Andreea Zamfir Licenta11 [606232]

SPECIALIZAREA TRADUCERE ȘI INTERPRETARE
SPANIOLĂ

LUCRARE DE
LICENȚĂ

Coordonator:
Candidat: [anonimizat] 2018

Universitatea Tehnică de Construcții
București
Facultatea de Inginerie în Limbi Străine
Specializarea: Traducere ș i Interpretare
Engleză -Spaniolă

Challenges in subtitling political
speeches
Dificultăți în subtitrarea
discursurilor politice

Coordonator:

Candidat: [anonimizat] 2018

Introduction

1. Theoretical
aspects

1.1 Definition and cl assification
Subtitling has taken form around the invention of film and, subsequently, cinema.
It was a way of rendering the dialogue of the actors to the audience, particularly in the
silent films , as a narrating process of the plot. Since then, subtitlin g has become an
integral part and important tool in importing films to foreign countries.
The aim of this chapter is to offer an insight into the historical aspects of
subtitling , emphasis ing the most important parts of its evolution throughout time. It has
been divided into four parts. The first part gives a definition of the subtitling process , as
well as a timeline of its appearance. The second part focuses on the delineation between
subtitling and other types of audiovisual translations, dubbing and voi ce-over, for
instance. In the third part , subtitling is classified by technical parameters. And in the final
part, the types of audiovisual translation used in Romania throughout time will be
presented.

1.1.1 Definition

Jorge Díaz -Cintas and Aline Remael, in their book named “Audiovisual Translation:
Subtitling”, give a thorough definition of subtitling , which “may be de fined as a
translation practice that consists of presenting a written text, generally on the lower part
of the screen, that endeavours to recou nt the original dialogue of the speakers ”. In other
words, “subtitles are lines at the bottom of the screen that display a translation of the
dialogue ” (Pedersen, 2011: 8). They also argue that subtitling is not viewed as translation
per se, but rather as an “adaptation – an attitude that has stymied the debate about AVT1
and could be tainted as having been one of the main reasons why the whole area has
been traditionally ignored by scholars in translation until very recently.” ( Díaz-Cintas &
Remae l, 2014 : 9).
Subtitles made their first appearance back in 1903 in Edwin S. Porter's Uncle
Tom's Cabin , when they were called intertitles (also known as title cards) as a way of
interpreting the dialogue and recapping the film to the foreign audience. This techniqu e
consisted of placing drawn or written cards between sections of the film to describe th e
silent dialogue of the actors (Ivarsson, 2004).

1 AVT is an acronym that means Audiovisual Translation.

However, with the major breakthrough in cinema that marked the Golden Age,
intertitles were no longer used. Instead, they made way for what we call now subtitles,
but difficulties in rendering the dialogue to the audience reached higher heights. The
foreign audience could hear the dialogue, but they were not able to understand it, so
studio s came up with different soluti ons, from making several language versions of the
films to having them dubbed in the target language. Bringing back intertitles was also
considered, but they settled on placing the text at the bottom of the s creen, hence the
name subtitles (Foster, 2014).

1.1.2 Differences between subtitling, dubbing and voice -over

Audiovisual Translation or AVT is taxonomically comprised of three categories:
subtitling, dubbing and voice -over. This very subchapter deals with just that, the
differences between these three types of AVT.
To begin with , the answer as to why people choose subtitling over dubbing is of
economic reasons, just as Jorge Díaz Cintas stated “The predict ed dominance of subtitling
seems justified by virtue of cost – more economical than dubbing […].” ( Díaz Cintas,
2004: 50). Not only that, but also people seem to choose the one over the other because
they are used to a certain type of AVT. In USA for instance , the audience is accustomed
to subtitles rather than dubbing, purely because they relate dubbing to a certain type of
film and period of time (Dancis, 2004).
Another reason of choosing dubbing is the wish of preserving language and
culture. For example, in Quebec films are more dubbed than subtitled for fear that English
may replace French as the officia l language (Kalinowska, 2016).
Sweden, Norway and the United Kingdom tend to prefer subtitling and
subsequently, keeping the original language of the film, whereas countries such as
France, Italy, Germany and Spain choose dubbing a nd Poland and Russia the voice-over
method. Additionally, it seems that countries which are pro subtitling have a higher level
of understanding of the English language compared to those who are in favour of
dubbing. The maps below show which type of AVT is favoured by European cou ntries and
the English proficiency for each and every one of them (Kalinowska, 2016).

Image 1: Dubbing and subtitling in Europe

Image 2: English Proficiency of the European countries
Beside the economic and cultural reasons, dubbing is used to censure due to
political reasons. A very good example of a country which has used dubbing for
censorship is Spain. The dictator Francisco Franco was the one who made dubbing
compulsory in every theatre and cinema in 1941, first to protect the Spanish language
and second, to keep out from leaking immoral i deas from foreign countries ( Menéndez –
Otero , 2013). Jorge Díaz -Cintas in his study called “ Film censorship in Franco’s Spain: the
transforming power of dubbing ” confirms this idea by saying that “ Emulating the
examples set by Italy and Germany, the Spanish Ministry of Industry and Trade issued, on
23rd April 1941, an Orden Ministerial (ministerial bill) requiring the obligatory dubbing into
Castilian Spanish of all foreign productions […]” (Díaz-Cintas , 2018: 5). H e also said that
“Dubbing thus became the perfect tool for the Francoist regime to manipulate the content
of foreign productions and to reaffirm the unity and national identity of the country
through language ’’ (ibidem).
In this day and age, Spain remains one of the countries which uses dubbing as a
mean of censorship. Quentin Tarantino’s Reservoir Dogs is an example in which taboo
words, such as swearing, were censored or omitted altogether (Pardo, 2013: 129 -130).

1.1.3 Classification

As a rule, subtitles are classified based on two criteria: the linguistic and technical
parameter, but according to Jorge Díaz -Cintas and Aline Remael, there is another criteria
namely the time available for preparation ( Díaz-Cintas & Remael, 2014 : 13).
The linguistic parameter includes the following types of subtitles: the intralingual,
interlingual and bilingual subtitles. The intralingual ones or (closed) captioning are
basically subtitles within the same language and are intended for the deaf and hard of
hearing (SDH), for lang uage acquisition, for Karaoke effect or i n case of dialects of the
source language (idem: 14 ). As opposed to interlingual subtitles, which will be analyzed
further on, subtitles for SDH include, besides dialogues, other non -verbal features such
as: charact er’s name, sound effects, tone and music. Subtitles aimed at SDH have
enhanced over the years, due to the fact that many televisions, namely BBC, decided to
offer subtitled programmes to the SDH audience. “The BBC (British Broadcasting
Corporation) is, wit hout a doubt, on a global level, one of the most advanced in this area,
having pledged to broadcast 100% of their programming with subtitles for the d eaf and
hard-of-hearing by 2008 ” (Díaz-Cintas & Remael, 2014 : 15).
Captioning is also a very good tool for language acquisition. Many people found
that watching captioned programmes helped them not only to improve their English skills,
but also to understand and familiarize themselves with other languages and cultures from
foreign countries.
Intralingual subti tles are also used in Karaoke, which has gained popularity in
recent years among people of all ages. Karaoke subtitling , commonly used with songs or
musicals, allows the public to sing along with the performer.
Furthermore, captions are used in the case of movies or programmes in which the
dialogue of the actors cannot be understood due to accents or dialects of the same
language. A very good example is the film “Trainspotting” which was presented in the
United States with English subtitles due to the fact that the actors spoke with a h eavy
Scottish accent (idem: 17 ).
Moving on to the second type of subtitles, namely interlingual subtitles (also
referred to as diagonal subtitling ) which lies in rendering the dialogue from the source
language into the target one, can be also classified into subtitles for hearers and for the
deaf and hard of hearing (SDH), the latter providing paralinguistic information for the
deaf to understand the action of the film.

