidity and
temperature variations throughout storage, no phenomena of browning and cold
burning were reported.
The taste and aroma have also changed, so they are no longer pronounced,
being diminished during storage. Due to the fact that the scalding action was
performed, the action of the lipase enzymes was inhibited and, as a result, the
frozen product did not acquire the taste of "hay", which is due to the action of these
enzymes.

CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions are drawn from the analysis of the results
regarding the qualitative changes in the frozen green bean samples:

1. Vitamin C content decreased more during the first 2 months of
storage, after which the loss diminished, reaching a stability of
value;
2. Changes in the structure and texture of the scalded and frozen pods
appear, which becomes looser, but without phenomena of
detachment of the superficial layers of the epidermis;

69
3. The colour has undergone slight changes, transforming during
storage into olive-green;
4. The phenomena of browning and cold burning were not reported,
due to the sealed polyethylene packages and the lack of humidity
and temperature variations throughout the storage period;
5. The taste and aroma have lost their intensity during the four months
of storage, but without the appearance of "hay" taste;
6. Green bean is a species that is very suitable to preservation by
freezing in the scalded version;
7. Due to the biological peculiarities of green bean pods, it is
recommended to carry out the harvesting operations at the optimum
harvesting time, without exceeding the technological maturity phase
and using the varieties that are suitable for industrialization;
8. It is recommended to perform the scalding operation as a result of
the qualitative advantages over the finished product;
9. The use of waterproof, sealed packaging is absolutely mandatory to
obtain a quality finished product;
10. It is recommended to continue the research on freezing green bean
pods also in the unscalded version.

REFERENCES

1. A. Ardelean, 2019, Mărul – Tehnologia culturii, Posibilități de păstrare și
depozitare, Conservare și prelucrare, Editura Universității Oradea.
2. Ardelean Alina Grigorița, 2009, Tehnologii de conservare a legumelor și
fructelor, Îndrumător de lucrări practice, Editura Treira, Oradea
3. Ardelean Alina Grigorița, 2013, Tehnologii de prelucrare și păstrare a
legumelor și fructelor, Editura Universității din Oradea
4. Ardelean Alina Grigorița, 2015, Tehnologii de prelucrare și conservare a
legumelor și fructelor, Îndrumător de laborator, Editura Universității din
Oradea
5. Banu C., 1992, Progrese tehnice, tehnologice și științifice î n industria
alimentară, Editura Tehnică, București
6. Carmen Hura, 2006, Ghid de laborator, Metode de analiză pentru produsele
alimentare, Editura tehnică, știinșifică și didactică CERMI Iași
7. Cornelia Purcărea, 2005, Biochimie Agro – Alimentară, Editura Universității
Oradea
8. Cornelia Purcărea, 2008, Transformări biochimice importante în prod usele
agroalimentare în timpul procesării și depozitării, Editura Universității Oradea
9. Dumitru Beceanu, Adrian Chira, 2003, Tehnologia produselor horticole,
Valorificare în stare proaspătă și industrializare, Editura Economică București
10. Gh. Mihalca și col., 1980, Congelarea produselor horticole și prepararea lor
pentru consum, Editura tehnică București
11. Gherghi A., 1995, Tehnologia valorificării produselor horticole, Universit atea
Indep. Tita Maiorescu, București
12. Gherghi A., 1998, Valorificarea produselor horticole, interfață între producție
și consum, Revista Hortinform, nr.3/1998, București

70
13. I. F. Radu, 1985, Tratat de tehnologie a fructelor și legumelor, Scrisul
românesc, Craiova
14. I. F. Radu, A Gherghi, 1967, Păstrarea și prelucrarea produselor hortivitico le,
Editura Agro- Silvică București
15. Inoue K. și colab.,1998, Production of ascorbic acid enriched vegetables,
Journal of Horticulture Science & Biotechnology 5(73)
16. Ioancea L. și colab., 1998, Condiționarea și valorificarea superioară a
materiilor prime vegetale în scopuri alimentare. Tehnologii și instalații,
Editura Ceres, București
17. Marca Gh., 1987, Tehnologia păstrării și industrializării produselor horticole,
Cluj- Napoca
18. Neamțu G. și colab,1993, Biochimie vegetală, Editura Didactică și
Pedagogică, București
19. Neamțu G. și colab,1997, Biochimie alimentară, Editura Ceres, București
20. Potec I. și colab., 1985, Tehnologia păstrării și industrializării produselor
horticole, Lucrări practice, I.A.I., Facultatea de Horticultură, Iași
21. Potec și col., 1983, Tehnologia păstrării și industrializării produselor
horticole, Editura didactică și pedagogică București

72
Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE MAXIMUM DEGREE OF
INCORPORATION OF ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS IN YOGURT
COMPARED TO FRESH SPUN PASTE CHEESE

Hîlma Elena*
*University of Oradea, Faculty of Environmental Protection, 26 Gen. Magheru St., 410048 Oradea,
Romania, e-mail: hilma_elena@yahoo.com

Abstract
In this paper we tried to obtain two dairy products of different classes enriched in
essential fatty acids. It has been the manufacture of a acid milk product and a cheese
sortment. In the class of acid dairy products the manufacture of yogurt was cho sen and in
the cheese class the manufacture of spun paste cheese was chosen. It was follo wed by the
incorporation of the fish oil added in the raw material milk into the fat globules of the
sheep milk used in the manufacture of the products. In order to determine the maximu m
limit of incorporation, three successive concentrations of fish oil in milk were used: 0.05%;
0.10%; 0.15%. We analyzed three essential fatty acids that are specific for both s heep's
milk and fish oil. It obtained an increase in the proportion of essential fatty acids in the
samples with added fish oil as compared with the control. In the case of linoleic a cid from
2,55% to 2,88% in the manufacture of yogurt and from 2,53 to 2,93 in the manufacture of
spun paste cheese. The proportion of linolenic acid increased from 0,97 to 1 ,15 for yogurt
and from 0,89% to 1,15% for spun paste cheese and 𝛄-linolenic acid increased from 0,72 to
1,05 for yogurt and spun paste cheese from 0,87 to 1,05. The maximu m embedding of
essential fatty acids in milk fat exceeds the established maximum concentration in milk
added fish oil (0,15%).

Key words: sheep's milk, essential fatty acids

INTRODUCTION

The enrichment of food in functional foods is increasingly present in the
contemporary world, contributing to the improvement of the quality of life. This
contributes to the prevention of disease but also to the increase of the average age
of the population.
Different microorganisms cause gastroenteritis through the mouth. Lactic
acid bacteria have been shown to have antiviral action (Dong Joo Seo et all, 2020).
Lactic acid bacteria, in addition to the lactic acid they produce, can also
create aromatic substances such as diacetyl, under maturing cheese conditions.
(Yun-Jeong Choi et all, 2019).
After lactic fermentation pH changes occur. The effects determined by pH
(pH <5.5) led to changes in the structure of milk protein. (He Ni et all, 2019).
The concentration in protein, especially in whey protein, of the raw
material milk positively influences the quality of dairy products both i n terms of
their consistency as well as their taste and aroma. Also the percentage of milk fat

73
but also the degree of homogenization of milk fat have a beneficial effect on the
quality of dairy products, influencing the consistency, taste and aroma. The degree
of homogenization of milk fat has the effect of milk whitening because t here are
smaller particles and more light reflecting (Ni Cheng et all, 2019).
Milk and dairy products are important sources of nutrients in the human
diet. However, they are also the main sources of saturated fatty acids that can
increase the risk of cardiometabolic and cardiovascular disease. Unfortunately, the
essential fatty acids, which are known for their health benefits, are found in sm all
quantities in the normal fat of ruminant milk and in dairy products. That's why
enriching dairy products in essential fatty acids is beneficial for health (So lomon
Gebreyowhans et all, 2019).
The presence of free amino acids, essential free amino acids, free with
branched chain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine and valine) is specific to cheeses
obtained from sheep's milk. This fact determines the high nutritional and biolog ical
value of these products (Reis Lima et all, 2019).
Essential fatty acids are nutrients needed to maintain vital functions,
improve the immune system and disease resistance. A diet with the lowest content
of -3 resulted in a higher incidence of hepatic granulomas, which suggests a
possible relationship between essential fatty acid deficiency and hepatic
granulomatosis. (Marta Carvalho et all, 2019).
Dry eye is a common disease that can seriously affect quality of life.
Essential omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are beneficial for patients with eye
disease and have shown promising results (Ammar M, 2014).
By using vegetable oils, the rheology of the products is improved. It favors
the emulsification of the fat and the products become creamier (Morna Anamaria,
2018).
The dietary intake of essential fatty acids from corn, supplemented with
fish oil has cardioprotective effects (Refaat A. Eid et all, 2019).
It has been demonstrated that consumption of saturated fat replacement of
essential fatty acids can protect the alveolar bone loss which suggests a t herapeutic
benefit of fish oil in hypercholesterolemic patients (María Eugenia Antona et all ,
2020).

MATERIAL AND METHOD

The production of the products was carried out under the manufacturing
regime. It was used as a raw material sheep's milk from the first l actation period to
which was added fish oil to enrich the products in essential fatty acids. The milk
was pasteurized at medium temperature (72-74 ° C; for 30 sec). As additi onal
operation was carried out in order to split the homogenization of milk fat globu les
for the purpose incorporation of fish oil in the inside thereof. The raw material
milk for the manufacture of the yogurt was treated with high temperature
superilmentary heat for the advanced destruction of the microorganisms in the
spontaneous microflora of the milk for inoculation with selected lactic culture
specific for the yogurt.

74
To obtain the cheesecloth, the curd was made which was matured to the
optimum acidity (176 °T) of the scrap. The cheese was scalded at 85 °C.
In the process of obtaining yogurt and spun paste cheese, analyzes were
made for the raw material milk, on the technological flow and the finished product.
For the raw material milk, the physico-chemical characteristics were
analyzed. The acidity analysis was performed by titration and the result was
expressed both in ° T (Thörner) and in grams of lactic acid expressed as a
percentage. The determination of the percentage of fat was performed first by the
acid-butyrometric method, the density analysis was performed areometrically. At
the same time, the raw material milk was analyzed in an electronic system using
the Lactostar apparatus which also determines the percentage of dry matter,
proteins and lactose.
The technological flow followed the temperature and the time of
operations, the acidity of the products.
The final products were analyzed from an organoleptic and physico-
chemical point of view.
Sensory products were analyzed by 5 unauthorized persons. The acidity
analysis was performed by the titratable method and the results were expressed in °
T and g lactic acid%. The analysis of the dry substance was carried out by t he
drying method in the oven, the analysis of the percentage of fat by the
acicobutyrometric method and the determination of the salt percentage by the Mohr
method.
Fatty acid analysis was performed by gas chromatography. 19 fatty acids
were analyzed but the focus was on the analysis of three essential fatty acids which
are representative for both fish oil and sheep's milk.

RESULTS AND DISSCUSIONS

The coding of the samples is presented in the table 1
Table 1
Coding of the samples

No. cr. Addition
fish oil
% Sample code
Yogurt Fresh spun paste
cheese
1 0 I0 Cp0

75
2 0,0,5 I0,05 Cp0,05
3 0,10 I0,10 Cp0,10
4 0,15 I0,15 Cp0,15

The sensory analyzes concluded that the taste and aroma of fish is not
perceived at concentrations of 0.05% and 0.10% of fish oil and in samples with a
concentration of 1.15% added of fish oil the taste and aroma of fish they
disappeared after 24 hours of storage.
Physico-chemical analyzes of the raw material milk, on the technological
flow and the finished product showed that there are no significant differences
between the samples with added fish oil and the control samples, without addition.
The evolution of the proportion of the three essential fatty acids analyzed is
presented in table 2.
Table 2
Concentration in essential fatty acids of sheep's milk and fresh yogur t and fresh spun paste
cheese samples depending on the percentage of added fish oil

No.
cr. Sample Concentration in essential fatty acids of samples
Linoleic acid Linolenic acid 𝛄 -linolenic acid
1 I0 2,55 0,97 0,72
2 I0,05 2,64 1,00 0,76
3 I0,10 2,83 1,07 0,85
4 I0,15 2,88 1,15 1,05
5 Cp0 2,53 0,89 0,87
6 Cp0,05 2,83 1,08 0,91
7 Cp0,15 2,93 1,15 1,05

Table 2 shows results an increase in the proportion of three essential fatty
acids analyzed in the samples with added fish oil.
Figure 1 shows an increase in the proportion of the three essential fatty
acids in proportion to the concentration of fish oil of the raw milk.

76

Figure 1 Evolution of the proportion of essential fatty acids in th e samples with the addition
of fish oil compared to the control sample
Table 3
Concentration in fish oil of raw material milk
at the theoretical threshold of incorporation of essential fatty acids
Concentration in fish oil of raw material milk at the
theoretical threshold of incorporation of essential fatty acids
linoleic acid linolenic acid 𝛄 -linolenic acid
Fresh spun paste
cheese 0,3773 0,3970 0,7694
Yogurt 0,7294 1,3825 –

Table 3 presents the limit of incorporation of the essential fatty acids
depending on the concentration of milk fish oil. It is observed that the maximum
incorporation limit of the three essential fatty acids exceeds the maximum
concentration established (0.15%). In yogurt there is no maximum limit of 𝛄-
linolenic acid. This is due to the heat treatment of the raw material milk during
which there is the possibility of thermal splitting of the fat cell membrane.

CONCLUSIONS

The manufacture of dairy products enriched in essential fatty acids is
possible by adding fish oil to the raw material milk by homogenizing the mixture
of milk with fish oil to obtain a good inclusion of the essential fatty aci ds inside the
fat globule. To eliminate the fish taste and aroma of the products, the mixture of
milk raw material with fish oil can be deodorized.
linoleic acid; I0;
2,55
linoleic acid;
I0,05; 2,64
linoleic acid;
I0,10; 2,83
linoleic acid;
I0,15; 2,88
linoleic acid;
Cp0; 2,53
linoleic acid;
Cp0,05; 2,83
linoleic acid;
Cp0,15; 2,93
linolenic acid;
I0; 0,97
linolenic acid;
I0,05; 1
linolenic acid;
I0,10; 1,07
linolenic acid;
I0,15; 1,15
linolenic acid;
Cp0; 0,89
linolenic acid;
Cp0,05; 1,08
linolenic acid;
Cp0,15; 1,15
𝛄-linolenic acid
; I0; 0,72
𝛄-linolenic acid
; I0,05; 0,76
𝛄-linolenic acid
; I0,10; 0,85
𝛄-linolenic acid
; I0,15; 1,05
𝛄-linolenic acid
; Cp0; 0,87
𝛄-linolenic acid
; Cp0,05; 0,91
𝛄-linolenic acid
; Cp0,15; 1,05
linoleic acid
linolenic acid
𝛄-linolenic acid

77
REFERENCES

1. Ammar M. Al Mahmood, Samar A. Al-Swailem, 2014, Essential fatty acids in the treatment of dry
eye syndrome: A myth or reality?, Saudi Journal of Ophthalmology, Volume 28, Issue 3, July –
September 2014, Pages 195-197;
2. Dong Joo Seo, Day Jung, Soontag Jung, Daseul Yeo, Changsun Choi,2 020, Inhibitory effect of lacti
acid bacteria isolated from kimchi against murine novavirus, Food Control, Volume 109, March
2020, Article 106881;
3. He Ni, Vassilios Raikos, 2019, Lactic-acid bacteria fermentation-induced effects on microstructure
and interfacial properties of oil- in-water emulsions stabilized by goat-milk proteins , LWT , Volume
109, July 2019, Pages 70-76;
4. María Eugenia Antona, Cecilia Ramos, Andrea Stranges, Andrea Ferreira Monteiro, Elisa Vanesa
Macri, 20120, Fish oil diet effects on alveolar bone loss, in hypercholesterolemic rats , Archives of
Oral Biology, Volume 109, January 2020, Article 104553;
5. Marta Carvalho, Pedro Castro, Daniel Montero, Helena Peres, Marisol Izquierdo, 2 019,
Essential fatty acid deficiency increases hepatic non-infectious gran ulomatosis incidence in meagre
(Argyrosomus regius, Asso 1801) fingerlings , Aquaculture, Volume 505, 30 April 2019, Pages 393-
404;
6. Merliță D ., C. Maerescu, St. Daraban, F. Lup. 2009. Effects of energy and protein content in the
diet on milk yield and milk fatty acid profile in dairy ewes. Bulletin USAMV Cluj-Napoca, Animal
Science and Biotechnologies, 66(1-2), ISSN 1843-5262, p: 67-73 ;
7. Mierliță D ., F. Lup, C. Maerescu. 2009. Nutritional and technological factors inorder to obtain
functional food enriched with PUFA Omega 3 and CLA at sheep: a review. Ana lele Univ. din
Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxicologie, Zootehnie și Tehnologii de Industrie Alimentară, IS SN 1583-
4301;
8. Morna Anamaria, 2018, Rheological behavior and sensory evaluation of commercial mayonnaise ,
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxicologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVII/B 2018
9. Ni Cheng, David M. Barbano, MaryAnne Drake, 2019 , Effects of milk fat, casein, and
serum protein concentrations on sensory properties of milk-based beverag es, Journal of Dairy
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10. Refaat A. Eid, Mubarak Al-Shraim, Samy M. Eleawa, Mohamed Sa mir Ahmed Zaki, Hussain
Alderah, 2019, Fish oil protects agains corn oil-induced cardiac insulin resistance a nd left
ventricular dysfunction in rats via upregulation of PPAR- β/γ and inhibition of diacylglycerol/PCK
axis activation, Journal of Functional Foods, Volume 56, May 2019, Pages 342 -352;
11. Reis Lima, Andréia O. Santos, Soraia Falcão, Luísa Fontes, António M. P eres, 2019, Serra da
Estrela cheese ’s free amino acids profiles by UPLC-DAD-MS/MS and their application
for cheese origin assessment, Food Research International, In press, corrected proof, Available
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12. Solomon Gebreyowhans, Jing Lu, Shuwen Zhang, Xiaoyang Pang, Jiaping Lv, 2019, Dietary
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LWT, Volume 105, May 2019, Pages 118-126;

78
Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

THE INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT FACTORS ON THE QUALITY OF
MAYONNAISE

Morna Anamaria*

*University of Oradea, Faculty of Environmental Protection, 26 Gen. Magheru St., 410048 Oradea,
Romania, e-mail: amorna@uoradea.ro

Abstract
The objective of this paper was to investigate how different parameters of mayonnaise
production may affect the quality of mayonnaise, respectively the formation and breaking of the
emulsion.
In the production of mayonnaise, it is important to obtain a high q uality product and avoid
reversing phases. The standard recipe (R1) is best suited to obtain a high quality mayonnaise. The
whole egg recipe (R4) comes close to the qualities of the standard r ecipe, but does not contain a
sufficient amount of emulsifiers. Both the recipe with low egg yolk content (R2) and egg yolk powder
(R3) are affected by the reversal process in the emulsification phase. The viscosity, density and pH of
the four recipes are influenced by the mixing speed and time.

Key words: mayonnaise, phase inversed mayonnaise, full-fat mayonnaise

INTRODUCTION

Mayonnaise is a thick creamy sauce that contains vegetable oil, acidic
component (e.g.acetic acid), egg yolk (contains a natural emulsifier — egg
lecithin), sugar, salt and spicesand other emulsifying and thickening agent.
Mayonnaise is a pale yellow sauce with a thick and creamy texture.
Mayonnaise can be divided into two main types depending on the amount of
oil that is used in the recipe. Low fat mayonnaise contain around 30-65% oil
while full-fat mayonnaise contains around 75-80%.
Due to the consumers ’ preferences, majority of the mayonnaise
products on the market are low-fat mayonnaises. Low-fat mayonnaises have
fat content around 20-40 % (Depree and Savage 2001; Yildirim, Sumnu,
and Sahin 2016; Saarela et al. 2010).
In this paper only full-fat mayonnaise was investigated. The oil is
dispersed in a water phase to form an oil- in-water (O/W) emulsion.
The ingredients that can be found in the water phase are: egg, vinegar,
salt, sugar, mustard and water. The oil-water interfaces are stabilized by egg
yolk which contains emulsifying agents.
In order to form the O/W emulsion the oil needs to be broken up into
small droplets. This is achieved by applying high amount of energy in the
form of stirring. Generally the more energy that is applied the smaller the
droplets become and smaller droplets makes the emulsion more stable.

79
When making mayonnaise at home there is always a risk of a phase
inversion, resulting in a water- in-oil (W/O) emulsion.
Phase inversed mayonnaise, or broken mayonnaise, is characterized
by a low viscosity which is close to the viscosity of oil. Every mayonnaise
maker has their own tips and tricks for preventing this phenomenon,
including everything from whipping technique to the temperature of the
ingredients.
The best tip according to both Jamie Oliver and Martha Stewart is to
pour the oil in slowly (Oliver, 2013; Stewart, 2017).