Bilingual subtitles are used in countries such as Belgium, Finland or Israel in which
two languages are spoken. They are also used in film festivals in order to attract a wider
audience. In this case, subtitles are provided with two sets of languages, one in English
which represents the lingua franca , and another in the language of the host country
(Díaz-Cintas & Remael, 2014 : 18-19).
As for the technical parameter, subtitles are divided into closed and open subtitles.
Closed subtitles are found on television or other media services and can be turned on and
off. In turn, open subtitles are permanent on the screen, thus they cannot be turned off
and are available in cinemas.
Finally, in the case of the time available for preparation, subtitles can be further
classified into pre -prepared subtitles (offline subtitlin g) and live or real -time subtitles
(online subtitling). Pre -prepared subtitles are done after the programme has been shot,
hence t he name offline subtitling, giving translators sufficient time to carry out their work
(idem: 19).
The live or real -time subti tles are newly introduced and are only used when there
is no time to prepare the subtitles such as in the case of news bulletins. This type is
common in subtitling for the deaf, but it can also be done interlingually, where a
professional interpreter rende rs orally the message into a microphone connected to the
headphones of a velotypist.

1.1.4 Subtitling in Romania

This subchapter aims at offering the readers a comprehensive insight into the
audiovisual translation methods used in Romania, as well as relevant examples to sustain
them. Romania is one of the countries which uses subtitling in films and tele vision as early
as the year 1956 , when the communist regime was installed in Romania . The majority of
films are subtitled though, starting with the communist p eriod (1956 -1989) where
subtitling was the first choice in television for films and TV series such as: Dallas,
Casablanca and Indiana Jones. Dubbing was also considered, Victor Socaciu, member of
the Romanian Chamber of Deputies at that time, proposed in 2 011 the adoption of
dubbing so as to protect the Romanian cultural identity, but it was highly disregarded by
those who argued that the me ssage would be lost to the audience (Vulpoiu, 2016: 149).
However, dubbing was not entirely lost in the Romanian film industry. It is still
used in animations and programmes intended for a younger audience. Some of them

include the famous animation “Madag ascar” in which starred actors such as Ben Stiller
and Chris Rock, but who were replaced by Florian Ghimpu and Cosmin Ș ofron in the
Romanian version.
Another method used mainly in news bulletins is the sign language clearly done
intralingually for the de af and hard of hearing audience, which had to be adopted by all
televisions starting with 11th of October. The law stated that all televisions must provide at
least 30 minutes of interpreting of the news bullet ins, political debates and other
programmes of national interest (Cerban, 2014). They also provide subtitles for rendering
the message to the audience from other forei gn languages, as well as voice -over which is
seldom used.

1.2 Quality of translation and technical aspects

This subchapter, which has been divided into three parts, proposes the elements
that define the quality of a translation. In the first part, general tr anslation methods and
procedures will be presented, based on studies conducted by professionals in the field
such as Jean -Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet, Peter Newmark and Jeremy Munday. The
second part seeks to contextualize the translation methods and pro cedures solely in the
subtitling field. The third and final part will establish the subtitling standards and other
conventions that should be taken into account in subtitling at a professional level.

1.2.1 Translation methods and procedures

It was not until th e 1950s did the theoreticians and scholars study the object of
translation. Jean -Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet, two French scholars, synthesized their
work in translation studies in the book named Stylistique comparée du français et de
l'anglais : méthode de traduction , which was later translated into English by the name of
“Comparative stylistics of French and English : a methodology for translation ” (Philipson,
2014).
They came up with seven translation procedures, also studied later on by other
theoretic ians such as Peter Newmark and Jeremy Munday, although they argued on some
aspects which will be discussed in the following part.
The main translation procedures are, according to Vinay and Darbelnet, the
following:

Through borrowing , a word or an expressi on is taken from the source language
and transferred into the target language, albeit in a naturalized form that would respect
the grammar and pronounciation rules of the TL. Some examples include the words
“party” and “tequila” (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1995: 3 2). Peter Newmark refers to borrowing
as transference or transcription (Newmark, 1988: 81).
Calque is a type of borrowi ng, but which involves the word for word translation of
elements to form another word in the TL. Although, as they have undergone semanti c
chang es, some of them behave as false friends (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1995: 33).
Literal translation , also known as word for word translation, is the direct
transfer of a SL text into a TL text. It is often used in the case of two lan guages that are
part of the same language and have si milar grammar structures (idem : 33-34).
Transposition or shift as Newmark calls it, involves a change in the grammar of
the TL , without changing the meaning of the sentence. For example, the change from
singular to plural or th e position of the adjective is mandatory and gives the translator no
choice. Shits are also required when the SL grammatical structure does not exist in the TL
(Newmark, 1988: 83).
Modulation is define d as a variation of the form of the message , changing t he
author’s point of view. It is needed where a literal translation would be inconsistent,
although grammatically correct. Another type of m odulation consists in changing a
positive sentence into a negative one (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1995: 37).
Equivalence refers to finding a correspondent word or expression in the TL. It is
commonly used for culture -bound items such as idioms and proverbs which cannot be
translated using calque (idem : 39).
Adaptation is used when a situation described in the SL is unknown int o the TL.
Therefore, this procedure behaves as an equivalence, more precise as a situational
equivalence. In this case, translators must create a new situation that should explain the
one found in the SL which would not be accepted or underst ood by the tar get audience
(ibidem ).