MATERIAL AND METHOD

The objective of the paper was to investigate how different parameters
of mayonnaise production may affect the quality of mayonnaise,
respectively the formation and breaking of the emulsion.
The mixing speed, temperature, oil content, egg content and type were
modified in order to see how mayonnaise quality is affected.
The objectives I have pursued in this paper were: to analyze the
variation of the viscosity of the mayonnaise according to time at low,
medium and high speed; analysis of the variation of mayonnaise density
according to time at low, medium and high speed; analysis of the variation
of pH of mayonnaise according to time at low, medium and high speed;
analysis of factors that influence the stability and quality of the mayonnaise;
analysis of parameters that may affect the quality of the mayonnaise: mixing
speed (low, medium and maximum speed (unit of measure is m / s)),
quantity and type of emulsifier.
Mayonnaise is an oil -in-water (O/W) emulsion, in which the
dispersion medium (oil) represents 60 -80% of the total quantity (Le Denmat
et all, 2000). The emulsifying agents used for the preparation of mayonnaise
are egg yolk and mustard. The emulsifier used may vary between whole
eggs (common in the USA), the liquid egg yolk (common in Europe) and
the dry egg yolk (common in Russia) (Cedergårdh, 2014).
The reversal of the phases of an emulsion consists in transforming one
type of emulsion into another type of emulsion. It can be produced by:
changing the temperature by changing the concentration of one of the
phases (Andersson, I., 2015; Kumar et all, 2015).
Phase reversal occurs when the emulsion is transformed from an oil –
in-water (O/W) emulsion into a water -in-oil (W/O) emulsion.
Oil is the main ingredient of mayonnaise and therefore has a great
influence on the quality of the final product. The quantity of oil dispersed in
the mayonnaise contributes to the viscoelastic behavior, the stability and the
high viscosity of the product. The smooth texture and appearance are also

80
dependent on the amount of oil present in the product. (McClements and
Demetriades, 1998).
In mayonnaise only egg yolk and egg white are used as emulsifying,
stabilizing and coloring agent (the only source allowed) (Li -Chan et all,
1995; Matsumura, Y . and Matsumiya, K., 2012).
The egg yolk is more commonly used compared to egg white, due to
its larger emulsifier properties.
The vinegar used in mayonnaise contributes to antimicrobial
preservation, mayonnaise aroma and low pH. By keeping the pH of the
product low, the antimicrobial safety and preservation of the product
increases. The low pH used in mayonnaise is close to the isoelectric point of
the proteins in the egg yolk.
Salt contributes to the aroma and stability of mayonnaise (Depree and
Savage 2001). Salt helps neutralize protein loads so they can adsorb more
efficiently at the droplet interface. As a result of flocculation, the packing of
mayonnaise becomes tighter and the viscosity increases.
Sugar contributes to the aroma of mayonnaise and is added mainly to
counteract the aroma of vinegar. (Duncan, 2004)
The mustard facilitates emulsification, contributes to the aroma and
color of the mayonnaise. Most of the mustard taste comes from
isothiocyanates. Mayonnaise acid stabilizes these aromatic compounds.
(Depree and Savage, 2001). Mustard used in mayonnaise can be added as
mustard flour instead of regular mustard (Duncan, 2004).
Four recipes were used to achieve the objectives of the paper:
 standard (R1) with liquid egg yolk;
 mayonnaise (R2) with a low egg content;
 mayonnaise (R3) with egg yolk powder;
 mayonnaise (R4) with whole egg.
The standard temperature of the ingredients was 8 °C.
The differences between the 4 recipes of mayonnaise consist of
changing the recipe, namely the quantity of water, salt, egg yolk and oil, the
quantity of the other ingredients remaining unchanged.
In the standard recipe (R1) I used 8.5% egg yolk, 5.8% water, 0.3%
salt, 2.10% vinegar and 80.5% oil.
As for the second recipe (R2), I modified it, reducing the amount of
yolk to 6%, but I increased the amount of water to 8.10% and salt to 0.5%,
the amount of oil and vinegar being unchanged, in order to maintain the
concentration and the total amount of aqueous phase as in the standard
recipe.
In the third recipe (R3) I replaced the liquid egg yolk with egg yolk
powder, increased the water quantity to 9.8%, salt to 1.04%, vinegar to 3%
and decreased the oil quantity to 79%.

81
In the fourth recipe (R4) I used both whole egg 3.61% and egg yolk
1.96%, reducing the water quantity to 7.10%, salt to 1.04%, the amount of
oil and vinegar remaining the same as in R3.
To achieve the objectives, taking into account the physical properties
of the analysed product, we made the following determinations: pH
determination; density determination; viscosity determining and stability of
the samples.
The pH determination was performed using the Inolab WTW pH
Meter, pH 720. The viscosity analysis was performed after one day storage
at ambient temperature using the Brookfield Viscometer. In the preparation
of mayonnaise we used a hand mixer with 7 steps, power 250 W, Hausberg
brand.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The first determination consisted of measuring the viscosity at the 4
recipes of mayonnaise, at low, medium and high speed.

Fig. 1. Variation of mayonnaise viscosity as a function of time at low speed

The structure and consistency do not change when changing gears to
the standard recipe, the color has changed from intense yellow, at low speed,
to pale yellow at maximum speed.
In the standard recipe, the viscosity increases from 624 cP to 738
cP, from 20 to 40 seconds of mixing at low speed.
The mayonnaise made according to the standard recipe, with a high oil
content, has a firm texture, but is also more sensitive to over -shearing.
In the second recipe (R2) I decreased the quantity of liquid egg yolk
from 8.5% (R1) to 6% (R2), but increased the water quantity to 8.10% and
salt to 0.5%, the amount of oil and vinegar remaining unchanged, in order to
maintain the concentration and total amount of aqueous phase as in the
standard recipe.

82
The increase of the water quantity and the decrease of the egg quantity
in the mayonnaise obtained with a low egg content led to the reversal of the
phases, caused by a change of the oil -water ratio. When the volume of the
dispersed phase became too large, a phase inversion occurred. The phase
reversal point depended on the intensity of the stirring and the speed of
addition of the dispersed phase.
Increasing the amount of water, salt, replacing the liquid egg yolk
with egg yolk powder and decreasing the amount of oil led to the reversal
of the phases, caused by a change in the oil -water ratio.
The phase reversal of the mayonnaise occurred during the coarse
emulsification stage. The inversion in the coarse emulsion phase was
characterized by a very early phase inversion and, therefore, no mayonnaise
was formed.
The viscosity of the mayonnaise obtained with whole egg , shows a
decrease in viscosity compared to the standard recipe, from 624 cP to 500
cP, from 20 to 40 seconds of mixing at low speed. Recipes R2 and R3 have
a low viscosity, compared to the standard recipe, both mayonnaises having a
long texture that made them thinner and more elastic.
This is not a desired quality of mayonnaise and, therefore, we can say
that these mayonnaises do not meet the requirements of adequate
mayonnaise .

Fig. 2. Variation of mayonnaise viscosity as a function of time at medi um speed

Regarding the variation of the mayonnaise viscosity at medium speed
in the standard recipe, the viscosity decreases from 550 cP to 445 cP, from
20 to 40 seconds of mixing at medium speed.
The viscosity with egg yolk powder shows a decrease in the viscosity
compared to the standard recipe and the second recipe, from 550 cP and 242
cP, to 132 cP, from 20 to 40 seconds of mixing at medium speed.
The viscosity of the mayonnaise obtained with whole egg shows a
decrease compared to the standard recipe, from 550 cP to 448 cP, from 20 to

83
40 seconds of mixing at medium speed. By increasing the mixing time from
40 to 60 and 80 seconds, respectively, the viscosity of the mayonnaise
decreases from 463 cP to 308 cP. At a longer mixing time, 100 seconds, the
quality decreases, the mayonnaise becomes excessive and the viscosit y
increases to 395 cP.

Fig. 3. Variation of viscosity of mayonnaise as a function of time at high speed

Regarding the variation of the mayonnaise viscosity at high speed in
the standard recipe, the viscosity increases from 400 cP to 481 cP, from 20
to 40 seconds of mixing at high speed.
The viscosity of the mayonnaise obtained with a low egg content
shows a great decrease in viscosity compared to the standard recipe, from
400 cP to 361 cP, from 20 to 40 seconds of mixing at high speed.
The viscosity with egg yolk powder shows a decrease in viscosity
compared to the standard recipe and the second recipe, from 400 cP and 361
cP, to 119 cP, from 20 to 40 seconds of mixing at high speed.
The viscosity of the mayonnaise obtained with whole egg shows an
increase compared to the standard recipe, from 400 cP to 909 cP, from 20 to
40 seconds of mixing at high speed. 909 cP is the highest value of
mayonnaise viscosity obtained with whole egg, at high speed.
After analyzing the data, it was found that mixing speed, egg content,
egg type and oil content influence the quality of the mayonnaise.
The quality of the mayonnaise changes during the emulsification
process, presenting an optimum to the standard recipe. When the
mayonnaise is exposed to high speed for a long time, the egg yolk protein is
irreversibly destroyed, leading to a decrease in viscosity.
As the oil content in mayonnaise increases, mayonnaise becomes
more and more sensitive to over -shearing. The increase of the dispersed
phase gives a firm texture and a higher viscosity. Higher viscosity makes the
shear more intense, leading to a faster destruction of the proteins in the egg
yolk (Hilma Elena, 2018).

84
In conclusion, the reversal of the emulsion phase occurred with the
destruction of the proteins in the egg yolk (Thakur et all, 2008). This was
observed in the low egg content recipe (R2) and in the egg yolk mayonnaise
recipe (R3).
Mayonnaise density at low, medium and high speed does not have
major discrepancies in values between recipes.
The standard mayonnaise recipe (R1) recorded a value close to each
mixing time and speed, approaching the ideal mayonnaise value of ρ =
0.925 g/cm3
The closest recipe to the ideal pH value of mayonnaise (4.5) is the
whole egg mayonnaise recipe (R4), which has a value between 4.15 and
4.39, with a maximum of 4.65 at 80s mixing time.
Standard mayonnaise recipes (R1) and mayonnaise recipes with low
egg content (R2) show no changes during mixing, having similar and close
values.
Physical stability was considered to be the period when the emulsions
did not show separation of the visual phase. All samples were stable, the
emulsions did not show separation of the visual phase after 7 days. The
amount of oil dispersed in mayonnaise contributed to the viscoelastic
behavior and stability.

CONCLUSIONS

The standard recipe (R1) is best suited to obtain a high quality
mayonnaise. The whole egg recipe (R4) comes close to the qualities of the
standard recipe, but does not contain a sufficient amount of emulsifiers.
Both the low egg yolk (R2) and the yolk powder (R3) recipes suffer from
the reversal process in the emulsification phase. The viscosity, density and
pH of the four recipes are influenced by the speed and mixing time.
The stability of these samples does not change, the recipes having the
same textur e and color during the 7 days at room temperature.
With the increase of the mixing speed, the formation time of the
mayonnaise and the viscosity decrease, also the increase in volume
determined by the incorporation of air which is in accordance with the
density is lower.
Therefore, it is recommended to take into account the time parameter,
which increases with decreasing mixing speed, but at the same time favors
the incorporation of air, improves the viscosity of the finished product, and
therefore its sensory and commercial quality.

85
REFERENCES

1. Andersson, I., 2015, Building texture – The impact of mixing and recipe
parameters on mayonnaise quality. Lund University. Master theses.
2. Cedergårdh, F., 2014, Characterization of commercial may viscosity and drop let
size. Lund University. Master thesis.
3. Depree. J. A. and G. P Savage. 2001, Physical and Flavour Stability o f
Mayonnaise, Trends in Food Science & Technology 12 (5 –6):157 –63.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-2244(01)00079-6
4. Duncan, S. E., 2004, Fats: Mayonnaise. In Scott Smith, J. and Hui, Y.H., Ed 2004.
Food Processing Principles and Applications. Ames: Blackwell Publishing. Ch 18.
5. Hilma Elena, 2018, Analysis maximum of embedding essential fatty acids from
getting sane compared spun paste ripeness cheese p. International Symposiu m
”Risk Factors for Environment and Food Safety ”, Oradea 2018, p. 133-138,
Analele Universității din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxicologie, Zootehnie si
Tehnologii de I ndustrie Alimentară, VOL XVII/B, I.S.S.N. 1583-4301
6. Kumar, A., Li, S., Cheng, C-M. and Lee, D., 2015, Recent Developm ents in
Phase Inversion Emulsification. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research,
54(34), pp.8375-8396
7. Le Denmat, M., Anton, M. and Beaumal, V., 2000, Characterisation of emu lsion
properties and of interface composition in O/W emulsions prepared with hen egg
yolk, plasma and granules. Food Hydrocolloids, 14, pp.539- 549.
8. Li-Chan, E.C.Y., Powrie, W.D. and Nakai, S., 1995, The Chemistry o f Eggs and
Egg Products. In: Stadelman, W.J. and Cotterill, O.J. (1995) Egg Science and
Technology. Binghamton: The Haworth Press Inc. Ch 6.
9. Matsumura, Y. and Matsumiya, K., 2012, Proteins –Peptides as Emulsifying
Agents. In: Hettiarachchy, N. S., Sato, K., Marshall, M. R. and Kannan, A., Ed
2012. Food Proteins and Peptides: Chemistry, Functionality, Interactions, a nd
Commercialization. Boca Raton: CRC Press. Ch 5.
10. McClements, D. and Demetriades, K. (1998) An Integrated Approach to th e
Development of Reduced-Fat Food Emulsions. Critical Reviews in Food Science
and Nutrition, 38(6), pp.511-536.
11. Saarela. Anna-Maria, Paula Hyvönen, Sinikka Määttälä and Atte Von Wright,
2010, Elintarvikeprosessit. 3. uudistettu painos. Savonia-ammattikorkeako ulun
julkaisusarja. D5/9/2010. Kuopio: Savonia-ammattikorkeakoulu
12. Oliver, J., 2013, My Beautiful Mayo, Available at:
http://www.jamieoliver.com/recipes/eggsrecipes/my-beautiful-mayo
13. Stewart, M., 2017, Basic Mayonnaise. Available at:
http://www.marthastewart.com/340597/basic-mayonnaise
14. Thakur, R. K., Villette, C., Aubry, J.M. and Delaplace, G., 2008, Dynam ic
Emulsification and Catastrophic Phase Inversion of Lecithin-based Emulsion s.
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https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068- 016-0248 -7

86
Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

IDENTIFICATION OF LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES BY THE
CULTURAL AND MORPHOTINCTORIAL NATURE

Popovici Raluca *. Rosan Cristina **

*University of Oradea, Faculty of Environmental Protection, 26 Gen. Magheru St., 410048 Oradea,
Romania, e-mail: rugeraluca@yahoo.com
*University of Oradea, Faculty of Environmental Protection, 26 Gen. Magheru St., 410048 Oradea,
Romania, e-mail: rugeraluca@yahoo.com

Abstract
Listerias are widely in the nature. They were isolated from the soil, water, dra inage, plants, vegetal
material in decomposition, fodder. L. monocytogenes stood out in the ra w food or with insufficient
thermal cooking (meat, meat products, fish, shell fish), vegetables, dairy products, and in human or
animal healthy carriers. The Liseria type includes gram-positive bacillus, short, with round ends,
disposed in palisades or in chains. In old cultures they can appear u nder the form of long filaments.
They are non- sporulated, non-capsulated, discretionary anaerob e mobile at 28șC. Listeria
monocytogenes has a coccobacillary form. Listeria monocytogenes is a pathogen microorganism,
with discretionary intracellular habitat. The virulent strains elaborate a h emolysin, listeriolysin O.
Other factors of virulence, beside their capacity of intracellular survival, and their wide spread, have
a special importance in pathogenesis. Their special capacity to deve lop or survive in conditions of
refrigeration, compared to the main other microorganisms, make the Listeria mo nocytogenes
represent a significant challenge for the area of food production.

Keywords: anaerobe, virulent, filament

INTRODUCTION

The infections with germs of the Listeria type can appear under the
form of some sporadic cases or epidemic outbreaks. The last epidemic
outbreaks suggest the fact that the listeriosis is in fact a food poisoning, the
most frequent way of transmitting the disease being in the present by food.
The most frequently involved food in the epidemic outbreaks is the
cabbage, milk, cheese, chicken, turkey, milk, pate, pig tongue, mushrooms
etc.
The most severe form of listeriosis is however the maternal-fetal one,
not for the mother but for the fetus or the newborn. This can make a
precocious form of infection, that is manifested under the form of a
generalized septicemia with approx. 40-50% deadly cases, either under the
form of late syndrome (7-15 days from birth), characterized by a meningeal
syndrome, digestive manifestations and seldom conjunctivitis. Other clinical
form signalized in adults and the child at an old age (especially in those with
immune-depression: leukemia, infections with HIV virus) are represented

87
by meningitis, encephalitis, or even septicemias, with a high rate of
mortality or with neurological sequelas among the survivors. There were
reported also primary cutaneous listeriosis, arthritis, osteomyelitis, intra-
abdominal abscesses, peritonitis, pulmonary infections especially in
veterinaries and workers from slaughter houses that came in contact with the
tissues infected of the sick animals. The diagnosis of laboratory is
bacteriological. The serological one can have a value in epidemiologic
context.
The pathologic products are harvested depending on the form and
localization of the infection: CSF, blood, amniotic liquid, tissular fragments,
vaginal secretions, respiratory, tegumentar samples, food samples, salubrity
samples etc. and don ’t need special conditions of transport. In case of
prolonged transport the pathologic products will be kept at 35°C in
incubator (but not over 48 hours), and for testing that are over 48 hours, the
pathologic products will be kept in the refrigerator (at 4°C) or in deepfreezer
at -20°C), for the purpose of preventing the contamination with other
microorganisms.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The analytical study was accomplished on pathological products
coming from exudates, excrements.
These being the products it was used the technique of seeding for the
isolating and identification of Listeria, accomplishing of Gram colored
smears from the microbial culture.
1. The technique of seeding for the isolation and identification
Preparing the necessary material
– The plates are taken from the refrigerator, are left to reach
the room temperature and to get dry in the hood with laminar
flow for an hour, with the lid half open
– The seeding is accomplished in the hood with laminar flow
Method of work
– For each sample it is preferred to have a culture plate
– In a sector of the plate is discharged the loop
– The inoculum is finished with sterile loop tracing parallel
lines in the other three scales from the respective half of the
plate, seeding thus two bumpers on the plate
– The plates thus seeded are hatched in the thermostat 24
hours, at 37 ℃.
2. The accomplishing of the Gram colored smear
– It is written on the slide the ID no. of the sample, on the
frosted part

88
– It is placed a drop of physiological serum on the middle of
the slide
– It is taken with a sterile ansa a colony of the culture of
microorganism to be identified and is placed a drop of serum
– With circular movements of the ansa is created a microbial
suspension on the slide, that is spread in a layer as this as
possible
– It is left to dry approx. 20-30 minutes
– It is Gram colored as the following:
– The product is fixed passing it through a flame a few time
– It is placed on the coloring bath
– It is colored with a solution of gentian violet or crystal violet
for 1 minute
– The colorant is poured and the product is washed with
drinking water
– The slide is covered with solution of Lugol for 1 minute
– The colorant is poured and the product is washed with
drinking water
– The slide is washed out with a mixture of decolorant alcohol-
acetone, by pouring until the poured liquid becomes colorless
– It is washed with drinking water
– It is colored with safranin 2-3 minutes
– The slide is washed with distilled water, it is dried and is
examined under the microscope.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

After 24-48 hours of incubation at 35-37 ℃ the colonies of Listeria
have the diameter of 1-1,5mm on the glucose 2% and only 0,2-0,4 mm on
the tryptose agar 1-2%. They are round, smooth, easily gibbous, transparent
with the aspect of the tear drops. Their center has a glass crystalline aspect,
with watery consistency. Examined in the oblique light, at 45ș, they appear
with blue-green iridescence.
The germs from cultures in the “S” phase are disposed on the smear
isolated, grouped in palisades, and for those of “R” phase, appear more
frequently coccobacili disposed in short chains of 3-5 elements.

89

Fig. 1. Listeria monocytogenes Grame positive

Fig. 2. Listeria monocytogenes Grame positive

90

Fig.3 . Listeria monocytogenes . Blood Agar
Culture 24 hours

The isolation from the contaminated pathological samples is difficult,
it seeds a part o sample in 9 parts of broth of enriching with nalidixic acid.
The listeria are short bacilli, right or curved, most of the times with
coccobacilar or cocal form, with round ends and dimensions of 0,5-2µm
length and 0,8µm depth, in the pathologic samples they appear either
extracellular or phagocyte, the indubitable test o listeriosis.
In the young cultures, incubated at 35-37 ℃, are dominating the short
forms, coccobacilar, while in the old cultures the polymorphism appears,
most often with long filament forms of 6-20µm similar to lactobacilli. They
are colored gram-positive on the smears accomplished from young cultures
and can be gram-negative in the old cultures. In a prolonged discoloration,
of over 5 minutes, over 50% of the germs, even those coming from young
cultures, can become gram-negative.
The colonies of the rugose forms have the matt center, are large,
oblate, with irregular margins, with central crateriform depression, friable,
hard to be emulsified. After the pricking-out the colonies of Lisyteria have
left “imprints ” on the agar.
On agar with 5% ram blood, the colonies of Listeria monocytogenes
are surrounded wi th a narrow area of β diffuse hemolysis and those of
Listeria seeligeri are weakly hemolytic. And those of Listeria ivanovii form
a wider area of β hemolysis, that after 36 -48 hours have the aspect of double
or even triple hemolysis.

91
The cultures of Listeria monocytogenes on solid medium have spread
a characteristic smell of acidulate milk. In the semi-solid mediums as the
agar 3‰, after the seeding by stinging and incubation at the room
temperature, Listeria monocytogenes grows under the form of an umbrella
at 3-5 mm from the surface of the agar proving an important mobility.
Other methods that were used for the detecting of the species of
Listeria, were showed up in the study “On the Specificity of PCR Detection
of Listeria monocytogenes in Food: a Comparison of Published Primers ”,
made by R.Aznarab,B.Alarcónab. First of all the authors have accomplished a
polyphase approach to establish a collection of reference strains. These were
characterized biochemically and genetically by API-Lis and PCR,
polymorpheus randomly amplified (RAPD-PCR), respectively. The random
amplifying of DNA was accomplished with the universal primers M13, T7
and T3 and was created a data bank in order to compile the RAPD patterns
of all the analyzed strains. The analysis of the UPGMA cluster of the RAPD
profiles with primer M13 showed eight clusters with 72,3% similarity. The
clusters 2 and 7 corresponded to L. monocytogenes. The clusters 1 and 6
groups of strains of L. ivanovii. The clusters 3, 4, 5 and 8 coresponded to L.
grayi, L. innocua, L. welshimeri and, L. seeligeri, respectively. The analysis
of the model has underlined the existence of the reference strains wrongly
identified, which was confirmed by the analysis of the sequence of ADNc
16S. RAPD-PCR is a fast genetic test that helped the confirmation of the
identity of the strains. Based on the results of the PCR specificity, the
primers LM1 – LM2 were the best combination for the detection of L.
monocytogenes because they amplified only the specific fragment in the
strains that were evaluated genetically and biochemically as belonging t o
the species. The specificity of other primers analyzed is discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

For the differentiation of the Listeria type from other similar types it is
tested the anaerobe discretionary growth, the mobility in the wet product or
in the column of soft agar of the culture at the room temperature, the growth
at temperatures between 2 ℃ and 42 ℃, the production of oxidase, catalysis,
urease, H2S in the TSI medium, the fermenting of the glucose.
The identification up to the level of species is very important because
all the listeria can contaminate the food, but only L. monocytogenes has
clinical significance and exceptional L. ivanovii or L. seeligeri .
The hemolysis is essential for the differentiation of L. monocytogenes
from L. inocua, because of the tight affinity of the nine species and
overlapping of many phenotype kinds.

REFERENCES

92

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Active Bacterial Core Surveillance:
methodology —case definition and ascertainment.
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/abcs/meth-case.htm. Accessibility verified Septemb er 21,
2007.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Four pediatric deaths from community
acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus. Minnesota and North Dakota,
19971999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. pp. 48(32):707-710. http ://
www.cdc.gov/mmwr /preview/mmwrhtml/mm4832a2.htm.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococc us Aureus
infections among competitive sports participants —Colorado, Indiana, Pennsylvania, and
Los Angeles County, 2000-2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, pp. 5 2(33):793
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococc us Aureus
infections in correctional facilities —Georgia, California, and Texas, 2001- 2003. MMWR
Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, pp. 52(41):992-996.
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Outbreaks of commun ity-associated
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infections —Los Angeles County,
California, 2002-2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, pp. 52(5):88.
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Progress toward eliminat ion of
Haemophilus influenzae type b invasive disease among infants and children, United 73
States, 1998 –2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, pp. 51(11):234-237.
7. Cosgrove SE, Qi Y, Kaye KS, Harbarth S, Karchmer AW, Carmeli Y,2005. Th e impact
of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus Aureus bacteremia on patient outcomes:
mortality, length of stay, and hospital charges. Infect Control Hos p Epidemiol, pp.26
(2):166-174.
8. Cosgrove SE, Sakoulas G, Perencevich EN, Schwaber MJ, Karchemer AW, Carmeli Y,
2003. Comparison of mortality associated with methicillin-resistant and
methicillinsusceptible Staphylococcus Aureus bacteremia: a meta-analysis. Cli n Infect Dis,
pp. 36(1):53-59.
9. Engemann JJ, Carmeli Y, Cosgrove SE, et al, 2003. Adverse clinical a nd economic
outcomes attributable to methicillin resistance among patients with Staphylococcus Aureu s
surgical site infection. Clin Infect Dis, pp. 36(5):592-598.
10. Francis JS, Doherty MC, Lopatin U, et al,2005. Severe community-onset pne umonia in
healthy adults caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus carryin g the
PantonValentine leukocidin genes. Clin Infect Dis, pp.40 (1): 100-107.
11. Fridkin SK, Hageman JC, Morrison M, et al, 2005.Methicillin-resistant Staphyloco ccus
Aureus disease in three communities. N Engl J Med, pp. 352(14):143 61444.
12. Hidron AI, Kourbatova EV, Halvosa JS, et al, 2005. Risk factors for colonization with
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) in patients admitted to an ur ban
hospital: emergence of community-associated MRSA nasal carriage. Clin Infect Di s,
pp.41(2):159-166.
13. Kaplan SL, Hulten KG, Gonzalez BE, et al, 2005. Three-year surveillance of
community- acquired Staphylococcus Aureus infections in children. Clin Infect Dis.
pp.40(12):1785-1791.
14. Klevens RM, Edwards JR, Richards CL, et al, 2007. Estimating hea lthcare-associated
infections and deaths in U.S. hospitals, Public Health Rep, pp.122(2):160- 166.
15. Klevens RM, Edwards JR, Tenover FC, McDonald LC, Horan T, Gaynes R . Changes
2006. In the epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus in i ntensive care
units in U.S. hospitals, Clin Infect Dis, pp. 42(3):389-391.
16. https://microbiologie.umfst.ro

94
Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

STUDY RELATED TO THE QUALITY OF LABORATORY
LYOPHILIZED FRUITS

Popovici Mariana*

*University of Oradea, Faculty of Environmental Protection, 26 Gen. Magheru St., 410048 Oradea;
Romania, e-mail: mariana_mediu@yahoo.com

Abstract
Lyophilization is a procedure of preservation through drying which con sists in eliminating the
water from a previously refrigerated product, by sublimating it through vac uum ( the water from the
product transforms itself directly from solid estate into steams). Lyophilized pro ducts greatly keep
their nutritional values having as well a longer period of availability .
By dehydrating the fruits after the lyophilization process a great perc ent of the fruits'
properties are preserved ( carbohydrates, antioxidants, mineral salts, fib res).
Lyophilized fruits are usually used in mixtures of cereals and fruits, like mu sli for breakfast or
as they are, because they can be hydrated and eaten as one please s.
Lyophilization makes the products dehydrated without them losing their nutritional qualities,
only a very small amount of it and they also keep their flavor vey well. In what the nutritional
substances are concerned, vitamins A, C and E are the most affected but they only suffer moderate
losses.
The study related to the quality of lyophilized fruits has been perform ed in laboratory
conditions for three species of fruits: raspberries, cherries and strawberries fo r which an
organoleptic appreciation has been done and for which we have d etermined the weight before and
after they had been lyophilized and for which the amount of C-vitamin has also been calculated.

Key words: lyophilization, lyostat, quick freezing, preservation procedure, sublim ation

INTRODUCTION

The actual lyophilization is performed in three main steps: freezing,
sublimation or primary dehydration and secondary dehydration or
desorption. By freezing, the water which is under the form of ice crystals is
separated, a process which is firstly initiated in the extra cellular fluid then
the humidity from the cells migrate towards the ice crystals contributing to
their dehydration. Then there is a controlled heating under vacuum
conditions thus leading to the submination of ice, water being slowly
eliminated under the form of steams, without melting.Through this
procedure there is a minimum modification of the cellular structure or of the
chemical composition. (Naghiu A. et all., 2005).
The technologic process of lyophilization starts with a quick freezing
of the processed products after which the products are introduced on special
plates, in the liostat. The latter is a special device like an autoclave equipped
with heating and vacuum systems as well as with systems that quicly

95
eliminate the water steams. When enough quantity of a powerful vacuum
has been reached the products subject to lyophilization are reheated to
obtain the sublimation of water without the ice melting. During the whole
lyophilization process the temperature and the dehydration pressure will be
checked until the end of this technological process. (Măndiță D., 20 02).
Through lyophilization fruits lose the greatest part of water that they
contain without the cellular structure being affected and the components of
the dry substance remain unchanged. Thus they become porous so that they
can be easily rehydrated. Due to the porous structure the air contact surface
increases which make the product be very hygroscopic, fact which needs
special packing of the final product. (Gherghi A., 1999).
The final quality of a lyophilized product greatly depends on the
product's initial quality. There are two common technical requests of all the
food products that are about to be lyophilized: the first request refers to
ensuring a volume/surface alance as big as possible which would ease
sublimation and the second technical request refers to the way products are
lifted up and loaded to the place the actual lyophilization happens. In this
way, the distribution of products to the lyophilization place must be done
uniformly in what the composition, the weight and the thickness of the
loaded products are concerned. (Mintaș I., 2009).
Lyophilization as a method of preservation, presents certain
advantages from the food products' quality point of view in comparison with
other food preservation methods. The influences of lyophilization manifest
themselves through modifications of physical , chemical and biochemical
nature of the food products. One of the physical modifications that appear at
lyophilized food products and which represents an advantage is the decrease
of weight after lyophilization which varies according to the product between
50-90%. (Mintaș I., 2009).
Lyophilized products keep the assembly of their sensorial properties
very well ( texture, taste, smell). The lyophilized product keeps its initial
form, does not make foam, does not contract, there are no local
concentrations of certain local soluble fractions. (Banu C., 1992).
In compasrison with the products dried through other methods,
lyophilized products can be much more quickly and completely rehydrated.
The quality of rehydration depends on a series of conditions as for example
the quantity of water, the water's pH, the temperature and the duration of the
process. (Niculiță P. and N. Purice, 1986).
After a food product has been lyophilized there is usually a
modifiation that appears in the product's texture in comparison to the initial
product. This modification is more obvious or less obvious according to the
product, to the freezing method and to the conditions in which the actual
freezing of the product took place. A quick freezing generally offers the

96
product a good texture while a slow freezing destroys the product's texture
and after the rehydration the product is usually slack. (Niculiță P. And Mona
Popa).
The most spread method of drying is that of the convection to
atmospheric pressure. ( drying with hot air). During drying with hot air, the
air itself is the vector which supplies the surface of the product with energy
and the vector which removes the water vapors.(Banu C., 2008).
When drying through lyophilization the main inconvenient consists in
the energy consumption which is a few times bigger then the one realized at
the classical dehydration technologies. For lyophilization we use very
expensive raw materials which are also very perishable like the following:
citrus fruits, fruits and vegetables with a hig content of vitamins. This
dehydration method is definitely superior to the other commonly used
methods. Lyophilized fruits can be easily rehydrated regaining their form,
value, flavor, color and other sensorial features. (Banu C.,2009).

MATERIAL AND METHOD

In order to analyse the lyophilized fruits we have taken 3 samples
of fruits belonging to 3 different types of fruits: raspberries, cherries
and strawberries.
The 3 samples of fruits analyzed have been conditioned, put in glass
bowls and weighed. For the fruits studied we have determined the quantity
of soluble dry substance and the content of C vitamin.
In order to appreciate the quality of the laboratory lyophilized fruits
with the help of the ALPHA 1-4 LdpPLUS lyophilizer, after 12 hours of
dehydration we have continued by determining the final weight, by
determining the content of C vitamin and by appreciating the organoleptic
quality of the obtained lyophilized fruits.
In order to determine the content of C vitamin from the fresh and
lyophilized fruits we have chosen the titrimetrical method based on treating
the product with a solution of dichlorophenol indophenol.
The volume of dichlorophenol indophenol used in the sample case and
the content of C vitamin from the analyzed lyophilized fruits is presented in
table 1.
Table 1
Content of C vitamin in lyophilized fruits
Lyophilized
fruits V DCPI mg vit C/10 ml mg vit C/100 g xdilution
Raspberry 2,5 0,011666667 11,66666667 1166,666667
Cherry 3,0 0,014047619 14,04761905 1404,761905
Strawberry 3,5 0,016428571 16,42857143 1642,857143

97
In order to quantify the results we have realized a calibration curve
with a standard solution of C vitamin, of 0,05% concentration. The obtained
calibration curve can be seen in fig. 1.

Fig.1. Calibration curve of the ascorbic acid.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

1.Appreciation of the organoleptic characteristics

The organoleptic characteristics of the three samples of analyzed
lyophilized fruits are presented in table 2.
Table 2
Organic characteristics of the lyophilized fruits
Characteristics Type of fruit
Raspberry Cherries Strawberries
Aspect Whole fruits, of
close size Fruits divided into
halves, non uniform
size Fruits divided into
pieces, uniform size,
present traces of juice
Color Pink-raspberry
like,close to the
color of the fresh
fruit The skin is dark,
blackish, easily
wrinkled and the pulp
is yellowish Dark red
Consistency Hard Elastic pulp The pulp is elastic
Taste and
smell Pleasant,specific Pleasant, specific Pleasant, flavored,
specific

Organoleptically the raspberries have behaved the best during the
lyophilization, they have remained whole and they had a red-raspberry
color, like the fresh raspberries; the cherries have remained non-uniform due
to their skin which prevents the uniform elimination of the water from the
cellular structure and the skin remained wrinkled; the strawberries which
have been divided are uniform in shape and color but when they were cut y = 210x + 0,05
R² = 0,9994
051015202530
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14

98
their pores and capillaries have been sectioned and once the water
evaporated then part of the cellular juice has also vanished.

 Determining the weight of the lyophilized fruits
The data obtained when weighing the three species of lyophilized
fruits and the content of soluble dry substance of the fresh fruits are
mentioned and written in table 3.
Table 3
The dry substance and the weight of the analyzed fruits
Criterial
number Fruit Soluble dry
substance
oBrix Initial weight
g Final
weight
g The
dehydration
degree
1. Raspberry 11,1 25 7 3,5
2. Cherry 10,8 25 6 4,16
3. Strawberry 6,2 25 4 6,25

We have started the study from a weight of 25 g for each of the
studied fruits: raspberry, cherry and strawberry. After the lyophilization the
raspberry reached 7 grams, with a degree of dehydration of 3.5 times; the
cherries reached 6 g after lyophilization and a degree of dehydration of 4,16
times; and the strawberries reached 4g after the lyophilization with a
dehydration degree of 6,25 times.
It can be noticed that the dehydration degree is closely related to the
soluble dry substance that the fresh fruits had previously contained. When
the content of soluble dry substance increases then the dehydration degree
decreases.
Thus the raspberry which had the highest content of soluble dry
substance – 11,1oBrix, presents the lowest dehydration degree of 3,5 times,
the cherries which had a content of 10,8 oBrix soluble dry substance had a
dehydration degree of 4,16 times and the strawberries which had the lowest
content of soluble dry substance, of 6oBrix, have the highest dehydration
degree, of 6,25 times.
2.Determining the content of C vitamin
The data obtained when determining the content of C vitamin from
fresh fruits in comparison to the content of C vitamin at the lyophilized
fruits are presented in table 4.
Table 4
Content of C vitamin for fresh fruits and for lyophilized fruits
Criterial
number Fruits Content of C
vitamin for
fresh fruits
mg/100g Content of C
vitamin for
lyophilized fruits
mg/100g C vitamin
storage
degree
1. Raspberry 17,33 11,66 67,28
2. Cherry 22,14 14,04 63,41
3. Strawberry 27,25 16,42 60,25

99
Through the lyophilization of the three samples of analyzed fruits:
raspberries, cherries and strawberries the content of C vitamin in the fresh
fruits has been the following: in the case of the raspberry the content of C
vitamin of the fresh fruit has been of 17,33mg/100g, and after the
lyophilization the content reaches 11,66mg/100, which represents a C
vitamin storage degree of 67,28%; the content of C vitamin at cherries
decreases from 22,14 mg/100g to 14,04 mg/100g, and there is a C vitamin
storage degree of 63,41%, and in what the lyophilized strawberries are
concerned the C vitamin content decreases from 27,25mg/100g in the case
of the fresh fruits to 16,42 mg/100g in the case of lyophilized strawberries
and representing a C vitamin storage degree of 60,25% .
Out of the three species of analyzed fruits: raspberries, cherries and
strawberries it can be noticed that the raspberries have kept the C vitamin
the best after the lyophilization, in a percent of 67,28% and this fact
happened because the fruits have been whole, they have kept their form
even after the lyophilization in comparison to the cherries which have been
cut into halves and in comparison with the strawberries which have been cut
into small slices and which have had a surface with bigger pores and
capillaries, thus allowing the oxidation and the loss of C vitamin.

CONCLUSIONS

Lyophilization is a process of drying very quickly previously
refrigerated food products by eliminating ice with a forwarded vacuum,
meaning by the process in which water directly goes from solid form into
vapor form.
Lyophilization is used in food industry in order to obtain: coffee, tea
extracts, vegetables, fruits, meat, fish. Lyophilizated products represent 10-
15% of their initial weight and they do not need to be kept refrigerated.
Lyophilized fruits present different characteristics, the raspberry
which was whole has got a homogenous form, of pink color, with pleasant
smell and taste, well expressed, without caramel taste; cherries which have
been divided in two have got an irregular form, their skin is dark-blachish,
the pulp is bluish with a pleasant taste and smell and the strawberries which
have been divided in slices have got homogenous form, they have red color,
pleasant and specific taste and smell, without caramel taste and smell.
In what the content of C vitamin is concerned for the lyophilized
fruits, this is kept in a percent of 60-67%, which, if associated with a lower
content of weight, leads to an advantage of the preservation method and
presents a high interest of using these types of food products.
As a method of food processing and preservation lyophilization offers
a series of advantages related to the fruits' quality and to the preservation
acceptable time period when the fruits are lyophilized but the production

100
costs are higher, overpassing enormously the specific energy consumption
in comparison with other processing and preservation technologies.

REFERENCES

1. Banu C.(coordonator), 1992 – Progrese tehnice, tehnologice și științifice în industria
alimentară, Vol.I, Editura Tehnică, București, pag.372
2. Banu C., 2008 – Tratat de industrie alimentară.Probleme generale, Editura ASAB,
București, pag.289
3. C. Banu – Tratat de industrie alimentară. Tehnologii alimentare, Editura ASAB,
București, 2009, pag.277
4. Gherghi A. – Prelucrarea și industrializarea produselor horticole, vol. III, Editura
Olimp, București, 1999, pag.100
5. Mintaș Ioan, 2009 – Tehnica frigului, Editura Universității AGORA, Oradea, pag.
93
6. Mintaș Ioan, 2009 – Tehnica frigului. Aplicații practice, Editura Universității
AGORA, Oradea, pag.46,47
7. Măndița Dumitru, 2002 – Fructe exotice, stimulente, condiment natural, Editura
Tehnică, București, pag. 41
8. Naghiu A., A. Timar, Adriana David, Anca Naghiu, 2005 – Tehnica frigului și
climatizare, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, pag. 242,243
9. Petru Niculiță, Mona Popa – Tehnici de conservare a produselor agroalimentare,
București, 2002, pag. 212
10. Petru Niculiță, Nicolae Purice – Tehnologii frigorifice în valorificarea produselor
alimentare de origine vegetală, Editura Ceres, București, 1986, pag.142

VARIA

102
Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

PATHOGENICITY AND ANTIGENIC STRUCTURE OF PROTEUS

Baldea Corina*

*University of Oradea, Faculty of Environmental Protection, 26 Gen. Magheru St., 410048 Oradea,
Romania, e-mail: corina68a@yahoo.com

Abstract
The Proteus type are ubicuitary germs spread in the nature, being found in the soil, waste
water, surface water, in the organic matters in putrefaction, in the human intestinal tube, in the food
and in the pathologic products. Being germs spread very much in the n ature, the infections with this
microorganism depend on the immunologic status of the host, on the virule nce of the incriminated
strains, on the control of the infections and of the food.
The proteus ferments the glucose with a bit of gas and produce H2S p henylalanine
deaminase. It doesn ’t ferment the lactose, don ’t produce lisindecarboxilase and β galactozidase. On
the agar nutritive media 2%, without inhibitors it presents the phenomen on of invasion or migration,
characteristic to the type.
All the species of Proteus are frequently met in the nature and among these Proteus vulgaris
and Proteus mirabilis pretty frequent also in the human pathology. Proteus mirabilis is after E. Coli
the etiologic agents most frequently met in the urinary infections and Proteus vulgaris was
incriminated in the urinary infections but especially in gastroenteritis with aspe ct of food poisoning.
P. Vulgaris is isolated frequently from the stool, being a component of in testinal microbiota.

Keywords: microbiota, gastroenteritis, food poisoning.

INTRODUCTION

The genetic identification of the colonies isolated on selective
mediums is a perspective of wide applying in the establishing of the species.
Pathogen conditioned, Proteus can outburst, alone or in association with
other pathogen agents, infections on different levels of the host organism.
Also it causes infections of the digestive tube, food poisoning and enteritis
in newborn and small children, infections of the inferior respiratory tube,
pneumonia is most of the times nosocomial.
The infections of the inferior urinary tube are represented by cystitis.
In patients with urinary lithiasis, P. Mirabilis was frequently isolated in
urine, the recurring bacteriuria being a complication without a solution for
these ill people. The capacity of the Proteus bacteria to decompose the urea
play a very important role in the inducing of the urinary lithiasis. The urease
hydrolyzes the urea to the ammonia and carbon dioxide. The alkanizing of
the urine by the increasing of the level of ammonia determines the
suprasaturation of the phosphate magnesium and of the phosphate calcium
and their crystallization forms calculi. The bacteria inside the lithiasis are
refractory to the antibiotics treatment. The lithiasis with large dimensions

103
can affect the kidney function. The increase of the level of ammonia in the
urine, due to the hydrolisis of the urea in the presence of urease, can
produce also lesions of the epithelium of the urinary tube.
The resistance to the physical and chemical factors of the strains of
Proteus is similar to the other enterobacteriacae. It can resist for a longer
period in some antiseptic solutions, of detergent, and in perfusable solutions,
in those that include glucose being able to multiply at the room temperature,
this explaining the diffusibility of the bacteria in the hospital medium. The
resistance to antibiotics of this bacteria is very large.
Proteus are bacilli gram negative, polymorphous, don ’t present
capsule or spores. They are not demanding germs and on the simple agar
and blood agar have a unique characteristic in the Enterobacteriaceae
family to invade the medium, phenomenon named “phenomenon of
escalade ”. From the place of inoculation, successive waves of culture
migrates concentric up to the edge of the medium or up to the meeting of a
migratory wave of another colony. If the migratory colonies belong to the
same strain, the waves are intricating, forming a continuous web. If they
belong to different strains, even from the same species of Proteus , the
migrations are stopped at a distance of 2 mm, between them being traced a
line of marking, phenomenon known also with the name of “Dienes
phenomenon ”. This represents an important epidemic marker on the
selective mediums that include biliary salts. Proteus grows under the form
of S colonies, smooth, round, translucent, lactose-negative, with the color of
the medium in “cat eyes ”.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The analytic study was accomplished on pathologic products coming
from excrements, performed at the Diaser laboratory, Oradea.
These being the products, it was used the technique of seeding for the
isolation and identification.
Collection and transport of samples
The collection has to be made as close to the beginning of the disease
and before the beginning of any antimicrobial treatment.
• The collection from the stool made spontaneously – it is preferred
and is indicated in all the forms of acute diarrhea when the emission of
excrements is frequent.
• For bacterial and parasite examinations, the collection is made with
the “spoon ” of the coproculture tube, concerning the liquid parts and
especially, those mucous and/or sanguinolent, if they exist. The volume of
the collection has to be of minimum 5 ml or 3-5 cm3, if the stool is formed3.
• For the isolations or virological exams is collected 5 -10 cm3 of
excrements or minimum 5 ml, if the stool is not formed3.