1.2.2 Translation methods and procedures used in subtitling

In his study called “ The FAR model: assessing quality in interlingual subtitling ”, Jan
Pedersen considers that quality, especially quality in translation is an ambiguous idea
much as happiness is and that depends on many factors. For those in translation

management, quality is the sum of processes, work flow and deadlines, whereas for
academics is a matter of equivalence and language use (Pedersen, 2017: 210). It also
“[…] depend s largely on the translator’ s subjective interpretation and transfer decisions,
which are based on his linguistic and cultural intuitive knowledge and experience” (House
1997: 3) .
As discussed in the previous subchapter, a lot of works have been published that
targeted the translation methods and procedures. Although they generally apply to text
translation, some of them can be used in audiovisual translation as well.
The most commonly used method in subtitling is adaptation, which according to
Newmark is “the freest form of translation”. Mainly used in poetry and plays, the plot and
characters are kept at such, thus the SL culture is adapted to the specificity of the TL one
and the text is rewritten (Newmark, 1988: 46). Along the same lines, paraphrase is u sed
when the text is poorly written. In this case, the translator can choose to explain or
amplify the part that is not clear (idem: 90).
Transcription is commonly used in text translations in the case of loan words, in
subtitling, especially in the intral ingual one, represents a major element (Gottlieb, 2005:
12).
Addition, also referred to as ex pansion, is used when the original text requires an
explanation for a culture bound term that is not understood by the audience, therefore
the translator acts as a terminological guide for the target audience. However, the only
disadvantage of using this method is that it can be space consuming (Pedersen, 2005 ).
Omission is also used and that is due to the constraints of space and other
conventions imposed by subtitl ing, which will be discussed further on. Basically, through
omission the word from SL is replaced with nothing in the target one (ibidem).

1.3 Subtitling standards

This part seeks to establish the standards and other conventions imposed by
subtitling and fol lowed throughout Europe, based on the studies conducted by Jorge -Diaz
Cintas and Fotios Karamitroglou . It has been divided into three subchapters. The first one
establishes the spatial and duration parameter. The second subchapter deals with the
punctua tion rules in subtitling, and the final one indicates other conventions imposed by
the subtitling practice, such as how acronyms, symbols or numbers should be written.

1.3.1 Spatial and duration parameter

According to Karamitroglou, subtitles should appear on the lower part of the
screen where the image action is least important aesthetically. Consequently, the lowest
line of subtitles should be placed at least 1/12 of the total screen height above the bottom
of the screen. As an exception, subtitles can be pl aced at the upper part of the screen
only in instances where important information would occur in places destined for subtitles
(Karamitroglou, 1997).
The number of lines that should appear on the bottom of the screen is two, this
means that subtitles woul d occupy no more than 2/12 of the screen image . As for a
single -line subtitle, this should occupy the lower of the two lines (ibidem).
Each subtitle line should be comprised of 35 characters, although Diaz -Cintas
stated that some clients would ask for up t o 39-41 characters per line depending on the
guidelines and software used (Diaz -Cintas & Remael, 2014 : 86). For example, in the
proposed set of subtitling guideline by Netflix for Romania , a maximum of 42 characters
per line is allowed.2
The font of type c haracters should be pale white, because a much more flashy
shade of white would tire the viewer’s eyes. Similarly, they should be placed against a
grey, see -through format, rather than in a contoured o ne, because it does not block the
background entirely (Karamitroglou, 1997).
The reading speed of the average viewer ranges between 150 and 180 words per
minute, meaning that a two -line subtitle that contains 14-16 words should stay on the
screen for about 5 1/2 seconds . For a single -line subtitle of 7 -8 words , the duration
should be 3 ½ to give the viewer ample time of reading. As for the duration of a single –
word subtitle, this should be 1 1/2 seconds regardless the length of the word (ibidem).

1.3.2 Punctuation

According to Karamitroglou, the sequence dots or en ding triple dots should be
used when the sentence is not finished and has to continue over the consecutive subtitle.
This indicates that the sentence is not complete and warns the viewers to expect another
sentence (Karamitroglou, 1997).

2 https://partnerhelp.netflixstudios.com/hc/en -us/articles/220294068 -Romanian -Timed -Text-Style-
Guide

Full stops should be used right after the character of a subtitle with no space
character inserted to mark the end of the sentence.
Dashes are used to indicate the exchange of dialogues of the speakers. When
dashes are used to link words as hyphens no space characters shoul d be inserted
between the linked words (ibidem).
Commas , colons and semicolons should be used just like in printed texts to
indicate a short pause in the speech.
As for boldface and underlying , they are strictly forbidden in subtitling (ibidem).

1.3.3 Other con ventions

Karamitroglou stated that acronyms, apostrophes and symbols should be used to
abbreviate meaning sings, which can save precious space. Though, he warns that they
should be used with caution and only if they are recognisable for the target audienc e
(Karamitroglou, 1997).
When dealing with numbers, as a rule of thumb the numeral form should be used.
Of course, there are some exceptions to the rule, especially in the case of numbers from
1-10 which are better spelled out. The emphatic numbers should be always spelled out,
as well as those that begin a sentence.3
When mentioning the time, using the 12 or 24 -hour system, the numbers should
be separated by a colon or a period and not with a comma or a blank space. As for
measurements and weight, they sho uld be converted in the metric system used by the
target audi ence (Diaz -Cintas & Remael, 2014 : 137-138).

3 http://bbc.github.io/subtitle -guidelines/

2. Difficulties
encountered and
solutions found in
subtitling political
speeches

2.1 General aspects of political speeches

In political speeches, during election campaigns, the ideas and ideologies are
rendered through language that should be understood by the larger audience. In this
idea, words and e xpressions are often omitted or have a persuasive ef fect on the
audience (Charteris -Black, 2005: 1).
There are some essential aspects in analyzing a political speech, such as key
words and phrases, oppositions (near, distant, negative, positive), metaphors or
analogies, but also the use of short simple statements and personal pronouns.4
This chapter focuses on the analysis on the speech on National Security delivered
by former Secretary of State and Democratic Candidate for President Hillary Clinton at
Balboa Park in San Diego, California on June 2nd 2016. Therefore, this analysis will be
based on several featu res of political speeches and its focus will be on assessing these
features and the translation procedures employed in tackling the di fferent challenges
encountered in subtitling.
This chapter has been divided into three parts. The first part seeks to anal yze the
grammatic al features which comprise noun phrases, phrasal verbs, modal verbs and
passive voice, as well as the translation procedures that have been used to render the
message to the target audience. The second part deals with the lexical features, mainly
specialized term s, metaphors and other semantic features used in Hillary Clinton’s speech.
The third part considers the syntactic features in which anastrophes , repetitions or
rhetorical questions will be analyzed.

4
http://www.commoncorehistorysocialstudies6to8.com/uploads/1/3/5/2/135245 71/political_speech_analysis.pd
f

2.2 Grammatical features

The follo wing part will analyze from the grammatical point of view Hillary Clinton’s
speech on National Security delivered in San Diego, California on June 2, 2016. This
includes modal ve rbs, passive voice , noun phrases, phrasal verbs and personal pronouns.
2.2.1 Modal v erbs

Modal verbs are very common in Germanic languages such as English that help
indicate modality. The mos t commonly used modal verbs in the English language are the
following:
can- ability, permission, possibility, request
could – ability, permission, p ossibility, request, suggestion
may – permission, probability, request
might – possibility, probability, suggestion
must – deduction, necessity, obligation, prohibition
shall – decision, future, offer, question, suggestion
should – advice, necessity, predi ction, recommendation
will – decision, future, intention, offer, prediction, promise, suggestion
would – conditional, habit, invitation, permission, preference, request, question
(Kosur & Goss, 2012).
The most commonly used modal verbs in Romanian are a avea, a da, a fi, a trebui,
a veni, a vrea, a putea, se cuvine, se pare , which are usually followed by an infinitive,
subjunctive, participle or supine (Avram, 1997: 198).
In political speeches, the use of modal verbs is essential and has an impact on the
audience, as they emphasise what people should, must, ought and have to do.5
The following part will analyze the modal verbs used by Hillary Clinton in her
speech about National Security, in which she used modal verbs such as “can” in 18
instances, many of w hich being in the negative form, “could” used ten times, “may”,
“must” mentioned in 6 cases, as well as “should” and “would”.

5 http://ysu.am/files/Modal -Verbs -of-Obligation -in-Quotations -and-Political.pdf

In the following example, can is used to express ability:

EN RO
I believe the person the Republicans have nominated
for Presid ent

cannot do the job. Consider că persoana
pe care Republicanii au nominalizat -o

nu este potrivită .

In this example, I chose to convey the message into the TL through a modulation
procedure, as a literal translation would have been inconsistent. Similarly, I opted for
omitti ng the particle “for President” due to the fact that it did not affect the meaning of
the SL into the target one and due to the space constraint imposed by subtitling.
In the following example, the modal verb “can” expresses ability and I chose to
translat e it using the Romanian equivalent “a putea”.

EN
RO
We need to reduce income inequality,
because our country can’t lead effectively

when so many are struggling to provide the basics
for their families . Trebuie să reducem inegalitatea veniturilor,
întrucât țara noastră nu poate conduce

când mulți se chinuie să ofere
cele necesare familiilor lor.

In the examples below, the modal verb “can” expresses permission, which has
been translated using the equiv alent in Romanian “a putea” . In the second example,
“could” expresses possibility.

EN
RO
If Donald gets his way, they’ll be celebrating in the
Kremlin.

We cannot let that happen . Dacă Donald își atinge ținta,
ei vor sărbători în Kremlin .

Nu putem l ăsa să se întâmple asta .
Diplomacy is often the only way to avoid a conflict

that could end up exacting a much greater cost Diplomația este, adesea, calea prin care
se poate evita un conflict

care ar putea sfârși prin a avea costuri mari.

In the follow ing example, “may” expresses probability. However, it is not
translated into Romanian through a modal verb as well, because “may” is followed by the
informal phrasal verb “to get it” which, according to the Collins English Dictionary, means

“to understand” .6 Therefore, I found that the best solution was to translate this very
particle into the predicative verb, active voice as follows:

EN RO
Donald Trump may not get it , but that’s what honor
looks like. Poate că Donald Trump nu înțelege ,
dar așa arată onoarea.

As I mentioned before, Clinton uttered six times the modal verb “must” in her
speech, which has been translated as “trebuie”, its equivalent modal verb in Romanian. In
those cases, “must” expresse s obligation. Although, in the last example , which will be
shown below, I have used the modulation procedure in order to adequately translate the
modal verb “must” into the TL. In this instance, “must” expresses necessity.

EN
RO
As I see it, there are s ome important things our next
President must do

to secure American leadership and keep us safe

and our economy growing in the years ahead. Sunt câteva chestiuni pe care trebuie
să le facă viitorul nostru președinte,

pentru a asigura conducerea Americii,
siguranța noastră

și creșterea economiei
în anii ce vor urma.
So I know we have to be able to both stand our
ground when we must

and find common ground when we can. Așadar, șt iu că trebuie să fim capabili
să stăm pe poziții când este cazul

și să găsim un numitor comun când putem.

In the following examples, “should” expresses necessity when Hillary Clinton talks
about the agreement reached between Iran and The United States t hat “should block”
Iran to obtain nuclear weapons. “Should” also expresses advice or suggestion in the
examples where the former Secretary of State talks about the statements that Donald
Trump said on the subject. In all instances, the modal verb “should” was translated
through equivalence as follows:

EN
RO
We began talks and eventually, we reached an
agreement

that should block every path for Iran to get a
nuclear weapon. Am început discuțiile și, în cele din urmă,
am ajuns la un acord

care trebuie să împiedice Iranul
de a obține arme nucleare.

6 https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/get -it

Donald Trump says we shouldn’t have done the deal ,

we should have walked away .
Donald Trump spune că nu ar fi trebuit
să înche iem acest acord,

că ar fi trebuit să ieșim din negocieri.

2.2.2 Passive voice

In the English language, the passive voice is composed of the auxiliary verb “to
be” followed by the Past Participle form of the verb to be conjugated. The subject of the
sentence becomes then an object of instrumentation or commonly known as agent,
preceded by the preposition “by”. In certa in cases, the agent can be omitted, as it does
not affect the logical exposition and message of the sentence. Much as in English, the
passive v oice in Romanian is also formed with the auxiliary verb “to be” (a fi) and the Past
Participle fo rm of the verb to be conjugated ( Manea, 2012: 58).
The passive voice is used more extensively in English, while in Romanian is much
more common the use of refl exive verbs, thus the English passive voice may be rendered
into Romanian through a reflexive verb. Although , it should be noted that in English
grammar the notion o f reflexive verb does not exist (ibidem).
In political discourses, the passive voice is an important strategic tool as it hides
responsibility. A very good example is the statement made by former U.S President
Ronald Reagan about Iran -Contra affair7, “mistakes were made”. In this case, the passive
voice hides the agent or the respon sible persons from the audience . The passive voice is
not only used to hide responsibility, but also to emphasise an idea or to point out the
agent that does the action (J. Mark, 2011).
In the examples below, the passive verbs used by Hillary Clinton in her speech will
be analyzed.

EN RO
He says climate change is a hoax
invented by the Chinese ,
Spune că schimbarea climatică este o farsă
inventată de către chinezi ,

7 The Iran -Contra affair refers to the political scandal from 1980s in which the National Security
Council was involved in secret weapons transactions that were pr ohibited in the U.S.

In this example, I chose to translate the verb in the passive voice using the
equivalence method, as it seemed the easiest and more logic solution for rendering the
message to the aud ience.

EN RO
Take the threat posed by North Korea ,

perhaps the most repressive regime on the planet,
run by a sadistic dictator […]. De exemplu, amenințarea
din partea Coreei de Nord ,

poate cel mai represiv regim din lume
condus de un dictator sadic […].