104
• The rectal collection – is recommended in:
– chronic shigellosis, where the curettage of the rectal mucous with the
probe or the tampon offers greater chances to the isolation;
– the investigation of the carriers of Shigella and Salmonella , with the
exception of the those with S. Typhi.
For this type of collection are used Nelaton probes (no.14-16) or
adequate tampons, as the following: with the tampon, wet in saline isotone
solution (not to be used lubricant gels), is penetrated the anal sphincter by
slow rotation, introducing in the rectum approximately 15 cm. It will
proceed identically also with the Nelaton probe, to which is adapted a
syringe (10 ml) used for 1-2 aspirations. After the collection, the probes and
tampons are introduced in sterile recipients that contain preservation
medium, are labeled correspondently and are sent to the laboratory.
The transport of the samples and their processing is made in
maximum 1h, if they were collected in recipient without medium of
transport (with transport at the room temperature), or can be kept up to 24h
at room temperature, if they were collected in recipients that contain Cary-
Blair medium of transport which assures a good viability of the bacterial
intestinal pathogens. An exception to these rules are the samples collected
for the suspicion of infection with Shigella spp, very sensitive bacteria,
which needs seeding on the culture media immediately after collection3;4 .
For the viral etiology, the samples that are not processed immediately have
to be kept at – 70°C3 .
The isolation of the aerobe bacteria
• It is seeded the sample on two culture media, one weakly selective
(Mac Conkey) and one moderately selective (Hektoen) and is incubated 24
h at 35-37șC, following the cultures at 24 and 48 h for the appearance of
characteristic colonies. For the Vibrio type, the recommended selective
medium is BSA (bile salts agar), and for yeasts – the Sabouraud medium
with Cloramfenicol.
• In order to increase the chances of isolation, the sample is sub
cultivated on media of enriching that favors the multiplication of the
pathogen (ex. selenite broth sodium acid for Salmonella spp ., alkaline
peptone water or broth with taurocholate and peptone at pH=8,0-9,0 for
Vibrio where, after incubation can be made smears and cultures from the
superior part of the medium). It is incubated 24 h at 35-37°C, then are made
transmissions on the culture mediums.
• The colonies characteristic to each type will be transplanted in order
to identify on the level of species and agglutination with specific serums.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

105
The Proteus Mirabilis colonies present a remarkable geometrical
regularity. The microbiologic methods and the basic imagery techniques
were used to measure the periodic macroscopic events in the morphogenesis
of the migrating colonies, of escalade. We distinguished three initial phases
(the phase of lag, the first phase of full and the first phase of consolidation),
followed by the repeating of the further cycles of the consolidation phases,
plus the consolidation. Each colony of Proteus corresponds to a cycle of
swarming-plus-consolidation.

Fig. nr. 1. Proteus mirabilis .

Fig. 2 . Proteus mirabilis .
The duration of the phase of lag was dependent to the density of the
inoculation in a way that indicates the functioning of the multicellular
effects of cooperation and inhibition. On our standard medium, the second
and the further phases of the colony, it appears a structure with the form of
internal waves visible with reflected illumination and darkness-field.
These internal waves have resulted from the organizing of the
migrating bacteria in successive cohorts, thinker of the heated cells. The
bacterial growth and motility were modified independently by the
modification of the composition of the growth medium. By the variation of

106
the concentration of glucose in the substrate, it was possible to be modified
the production of biomass without affecting very much the kinetics of the
extending of the colony surface. By the variation of the concentration of
agar in the substrate, the initial production of bacterial biomass was not
affected, but the dynamics of extension of the colonies was modified
significantly. The greater concentrations of agar lead to slower phases,
shorter, of the migrating colonies and the consolidation phases were longer.
Thus, the growth of the colony was limited by the greater
concentrations of agar, but the wider view calendar of the cycles of
consolidation-plus-consolidation remained constant. No variety of factors
that had significant effects on the expansion of the colonies did alter the
frequency of terraces at 34 șC, but the length of the cycle of swarming-plus-
consolidation was affected by the temperature and average enriching. Some
clinical isolations presented significant differences in terraces at 34 șC. The
results have defined a number of parameters easily quantifiable in
developing the colonies. The data did not show any connection between the
running down of nutrients (glucose) and the beginning of different phases in
morphogenesis of the colonies. More observations indicate the functioning
of the thresholds dependent to the density in the control of the transitions
between the distinct phases.
Proteus vulgaris , cultivated on agar that contains penicillin, suffers
extraordinary morphological modifications, that vary depending on the
temperature of incubation, the concentration of penicillin, the concentration
of agar and the presence of small quantities of liquid between agar and the
sliding-lip. The bacilli can be divided normally once or twice in elements
that grow without division and which can develop in form of fantastic
thread or inflated. In great concentrations of penicillin the fantastic forms
are obtained by extending without division. In the beginning, the nuclei are
divided as in the normal organisms. The forms of thread have nuclei
condensed arranged in alternative model along the side of the cells. In
inflations can be either nuclear material of cell inflating, a condensed central
mass or a Reticulum. When the vacuoles are present, they replace the
nuclear material.
The motility of the very wide organisms is slow and the flagella
movement can be observed clearly by contrast of phase. The movement of
the flagella of the organisms responds easily to the radiant heat and a careful
study of these movements makes it impossible the accepting of the Pijper
affirmations that the bacterial motility is due entirely to the wavy
movements of the body and the flagellation is only for the mucoid threads
following the motility.
In the study “A CYTOCHEMICAL LOCALIZATION OF
REDUCTIVE SITES IN A GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIUM ”, accomplished

107
by Woutera Van Iterson, W. Leene they made a microscopic study of
electrons of the sites of reduction of the cellular activity, which, in the life
style, have incorporated tellurite. in the testing object proteus vulgaris , the
reduced tellurite proved to be stored in contiguous bodies with plasmatic
membrane, but different in structure to those described in the bacilli gram-
positive (2). in fact the organisms proved to be composed on a conglomerate
of elements that contained strong electrons-scattering reduced tellurite and a
delicate granular “matrix ”. A limiting membrane was not observed around
these complexes. In the serial sections the details of the complexes are
presented.
The reduced tellurite was not stored in the plasmatic membrane at
any important degree. Because there were no other places of deposit of the
reduced products unveiled, it is presupposed that the complexes represent
the mitochondria equivalents of the investigated organism. Moreover, the
bodies could function as basal granules of the flagella.

CONCLUSIONS

Proteus vulgaris , cultivated on agar that contains penicillin, suffers
extraordinary morphological modifications that vary depending on the
temperature of incubation, penicillin concentration, agar concentration and
the presence of small quantities of liquid between agar and sliding lid. The
bacilli can be divided normally once or twice in elements that grow without
division and which can develop in form of fantastic thread or inflated. In
great concentrations of penicillin the fantastic forms are obtained by
extending without division. In the beginning, the nuclei are divided as in the
normal organisms. The forms of thread have nuclei condensed arranged in
alternative model along the side of the cells. In inflations can be either
nuclear material of cell inflating, a condensed central mass or a Reticulum.
When the vacuoles are present, they replace the nuclear material.
The bacterial growth and motility were modified independently by the
modification of the growth medium composition. By the variation of the
concentration of glucose in the substrate, it was possible to be modified the
production of biomass without affecting very much the kinetics of the
extending of the colony surface. By the variation of the concentration of
agar in the substrate, the initial production of bacterial biomass was not
affected, but the dynamics of extension of the colonies was modified
significantly.

REFERENCES

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Active Bacterial Core Surveillance:
methodology —case definition and ascertainment.

108
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/abcs/meth-case.htm. Accessibility verified Septemb er 21,
2007.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Four pediatric deaths from
communityacquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus. Minnesota and Nor th
Dakota, 19971999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. pp. 48(32):707-71 0. http://
www.cdc.gov/mmwr /preview/mmwrhtml/mm4832a2.htm.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococc us Aureus
infections among competitive sports participants —Colorado, Indiana, Pennsylvania, and
Los Angeles County, 2000-2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, pp. 5 2(33):793
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococc us Aureus
infections in correctional facilities —Georgia, California, and Texas, 2001- 2003. MMWR
Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, pp. 52(41):992-996.
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Outbreaks of commu nity-associated
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infections —Los Angeles County,
California, 2002-2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, pp. 52(5):88.
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Progress toward eliminat ion of
Haemophilus influenzae type b invasive disease among infants and children, United 73
States, 1998 –2000. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, pp. 51(11):234-237.
7. Cosgrove SE, Qi Y, Kaye KS, Harbarth S, Karchmer AW, Carmeli Y,2005. Th e impact
of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus Aureus bacteremia on patient outcomes:
mortality, length of stay, and hospital charges. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, pp.26
(2):166-174.
8. Cosgrove SE, Sakoulas G, Perencevich EN, Schwaber MJ, Karchemer AW, Carmeli Y,
2003. Comparison of mortality associated with methicillin-resistant and
methicillinsusceptible Staphylococcus Aureus bacteremia: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis,
pp. 36(1):53-59.
9. Engemann JJ, Carmeli Y, Cosgrove SE, et al, 2003. Adverse clinical a nd economic
outcomes attributable to methicillin resistance among patients with Staphylococcus Aureu s
surgical site infection. Clin Infect Dis, pp. 36(5):592-598.
10. Francis JS, Doherty MC, Lopatin U, et al,2005. Severe community-onset p neumonia in
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PantonValentine leukocidin genes. Clin Infect Dis, pp.40(1):100- 107.
11. Fridkin SK, Hageman JC, Morrison M, et al, 2005.Methicillin-resistant Staphyloco ccus
Aureus disease in three communities. N Engl J Med, pp. 352(14):143 61444.
12. Hidron AI, Kourbatova EV, Halvosa JS, et al, 2005. Risk factors for colonization with
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) in patients admitted to an ur ban
hospital: emergence of community-associated MRSA nasal carriage. Clin Infect Di s,
pp.41(2):159-166.
13. Kaplan SL, Hulten KG, Gonzalez BE, et al, 2005. Three-year surveillance of
community- acquired Staphylococcus Aureus infections in children. Clin I nfect Dis. pp.
40(12):1785-1791.
14. Klevens RM, Edwards JR, Richards CL, et al, 2007. Estimating hea lthcare-associated
infections and deaths in U.S. hospitals, Public Health Rep, pp.122(2):160- 166.
15. Klevens RM, Edwards JR, Tenover FC, McDonald LC, Horan T, Gaynes R. Changes
2006. In the epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus in i ntensive care
units in U.S. hospitals, Clin Infect Dis, pp. 42(3):389-391.
16. https://microbeonline.com
17. www.vetbact.org

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Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

DECENTRALIZATION OF THE HOSPITAL MEDICAL SERVICES
AT THE ORADEA MUNICIPALITY LEVEL

Dulau Dorel, Daina Lucia, Balasco Ioana Anca, Restea Monica Elena

*University of Medicine and Pharmacy Oradea, University of Oradea, “Piata 1 Decembrie ” Street,
No.10, Oradea, Bihor
e-mail address: doreldulau77@gmail.com
Abstract
The entire world dynamic regarding decentralized medical services is con tinuous and depends on
geopolitical, environmental and organizational changes in the contex t of local governments and
public service provision. Health restructuring is usually done to make serv ices fairer and more
efficient. Most of the times, responsibility transfer from governmental level to lo cal authority level,
regional or other non-national structures did not foresee many of the p roblems that may arise. For
Oradea, respectively Romania, did decentralization represented a real solution for the efficiency and
development of hospital health services? National authority (Romanian gove rnment through Health
Ministry) did it always transmitted the related budget, the know-how and the related specialists to the
local authorities to help the implementation of the effective and real decentralization of the hospital
medical services?

Key words: centralization, decentralization, efficient health services;

INTRODUCTION

The reform of hospitals in European countries started 30 years ago,
with the aim of reducing the pressure on local budgets and increasing the
adaptability of hospital services to local needs.
Decentralization, per se, is a gathering of local authority closer to the
people and to their immediate needs (Smith 1985, Work 2002). Thus, the
local community can participate and influence the decision making,
becoming directly involved in the political decisions that influence the
health services at the local level.
Decentralization is in fact a long-term process, in a continuous
change on different levels. It represents a social and political process
through which the authority and responsibilities are redistributed at national
and local level. Thus, a “negotiation ” takes place between the authorities in
whom the governmental institutions consider that the local authorities are
the best suited to an assumption of local interests and needs.
The reasons for decentralization were different in countries around
the world, for example:
– In the former socialist countries (Czech Republic, Baltic Countries,
Poland) decentralization represented a way of collapsing and inhibiting the
leadership style in a centralized system;

111
– In Russia and Bosnia decentralization had the role of removing
states of ethnic conflict;
– In Latin America decentralization was seen as a process of
democratization and appeared with the democratic elections.
In many countries of the world, decentralization acted as a public
service provider in order to create a system of good governance, aiming to
develop local institutional capacity, eliminating corruption and as well as
reducing inequities and poverty.
Currently, medical hospital services at worldwide, european and
national level are facing real challenges that are in a continuous dynamic.
Some health systems that were decentralized represented a rapid
failure as a result of the non-compliance with the operating principles of the
decentralized system. Not always, the principles of universality, equity,
opportunity and responsibility in the health field and well-being of the
population could be respected in the provision of hospital medical services.

MATERIAL SI METHOD

In carrying out this study, the main working method is the “analysis
method ”, but also “comparison method ”. The data ’s are obtained from
official documents released by local public administration authorities of
Oradea (provisions and decisions of the local Council of Oradea
Municipality), of the Ministry of Health-Order of the Minister.

RESULTS AND DEBATES

The reform of the public hospitals, in Romania, started in 2002 when they
were transferred into the patrimony of the territorial administrative units and
in the administration of the local authorities, the buildings of 48 hospitals
and polyclinics and of more than 150 hospitals in the rest of the country.
The transfer allowed (optional) financing from local budgets for repairs,
investments and operating expenses, but it was not accompanied by
attributions regarding the management of the health units. This transfer was
not accompanied by the supplementation of the revenues of the local
budgets, so this first attempt of decentralization did not lead to positive
results at the system level (Ministry of Health, National Rationalization
Strategy for Hospitals).
In 2008, the management of 18 hospitals in Bucharest and 4 in Oradea
was transferred to the city halls of the two municipalities, which gave the
right of the local authorities to approve the organizational charts, function
states and budgets of the respective hospitals.
In the period between January 2010 and July 2010, Romanian
Gouvernment established a program to monitor the negative and positive

112
effects of the decentralisation of hospital medical services in Romania. The
political-administrative context at Romania ’s level, at that time, was
favorable. Romania had a young ministry, with vision, whose mandate was
extended from November 2009 – August 2011. Thus decentralization was
done at a favorable political moment, with people open politically and
administratively towards new systems of coordination and governance,
much closer to the citizen.
A conclusion emerging at the end of the pilot phase of decentralization
in Oradea was referring to the fact that the local hospital health services are
of poor quality and do not respond to the immediate needs of the citizens. It
was imposed like this, in 2009, a correct assessment of population health. In
order to be able to provide medical services corresponding to a local
community, from a well-individualized geographical area in space and
correctly identified numerically, you must take into account the health needs
of the population, and the medical services must be adapted to these needs,
and the evaluation needs to be made by specialists who have specific
working tools. Thus, an assessment the state of health and well-being at the
level of a properly designed and interpreted local community, definitely
leads to the possibility of adaption the offer of hospital medical services to
the real needs of the population. The evaluation was made according to
certain factors, such as: age, communicable and non-communicable
diseases, environmental factors, wage incomes, number of family members
to which they belong, workplace, etc. Subsequent to this assessment of the
health of the local population, prepared at the level of the Bihor Public
Health Directorate and transmitted The Ministry of Health, the City Hall of
Oradea Municipality, through the specialized structure of the Hospital
Management Department, was able to develop a public health policy, at the
level of two public state sanitary units from the own Medical Network of
Oradea Municipality.
For example, following this evaluation, as well as the finding of the
existence of widespread diseases in the area of Oradea, but also in Bihor
County, the City Hall of Oradea initiated and finalized the construction of a
Regional Oncological Center within the Municipal Clinical Hospital dr.
Gabriel Curteanu Oradea (with oncology, radiotherapy, hematology and
specialized medical departments).
Collins (1996) saw decentralization as a mechanism or an approach that
would reform the institutional paradigms.
I believe that this definition of “decentralization ” is valid for Romania
as well. The vision of health at national level regarding hospital medical
services had to be adapted to the needs of each local community.

113
In addition to the transfer of responsibility, from the Governmental level to
the local level, decentralization involves three options: political,
administrative, fiscal.
Decentralization in the "political" form is a smart move, especially in
countries where there are multiple entities, which thus become involved in
making decisions that influence their "daily" lives. In a centralized system,
these minorities do not participate in any form in making political decisions,
which, in most cases, are in the hands of a majority. Regarding the medical
services in Oradea, this ” political option ” is manifested by the fact that the
Mayor of Oradea Municipality, elected directly by the citizens by vote, is
the head of the hospitals in Oradea ’s Municipal Medical network. In case of
the citizens of the city are dissatisfied with the organization and functioning
of the hospitals in Oradea, they can politically sanction the “head of
hospitals by direct vote.
Decentralization, as an "administrative" option, can be referred to as
Delegation or Deconcentration.
Deconcentration, as the "administrative" form of decentralization, represents
a dispersion of its responsibilities, from the level of national institutions to
the level of local specialized institutions. In Romania, a deconcentration of
the medical services, would have supposed a transfer of the attributions
from the level of the Ministry of Health to the level of the County Public
Health Departments. Delegation as a form of decentralization represents the
transfer of powers from the level of governmental institutions to the level of
local institutions, or of semi-autonomous institutions, which can make
public services more efficient.
Decentralization, as a "fiscal" option, represents the assumption of the
transfer of financial resources absolutely necessary for the exercise of the
powers transferred from national to local level.
In this regard, although in Oradea were subordinated to the City Hall of
Oradea, all hospitals, which are currently being reorganized into two major
state public hospitals, the predominant funding is from the National House
of Public Health.
Hospitals financing has not been decentralized, but on the contrary, resident
doctors from Oradea ’s hospitals remain funded by the Ministry of Health.
The resident doctors, with and by job, are established following a national
exam and the positions are established at the level of the Ministry of Health.
The positions of resident physicians should be submitted according to the
demands of each local community.
Hospital decentralization in Oradea, represented a complex process, which
involved three important factors:
– Negotiation between the parties (the Romanian Government and
the City Hall of Oradea);

114
– Knowledge transfer;
– The ability to adapt of the City Hall of Oradea, as well as the
determination with which it will exercise its attribution.
At the level of Oradea ’s Municipality, a political and administrative
decentralization took place, thus the Romanian Ministry of Health has ceded
part of its own attributions to the Oradea City Hall. The political attributions
were transferred to the Local Council Oradea. Local councilors are
emanations of political parties, so any use of the local council is political in
nature.
However, the Local Council is an administrative institution so all the
decisions have administrative character. As regards to fiscal
decentralization, it has not been implemented in Romania. The taxation in
the health field remains centralized.

Conclusion:
The positive results of the decentralization of the hospitals from the pilot
phase in Romania, the phase in which the hospitals from Oradea were
included, led to the transfer of authority and responsibility from national to
local level. The analysis carried out in the pilot phase allowed to identify the
health needs of the population of Oradea and to adapt the hospital services.
The decentralization process brought the local administration closer to the
people and adapted the provision and quality of hospital medical services to
the needs and needs of the community.
The decentralization also increased the capacity of the citizen of Oradea to
support / sanction a performing / non-performing local administration.