In the example above, two verbs in the passive voice appear. I chose to translate
the first one using the transposition or shift procedure, as I found it more adequate than
a literal translat ion. Another reason for choosing this method was the spac e constraint
imposed by subtitling. Therefore, the Engl ish passive verb “posed by” was converted into
Romanian as a common noun “amenințarea”. The second example was also translated
using the equivalence method as it was the most efficient in this case. Hillary Clinton’s
scope in her speech was not to hide the responsible party, but quite the opposite. She
used the extended passive voice to emphasise the idea of the sentence, to point out and
to ridicule Donald Trump for even suggest ing the idea that “global warming was a hoax
invented by the Chinese” referring to his message on Twitter posted on November 6,
2012: “ The concept of global warming was created by and for the Chinese in order to
make U.S . manufacturing non -competitive”.8

2.2.3 Noun phrases

A noun phrase consists of a noun or a pronoun which represents th e head of the
noun phrase preceded by one or more modifiers. In a noun phrase, a noun is typically
preceded and simultaneously modified by a range of different structures: adjectives,
prepositional phrases, determiners and predeterminers .9
In the examples below, some of the noun phrases found in the speech will be
analyzed.

8 https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/265895292191248385

9 https://public.w su.edu/~gordonl/Grammar_Book/Chapter_3.pdf

EN RO
We honor the sacrifice of those who died for our
country in many ways ,

by living our values, by making this a stronger and
fairer nation,

and by carrying out a smart foreign p olicy. Îi onorăm pe cei
care s -au sacrificat pentru țara noastră

prin formarea unor principii,
de a fi o națiune unită și puternică

și prin elaborarea unei
politici externe inteligente.
I believe in strong alliances; clarity in dealing with
our rivals,

and a rock -solid commitment to the values that
have always made America great. Cred în alianțe puternice, claritate
în relațiile cu rivalii noștri,

și angajamente solide în valorile
ce au făcut America măreață.

The noun phrase “foreign policy” was adap ted into Romanian using the political
term “politică externă”, the determiner “smart”, which is an adjective was translated using
the calque method. The noun phrase in the second example was also translated using the
Romanian equivalent “angajamente solide ”, but also using the transposition procedure in
which the noun phrase changed its form from singular into plural.

EN RO
Allies provide staging areas for our military,

so we can respond quickly to events on the other
side of the world. Aliații ne oferă zone de planificare
pentru soldații nostri

ca să răspundem rapid la evenimentele
din întreaga lume.

The Cambridge Dictionary defines the term “staging area” as “ a place where
soldiers and equipment are brought together and prepared before military act ivity”10,
therefore the closest equivalent in Romanian was the term “zonă de planificare”.

EN RO
When I was Secretary of State,

we worked closely with our allies Japan and South
Korea

to respond to this threat,

including by creating a missile defense s ystem

that stands ready to shoot down a North Korean
warhead Când eram Secretar de Stat,

am lucrat strâns cu aliații noștri,
Japonia și Coreea de Sud

pentru a răspunde acestei amenințări,

inclusiv prin crearea
unui sistem de apărare anti -rachetă

care e gata să doboare
un proiectil nord -coreean

10 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/staging -area

In the first example, the long noun phrase was translated into Romanian using the
calque procedure. The term “warhead” was adapted into Romanian as “proiectil” after
checking the definition given by the Cambr idge Dictionary “ the front part of a bomb or
missile that contains explosives ”.11

2.2.4 Phrasal verbs

A phrasal verb , accord ing to Cambridge Dictionary, is defined as “ a phrase that
consists of a verb with a preposition or adverb or both, the meaning of which i s different
from the meaning of its separate parts ”.12 This means that if we were to translate each
element of a phrasal verb, the meaning would be a whole lot different than its equivalent
in the target language.
In his subchapter entitled “Constraints on literal translation, Peter Newmark
mentions that “ordinary language”, which is marked by phrasal verbs, “can hardly ever be
translated literally” (Newmark, 1988: 75).
In the following part, I will analyze some of the phrasal verbs used by Hillary
Clinton i n her speech and their translation in Romanian.

EN RO
This is someone who has threatened to abandon our
allies in NATO ,

the countries that work with us to root out terrorists
abroad

before they strike us at home. Este cineva care a amenințat
cu abandonarea aliaților noștri în NATO,

țările care lupta cu noi pentru
a înlătura terorismul din străinătate,

înainte să ne lovească acasă .

The given definition in the dictionary for the phrasal verb “root out” is “to find and
remove (somet hing or someone) ”, therefore the closest equivalent I could find in the
target language was “a înlătura”.13

EN RO
He has said that he would order our military to carry A spu s că va cere soldaților

11 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/warhead

12 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/phrasal -verb

13 https://www.merriam -webster.com/dictionary/root%20out

out torture

and the murder of civilians who are related to
suspected terrorists . să comită acte de tortură

și să asasineze civilii înrudiți
cu teroriștii suspecți.

The definition for “carry out” is “ to perform or complete a job or activity; to
fulfill”14, therefore I chose to adapt this phrasal verb into Roman ian as “a comite”, which
is defined as “(d e obicei cu privi re la o faptă rea, o greșeală) a face, a săvîrși, a făptui”
(DEX, 2016). Giving the context, this was the most appropriate equivalent.

EN RO
And to top it off , he believes America is weak. Și picătura care a umplut paharul,
crede că America este slăbită.

In this case, I chose to adapt this particular phrasal verb using the Romanian
idiom “picătura care a umplut paharul”, as I found it the most adequate to emphasise
Hillary Clinton’s words on Don ald Trump.

EN RO
And we need to break down the barriers that hold
America back ,

including barriers of bigotry and discrimination. Trebuie să doborâm barierele
care țin pe loc America ,

inclusiv cele ale bigotismului
și dicriminării.

In the example ab ove, the phrasal verb “to hold back”, which means “ to stop
something from happening or advancing, or to keep someone from doing something ”15,
was adapted into Romanian as “ a ține pe loc”.

EN RO
He has no sense of what it takes to deal with multiple
count ries with competing interests

and reaching a solution that everyone can get
behind. Nu are idee ce înseamnă să menții relații
cu țări cu interese contrare

sau să găsești o soluție agreată
de toată lumea.

The definition given in Cambridge Dictionary for “to get behind something or
somebody” is “ to support somebody or something ”16, but giving the context and the

14 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/carry -out-somethin g

15 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/hold -back-something

constraints imposed by subtitling, I found that the adequate solution in translating this
particular phrasal verb was to use the modulation proced ure.

2.3 Lexical and semantic features
The aim of this subchapter is to analyze the lexical and semantic features such as
specialized terms, metaphors and acronyms used by Hillary Clinton in her speech about
National Security, as well as the possible translat ions for each and every one of them.

2.3.1 Specialized terms

In her speech, Hillary Clinton made use of specialized terms from the field of
politics and diplomacy. In the following part, I will make a thorough analysis of these
terms as well as give their tran slations in the TL.

EN RO
Unlike him, I have some experience with the tough
calls

and the hard work of statecraft . Spre deosebire de el, am experiență
în luarea deciziilor grele

și munca grea pe care o implică
guvernarea statului.