References:
1. Smith B.C., Decentralization, The Territorial Dimension of the State,
George Allen & Unwin, London, 1985
2. Bennett R, Decentralisation, Local Government And Markets,
Clarendon Press,Oxford, 1990.
3. Strategia naționala de raționalizare a spitalelor, Ministerul Sanatații,
Bucuresti, 2010
4. MS, Raport – Reforma spitalelor publice, 2012
5. H.G. nr.303/23.03.2011 Strategia nationala de rationalizare a
spitalelor
6. Collins (1996)
7. Regmi Krishna (editor), Decentralizing Health Services-A Global
Perspectives, Springer, 2014

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Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxic ology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxic ologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

AETIOLOGY AND LAPAROSCOPIC INTERVENTION IN ACUTE
APPENDICITIS

Gavrilă (Brata) Roxana Daniela1, Maghiar Teodor Traian2, Maghiar Marius Adrian2, Maghiar Octavian2,
Domocos Daniela3

1Pelican Clinical Hospital Oradea, Corneliu Coposu 2, Oradea, Romania, e-ma il:
roxana.gavrila@yahoo.com
2University of Oradea, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, P-ta 1 Dece mbrie no. 10, Oradea; e-mail:
uro_doruletul@yahoo.com
3University of Oradea, Faculty of Dental Medicine, P-ta 1 Decembrie 5, Oradea , Romania,
e-mail: danadd769@gmail.com

Abstract
The obstruction of the appendix lumen has always been considered as the primary
pathogenic modification. While obstruction can be observed in 40% of the cases, recent studies have
shown that mucosal ulceration is the inciting event in most cases of acute appendicitis. The causes of
the ulceration are unknown, it seems that a viral aetiology might also b e involved. It has been
suggested that infection with Yersinia could lead to the disease as increase d complement levels were
found in over 30% of the proven cases one week after the surgery. In case of obstruction, acute
appendicitis is usually caused by a small fecaloma which results from the faece s that became
impacted and that accumulated around the plant fibres. Adenopath ies associated with viral infections,
intestinal worms and tumours can also cause the obturation of the l umen.

Key words: lumen, obturation, adenopathies, inductor

INTRODUCTION

Appendicitis occurs more frequently in the second and third decades of
life. The condition can be encountered at any period of life, but it is relativel y rare
at extreme ages. Men and women are equally affected, except for the period
between puberty and 25 years when men are more affected. Perforation is
relatively more frequent in young children and in the elderly when mortality is also
the highest (Romano et al., 2009).
The pain syndrome in the right iliac fossa refers to those situations wher e,
using the full range of clinical and paraclinical examinations, it is not possi ble to
establish with certainty which organ in the sub-umbilical level of the right
hemiabdomen causes the clinical suffering.
Laparoscopic appendectomy is performed more and more successfully, but
the exact impact of this treatment compared to open surgery, especially in case of
rupture, has not been clarified, except for the cases when there are doubts about the
diagnosis (Davico et al., 2004). Thus, the treatment of these clinical cases consists

116
of performing a small-sized laparotomy in the right iliac fossa, but that does not
allow a proper exploration of the surrounding viscera. An inflammatory appendix
requires an appendectomy, the case being considered practically solved. Problems
arise when macroscopically the appendix is normal and when larger incision is
needed for a better intraoperative exploration. Patients are left with a larger
incision and with a higher risk for subsequent wound complications, but, from the
point of view of the affected organ, patients are treated. The most unpleasant
situation is considered that of those patients who undergo appendectomy as
surgeons consider that the clinical suffering is caused by an incipient inflammator y
disease of the appendix when in fact this suffering is caused by another
neighbouring organ, most commonly the reproductive organs in the case of female
patients. Postoperatively, the evolution is unfavourable and sometimes even tragic.
Difficulties of preoperative diagnosis occur especially in female pati ents due to the
anatomical proximity of the appendix to the internal reproductive organs, simila r
clinical signs and similar frequency of their impairment during the active
reproductive period (David et al., 2019). This explains the considerably higher rate
of female patients with this diagnosis. Although much rarer, this diagnosis may
appear in male patients, old age or the atypical clinical context raising the suspicion
of non-appendicular suffering.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

In order to obtain the proposed objectives, the authors did a
retrospective study.
The study period extended over 5 years (01.01.2014-31.12.2019).
The material basis of the study included the patients' observation
sheets from the hospital archive, respectively the computerized data of the
two units.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1
Distribution of cases according to aetiology
Aetiology Female Male Total
No. % No. % No. %
Bacterial infection 80 53.7 70 58.3 150 5.8
Viral infection 24 12.1 16 13.3 34 14.9
Undigested plant residues 15 10.1 12 10.0 27 10.0
Parasites 12 8.1 6 5.0 18 6.7
Foreign bodies 18 19.7 16 13.3 40 12.6
Total 149 100.0 120 100.0 269 100.0

The data obtained were interpreted statistically based on the
determination and calculation of several series of indices: the ratio of OR
quotas (with a 95% confidence interval), the chi-squared test, the Fisher's

117
exact test (to determine the statistical significance), the absolute and relative
frequency.
Most cases of acute appendicitis were predominately of bacterial aetiology
(55.8%), followed by the viral one (14.9%), regardless of the severity of acute
appendicitis (p = 0.324).
Acute appendicitis is a disorder that has many causes and obscure
pathogenesis. The mucus secretion relaxes the organ, increasing the intraluminal
pressure up to 60 cm H 2O. Thus, the bacteria in the lumen multiply and eventually
invade the wall of the appendix. Due to the increased intraluminal pressure , the
venous return and the arterial circulation are compromised. If the process i s slow,
the adjacent organs such as the terminal ileum, the cecum and the omentum may
act like a barrier around the appendiceal region so that a localized abscess will
develop, while the rapid deterioration of the circulation may result in per foration
with free abscess in the peritoneal cavity. Subsequent ruptures of the primary
appendiceal abscesses may produce fistulae between the appendix and the bladder,
the small intestine, the sigmoid or the cecum. Occasionally, acute appendicitis may
be the first manifestation of Crohn's disease.
Chronic infection of the appendix can occur in tuberculosis, amoebiasis,
actinomycosis. According to a very useful clinical axiom, the chronic
inflammation of the appendix is not normally a cause of prolonged abdominal pain
that lasts for several weeks or months. However, it is clear that recurrent seizures
of acute appendicitis occur often with complete resolution of inflammation and
symptomatology between seizures. Recurrent acute appendicitis may become more
common due to uncontrolled use of antibiotics and due to the long appendiceal
stump that has become more and more frequent following the use of laparoscopic
appendectomy (Kelly et al., 2015).
An open approach and an appendectomy in a patient presenting the clinical
signs of the painful syndrome, even when an ultrasound examination shows normal
internal reproductive organs, can often lead to an mini incision appendectomy
without exploring the reproductive organs. Thus, in the case of unnecessary
appendectomies, the risk of post-appendectomy complications is not to be
neglected. Certain situations when the postoperative evolution of a sub-diagnosed
non-appendicular disorder require reintervention in female patients who may be in
different stages of hemorrhagic or septic shock.
It can therefore be stated that laparoscopy allows accurate and fast
differential diagnosis. However, all clinical examinations, usual biological tests and
ultrasound (from the paraclinical examinations) must be run before considering the
laparoscopic intervention. If the patient does not present an acute surgical
abdomen, other imaging, radiological and endoscopic examinations are to be
considered as well as histological or bacteriological examinations if the cas e. Non-
surgical diagnoses – ureteral colic, salpingitis, enterocolitis, uncomplicated
diverticulitis, normal pregnancy should be excluded before considering the
laparoscopic intervention.
Exploratory laparoscopy has relative contraindications in patients with
adhesive syndrome, occlusive syndrome or bulky abdominal tumours, generalized
peritonitis (small chances for the intervention to be performed laparoscopically).

118
Obviously, in patients with severe cardiorespiratory symptoms, classical
exploration under regional or even local anaesthesia is to be preferred in order to
avoid the side effects of the pneumoperitoneum.
Prior to surgery, besides a proper rebalancing, patients must be informed
on their condition, possible evolution, anticipated technical possibilities and
associated risks. All patients should be warned about a possible conversion to
classical surgery if the case.
Therefore, there is a wide variety of conditions that present pain in the
right iliac fossa and where laparoscopy represents the current method of
investigation despite its invasive nature. Experience has led to a reduce d
percentage of mortality (0.1%) and morbidity (3.4%), the diagnostic sensitivit y
being far superior to the imaging explorations (ultrasound, computed tomography,
magnetic resonance imaging). The method allows direct visualization of the
lesions, highlights lesions with F = 2-3 mm (compared to 1-2 cm in the case of CT ,
MRI), collects (targeted and in the requested quantity) samples of biological
material (for bacteriological, cytological, histopathological examination) and, l ast
but not least, it allows the control of associated incidents/accidents (bleeding ,
perforation of the organs in the cavity).
Eventually, gangrene and organ perforation occurs. Statistical analysis of
the data shows that most cases of acute appendicitis are predominately of bacterial
aetiology (55.8%), followed by the viral one (14.9%) regardless of the sever ity of
acute appendicitis (David et al., 2019).
The retrospective study “The Importance of Fecaliths in the Aetiology of
Acute Appendicitis ”, conducted by Engin et al., specifies that intraluminal
pathology is likely to play a major role in the development of acute appendic itis.
Intraluminal pathological findings may also be observed in healthy persons and this
condition does not point to acute appendicitis. The disease progresses from
intraluminal fecalith, with no inflammation, to perforation from the beginning.
There are several explanations on the formation of fecaliths. Abdominal
ultrasound, computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging techniques can
decide the diagnosis of fecalith.
According to the study “The Role of Laparoscopy in the Pain Syndrome in
the Right Iliac Fossa ” the pain syndrome in the right iliac fossa refers to those
situations where, even when using the full range of clinical and paraclinical
examinations, it is not possible to establish with certainty which organ in the sub-
umbilical level of the right hemiabdomen causes the clinical suffering. Difficul ties
of preoperative diagnosis occur especially in female patients due to the anatomical
proximity of the appendix to the internal reproductive organs, similar clinica l signs
and similar frequency of their impairment during the active reproductive period.
This explains the considerably higher rate of female patients with this diagnosis.
Although much rarer, this diagnosis may appear in male patients, old age or the
atypical clinical context raising the suspicion of non-appendicular suffering.
Laparoscopy allows accurate diagnosis and the minimally invasive and
targeted treatment of the lesions (Davico et al., 2004).

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CONCLUSIONS

From an aetiological point of view, the presence of fecaloma,
lymphoid hyperplasia, parasites, undigested plant residues, foreign bodies
represents the cause of acute appendicitis.
Laparoscopy has a double role, diagnostic and therapeutic. Thus, it
allows the complete diagnosis and, consequently, the resolution during the
same surgery of all the surgical causes that are at the origin of the painful
syndrome.
Laparoscopy allows surgical intervention targeted on the diseased
organ, reduces the number of unnecessary appendectomies and, essentially,
avoids “white ” exploratory laparotomies with high risks of morbidity. The
indication of laparoscopic approach is elective based on the suspicion of
non-appendiceal (surgical) pathology. Besides female patients in the active
reproductive period, patients over the age of 45 years and those with
disorders of the immune system also benefit of laparoscopic explorations.
Laparoscopy is indicated in these categories of patients when further
examinations do not identify the affected organ or when further
investigations cannot be performed. Even if the laparoscopic intervention
will not be performed, the method facilitates the choice when laparotomy is
considered the appropriate approach for maximum surgical comfort.
Laparoscopy is also indicated in obese patients when the exploration
by classic incision becomes a laborious operation with increased
postoperative morbidity. Compared to classical surgery, laparoscopic
interventions have many advantages: complete diagnostic and therapeutic
role, minimally invasive approach (reduced visceral and parietal trauma,
reduced postoperative pain, fewer complications, reduced hospitalization,
rapid socio-professional reintegration, low costs, aesthetic benefits). Of
course, when laparoscopy is considered, one must take into account the
known absolute or relative contraindications of the laparoscopic approach.

REFERENCES

1. Villazón Davico O, Espinosa Jaramillo A, Cárdenas Castañeda O, Valdes Castañeda A ,
2004. Appendectomy by minimally invasive surgery. Rev Gastroenterol Mex. 2004, Suppl
1:58- 64.
2. Romano N1, Prosperi V, Gabellieri C, Biondi G, Andreini R, Basili G, Carnesecchi
P, Goletti O . Laparoscopic approach in acute appendicitis: experience with 501 consecutive
cases. Chir Ital. 2009, 61(3):327- 35.
3. Talan, David A., Saltzman, Darin J., DeUgarte, Daniel A., Moran, Gregory J. Methods
of conservative antibiotic treatment of acute uncomplicatedappendicitis. Journal of Trauma
and Acute Care Surgery: April 2019 – Volume 86 – Issue 4 – p 72 2–736
4. Kelly ME, Khan A, Ur Rehman J, Waldron RM, Khan W, Barry K, Kh an IZ. A national
evaluation of the conservative management of uncomplicated acute append icitis: how
common is this and what are the issues? Dig Surg . 2015;32(5):325 –330.

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5. Atkinson S., Seiffert E., Bihari, 1998. A prospective, randomized, double-blind,
controlled clinical trial of enteral immunonutrition in the critically ill, Crit.. vol.26, no.7,
pp. 1164-1171.
6. Boucher B.A, 2000. Procalcitonin: clinical tool or laboratory curiosity ?, Crit. Care Med.,
vol.28, no.4, pp. 1224-1225.
7. Wang X.D., Wang Q., Andersson R., 1996. Ihse I. Alterations in intestinal function in
acute pancreatitis in the rat, Br. J. Surg., pp. 83, 1537-1542.
8. Robert R. Rich, Thomas A.,2008. Cytokines and cytokines r eceptors. In Clinical
Immunology, Principles and Practice – Mosby Elsevier 3rd-Ed , pp. 143- 165.
9. Laboratory Corporation of America, 2010. Directory of Services and In terpretive Guide.
Interleukin-6, www.labcorp.com. Ref Type: Internet Communication.
10. Vincent J.L., 2000. Procalcitonin: THE marker of sepsis?, Crit. Car e Med., vol.28,
no.4, pp. 1226-1227.

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Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

ANATOMICAL AND CLINICAL CORRELATIONS IN SKIN
TRAUMATOLOGY

Voiță-Mekereș Florica *, Mekeres Gabriel Mihai **, Voiță Gheorghe Florin **, Pop Nicolae
Ovidiu **, Voiță Nuțu Cristian**, Szteklacs Tulvan Iuliana Victoria***

* University of Oradea, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Morpho logical Disciplines;
** University of Oradea, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy;
***National University of Physical Education and Sports, Bucharest, Roman ia.
Oradea, Romania, 1 Universității St., 410087
e-mail: voita_florin@yahoo.com

Abstract
The skin is the organ that covers the entire surface of the body a nd is the main "place" of
interaction with the external environment, offering protection against traum as caused by ultraviolet
radiation, extreme temperatures, bacteria, viruses, fungi, toxic etc. Primary traumat ic lesions
represent the morphological substrate of local post-traumatic changes in foren sic medicine and
clinically objectify a trauma. The clinical presence of the traumatic lesions h as both clinical,
therapeutic and prognostic importance, as well as a medico-legal importanc e to establish the
mechanism by which the trauma occurred. , and lesions with a continui ty solution in excoriations and
wounds. Wound healing is the process by which the skin is repaired aft er a trauma. In non-damaged
skin, the epidermis and dermis, form a protective barrier against the ex ternal environment. When this
barrier is damaged, a biochemical cascade of processes goes into ac tion to repair the lesion. The
major importance of these traumatic lesions is represented by their description, wh ich will include
the topographic location, shape, evolutionary stage, size and speci fic characteristics.

Keywords : skin anatomy, primary traumatic lesions, topographic location.

INTRODUCTION

The skin is the organ that covers the entire surface of the body and is the
main "place" of interaction with the external environment, offering protectio n
against traumas caused by ultraviolet radiation, extreme temperatures, bacteria,
viruses, fungi, toxic etc. (Freinkel, 2001)
The anatomical structure consists of three layers: epidermis (ectodermic
origin) and dermis (mesodermal origin). Under the dermis, there is the hypodermis
or subcutaneous tissue that represents a structure that is not part of the skin.
(Mekeres, 2017).
The subcutaneous tissue is made up of lax connective tissue, rich in adipose
cells that form the hypodermic adipose panicle, having as macroscopic
correspondent the superficial fascia because it ensures the lax adhesion of the ski n
to the underlying anatomical layers. (Junqueira, 2008)
Typically, two types of tegument are described: the thick tegument
represented by the glabrous, smooth or non-oily skin and the thin, hairy tegument,
which covers most of the body. The thickness of the epidermis makes the
difference between these two types of tegument, the thick tegument having

123
between 400 and 600 μm, and the thin one between 75 and 150 μm.
(Krishnaswamy, 2004) (Kanitakis, 2002)
Primary traumatic lesions represent the morphological substrate of local
post-traumatic changes in forensic medicine and clinically objectify a trauma.
The clinical presence of the traumatic lesions has both clinical, therapeuti c
and prognostic importance, as well as a medico-legal importance to establish t he
mechanism by which the trauma occurred. , and lesions with a continuity solution
in excoriations and wounds. (Dermengiu, 2015)

MATERIAL AND METHOD

We evaluated the clinical manifestations imminent to the action of the
traumatic agents in the production of primary, complex and specific skin traumatic
lesions in order to highlight their importance both in the clinic from a therapeu tic
and prognostic point of view, but especially in the current forensic practice.
The skin has variations in thickness, depending on location, gender and
age. The difference in thickness is given by the thickness of the dermis because the
epidermis is usually constant throughout life and anatomical location. The location
where the tegument has the greatest thickness is in the palm and in the plant, where
it is about 1.5 mm, and at the level of the eyelids, the tegument has a thickness of
0.05 mm.
Skin changes associated with age include: thinning, laxity, fragility and
wrinkles. Areas exposed to the sun, in addition to age changes, depigmentation,
premature wrinkles, telangiectasis and actinic elastosis. Skin aging is characteri zed
by intrinsic and extrinsic changes. (Anatolie, 2016)
Wound healing is the process by which the skin is repaired after a trauma.
In non-damaged skin, the epidermis and dermis, form a protective barrier against
the external environment. When this barrier is damaged, a biochemical cascade of
processes goes into action to repair the lesion. This process is divided int o the
following phases: abscess formation (hemostasis), inflammation, tissue growth
(proliferation), tissue remodeling (maturation). (Stadelmann, 1998)
The major importance of these traumatic lesions is represented by their
description, which will include the topographic location, shape, evolutionary stage,
size and specific characteristics.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Primary traumatic lesions represent the morphological substrate of local
traumatic changes that objectify a trauma. In order to have clinical and forensic
value, they need to be accurately described as soon as possible by physicians who
first come into contact with them because after therapeutic interventions, skin
lesions may change their characteristics.
A contagious wound that has irregular edges and has tissue bridges, if
treated surgically, by surgical sectioning of the edges to debride necrotic t issue and
for a superior aesthetic result, the edges will be smooth and may be confused w ith

124
the cut wound that from the point medico-legal view is produced by another
traumatic agent.
In order to avoid confusion and for a correct and complete lesion balance
of the traumatic lesions, the description of the traumatic lesions is done according
to the topographic criterion, both by the clinicians and the forensic doctors as
follows: location, name of the lesion, shape, evolutionary stage , dimensions,
specific characters.
Scars are part of the normal healing process. The scars are initially red or
pink and slightly elevated, palpable or less depressed, atrophic or contractile. In a
normal situation, over time they become discolored and flattened. (Putra, 2017)
Important factors that contribute to unsightly scarring are: tension in the
suture, infections, delayed epithelialization, uneven alignment of wound edges,
insufficient blood flow to healing scars, genetic factors, which cannot be
controlled.
The scars represent the healing of the body after traumatic injuries and can
be helpful in establishing the traumatic agent and on the mechanism of action over
a long time since the trauma occurred. (Mekeres, 2017)

CONCLUSIONS

The elemental traumatic lesions of the skin represent the post-
traumatic changes of the skin produced by a traumatic agent. These are
primary traumatic lesions, complex and specific traumatic injuries such as
burns, frostbite, electric mark and chemical burns.
The correct description of the traumatic injuries is essential to prove
the reality of the trauma, its mechanism of production, the length of the
injury and sometimes the nature of the traumatic agent, elements of major
importance in forensic medicine.

REFERENCES

1. Freinkel, R. K., & Woodley, D. T. (Eds.). (2001). The biology of the skin. CRC
Press.
2. Junqueira, L. C., & Carneiro, J. (2008). Pele e anexos. Histologia Básica, ed, 9,
303-309.
3. Mekereș, F., Buhaș, C., Rahotă, D., Moga, I., Voiță, F., & Mekereș, G. M. ( 2017).
A NEW APPROACH TO EXPLORING HUMAN ANATOMY. Romanian
Journal of Functional & Clinical, Macro-& Microscopical Anatomy & of
Anthropology/Revista Româna de Anatomie Functionala si Clinica, Macro si
Microscopica si de Antropologie, 16(3).
4. Shakoory, B., Fitzgerald, S. M., Lee, S. A., Chi, D. S., & Krishnaswa my, G.
(2004). The role of human mast cell-derived cytokines in eosinop hil biology.
Journal of interferon & cytokine research, 24(5), 271- 281.
5. Mekereș, F., Bodog, F., Beiușanu, C., Voiță, F., Mekereș, G. M., & Pop, N. O.
(2017). THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SCARS LOCALISATION IN
AESTHETIC DAMAGE. Romanian Journal of Functional & Clinical, Macro- &

125
Microscopical Anatomy & of Anthropology/Revista Româna de Anatomie
Functionala si Clinica, Macro si Microscopica si de Antropologie, 16(2).
6. Dermengiu D. (2015). Evaluarea gravitatii leziunilor traumatice, repere axiologice ,
criteriologice si metodologice, editura Gemma, Bucuresti, 22- 24.
7. Anatolie, V. I. Ș. N. E. V. S. C. H. I., & Gheorghe, M. U. Ș. E. T. (2 016). Corelații
clinico- biochimice în procesul de îmbătrânire a pielii, 35 -37.
8. Stadelmann, W. K., Digenis, A. G., & Tobin, G. R. (1998). Phys iology and
healing dynamics of chronic cutaneous wounds. The American Journal of Surgery,
176(2), 26S-38S.
9. Mekereș, F., Voiță, G. F., Mekereș, G. M., & Bodog, F. D. (2017). Psychosocial
impact of scars in evaluation of aesthetic prejudice. Rom J Leg Med, 2 5, 435- 438.
10. Kanitakis, J. (2002). Anatomy, histology and immunohistochemis try of normal
human skin. European journal of dermatology, 12(4), 390- 401.
11. Putra, B. B. A., Jola, R., AH, E. B., Djoko, L., & Benjami n, C. T. (2017, August).
Anatomical pathology and radiology appearance of ballistic wound result of cal.
177 air rifle with 4, 5 mm pellets on extrimity of the dog (canis lu pus familiaris) at
different shooting distances. In 1st International Conference Postgradu ate School
Universitas Airlangga:" Implementation of Climate Change Agreement to Meet
Sustainable Development Goals"(ICPSUAS 2017). Atlantis Press.