The political term “statecraft” is defined as “ the skill of governing a country ”17,
therefore the closest equivalent I could find in Roma nian was “guvernarea statului”.

EN RO
Take the nuclear agreement with Iran.

When President Obama took office,

Iran was racing toward a nucl ear bomb.

Some called for military action.

But that could have ignited a broader war that could
have mired ou r troops

in another Middle Eastern conflict.
President Obama chose a different path.
Luați ca exemplu tratatul nuclear cu Iranul

Când și -a preluat mandatul
Președintele Obama,

Iranul se îndrepta către o bombă nucleară.

Unele voci spuneau că este nevoie
de acțiune militară.

Dar aceasta ar fi iscat un război mai extins
ce ne -ar fi prins forțele armate

într-un alt conflict din Orientul Mijlociu.

Președintele Obama a ales o altă cale.

16 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/get -behind -sb-sth

17 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/statecraft

And I got to work leading the effort to impose
crippling global sanctions.
Iar eu am condus eforturile de
impunere a sancțiunilor internaționale dure.

The term “global sanction”, commonly referred to as “international sanction” is a
coercive measure imposed on states or individuals that represent a threat to international
peace and security18, therefore the equivalent in Romania is “sancțiuni internaționale”.19
As for the other element of the noun phrase “crippling” which means “ causing serious
injuries or harm ”, I used the modulation procedure as the most adequate solution.

EN RO
That’s how I could work with Russia to conclude the
New START treaty

to reduce nuclear stockpiles,

and with China to increase pressure on North Korea .

It’s how our diplomats negotiated the landmark
agreement

on climate change,

which Trump now wants to rip up. Așa aș aborda discuțiile cu Rusia
pentru a încheia noul Tratat START

care vizează reducerea arsenalelor nucleare

și cu China pentru a amplifica presiunea
asupra Coreei de Nord.

Așa au negociat diplomații noștri
convenția -cadru

în privința schimbărilor climatice

la care Trump vrea să renunțe.

The landmark agreement on climate change also known as the Paris Agreement
was adopted at the United Nations conference in December 2015, in order to reduce
green house gas emissions.20I chose to opt for the recogn ized translation in Romanian of
this term which is “convenția -cadru”.21

EN RO
Donald doesn’t see the complexity.

He wants to start a trade war with China.

And I understand a lot of Americans have concerns
about our trade agreements Donald nu vede
cât de complexă este situația

El vrea să declanșeze
un război comercial cu China.

Înțeleg că mulți americani sunt îngrijorați
de acordurile noastre comerciale.

18
http://www.exteriores.gob.es/Portal/en/PoliticaExteriorCooperacion/GlobalizacionOportunidadesRiesgos/Pagin
as/SancionesInternacionales.aspx

19 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/crippling

20 https://unfccc.int /news/landmark -climate -change -agreement -to-enter-into-force

21 https://eur -lex.europa.eu/content/paris -agreement/paris -agreement.html?locale=ro

I do too.

But a trade war is something very different.
Și eu sunt.

Însa un război comercial este cu totul
și cu totul altceva.

A trade war is “ a situation in which two or more countries raise import taxes and
quotas (= limits on numbers of goods) to try to protect their own economies ”.22 I chose
to translate this term using its equivalent in Roma nian “război comercial”.

EN RO
I wrestled with the Chinese over a climate deal in
Copenhagen,

brokered a ceasefire between Israel and
Hamas[…] M-am luptat cu China pentru un act în privința
schimbărilor climatice în Copenhaga

am negociat un armistițiu
intre Israel și Hamas[…]

The Cambridge Dictionary gives the following definition for the term ceasefire: “ an
agreement, usually between two armies, to stop fighting in order to allow discussions
about peace ”.23 I translated it using the equivalent in Roma nian “armistițiu” defined as
“acord între state beligerante în vederea încetării tem porare a operațiunilor militare”.24

2.3.2 Acronyms

In this part I will analyze the acronyms used in Hillary’s Clinton speech, as well
their translation in Romanian.

EN RO
I’ve offered clear strategies for how to defeat ISIS,

strengthen our alliances,

and make sure Iran never gets a nuclear weapon. Am oferit strategii clare
pentru înfrângerea ISIS,

consolidarea alianțelor noastre,

asigurându -mă că Iran nu va avea
în posesi e arme nucleare.

In her speech, Hillary Clinton uttered “ISIS” thirteen times. ISIS refers to the
jihadist militant group, which extensively means “ The Islamic State of Iraq and al -Sham ”.

22 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/trade -war

23 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/eng lish/ceasefire

24 https://dexonline.ro/definitie/armisti%C8%9Biu

Therefore, people started to name this particular group ISIS , shor t for the “Islamic State
of Iraq and Syria ”, yet some politicians such as Barack Obama, use the acronym ISIL
which means “ Islam ic State of Iraq and the Levant”.25 However, I chose to keep at such
this acronym, as it is integrated in the international lexico n and is more popular among
the majority of people.

EN RO
That’s why ,

it is no small passing thing when he talks about
leaving NATO ,

or says he’ll stay neutral on Israel’s security. De aceea

nu trebuie ignorat
când vorbește despre părăsirea NATO ,

sau de neutralitatea
în privința securității Israelului .

Uttered in four instances by Hillary Clinton in her speech, NATO stands for “ North
Atlantic Treaty Organization ” or “ Organizația Tratatului Atlanticului de Nord ” in Romania.
However, the acronym NAT O was transferred into Romanian at such, as seen in the
example above.

EN RO
That’s how I could work with Russia to conclude the
New START treaty

to reduce nuclear stockpiles,

and with China to increase pressure on North Korea. Așa aș aborda discuțiil e cu Rusia
pentru a încheia noul Tratat START

care vizează reducerea arsenalelor nucleare

și cu China pentru a amplifica presiunea
asupra Coreei de Nord.

The New START treaty stands for “Strategic Arms Reduction”, a treaty between
Russia and the United States which aims at reducing nuclear arms. The acronym was kept
at such in Romanian, as it is recognized internationally. Additionally, I chose to translate
the following part marked in bold by using the paraphrase procedure in order to explain
to the au dience what the treaty scope is.

EN RO
During the raid to kill bin Laden,

when every second counted,

our SEALs took the time to move the women and
children in the compound În timpul atacului
pentru uciderea lui Bin Laden,

când fiecare sec undă conta,

trupele noastre speciale și-au făcut timp
să mute copiii și femeile din tabără

25 https://www.britannica.com/story/is -it-isis-or-isil

to safety.
ca să fie în siguranță.
Most of all,

the lives of those brave SEALs

and helicopter pilots hung in the balance. Și mai presus de orice,

viețile curajoșilor soldați SEAL
și ale piloților de elicopter

atârnau de un fir de păr.