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Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

CASE REPORT
Cytomegalovirus reinfection in a patient with chronic hepatitis C

Constanta Turda 1 , Olivia O. Dumnici2, Veronica Huplea 3

M.D., Dermato-venerology Department, Oradea County Emergency Clinical Hos pital,
Romania.
Gastroenterology Department, County Emergency Clinical Hospital, Romania.

Correspondence to:
Dr. Turda Constanta, M.D., Dermatovenerology Department, County Emerg ency
Clinical Hospital, Republicii Street, No 37, P.O.
cturda2003@yahoo.com

Abstract
Cytomegalovirus(CMV) infection remains latent throughout life, recurrent in evoluti on.
Recurrent infection includes both reinfection and reactivation and ma nifest as CMV disease which
frequently develops in immunocompromised patients. We describe a case o f chronic active hepatitis
C, activation produced by reinfection with CMV in a patient with lo w immunity secondary to
splenectomy, chronic VHC infection. CMV infection is sustained by purple lesions, oral aphthae and
ulcerations, mononucleosis syndrome, lymphocytes with nuclear inclusions, inflamm atory syndrome,
hepatitis, nephritis, inflammatory lymphadenopathy, reactive IgG CMV. Recent CMV infection is
sustained by 5- fold increase in IgG CMV titers.

Keywords : Cytomegalovirus, chronic hepatitis C, mononucleosis syndrome.

INTORODUCTION

CMV usually causes an asymptomatic infection or produces mild
flulike symptoms; it remains latent throughout life and may
reactivate.(12,17).
Reactivation of previously latent infection or newly acquired infection
manifest as a CMV disease. Clinically significant CMV disease frequently
develops in patients immunocompromised by HIV infection, solid-organ
transplantation, or bone marrow transplantation, as well as in those
receiving high-dose steroids, tumor necrosis antagonists, or other
immunosuppressing medications (7, 20).
Symptomatic CMV disease in immunocompromised individuals can
affect almost every organ of the body, resulting in cutaneous vasculitis,
fever of unknown origin, pneumonia, hepatitis, encephalitis, myelitis,
colitis, uveitis, retinitis, and neuropathy(5). CMV may infect the GI tract
from the oral cavity through the colon. The typical manifestation of the
disease is ulcerative lesions. In immunocompromised individuals, laboratory

127

tests show a mononucleosis syndrome,
lymphocytosis plus atypical lymphocytosis(3,
10, 18).
CMV is a lytic virus that causes a cytopathic effect in vitro and in
vivo. The pathologic hallmark of CMV infection is an enlarged cell with
viral inclusion bodies.
Intracellular inclusions surrounded by a clear halo may be
demonstrated with various stains (Giemsa, Wright, hematoxylin-eosin,
Papanicolaou). This gives the appearance of an "owl's eye.

Immune response cytomegalovirus involves the synthesis of specific
antibodies in the IgM class a few weeks after contracting the infection,
followed a week later by the appearance of IgG antibodies. Primary CMV
infection is defined as infection in an individual who was previously CMV
seronegative. In these patients, CMV immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies
may be found as early as 4-7 weeks after initial infection and may persist as
long as 16-20 weeks. Determination of IgM antibodies is an important tool
in the diagnosis of acute cytomegalovirus infection. Naturally acquired
immunity to the virus does not seem to prevent reinfection or the duration of
viral shedding(2, 8,16).
Reactivation of the virus is not uncommon, sometimes occurring
with viremia and a positive IgM result in the presence of IgG antibody. This
is usually observed during intercurrent infections or at times of patient

128
stress. However, it is difficult to distinguish between primary and secondary
infection.
Reactivation of the virus – infection with the same CMV strain
previously involved- is diagnosed by positive IgM CMV in the presence of
IgG antibodies, reinfection – new aquired infection- refers to the detection of
a CMV strain different from the one that caused primary infection, elevated
IgM CMV levels or 4-fold increase of IgG titers respectively(14,15,19)

MATERIA AND METHODS

A 41 years old man admitted for palpable, purple lesions localized
on legs, bilaterally, symmetrically, lower abdomen, accompanied by leg
oedema, 2 days onset. History reveals splenectomy(1975), chronic C
hepatitis(2009). In general clinical examination we find oral mucosa
aphthae, hepatomegaly. Alcohol abuse is denied. Primary dermatological
diagnosis is cutaneous vasculitis .

129

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Leucocytosis, lymphocytosis, inflammatory syndrome, hepatocytolysis,
elevated GGT, hyperbilirubinemia. Peripheral blood smear: atypical
lymphocytes, with nuclear inclusions (mononucleosis syndrome). IgM and
IgG for EBV- nonreactive, serum testing for HIV antibody – negative, Anti-
Toxoplasma immunoglobulin G (IgG) titres negative, IgG CMV-5 folds the
normal levels, IgM CMV nonreactive. Rheumatoid Factor-negative,
negative cryoglobulins. Negative pharyngeal exudate, normal levels for
ASLO. ANA, ANCA negative.
Abdominal ultrasound examination reveals fibrotic liver for chronic
hepatitis, no signs for hepatocelular carcinoma, hepatic hilar
lymphadenopathy-inflammatory .

Platelet count is mandatory for differential diagnosis of purple
lesions in a splenectomised patient. Normal platelet count excludes
thrombocytopenic purpura secondary to splenectomy. Presence of palpable
purpura in a patient with chronic C hepatitis offers multiple differential
diagnosis, leukocytoclastic vasculitis (LCV) first of all. Hepatitis type C is a
commonly recognized cause of LCV, likely through the presence of
cryoglobulins. Leukocytoclastic vasculitis is a necrotizing small vessel
vasculitis of the skin , kidneys, joints, and eyes. Disorders of this type
belong to a group termed mixed cryoglobulinemia syndrome. These
disorders display palpable purpura of the legs (which is worse distally and
inferiorly), livido reticularis, ulcerations, urticaria, symmetric polyarthritis,
myalgias, cutis marmorata, and fatigue(1).
Medication intake: antibiotics – particularly beta-lactam drugs,
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, diuretics may be implied in etiology
of vasculitis, as well as upper respiratory tract infections -particularly with
beta-hemolytic streptococci, HIV infection, bacterial endocarditis,
enteroviruses.
Rheumatoid Factor negative, negative cryoglobulins – exclude
leukocytoclastic vasculitis in active hepatitis type C, negative HIV excludes
HIV infection as potential etiological factor for vasculitis, negative
pharyngeal exudate asociated to normal levels for ASLO excludes beta-
hemolytic streptococcal upper respiratory tract infection, no new medication
intake from those involved were detected.
Regarding hepatocitolysis, autoimmune hepatitis might be another
possibility. ANA, ANCA negative – exclude autoimmune hepatitis(6).
Existence of oral aphthous lesions, no genital ones exclude Behcet Disease.

130
Co-existence of oral aphthous lesions and ulcerations with palpable purple
lesions imposes another possible diagnosis: Cytomegalovirus infection.
This supposition is sustained by clinical signs, as well as lab signs,
atypical lymphocytes, with nuclear inclusions. Mononucleosis syndrome
may be also caused by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection IgM and IgG
for EBV- nonreactive, primary toxoplasmosis (Anti-Toxoplasma
immunoglobulin G (IgG) titres negative), or acute HIV seroconversion(11).
– testing for HIV antibody – negative. 5- fold increase in IgG CMV titres
demonstrates recent CMV infection, a reinfection.

CONCLUSIONS

Final diagnosis is active chronic hepatitis type C, activation
produced by reinfection with CMV in a patient with low immunity
secondary to splenectomy, chronic VHC infection. CMV infection is
sustained by purple lesions, oral aphthae and ulcerations, mononucleosis
syndrome, lymphocytes with nuclear inclusions, inflammatory syndrome,
hepatitis, inflammatory lymphadenopathy, reactive IgG CMV – . 5- fold
increase in IgG CMV titers.
We did find interesting this case for the complexity of diagnosis as
well as for underlying that monitoring the dynamics of the level of CMV
IgG antibodies is an important means of detecting acute CMV infection
besides determination of CMV IgM antibodies, meaning a reinfection and i t
requires the establishment of specific antiviral therapy.
We consider necessary monitoring CMV IgG in immunosuppressed
patients.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

Authors declare that they have no conflict of interest, did not published the
work anywhere else .

REFERENCES:

1. A Brooke W Eastham, MD; Chief Editor: Herbert S Diamond,
MD "javascript:showrefcontent('authordisclosures');" more…
Leukocytoclastic Vasculitis Updated: Jul 05, 2016.
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Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

QUALITY OF LIFE IN BREAST CANCER PATIENTS
HISTOLOGICAL TYPES, RARE FORMS

Mariana Mirela Vălcan,
a. PhD student, University of Oradea, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy , Square December
1st Street, no. 10, Oradea, Bihor.
b. Emergency Clinical Country Hospital of Oradea, Republicii Street, no. 3 7, Oradea, Bihor. E-
mail(*): valcan_mirela1966@yahoo.com
2. Petru Mihancea, Professor doctor University of Oradea, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Square
December 1st Street, no. 10, Oradea, Bihor.

Abstract
Purpose: The present work proposes an approach to breast cancer in the light of the complexity of
malignant histological forms, but also of high-risk lesions with potential malign ancy.
Keywords: breast cancer, hyperplasia, carcinoma in situ, invasiveness, multidisc iplinary, quality of
life.

Material and method of work:

Typical and atypical hyperplasia, increased risk injuries, clinical
follow-up, imaging and histology are essential in hyperplasia to ensure
therapeutic interventions at an optimal time of disease evolution. In situ
carcinoma, ductal and lobular, invasive carcinoma with specific forms as
well as rare forms of breast cancer, benefit from specific treatment, analyzed
in the multidisciplined team surgeon, oncologist, radiotherapist,
psychotherapist.
Conclusions: histological forms are varied, follow-up and therapeutic
approach takes into account these aspects, the multidisciplinary approach
allows for the optimal performance of therapeutic interventions, adaptation
to the particularities of the case, allowing Increasing survival and improving
the quality of life.

1. High risk injuries:
Hyperplasia is an increase in the number of ductal or lobular epithelial
cells, cells that may or may not have atypia and the overall loss of
apicobasal orientation. The most frequent is ductal hyperplasia without
atypia, if the process is marked, it is called florid hyperplasia or
papillomatosis.
Atypical ductal hyperplasia (HAD) must be differentiated from
carcinoma in situ. Median hyperplasia is characterized by the presence of 3
or more cell layers near the basement membrane in a lobular or ductal unit.
Such lesions are an "inflammatory" form of hyperplasia, with a clear

135
separation between epithelial and inflammatory cells and are found in over
20% of biopsies. Their clinical significance is that they involve an increased
risk of 1.5 to 2 times the occurrence invasive carcinoma19.
All proliferative changes of breast tissue signify an increased risk for
the further development of breast cancer, but this risk is significantly
different depending on the type of proliferation; Although most carcinomas
after a benign biopsy with proliferative changes occur in those with typical
hyperplasia, a relatively higher risk is associated with atypical hyperplasia20.
The multidisciplinary approach, the clinical follow-up, the imaging
and the histology is essential in the hyperplasia, in order to ensure the
therapeutic interventions in an optimal moment of the evolution of the
disease, which will allow the preservation of the quality of life of the
patients and the cure21.
2. Ductal/lobular carcinoma in situ (CDIS/CLIS)
In situ carcinoma is characterized by the fact that tumor cells remain
strictly localized in ducts or lobules, without evidence of invasion of the
surrounding stoma by ordinary microscopy; theoretically, such lesions could
not occur regionally or remotely, but in practice there are cases of
carcinomas in situ documented histologically as such but with the
involvement of regional nodules. A notion that complements from this point
of view that of in situ carcinoma is that of microinvasive carcinoma, a less
well defined entity that cannot be circumvented in practice and which would
refer to a lesion with an existing stromal invasion but both so small that the
risk of metastasis, although theoretically existing, is negligible in practice.
In situ carcinomas are of two categories: ductal in situ carcinomas and
lobular in situ carcinomas; it should be mentioned that the distinction is
made on the basis of growth pattern and cytological characteristics, rather
than on the basis of anatomical localization.
Ductal and lobular carcinomas in situ differ as clinical presentation,
morphology, biological behavior and, therefore, as prognosis.
In situ ductal carcinomas comprise a heterogeneous group of lesions
with difficult to predict biological and clinical evolution, so that none of the
classifications that have been made are fully relevant in terms of their
management and prognosis. A simple classification that best correlates with
the potential for recurrence after limited excision divides the ductal
carcinomas in situ into high-grade (intermediate), intermediate-grade and

19 Angelescu N., treatment of Surgical Pathology, vol. 1, Medical Publishin g House,
Bucharest, 2003
20 Simion S., Surgical Pathology, vol.1, Carol Davila University Publishing Hou se 2002
21 Wild L. ,Makopoulos C. ,Leidenius M., Senkus-Konefka E., Breas t Cancer
Management for Surgeons, A European Multidisciplinary Textbook,Spring er International
Publishing AG, 2018

136
low-grade (low-grade) carcinomas in the Lagio classification, respectively
weakly differentiated, intermediary differentiated and well differentiated,
the European classification22:
I. high-grade in situ carcinomas exhibit aneuploidy, hyperexpression of
the oncogene c-erbB-2, mutations of the p53 gene, high proliferation rate,
lack of estrogen and progesterone receptors, angiogenesis in the surrounding
stroma;
II. low-grade in situ carcinomas have a low proliferation rate, very
rarely show alterations of biological markers, are positive for estrogen and
progesterone receptors;
III. the intermediate carcinomas are between these two models both in
terms of morphology and frequency of alterations of biological markers.â
In situ lobular carcinomas, in contrast to the ductal ones, have a very
homogeneous appearance and a less aggressive biological behavior (less
aggressive than the low-grade ductal ones); they are never clinically
presented as a palpable mass and do not have special mammographic
features, so they represent an accidental microscopic finding; these reasons
make lately in situ lobular carcinoma less regarded as neoplasia per se and
more as a marker of the developed risk of invasive carcinoma (the risk of
invasive carcinoma occurring in patients with in situ lobular carcinoma is
1% per year throughout life, but the invasive neoplasms that appear have no
topographic connection or histological resemblance to the in situ carcinoma
found)23. The mammary puncture is the one that establishes the diagnosis of
certainty. Correlation of imaging examinations with histopathological
outcome, clinical examination, multidisciplinary approach taking into
account the particularities of the case allow, the establishment of therapeutic
conduct.
3. Infiltrative carcinomas:
a. ductal or common infiltrative, most commonly, 70-80%; it
can be well differentiated, intermediate or poorly differentiated; In varying
proportions, in situ ductal carcinoma is associated, which is an important
prognostic factor in patients treated with conservative surgery on the breast;
b. lobular invasive, 2nd in frequency, 5-10%, classically with
better prognosis than the first; lobular carcinoma is often associated in situ,
frequently bilateral and multicentric;
c. – tubular, can represent up to 10% of breast
carcinomas and has a much better prognosis than invasive ductal

22 N. Jitea, I. Bălanescu, Al. Blidaru, Fl. Isac, Ileana Boiangiu – Surgical Pathology of the
breast. In the "Treatise of Surgical Pathology" under the editorial of N. Ange lescu, Medical
Publishing House, Bucharest, 2001.
23 Dickson R.B. Lippman M.E. – Advances in Cellular and Molecular Biolog y of Breast
Cancer, Boston, 1996.

137
carcinoma, although in 75% of cases it is associated with low grade
in situ ductal carcinoma;
d. mucinous (colloid), 1-2%, occurs more frequently in
elderly patients and has a favorable prognosis;
e. marrow, 5-10%; spinal cancer and colloid cancer have
the characteristics of benign tumors, which can lead to diagnostic
errors.
f. papillary, metaplastic, adenoid cyst, etc., 1-2%.
A surprising type of cancer is triple negative breast cancer (HER2- ,
ER-, PR-) which has a high mortality rate and whose cells resemble the
basal cells of the skin and sweat glands. These mammary cells create a
support structure for the mammary ducts. It was observed that it was
different from any other type of breast cancer, more closely resembling to
ovarian and lung cancer.
Two other types of breast cancer appear from the luminal cells lining
the breast ducts. These types of cancers have on their surface proteins that
attract estrogen, thus ensuring their growth. Almost all patients suffering
from estrogen cancer receive the same treatment. In some cases it results, in
others it does not. Genetic analysis has divided these cancers into two
distinct types. Patients suffering from luminal cancer A have made progress,
while in patients suffering from luminal cancer B no improvement has been
observed. This suggests that patients with the first type of cancer could
recover only with hormone therapy, which prevents estrogen from feeding
the tumor, while people with the second type of cancer are more likely to
would be subjected to chemotherapy24. In some cases, genetic abnormalities
were so strongly associated with one type of luminal cancer that they
seemed to have been the basis of the respective tumor formation. Another
type of cancer is called enriched Her2 researchers, some types of breast
cancer often have additional copies of a Her2 gene that causes them to
grow.
Two other types of breast cancer appear from the luminal cells lining
the breast ducts. These types of cancers have on their surface proteins that
attract estrogen, thus ensuring their growth. Almost all patients suffering
from estrogen cancer receive the same treatment. In some cases it results, in
others it does not. Genetic analysis has divided these cancers into two
distinct types. Patients suffering from luminal cancer A have made progress,
while in patients suffering from luminal cancer B no improvement has been
observed. This suggests that patients with the first type of cancer could
recover only with hormone therapy, which prevents estrogen from feeding

24 Bălanescu I., Anghel Rodica – Breast cancer; Surgical Pathology; Under the redaction of
Angelescu N., Celsius Publishing House, Bucharest,1997 .

138
the tumor, while people with the second type of cancer are more likely to
would be subjected to chemotherapy. In some cases, genetic abnormalities
were so strongly associated with one type of luminal cancer that they
seemed to have been the basis of the respective tumor formation. Another
type of cancer is called enriched Her2 researchers. some types of breast
cancer often have additional copies of a Her2 gene that causes them to
grow.
4. Rare types
Inflammatory cancer – carcinomatous mastitis (tumor invasion in
dermal lymphatics) may be primary (rare) or secondary (inflammatory
relapse); It is an aggressive form of carcinoma, intensely angiogenic and
angioinvasive; at presentation, almost all patients have lymph node
involvement and more than one third have systemic metastases; breast skin
biopsy reveals tumor emboli in superficial lymphatics; the vital prognosis is
poor. This type of disease, framed between locally advanced breast cancer
forms, is not a special histological type, in most cases the tumor being
ductal, but the very high capacity of angiogenesis seems to be an intrinsic
feature of the tumor. From the point of view of cell kinetics, the growth rate
is very high; from the point of view of molecular genetics, there are
common alterations with other carcinomas (c-erbB-2 hyperexpression, p53
mutation) and inflammatory carcinoma-specific alterations (RhoC-GTP-axis
hyperexpression and LIBC loss, an insulin-like growth factor)25.
Paget's disease of the nipple (carcinoma in situ with galactophore
channels starting point). It is a rare form of breast cancer, about 2-3% of the
total mammary carcinomas. It occurs more frequently in women over 40
and the evolution is slow. It is characterized by itching, erythema and then
nipple ulceration. Periodically the ulceration is covered with scales, which
gives the false impression of healing. It originates in the epithelial cells of
the large caliber galactophore channels and is characterized by the presence
of Paget cells that are voluminous with pale cytoplasm and chromatin
arranged in thick grunts. The histiogenesis of this type of cancer has
provoked controversy by setting out two hypotheses. The first hypothesis
claims that the disease would be epidermal in nature and that Paget cells
would appear as the result of a degenerative process leading to the
installation of an epidermal neoplasm, at present this hypothesis is
abandoned in favor of a theory that tumorigenesis is located in galactophore
channels, the disease spreading -is by invasion in tegument. The arguments
are immunohistochemical. It can take 3 clinical forms:
I. lesion limited to the nipple and areola without tumor in the breast;
II. breast tumor without nipple injury;

25 Simion S., Surgical Pathology, vol. 1, University publishing house "C arol Davila " 2002

139
III. areola and nipple lesion associated with breast tumor.3
When the lesion is limited only to the nipple the disease is classified
in the Tis stage (carcinoma in situ), when the breast tumor is also present
then the classification takes into account the characteristics of the tumor.
Sometimes a bloody nipple leak may occur. Axillary lymph node invasion is
relatively common.
The breast schstring occurs more frequently in older age. It is
characterized by a slow progressive evolution and determines the retraction
of the perileional teguments, reaching the global retraction of the breast.
Breast cancer associated with pregnancy is a very rare form of cancer.
Statistics show the existence of this cancer in very young women 23-25
years. Diagnosis is generally easy to make, 10-year survival is only 33%,
and relapses and bilateralization are more common.
Bilateral breast cancer accounts for 7% of all breast cancers. It may be
concomitant when bilaterality is found less than 1 year after the diagnosis of
the first or successive cancer. If both cancers are in stage I, the prognosis of
the disease does not worsen due to bilaterality. If one of the cancers is more
advanced than stage I, the prognosis is worse than in unilateral cancer with
the same stage.
5. Other rare primary cancers of the breast are:
a) phyllodes maligna tumor,
b) lymphomas,
c) sarcomas.
Malignant lymphomas of the breast may be Hodgkin's, non-
Hodgkin's, and a particular form Burkitt's lymphoma, which occurs more
frequently in pregnant or lactating women. It is usually bilateral and has a
very rapid evolution. In contrast, primitive hodgkinian and non-hodgkin's
lymphomas are one-sided and affect older age groups. The evolution is
determined in relation to the known prognostic factors for lymphomas.
Phyllodes cystosarcoma is the sarcomatization of a Phyllodes tumor
due to delayed treatment, when it was benign, or because of relapses that
result from incomplete surgical treatment. Benefits from modified radical
mastectomy, and axillary dissection must be performed because axillary
metastases are an important prognostic factor26. This form of sarcoma can
cause axillary lymph node invasion.
The malignant melanoma can be located either at the level of the
breast skin or at the level of the areolomamellar complex. Surgery for
diagnostic and therapeutic purposes should be tailored to the size and depth
of the melanoma, excision including the tegument, subcutaneous tissue,

26 Bălănescu I., Blidaru AL. , Breast cancer, Angelescu N., Treatise on surgical pathology,
vol.1, Medical Ed. (Bucharest), 2001

140
gland, including the pectoral fascia. Axillary lymphadenectomy is
performed according to Clark's27 level of invasion. The role of
chemotherapy, radiotherapy and biological therapy is the same as for other
skin locations of melanoma.
The treatment of breast neoplasm is a complex process that is
performed following the decision of the oncology committee, depending on
the histological type, with the patient's involvement, a customized
therapeutic plan is developed, conservative surgery / radical surgery with or
without breast reconstruction, neoadjuvant or adjuvant chemotherapy,
hormone therapy, molecular therapy, depending on the histological form
and the patient's history. The psychological impact is high at each stage
from diagnosis to healing or the death of the patient, which requires the
creation of a support team for the patient.
Conclusions
A diagnosis like breast cancer is like a harsh sentence for the person
receiving it. The decision-making process for a woman opting for a radical
procedure is complex and includes both the physical and the
psychoemotional and cognitive components.
The histological forms are varied, the follow-up and the therapeutic
approach takes into account these aspects, the multidisciplinary approach
allows the optimal time to perform the therapeutic interventions, the
adaptation to the particularities of the case, which will allow to increase the
survival and improve the quality of life.

Bibliography:
1) Angelescu N., treatment of Surgical Pathology, vol. 1, Medical
Publishing House, Bucharest, 2003.
2) Bălanescu I., Anghel Rodica – Breast cancer; Surgical Pathology;
Under the redaction of Angelescu N., Celsius Publishing House,
Bucharest,1997.
3) Dickson R.B. Lippman M.E. – Advances in Cellular and
Molecular Biology of Breast Cancer, Boston, 1996.
4) N. Jitea, I. Bălanescu, Al. Blidaru, Fl. Isac, Ileana Boiangiu –
Surgical Pathology of the breast. In the "Treatise of Surgical
Pathology" under the editorial of N. Angelescu, Medical
Publishing House, Bucharest, 2001.
5) Simion S., Surgical Pathology, vol.1, Carol Davila University
Publishing House 2002.

27 Wild L. ,Makopoulos C. ,Leidenius M., Senkus-Konefka E., Breas t Cancer
Management for Surgeons, A European Multidisciplinary Textbook,Springer International
Publishing AG, 2018

141
6) Wild L. ,Makopoulos C. ,Leidenius M., Senkus-Konefka E.,
Breast Cancer Management for Surgeons, A European
Multidisciplinary Textbook,Springer International Publishing
AG, 2018.

ZOO

142
Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

LEADING BY EXAMPLE: THE ANIMAL WELFARE IN THE EU. PAST
EVOLUTIONS, CURRENT TRENDS.
CASE STUDY: ROMANIA

Cristina Maria Maerescu*, Daniela Țuțui**, Aurelia Ioana Chereji*

* University of Oradea, Faculty of Environmental Protection, 26 Gen. M agheru St., 410048 Oradea;
Romania, Phone: 0259412550, e-mail: cristina_maerescu@yahoo.com , aureelia_brinaru@yahoo.com
**The Bucharest University of Economic Studies, 6 Piața Romană, 010374, Bu charest, Romania, e –
mail: daniela.tutui@cig.ase

Abstract
The animal welfare is an important topic at EU level with a number of importan t legislative
provisions and funding allocated to it. “It is a subject already on the European agenda for several
decades, a topic that has gained more and more importance as the anim als have being declared as
“sentient bein gs” with rights.
For many years in Romania the question was somehow neglected in favour of other imp ortant
agricultural topics, yet as the time goes by the welfare of livestock is b ecoming a topic of importance
on the public agenda and on the authorities list of priorities.
For that purpose a series of legislative and institutions reforms were adopted a s well as we have
witnessed the allocation of various financing sources for the benefi ciaries. The situation is improving
at the national level but the progress is relative depending on th e sector.

Key words: animal welfare, EU, Romania, CAP

INTRODUCTION

The animal welfare is a carefully researched subject at the level of the
European Union ever since more than 40 years ago, and there is a an
implicit topic at the national level of every Member State. This is proven by
both the EU legislation, respectively the official documents concerning this
aspect, and also trough the interest given to this topic by the researchers.
Some researchers believe that “animal welfare can be defined as
providing environmental conditions in which animals can display all their
natural behaviours in nature started gaining importance in recent years. ”
(Koknaroglu, H., & Akunal, T. 2013).
Animal welfare is a complex concept that has indicators and
associated parameters which can be affected by numerous factors that
include both physical and mental health, Due to this fact, it was established
on a common agreement of the consumers, researchers, law makers and
farmers that there are 4 general principles of animal welfare, each with 2-4
criteria as seen in Table 1: adequate feeding, proper shelter, good health
condition, normal behaviour (Kjaernes and Keeling, 2004, Keeling and
Veissier, 2005, Hăbeanu, M., Surdu, I. and Lefter, N.A, 20 13).

143

Table 1
Set of criteria and subcriteria used in WelfareQuality® to develop an overall welfare
assessment.

Criteria Subcriteria Specifications
Good feeding 1. Absence of prolonged hunger.
2. Absence of prolonged thirst.
Good housing 3. Comfort around resting.
4. Thermal comfort.
5. Ease of movement. Assessed through behaviour (including rising up and
lying down movements) but not injuries (included in 5).
Good health 6. Absence of injuries.
7. Absence of disease.
8. Absence of pain induced by management
procedures. Except those produced by a disease or voluntary
interventions
(eg mutilations)
1. Absence of clinical problems other than injuries
2. Eg mutilations and stunning.
Appropriate
behaviour 9. Expression of social behaviours.
10. Expression of other behaviours.
(eg exploration) aspects.
11. Good human-animal relationship.
12. Absence of general fear. Balance between negative
(eg aggression) and positive
(eg social licking) aspects. Balance between negativ e
(eg stereotypies) and positive
No fear of humans.
Except fear of humans.
1 For suckling piglets ‘mortality ’ is considered with injuries because death is mostly caused b y crushing by the sow.
2 This includes mortality for young animals (except suck ling piglets) and during transport. Mortality at oth er times is not considered
because it largely depends on management and culling str ategies.
3 ‘Social behaviours ’ (9) and ‘fear of humans ’ (11) are very important components of farm animals welf are (Hemsworth & Coleman
1998; Boe & Faerevik 2003). They have been isolated respectively from ‘other behaviours ’ (10) and ‘general fear ’ (12), to avoid
masking the effects of these latter elements.

Source: R Botreau, I Veissier, A Butterworth, MBM Bracke and LJ Keeling, 2007,
p.226

The European Union (EU) started discussions on animal welfare in the
1980s and adopted a series of Directives to protect farm animals. Both
Recommendations and Directives define higher space allowance, more
opportunity for social contacts, balanced diet, enriched environment, and
limitation of harmful procedures. (Veissier, Isabelle, et al , 2008). The
European Commission has solicited quantifiable indicators of animal
welfare that are to be evaluated by the association of parameters that are
measurable and scientifically based, on the basis of which the EU
regulations in this area are to be established (Hăbeanu, M., Surdu, I. and
Lefter, N.A, 2013).
In accordance to Special Report of the European Court of Auditors,
no. 31 from 2018 , the EU has some of the world ’s highest regulatory animal
welfare standards, which include general requirements on the rearing,
transport and slaughter of farm animals and specific requirements for certain
species (Special Report, no. 31, 2018, European Court of Auditors).
The combination of legislation and producer subsidies may provide an
appropriate policy which improves animal welfare without directly
constraining food consumption choice and could help to achieve other
policy aims regarding agriculture in the EU (Bennett, R. M. 1997).

144
Also at the EU level, trough CAP respectively through the financing
mechanism of direct payments, are supported the incomes of the farmers
which, in exchange, have the obligation to undertake agricultural activities
while respecting a series of standards concerning food safety, environment
protection, animal welfare and maintaining the farm land in good
agricultural and environment conditions (Bâlgăr, A. C., & Drăgoi, A. E.
(2015).

MATERIAL AND METHOD

The current research is using a desk research method that involves
using already existing data. It includes using research material published in
research reports and similar documents. It is a much more cost-effective
method in regards of the time needed than primary research, as it makes use
of already existing data. As the name says secondary research is based on
previously analysed and filtered data (Bhat, 2019).
Thus the paper would review the existing literature and official
documents in order to present an adequate image of the animal welfare in
Romania from a legislative point of view as well from a scientific and
administrative perspective .

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Romania in its capacity as an EU Member State has accepted the
acquis communautaire and therefore it is subject to the Community rules
regarding the animal welfare.
One of the most important regulation in place is the Council
Directive 98/58/EC of 20 July 1998 concerning the protection of animals
kept for farming purposes which lays down minimum standards for the
protection of animals bred or kept for farming purposes. This Directive
applies to „any animal (including fish, reptiles or amphibians) bred or kept
for the production of food, wool, skin or fur or for other farming purposes ”
and defines those who are obliged to respect its provisions „any natural or
legal person or persons responsible for or in charge of animals whether on a
permanent or temporary basis ” (Council Directive 98/58/EC of 20 July
1998).
It was based upon the European Convention for the Protection of
Animals kept for Farming Purposes (1976 ) and they reflect the so-called
'Five Freedoms': Freedom from hunger and thirst; Freedom from
discomfort; Freedom from pain, injury and disease; Freedom to express
normal behaviour and Freedom from fear and distress.
Moreover this was further enforced when the Lisbon Treaty came
into force in 2009 and introduced the recognition that animals are sentient

145
beings. Article 13 of Title II states that “(…) the Union and the Member
States shall, since animals are sentient beings, pay full regard to the welfare
requirements of animals (…)” .
Following its accession Romania had to adapt its institutional
structure for the animal welfare. From the legislative point of view the key
legislation piece that regulates it is Law no. 205 from 2004 for the
protection of animals which regulates the life and welfare conditions of the
animals with our without owner. Also we have the Law no. 60 from 2004
concerning the ratification of the European Convention for the Protection of
Pet Animals.
All this general framework is later on supplemented and developed
by various Orders that implement them or the EU legislation into practice.
The key institution in Romania in charge with animal welfare is the
National Sanitary Veterinary and Food Safety Authority (ANSVSA) which
operates as a regulator in the field of veterinary and food safety, a
specialized body of central public administration, with legal personality,
subordinated to the Government and coordinated by the Prime Minister.
As a general body with a large area of activities ANSVSA operates
on multiple fronts and it is mostly a regulatory body, by providing all the
legislative provisions and implementation rules to the Romanian farmers.
The EU membership gave birth to a series of European controls on
the question of animal welfare. Thus as the time of the accession came
closer the audits of the European Union institutions tackled the question of
animal welfare. Animal welfare missions to Romania were carried out in
October 2007, May and September 2009 and their results are described in
Reports DG(SANCO)/7339/2007, DG(SANCO)/8256-2009 and
DG(SANCO)/8269-2009 .

Table 2
Early preliminary conclusions on animal welfare

Report 7339/2007
concerning animal
welfare on laying
hens and for
transport of horses Report 8256-2009 concerning
animal welfare during transport
and in particular horses Report 8269-2009
concerning welfare of
laying hens and animal
protection during
transport Report 8389-2010
Concerning animal welfare
on farms and during
transport
measures had been
largely ineffective
in ensuring that the
system of control
for animal welfare
is satisfactory. First
steps had been
taken to establish
functioning
controls, such as the
registration although measures on animal
welfare have been taken by the
Central Competent Authority in
the form of training and
instruction provided since the
previous mission in 2007, the
Competent
Authority at the county level
failed to enforce the relevant
EU legislation the CCA has taken
action to improve the
training of officials for
welfare on laying hen
premises and during
transport but
implementation at
county level was
inconsistent. The CCA has addressed 5
out of 9 recommendations
from the 2007 FVO report
and 7 out of 13
recommendations from
2009-8269 report. The
CCA have therefore made
sustained efforts to achieve
better compliance on
animal welfare issues
principally by providing

146
of laying hen farms;
however, serious
non-compliances
were seen and have
not been adequately
addressed by the
authorities. training and revising
instructions to the county
CAs.

Source: Final Report of a specific audit carried out in Romania from 26 to 30 Apr il 2010 in
order to evaluate the implementation of controls on animal welfare on farms and during
transport in the context of a general audit – DG(SANCO) 2010-8389

We therefore can witness a tentative improvement of the animal
welfare situation which is also being detailed in the 2012 Final Report of an
audit carried out in Romania from 21 to 29 November 2012 in order to
evaluate the implementation of controls for animal welfare on farms and
during transport.
The Report concluded that at that time that in comparison with 2007
and 2010 progresses have been made: “The systems in place to implement
controls on animal welfare during transport and on farms are generally
satisfactory. Some problems remain relating to risk prioritisation and the
organisation of controls, specific lack of resources in this sector, the lack of
dissuasive sanctions for: commercial transporters and overstocking in laying
hen premises, and a lack of procedures on when to impose sanctions which
leads to inconsistent enforcement. ” (Report, 2012).
Regarding the animal welfare one of the most present topic at
national and EU level was the transport of live farm animals from Romania
to other non-EU countries. This sort of news made the headline almost
every year in various contexts, all stressing the importance of ensuring
animal welfare. The question was and remains of outmost importance for
the transport of animals by sea as Romania exports an important number of
ruminants annually to third countries using livestock vessels. We there have
a special Report dedicated to the sea transport of animals generated by an
incident caused by a livestock vessel shipped from Romania to Jordan with
13 000 sheep out of which 5 200 died during transport.
“The Commission services carried out a fact-finding mission in
Romania from 26 to 30 October 2015 to collect information on the official
checks and circumstances regarding the approval of livestock vessels, in
particular the livestock vessel carrying sheep from Romania to Jordan that
was involved in the reported incident by media and animal welfare non-
governmental organisations.
The report concludes that there were adequate procedures for the
approval of livestock vessels at the time of the incident. A subsequent
update to the Romanian written procedures for the control of vessels prior to

147
loading increases confidence in the reliability of these checks. ” (Report,
2015).
Given this and the relative lack of national Reports dedicated to the
welfare of animals one of the most important recent source of information is
the 2018 Special Report of the European Court of Auditors on Animal
welfare in the EU: closing the gap between ambitious goals and practical
implementation .
As regards Romania the findings are still on a negative side: “Over a
series of audits in Romania between 2009 and 2011, DG SANTE
recommended that the competent authority apply effective, dissuasive and
proportionate sanctions for non-compliance with the animal welfare
legislation. At the time of our audit, the Romanian authorities had not yet
approved the necessary changes in the legislation to apply such sanctions. ”
Add to this the animal welfare checks on the farms in Romania by
the relevant national authorities are still debatable since “in practice the
authorities did not check agricultural holdings that fall within the definition
of “non-professional farms ”. These holdings cover many of the animals in
the pig sector (45 %) and almost all animals in the sheep and goat sector (99
%).” (Special Report, 2018)
The importance of animal welfare stands out if we take into
consideration the fact that in the NRDP 2014-2020 there is an entir e
measure – Measure 14 dedicated to the animal welfare.
After a rather rocky start when Romania decided not to introduce
Measure 14 — Animal Welfare (M14) in the National Rural Development
Programme (Programul Național pentru Dezvoltare Rurală — PNDR)
2014-2020 as the official answer said “The analysis of the situation and
identification of needs (SWOT) of the draft NRDP did not identify specific
needs for supporting animal welfare beyond levels imposed by EU
standards. In this context Romania did not have to justify the non-inclusion
of this measure. It was a matter of national policy choice, taking into
account the extremely important socioeconomic needs of the Romanian
rural areas and the limited funding available under the RDP. ” (Buda, 2015).
Finally funds were allocated and the Measure 14 has started to be
accessed by the intended beneficiaries. The latest indicators concerning the
number of beneficiaries supported for animal welfare were the following:
Target 2023: 549,00; Milestone Stage: 384,30 (70%) and Achieved (2018):
508 (92,53%) (Gramillano, 2019).

CONCLUSIONS

The above mentioned data show that the animal welfare situation in
Romania is on a slowly improving path. The best situation is in the field of

148
legislative harmonization as the Romanian authorities have improved the
legislative concordance with the EU acquis communautaire . As for the
financial resources allocated the absorption rate seems to be a satisfactory
one.
Yet problems remain as, the above mentioned studies have shown
that an important number of agricultural exploitations remain outside the
control area of the authorities on animal welfare. An in-depth check could
provide some different conclusions that the one in present.
Also, from the point of view of public opinion and civil society, the
transport of livestock by sea continues to be a sensitive subject, with
constant tragedies that create a powerful public emotion.

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150
Annals of the University of Oradea, Fascicle: Ecotoxi cology, Animal Husbandry and Food Science and
Technology, Vol. XVIII/A 2019
Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxi cologie, Zootehnie si Tehnologii de Industrie
Alimentara, Vol.XVIII/A 2019

CONTRIBUTIONS FOR FEED CAPITALIZATION STUDY AT BOMBYX
MORI BREED

Doliș Marius Gheorghe*, Simeanu Daniel** , Pânzaru Claudia***, Simeanu Cristina***

**University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine "Ion Ionescu de la Brad " from Iasi,
Romania
e-mail: dsimeanu@yahoo.com

Abstract
In order to assess how efficient is the use of Mulberry leaf by the Bo mbyx mori larvae, some
determinations were made regarding the nutritional value and digestibil ity of the worm leaf
administered as food, during a series of summer growth. The results showed th at ongoing vegetation
and growth process of this hybrid, the Mulberry leaves suffer an agi ng phenomenon, revealed by
diminishing its chemical composition quality. According to this, most of the n utritional substances
from Mulberry leaves, except cellulose, manifest a continuous decline during the growth period. The
digestibility of these nutritional components registered a value of 56.08%, the raw energy value was
4213 kcal/kg dry substance, the digestive energy was 2308 kcal/kg ( DS), while the metabolic energy
was 2134 kcal/kg (DS). The efficiency of converting ingestion into silk had a value of 9.40% and the
digestion was 16.19%.

Key words: leaves, Mulberry, larvae, energy, use.

INTRODUCTION

Besides the continuous improvement of the growth technologies, one
of the main concerns of the specialists in sericulture is represented by the
production of biological material of high genetic value as the Bombyx mori
larvae with an increasing productive potential, more resistant to the
environmental factors and to diseases and to use nutrients offered by the
Mulberry to the best of their advantage.
Thus, from this point of view, the performances of the used larvae in
intensive breeding systems have greatly increased, but at the same time, in
order for them to be able to reach their full potential, it is necessary to
improve all the factors involved in the breeding process. From the multitude
of factors that directly influence the growth process of the larvae and the
economic results obtained, it is encountered also nutrition.
The quantity and especially the quality of the worm leaf used in
feeding of larvae, directly influence the growth rate, their health and vitality,
but also the quantitative and qualitative production of silk. In turn, the
quality of the leaf is also influenced by many factors related to the
pedoclimatic conditions, season, variety of the mulberry, the way of
harvesting and storage etc.