SEALs is the most elite unit of America's Naval Sp ecial Warfare Development
Group which stands for “Sea, Air and Land” (Recknagel, 2011). In the first example I
chose to opt for “trupe sp eciale” the closest equivalent in Romanian of the acronym.
However, in the second example I chose to transfer it from English, as it is recognized
internationally.

2.3.3 Metaphors

Metaphors are a figure of speech in which a thing or a situation is expressed in
terms of something else. Commonly used in poetry and music, metaphors are also used in
everyday language, which appear in many forms such as similes and proverbs (Wilkinson,
2002).
Metaphors are also a rhetoric tool used by many politicians in political d iscourses
as a way of persuading the audience, but also to make their point clear and heard
(Vestermark, 2007: 1).
According to Peter Newmark, metaphors are taxonomically comprised of dead,
cliché, stock, adapted and original metaphors. Dead metaphors rela te to universal terms
and are used to define and clarify concepts. These are the easiest to translate , supporting
the literal translation as well. Newmark mentions that clichés should be omitted by
translators or to be rendered in the target language by me ans of a cultural equivalent.
Stock metaphors have an emotional impact on the audience. For this reason, they are the
trickiest to translate; the most efficient procedure is to reproduce the same image in the
TL. Adapted metaphors should be rendered in the TL by another equivalent adapted
metaphor, where possible, otherwise a literal translation would be viewed as
incomprehensible. Original metaphors are created by the writer in the TL and therefore
they should be translated by means of a literal translatio n (Newmark, 1988: 106 -113)

Nevertheless, in principle, unless a literal translation 'works' or is mandatory, the
translation of any metaphor is the epitome of all translation, in that it always offers
choices in the direction either of sense or of an imag e, or a modification of one, or

a combination of both, as I have shown, and depending, as always, on the
contextual factors, not least on the importance of the metaphor within the text.
(idem: 113)

According to Charteris -Black, personification is the most preferred metaphor type
in political speeches as they activate emotions originating in ideologies about nations or
classes (Charteris -Black, 2005: 204). Hillary Clinton made use of different personifications
in delivering her speech, which will be analyzed in the following part alongside their
translation in the TL.

EN RO
We are not a country that cowers behind walls.

We lead with purpose, and we prevail. Nu suntem o țară care
să se ascundă după ziduri!

Conducem cu un scop și triumfăm.

The verb “to cower” is defined as “ to lower your head or body in fear, often while
moving backwards ”;26 therefore I chose to translate this metaphor by using the
modulation procedure in translating the verb and the literal translation for the other
elements.

EN RO
It’s clear he doesn’t have a clue what he’s talking
about.

So we can’t be certain which of these things he
would do.

But we can be certain that he’s capa ble of doing any
or all of them…

letting ISIS run wild ,
launching a nuclear attack,

starting a ground war. Este evident că nu are
nici cea mai mică idee ce spune

Așadar, nu putem fi siguri care
dintre aceste idei va fi pusă în practică.

Dar putem fi siguri că este capabil
să le facă pe toate…

să lase ISIS să facă ce vrea
să lanseze un atac nuclear,

să dec lanșeze un război terestru.

In the example above , Hillary Clinton said that Donald Trump may do certain
things, including “letting ISIS run wild”, as Hillary put it. The Cambridge Dictionary defines
“to run wild” as the situation in which a person, espec ially a child, behaves in his/her own
way without being controlled by anyone.27 I found that the efficient method was to
simplify the personification, adapting it in the TL as “să lase ISIS să facă ce vrea”.

EN RO

26 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/cower

27 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/en glish/run -wild

And through all his loose talk, there’s o ne constant
theme:

demonizing Muslims and playing right into the
hands of ISIS’. Și printre vorbele sale goale,
există o temă constantă:

să demonizeze musulmanii
și să facă jocurile ISIS.

According to the Collins English Dictionary, if you play into so meone’s hands, it
means that “ you do something which they want you to do and which places you in their
power”.28 I translated this metaphor by finding an equivalent in the TL .

2.3.4 Idioms

Idioms are expressions which have a stand -alone meaning different than t heir
individual elements (McCarthy & O’Dell, 2010: 6). According to Peter Newmark, idioms or
other idiomatic expressions are the trickiest to translate. For this reason, a literal
translation would seem inconsistent (Newmark, 1988: 32).
In the following pa rt, I will analyze the idioms used by Hillary Clinton in her speech
that proved to be difficult to translate in the target language.

EN RO
This is not someone who should ever have the
nuclear codes,

because it’s not hard to imagine Donald Trump
leading us into a war

just because somebody got under his very thin
skin. Nu este o persoană căreia
să i se încredințeze codurile nucleare,

fiindcă Donald Trump
ar putea duce țara la război,

doar pentru că cineva l -a enervat.

In English, the idiom “to get you get under someone’s skin ” means that you are “causing
feelings of anger and displeasure” .29 However, if we were to translate it into Romanian
using the literal procedure, we would get quite the opposite meaning, as “a intra pe sub
pielea cumva” means “ a câștiga bunăvoința c uiva prin tot felul de mijloace”.30 Therefore,
the optimum solution was to adapt the idiomatic expression.

EN RO
Diplomacy is often the only way to avoid a conflict
Diplomația este, adesea, calea prin care
se poate evita un conflict

28 https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/to -play-into-someones -hands

29 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/get -under -sb-s-skin

30 https://dexonline.ro/definitie/a%20intra%20sub%20pielea%20cuiva

that could end up exacting a much greater cost.

It takes patience, p ersisten ce and an eye on the
long game ,

but it’s worth it.
care ar putea sfârși prin a avea
costuri mari.

Este nevoie de răbdare, persistență
și atenție pe termen lung ,

dar merită.
There is not a definition for the expression “an eye on the long game”. But giving
the context in which it appeared, I decided upon adapting it in the TL as “atenție pe
termen lung”.

EN RO
Now I’ve gone toe -to-toe with Russia and China,

and many other di fferent leaders around the world. Am avut dispute cu China și Rusia,

și cu mulți alți lideri din
întreaga lume.

In the example above, “to go toe -to-toe with someone” means “to have a fight or
confrontation”.31 Therefore, the most adequate solution in tra nslating this idiom was to
find an equivalent in the TL.

2.4 Syntactic features

Given that subtitling is considered a type of discourse which presents a series of
lexical and syntactic features, subtitles follow the same rules. That is why, not many
changes occur at the syntax level, as they should follow the speech pattern of the speaker
(Diaz Cintas, 2008: 99 -100). However, Hillary Clinton in delivering her speech employed
some rhetorical devices such as repetitions, rhetorical questions and contrasts which will
be analyz ed further on.

2.4.1 Repetitions

Repetition is often used as a rhetorical device by many politicians to emphasise
their ideas and persuade the audience to willingly accept these ideas as their own (David,
2014: 167).