151
In the specific literature, depending on different factors, the relative
humidity values of the Mulberry leaf vary between 65-75% (Doliș M.,
2008) .
Compared with the common Mulberry (69.80-73%), the selected
varieties have more water content (Bura M. et al., 1995) . The dried
substance from the worm leaf, harvested in the same period, can record,
depending on the variety/hybrid, different values, for example, between
23.61% and 27.56% (Matei A., 1995) .
Also, if the spring moisture of the mulberry leaf is 71.85-77.81%, then
it decreases to 68.42-75.64%, in the summer period, respectively to 64.10-
73.64%, in the fall (Ifrim S., 1998) .
Digestibility of the dry substance from the worm leaf decreases from
71.07% in age I, to 39.99% (for male larvae), 48.26% (for female larvae) in
age V (Rath S.S. et al., 2003) . The worm leaf administered to the larvae of
the fifth age has an approximate digestibility between 27.99% and 32.44%
(Rahmathulla V.K. et al., 2002) .
The raw leaf protein is estimated to have an average value of 6.16% in
the fresh leaf, 20.97% in the dry substance and 24.36% in its organic
substance (Doliș M., 2008) . The raw leaf protein values can vary depending
on the season, the time of day, the variety/hybrid of the dude: 32.40% in
spring, 28.21% in summer and 24.53% in autumn (Borcescu A., 1966) ,
26.80% in the morning and 29, 10% in the evening (Mărghitaș L. A., 1995) ,
between 22.55% and 25.73% depending on the variety (Matei A., 1995) . In
the specialty literature, for raw leaf protein, the value of digestibility
coefficients is between 69.21% and 78.92 (Borcescu A., 1966) , 60.06% and
74.69% (Petkov N.,1980) , 71.62% and 93.48% (Matei A., 1995) .
The limits presented by specific literature regarding the fat content in
mulberry leaves are 2.85- 6.07% (Pop E.C., 1967) The values of the
digestibility coefficient for raw fat are between 63.28% and 74.19 % (Petkov
N.,1980).
According to the data from the specialized literature, in the common
Mulberry the weight of the raw cellulose ranges between 12.33-14,38%,
while in the different varieties selected oscillates between 10.43-13,70%
(Craiciu E., 1966). In the vegetation period of the mulberry the content in
raw cellulose from the leaves increases from 14.47% to 21.16% (Pop E.C.,
1967). Increased cellulose content causes aging of the worm leaf, which
becomes harder and harsher, therefore harder to consume by, which is why
those varieties whose leaves have less cellulose content are considered more
valuable. At the beginning of the last century, some authors (Acqua, 1930 –
cited by Dolis M., 2008) found that the leaf cellulose passes undigested
through the digestive tract of the larvae and later it was concluded that this
substance has a digestibility of approx. 20% (Legay, 1955 – cited by Dolis

152
M., 2008). Recently, some authors state that in the first two ages, raw
cellulose would not be digested, but only from the third (8%), its
digestibility reaches 21.13% in the third period (Matei A., 1995).
The values regarding the mineral substances, offered by the
specialized literature, ranges between: 9.13- 17.38% (Pop E.C., 1967) ,
11.52-12.80% (Matei A., 1995) and 8, 7.13.15% (Bura M. et al., 1995) .
At the end of the last century, Romania could be considered an
important point on the map of European sericulture. Thus, in her record,
Romania can boast in this field with a quite complex literature, as well as
with the creation of new varieties and valuable hybrids of worm, as Bombyx
mori, all being the result of some decade research work of Romanian
specialists (Dolis M., 2008; Lazăr S. and Vornicu O.C., 2013; Pătruică S.,
2013) .
For this reason, we consider appropriate to bring a modest
contribution to the study of using the mulberry leaf, derived from
indigenous varieties, by larvae of breeds or hybrids created in Romania.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

The biological material used in the experiments was represented by a
batch of 150 larvae of Bombyx mori from Romanian hybrid Baneasa Super,
obtained by a simple cross between the female breed of Japanese type and
the male type of Chinese. To be easier to follow, the group was devided into
three sub-lots (repetitions) of 50 larvae each, which were raised in paper
trays sized according to the age and size of the larvae; in addition, it was
also made up a separate lot, with 50 larvae reared separately, but under the
same conditions, which served to replace the dead larvae from the
experimental group.
The growth of the larvae was in August, in an a ir-conditioned room, in
compliance with all the microclimate factors. Each divided group received
the same amount of leaf, from the same variety of worm, Eforie, from where
samples were previously collected, for chemical analysis.
The Romanian variety of mulberry Eforie, which is characterised by a
high production capacity, a early budding and a high resistance to freezing
and drought. It was selected from a local population from Dobrogea in 1955
and introduced into production in 1970.
Daily and at the same time, from each group were collected, weighed
and recorded what was not consumed from the Mulberry leaves and what
was excreted by the larvae.
The quantities of residues, respectively of excrements, obtained from
each group were summed, the result being divided into three, thus obtaining
the average quantity of residues from each 50 larvae. The values obtained

153
were subsequently used in the calculation relationships to find the
digestibility coefficients. Also, from each group were collected samples of
excrements, which were mixed in order to obtain medium samples for
analyze.
Also, the groups were weighed at the beginning of growth (after
hatching) and at the end (before budding), the difference between the two
weights, divided by the number of larvae in each group, representing the
increase in body mass accumulated by a larva.
From the separated lot were extracted 10 larvae, whose content was
determined in dry matter; thus, multiplying the average dry substance
content of larvae, calculated from the separated lots, with the increasing
body mass of the larvae in the experimental lots, it was determined the
average increasing of body mass of a larva.
After gobbling, 15 cocoons were harvested, from which the silk
wrapper was separated, weighed and its dry matter content determined, thus
obtaining the average dry wool content of the silk wrapper.
The working methods used were mainly the specific ones used to
determine the nutritional value of the worm leaf and they were based on the
chemical composition (the "proximate analysis" scheme), the digestibility of
its components (the "in vivo" method – simple digestibility, with a single
control period) and raw energy (use of specific computation equations and
regression coefficients recommended by the OKIT system), digestible
(calculation equation recommended for monogastric species) and
metabolizable (equations recommended for monogastric animals and birds)
contained (Halga P. et al., 2005).
The efficiency of the use of nutrients in the worm leaf by the larvae
was expressed by the amount of ingested/digested dry matter required for
increasing 1 gram of body mass/weight (silk wrap), respectively by the
efficiency of conversion of ingested substances (ECI%)/ digested (ECD%)
in body mass/weight (Matei A., 1995; Rahmathulla V.K. et al., 2002; Sarkar
A., 1993).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 shows the data of the chemical composition evolution of
larvae in relation to their age.
The average values obtained for each nutrient separately are set in the
limits presented by specific literature, where the data regarding the crude
chemical composition of the mulberry leaves varies according to each
author, to the research period, to the varieties of mulberry, etc. The average
relative humidity of the mulberry leaves during the research was 70.44%,
and an decreasing evolution being registered average values between

154
71.86% (at the first determination corresponding to the first age of the
silkworm larvae) and 68.15% (to the last determination when the silkworm
larvae are in the age V-th). The dry matter represented 29.56 ± 0.725%.

Table 1
The chemical composition evolution of the Eforie variety mulberry tree leaves during the
silkworm larvae growth (%)
Determinatio
n Wate
r DM CP EE CF NFE Ash
F* DM*
* F* DM** F* DM*
* F* DM*
* F* DM*
*
I 71.86 28.1
4 6.2
3 22.14 0.8
5 3.02 4.7
9 17.02 12.4
3 44.17 3.8
4 13.65
II 71.98 28.0
2 6.2
1 22.16 0.8
8 3.14 4.7
6 16.99 12.2
4 43.68 3.9
3 14.03
III 70.68 29.3
2 6.4
1 21.86 1.1
7 3.99 5.2
6 17.94 12.3
0 41.95 4.1
8 14.26
IV 69.53 30.4
7 6.0
0 19.69 1.2
2 4.00 5.5
8 18.31 13.3
7 43.89 4.3
0 14.11
V 68.15 31.8
5 6.0
6 19.03 1.3
8 4.33 6.1
5 19.31 13.5
8 42.64 4.6
8 14.69
x 70.44 29.5
6 6.1
8 20.98 1.1
0 3.70 5.3
1 17.88 12.7
8 43.29 4.1
9 14.15
xs – 0.72
5 – 0.670 – 0.260 – 0.434 – 0.418 – 0.169
Cv% – 5.48
6 – 7.143 – 15.70
0 – 5.412 – 2.163 – 2.667
* fresh leaves; ** dry matter

The crude protein had an average value of 6.18% (20.98± 0.670%
from DM). It is noticed a progressive decreasing of the protein content
throughout the studied period, the content decreasing being with 3.11
percentage points, from 22.14% to 19.03%, respectively.
The fat content from the mulberry leaves was in average 1.10% in the
fresh leaves, and 3.70% ±0.260 in DM. It is the only nutrient with a high
variability, of 15.700%. The fat content increased uniformly throughout the
silkworm larval growth, from 0.85% to 1.38% when it was expressed in
fresh leaves, or 3.2 % to 4.33% respectively, when it was reported to the dry
matter.
The crude cellulose was in average 5.31% in fresh leaves,
17.91±0.434%, respectively when in was reported to DM. Throughout the
research, for a month, the crude cellulose increased with 2.29 percentage
points, from 17.02% to 19.31%, respectively.
Nitrogen free extract represented in average 43.27 ± 0.418% from the
dry matter of the mulberry leaves; the average values decreased from the
first determination to the third, from 44.17% to 41.95%, then was an
increasing to the fourth determination, being 43.89%, decreasing to the last
analyses to 42.64%.

155
The ash represented in average 4.19% in the fresh leaves and 14.15 ±
0.169% from dry matter. The minerals from the mulberry leaves throughout
the research registered a continuous increase from analyse to another. The
average values varied from 3.84% to 4.68% to fresh leaves and from
13.65% to 14.69% from dry matter. An exception was registered to the third
determination which had a higher value than the fourth one. The increasing
in mineral content from mulberry leaves throughout the research was
1.04%.
Knowing the raw chemical composition of the mulberry leaf, using
the specific calculation equations, it was possible to assess the nutritional
value of the mulberry leaf based on its content of raw energy, which was, on
average, over the entire studied period, of 1245 Kcal/kg, in fresh leaf,
respectively 4213 Kcal/kg, in the dry matter (table 2).
Table 2
Raw average energy of Mulberry leaf
Specification % Caloric
equivalent Kcal/100g Kcal/100g
* ** * ** * **
CP 6.18 20.98 5.72 35.35 120.01 353.5 1200.1
EE 1.10 3.70 9.50 10.45 35.15 104.5 351.5
CF 5.31 17.88 4.79 25.43 85.65 254.3 856.5
NEF 12.78 43.29 4.17 53.29 180.52 532.9 1805.2
1245 4213

By recording the quantities of the worm leaf administered, the non-
consumed and excreted residues and also determining their chemical
composition (table 3), its digestibility coefficients could subsequently be
calculated (table 4) and also the content of digestible substances in the leaf
(table 5).
Following the complex phenomenon of digestion, nutrients are
transformed into simple substances, which can thus be absorbed through the
epithelium of the digestive tract, at different levels, thus being retained in
the organism of silk larvae, representing practically the difference between
the amount of substances ingested through food and the amount of
appropriate substances found in droppings. Because not all the substances
found in excrement are of dietary origin, some of them are of endogenous
origin, which can be obtained by this difference, indicating only apparent
digestibility. If you admit the fact that at Bombyx mori excretions are also
found in their excrement, which complicates the establishment of the
digestibility of nutrients in the wormwood even more accurately, the use of
the approximate digestibility term seems to be more correct (Miranda
J.E.and Takahashi R., 1998; Rahmathulla V.K. et al., 2004; Rath S.S. et al.,
2003; Sabhat A. et al., 2011; Tzenov P., 1993).
Table 3

156
Data needed to calculate digestibility coefficients
The
larvae
age Specifi-
cation Quantity
(g) Chemical composition (%/g)
DM CP EE CF NEF Ash
I Leaves 15.5 28.140 6.230 0.850 4.790 12.430 3.840
4.362 0.966 0.132 0.743 1.927 0.595
Leftovers 5.11 62.580 13.910 2.010 14.020 24.480 8.160
3.198 0.711 0.103 0.716 1.251 0.417
Excreta 0.17 78.250 14.010 14.680 15.110 26.120 8.330
0.133 0.024 0.025 0.026 0.044 0.014
II Leaves 26 28.020 6.210 0.880 4.760 12.240 3.930
7.285 1.615 0.229 1.238 3.182 1.022
Leftovers 8.01 58.850 14.330 2.160 13.890 22.060 6.410
4.714 1.148 0.173 1.113 1.767 0.513
Excreta 0.88 74.680 12.570 3.970 14.010 29.010 15.120
0.657 0.111 0.035 0.123 0.255 0.133
III Leaves 77 29.320 6.410 1.170 5.260 12.300 4.180
22.576 4.936 0.901 4.050 9.471 3.219
Leftovers 22.65 61.540 12.340 2.620 15.860 25.660 5.060
13.939 2.795 0.593 3.592 5.812 1.146
Excreta 4.07 64.060 15.920 2.080 9.910 24.120 12.030
2.607 0.648 0.085 0.403 0.982 0.490
IV Leaves 242 30.470 6.000 1.220 5.580 13.370 4.300
73.737 14.520 2.952 13.504 32.355 10.406
Leftovers 65.94 56.490 12.050 2.020 15.930 25.670 0.820
37.250 7.946 1.332 10.504 16.927 0.541
Excreta 19.99 64.440 11.980 2.180 12.010 26.210 12.060
12.882 2.395 0.436 2.401 5.239 2.411
V Leaves 1000 31.850 6.060 1.380 6.150 13.580 4.680
318.500 60.600 13.800 61.500 135.800 46.800
Leftovers 269.01 57.920 9.960 2.970 11.920 24.820 8.250
155.811 26.793 7.990 32.066 66.768 22.193
Excreta 119.82 60.460 10.060 3.080 14.890 24.020 8.410
72.443 12.054 3.691 17.841 28.781 10.077

During the whole period studied, the digestibility of the dried
substance from the worm leaf had a digestibility of 58.06%. The highest
digestibility was recorded in larvae of age I (88.57%), after which, by the
end of the larval period, there was a decrease of 31.76 percent.
The raw protein had a digestibility coefficient for the entire studied
period of 64.78%. The raw protein digestibility decreased progressively
during the studied period, with 26.32%, respectively from 90.66%, in the
first larval age, to 64.34%, in the last one. The high digestibility of age I
could be explained by the rich content in amides, simple nitrogenous
substances, which are found in the young leaf and which are digested much
easier than the protein nitrogenous substances, which have the weight in the
old leaf.

157
Table 4
Digestibility coefficients of Băneasa Super hybrid
The larvae age DM CP EE CF NEF
I 88.57 90.66 14.09 1.53 93.43
II 75.81 76.31 37.46 1.36 81.96
III 70.29 69.73 72.46 11.92 73.17
IV 66.15 63.57 73.11 19.96 66.04
V 56.81 64.34 36.48 39.39 58.31
I-V 58.06 64.78 45.41 37.07 60.87

The raw fat from the worm leaf had the minimum digestibility value
of 14.09%, in the larvae of the first age and maximum of 73.11%, in the
larvae of the fourth age. The results of the digestibility tests regarding the
raw fat in the worm leaf are generally inconclusive, as many of these can
come from the intestine of the larvae and not from the leaf, which is why ,
we cannot speak of a determination of the digestibility of the fat itself but of
the "ethereal extract", which also contains very large quantities of pigments.
Thus, the big differences regarding the evolution of the digestibility of the
raw fat during the studied period could be explained.
During the whole larval period, the digestibility of the raw cellulose
from the mulberry leaf was 37.07%, being very low in age I, 1.53%, after
which it increased progressively, by over 17%, reaching the end of the
period studied up to the value of 39.39%. This increase in the digestibility of
raw cellulose, as the larvae grow older, is in line with the development of
the enzymatic equipment in their digestive tract. Thus, if at age I, in the
digestive tract of the larvae, the enzymes involved in the process of
cellulose digestion are as non-existent, then they gradually increase,
reaching the peak at age V, at which point the weight of raw cellulose from
the worm leaf it is also bigger. This aspect, however, negatively influences
the digestibility of the raw leaf protein, which during the same period, is
experiencing a reduction.
Unclaimed extractive substances from the worm leaf had a
digestibility over the entire studied period of 60.87%, the digestibility
coefficients registering decreasing values, from 93.43%, in the case of the
larvae of age I, at 58.31%, in the case of those of fifth age.
Knowing the value of digestibility coefficients, it was possible to
calculate the digestible content for each nutrient separately, then the content
of digestible substances in the leaf, so when the report was made to the fresh
leaf, 148.75 g of Total Digestive Substance/kg were obtained, and when the
report was made on the dried substance from the leaf of the mulberry, its
nutritional value was 503.50 g TDS/kg (table 5).
Table 5
The nutritional value calculation of the mulberry leaves (g TDN/kg)

158
Specification Raw chemical
composition % Digestibility
coefficients Digestive
content % G Total Digestive
substance /kg
* ** * ** * **
CP 6.18 20.98 64.78 4.00 13.59 40.03 135.91
EE 1.10 3.70 45.41 0.50 1.68 11.24 37.80
CF 5.31 17.88 37.07 1.97 6.63 19.68 66.28
NEF 12.78 43.29 60.87 7.78 26.35 77.79 263.51
Total 148.75 503.50
* Reported to the fresh leaves; ** reported to DM

The determination of the digestible energy content of the worm leaf
administered in the feed of silk larvae was made based on the relative
digestible content of the nutrients contained in it, using the calorific
equivalents recommended for monogastric animal species (table 6). In the
case of the fresh leaf, the digestible energy content was 639 Kcal/kg, and in
the case of the dry substance, 2173 Kcal/kg.
Table 6
Digestive energy of Mulberry leaf
Specification Digestive content % Caloric equivalent
(Kcal/g) Kcal/kg
* ** * **
CP 4.00 13.59 5.78 231.20 785.50
EE 0.50 1.68 9.42 47.10 158.26
CF 1.97 6.63 4.40 86.68 291.72
NEF 7.78 26.35 4.07 316.65 1072.45
Total 681.63 2307.92
* Reported to the fresh leaves; ** reported to DM

The calculation of the metabolic energy from the worm leaf
administered in the feed of silk larvae was done by multiplying the
digestible content of each nutrient with the energy equivalents
recommended for monogastric (pig) animal species. Considering, however,
the specificity of the silkworm's digestion, respectively the similarity with
the digestion of the birds, for the estimation of the metabolic energy from
the worm leaf, the energetic equivalents recommended for the birds were
used (table 7).
The average content in metabolic energy from the fresh mulberry leaf
was 630.24 Kcal/kg, when the recommended energy ratios for pigs were
used, respectively 630.33 Kcal/kg, when the recommended coefficients for
birds were used. In relation to the dry matter of the leaf, the content in
metabolic energy was on average 2134.04 Kcal/kg, when the recommended
energy coefficients for pigs were used, and 2133.59 Kcal/kg, when the
recommended coefficients for birds were used.
Table 7
Metabolic energy of Mulberry leaf
Specification Digestive
content % Caloric equivalent
(Kcal/g) Kcal/kg

159
* ** * **
swine birds swine birds swine birds
CP 4.00 13.59 5.01 4.26 200.40 170.40 680.86 578.93
EE 0.50 1.68 8.93 9.50 44.65 47.50 150.02 159.60
CF 1.97 6.63 3.44 4.23 67.77 83.33 228.07 280.45
NEF 7.78 26.35 4.08 4.23 317.42 329.09 1075.08 1114.61
630.24 630.33 2134.04 2133.59
* Reported to the fresh leaves; ** reported to DM

In order to determine the efficiency of use of the nutrients in worm
leaf by the silk larvae, except for the intake and digestion, which were
calculated during the course of the digestibility tests, it was necessary to
determine the average growth rate of the larvae and the mass of the silk
shell. The data necessary for calculating the efficiency of the use of the
worm leaf by the larvae, as well as the results obtained in this respect, were
centralized in table 8.
From the data of this table it is observed that in the case of the
Bombyx mori Baneasa Super larvae hybrid, for every gram of silk wrap is
required 10.64 grams of dry matter ingested from the wormwood,
respectively 6.18 grams of digested dry matter, resulting in an efficiency of
conversion of silk intake (CEI) of 9.40%, respectively of digestion (CED) of
16.19%
Table 8
Efficiency of using Mulberry leaf by Bombix mori Băneasa Super larvae hyb rid
Average body mass gained during
the whole larvae stage (g) Living larvae 5.0385
Dry matter 0.9185
Silky shell mass (g Dry Matter) 0.3978
Dry Matter of ingested leaf (g) 4.2310
Dry Matter of digested leaf (g) 2.4566
Ingested Dry Matter/Body mass Dry Matter (g) 4.6067
Dry matter ingested/ Body mass Dry Matter (g) 2.6747
Dry matter ingested/Silky shell Dry Matter (g) 10.6360
Dry matter digested/ Silky shell Dry Matter (g) 6.1754
CEI body mass % 21.7076
CED body mass % 37.3873
CEI silky shell % 9.4020
CED silky shell % 16.1932

The data obtained from the experience performed, regarding the
efficiency of the use of the mulberry leaf by the larvae of Bombyx mori, are
comparable with those presented in the literature (Matei A., 1995;
Rahmathulla V.K. et al., 2002; Rath S.S. et al., 2003; Sarkar A., 1993;
Tzenov P., 1993).

160
CONCLUSIONS

Expressed to dry matter from the mulberry leaves, Eforie variety the
average values were: CP- 20.98 ± 0.670%, EE- 3.70 ± 0.260%, CF- 17.91 ±
0.4.34%, NEF- 43.27 ± 0.418% and ash- 14.15 ± 0.260%.
At once with vegetation advancement and implicitly during each
growth period of silkworm larvae, the mulberry leaf ages and its quality
from the chemical composition point of view is decreasing.
During the 30 days of the research, was noticed a decreasing of the
moisture with 3.71% and of the CP with 3.11% and in the same time an
increasing of the CF with 2.29%.
During the whole period studied, the digestibility of the dried
substance from the worm leaf had a digestibility of 58.06%. The dry matter
digestibility decreased with 31.76%.
Digestibility coefficients of the CP (64.78%) and of the NFE (60.87%)
from the mulberry leaves decreased during the study with 26,03% and
35.12%, respectively.
The CF digestibility, very low at the beginning (1.53%), increased
progressively till the fifth larval stage when it was 39,39%.
Nutritional value of the mulberry leaves was 474 g TDN/ kg DM.
Throughout the studied period, the gross enrichment of the worm leaf
was on average 4213 Kcal/kg, in the dry substance
In the leaf, the content of digestible energy was, in the case of dry
matter, 2308 Kcal/kg.
In relation to the dry matter of the leaf, the content in metabolic
energy was on average 2134 Kcal/kg.
In the case of the Băneasa Super hybrid, for each gram of silk wrap,
10.64 grams of dry matter ingested from the mulberry tree are required,
respectively 6.18 grams of digested dry substance, resulting an efficiency of
conversion of ingestion (CEI) into silk of 9.40%, respectively of the
digestion (CEI) of 16.19%

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