31 https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/toe -to-toe

Anaphora is a type of repeti tion which consists in repeating a word or a phrase at
the beginning of successive sentences.32 Hillary Clinton used this type of rhetorical device
in delivering her speech not only for emphasising ideas, but also to engage the audience
and create emotions as seen in the example below.
EN RO
We need to take out their strongholds in Iraq and
Syria

by intensifying the air campaign and stepping up our
support

for Arab and Kurdish forces on the ground.

We need to keep pursuing diplomacy to end Syria’s
civil war

and close Iraq’s sectarian divide,

because those conflicts are keeping ISIS alive.

We need to lash up with our allies,

and ensure our intelligence services are working
hand-in-hand

to dismantle the global network that supplies money,
arms, prop aganda and fighters to the terrorists.

We need to win the battle in cyberspace. Trebuie să le înlăturăm fortărețele
din Irak și Siria

prin intensificarea campaniei aeriene
și consolidarea suportului nostru

pentru forțele terestre
arabe și kurde.

Treb uie să folosim diplomația
pentru a pune capăt războiul civil din Siria

și conflictelor dintre
sectele religioase din Iran,

întrucât aceste conflicte
mențin ISIS în putere.

Trebuie să ne alăturăm aliaților nostril

să ne asigurăm că
serviciile noastre de informații colaborează

pentru a demonta rețeaua globală
care furnizează bani, arme, propagandă și luptători
teroriștilor.

Trebuie să câștigăm lupta
din spațiul cibernetic.

Hillary Clinton repeated consecutively the same structure “we need to” in four
instances to emphasise her ideas. Therefore, I chose to keep the same structure in the TL
as to maintain the same effect em ployed in the SL.
Another rhetorical device used by Hillary Clinton is the rule of three. Throughout
time, the number three has prove d to be of real importance in many fields. It is the
shortest and simplest number needed to make a pattern, a technique used even by the
most powerful politicians in history aiming at persuading the audience. The rule of three
is effective because it is sh ort and easy to memorise.33
Hillary Clinton herself used the rule of three technique throughout her speech, which she
often combined it with repetition and enumeration as seen in the examples below.

32 https://writingexplained.org/grammar -dictionary/anaphora

33 https://rule -of-three.co.uk/what -is-the-rule-of-three-copywriting/

EN RO
He is not just unprepared,

he is temperamentally unfit to hold an office

that requires knowledge, stability and immense
responsibility. Nu numai că nu este nepregătit,

nu este apt pentru a duce la capăt un mandat

ce impune nevoia de cunoștințe,
stabilitate și o imensă responsabilitate .

In the ex ample above, Hillary Clinton is talking about Trump, convincing the
audience tha t he is not a suitable candidate for becoming President of the U.S by
enumerating the three important traits needed for “holding an office”. Therefore, I chose
to maintain the sa me word order in the TL to keep the same effect presented in the SL.

2.4.2 Rhetorical questions

Rhetorical questions are also rhetorical devices used in political speeches, in which
the speaker asks a question whose answer is implied and obvious.34 Hillary Clin ton herself
used this technique several times in her speech, a technique which helped her to catch
the attention of the audience and consequently, to persuade t hem to think in a particular
way. She also used rhetorical questions to bring the audience by he r side, addressing
questions in which Donald Trump was the main subject. In the following part, I will
analyze the rhetorical questions used by Hillary Clinton in her speech alongside their
translation into Romanian.

EN RO
Donald Trump says we shouldn’t have done the deal.

We should have walked away.

But that would have meant no more global sanctions,

and Iran resuming their nuclear program and the
world blaming us.

So then what? War? Telling the world, good
luck, you deal with Iran?

Of course Tr ump doesn’t have answers to those
questions. Donald Trump spune că nu ar fi trebuit
să încheiem acest acord,

că ar fi trebuit
să ieșim din negocieri.

Dar aceasta ar fi însemnat
eliminarea sancțiunilor globale,

Iranul și -ar fi reluat programul nuclear,
iar lumea ar fi dat vina pe noi.

Iar apoi ce ar fi urmat? Război?
Să spunem lumii întregi mult noroc,
ocupați -vă voi de Iran?

Desigur, Trump nu are răspunsuri
la aceste întrebări .

34 http://www.americanrhetoric.com/figures/rhetoricalquestion.htm

In the example above, Hillary Clinton engages the audience by addressing t hree
consecutive rhetorical questions, which were translated literally to maintain the same
effect in the TL.

EN RO
Every President faces hard choices every day,

with imperfect information and conflicting
imperatives.

That’s the job.

A revolution threa tens to topple a government in a
key region,

an adversary reaches ou t for the first time in years .

What do you do? Fiecare președinte se confruntă
cu alegeri dificile în fiecare zi,

cu informații imperfecte
și principii contradictorii.

În asta cons tă această funcție.

O revoluție amenință cu înlăturarea
guvernului dintr -o regiune cheie,

un adversar care are o atitudine conciliantă
pentru prima dată în ani de zile.

Ce faci, atunci?

In the example above, Hillary Clinton addresses the rhetorical questions indirectly
to Donald Trump. Her aim is to persuade the audience to believe that Donald Trump is
not a suitable candidate for becoming President of the U.S , by giving out an e xample in
which Trump would fail.

2.4.3 Anastrophes

Anastrophe is a literary device, also used as a rhetorical device in political
speeches in which the word order (syntax) is changed in order t o obtain an effect of
emphasis.35

EN RO
And like many across our country and around the
world,

I believe the person the Republicans have nominated
for President

cannot do the job. Și precum multe persoane din țară și lume,

Consider că persoana
pe care Republicanii au nominalizat -o

nu este potrivită.

35 https://mannerofspeaking.org/2016/09/01/rhetorical -devices -anastrophe/

In the example above, Hillary Clinton wanted to point out and emphasise to the
audience that not only she believed that Donald Trump was not an adequate p erson for
becoming President, but also other people from the country and around the world. In
order to maintain the same effect as in the SL, this part was translated using the literal
translation.

2.4.4 Contrastive pairs

Contrasts or antithesis are used to differentiate two ideas or, in the case of Hillary
Clinton ’s speech, to point out differences betw een two pers ons (Kulo, 2009: 7).
In her speech, Hillary Clinton used several contrastive pairs in order to emphasise
the differen ce between her ideas and Trump ’s and, in some cases, between herself and
Donald Trump. These will be analy zed further on, alongside their translation in Romanian.

EN RO
It’s a choice between a fearful America that’s less
secure

and less engaged with the world,

and a strong, confident America

that leads to keep our country safe and our economy
growing. Alegem între o America temătoare,
mai nesigură

și mai detașată de restul lumii

și o America puternică, încrezătoare

și lider în protejarea țării
și în creșterea economiei noastre.

In the example above, Hillary Clinton puts in contrasts two different visions of
America. The first one, which is insecure, is represented by Donald Trump, whereas the
latter, which is confident, is represented by Hillary Clinton. Through this r hetorical device,
Hillary wants to persuade the audience that, again, Donald Trump is not a suitable
candidate for becoming President of the U.S.

Conclusion

References
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