D – 1Fundamentals of Motivation and Motivational Techniques [630809]

D – 1Fundamentals of Motivation and Motivational Techniques
Motivating another person to accomplish a given task is a challenge no matter what your occupation.
Motivating a person in the Army to accomplish a mission is particularly challenging when the task is
physically hazardous or especially disagreeable. Getting soldiers to move forward under intense fire and to
risk their lives so that a unit may succeed is important for leaders. Leaders must help soldiers overcome
their fears and instill in them the will to succeed. Motivating soldiers requires leaders to be especially
proficient in the competencies of communications, supervision, teaching and counseling, soldier team
development and decision making.
Motivation can be defined as the cause of action. Motivation energizes human behavior. It causes a
person to act. Motivation often explains why a person performs at a particular level. People can be
motivated to do just about anything and conversely , they can be motivated to do absolutely nothing.
Methods of Motivation
In a previous course, you were introduced to five methods of motivating subordinates. Leaders can
motivate soldiers by:
1. Serving as an ethical standard bearers . As a leader, you are an ethical standard bearer.
Soldiers perform better if they have confidence in their leaders and in themselves. Your soldiers need you to
be the example against which they can compare their own behavior and abilities. They want to depend on
you to provide the moral force which the values of our society demand. They want you to be good at your
job, but they also want you to be decent and honorable. If soldiers are confident in you, they will develop
the self -discipline and the will to fight courageously and do t he right thing, regardless of danger.
2. Developing cohesive soldiers teams. You have undoubtedly noticed that when you are in a group
you will attempt things that you would otherwise not attempt. The strength that comes from a cohesive
group is a powerful motivator. Caring for your soldiers and working hard to make soldiering meaningful will
assist in the development of cohesive soldier teams. It takes a lot of work to properly teach, coach,
counsel, and train your soldiers but this creates bonds that lead to cohesion, trust and mutual respect.
Studies have been conducted of individual acts of bravery and heroism. Soldiers typically do not perform
great acts of heroism for the nation. They perform these acts to keep themselves and other soldiers alive.
A soldier in a cohesive team is confident in their peers, their leaders, their equipment, and their training. By
developing cohesive teams, you plant the seeds of motivation.
3. Rewarding and punishing soldiers . Rewards and punishment are often referred to as the
consequence of an action. The consequences of an individual's actions can become an effective
motivational tool. The rewards or punishment a soldier receives or expects to receive can be silent tools of
motivation.
a. Rewards : We use the term rewards as a general expression of reinforcers of positive behavior.
A reward is designed to promote desired behavior. A well developed system of rewards which is
understood by soldiers will affect performance. Subordinates become self -starters by attempting to achieve
or earn rewards. Napoleon marveled at the motivational power of a small piece of ribbon (a decoration). He
once said that if he had enough ribbon, he could conquer the world. When using rewards you must ensure
that they are fairly and equitably distributed. If not, their value as a motivator will be diminished and they
can ultimately become counterproductive. As a leader you must be aware of positive ways that you can use
rewards as motivational tools.
Some of the too ls you can use to reward your soldiers include:
– Set the example in terms of expected behavior. It is a lot easier to tell a soldier to do
something that you can and will do that it is to tell him/her to do something that you can’t or won’t do.
Leaders have to be credible and competent. Soldiers must have the confidence that their leaders know that

D – 2they are telling them to do. Your soldiers need you to be the example to which they can compare their own
behavior.
– Establish clear goals and objectives and publish them. Make sure that everyone knows what
you are trying to do and that the objectives are achievable.
– Obtain recommendations from every leader in the chain on rewards, awards and schooling.
This means identifying those who deserve either rewards, awards or schooling. It also means that the
leader either approves the reward, award or schooling or that he/she exercises a degree of control over each.
– Use the established awards system to the maximum. Spend some of your
in-processing time familiarizing yourself with the award policy of your unit. Find out who is eligible for what
type of award. Ensure you check the policy for safety, driver, and mechanic awards as well. Find out what
type of unit awards are available. There are Army programs for best maintenance, best supply, and best
dining facility. Find out the nomination process.
– Create unit level certificates or awards for individuals and units. Have the artist in your platoon
or section design a certificate for your unit such as a "broken wrench" maintenance award or the "crushed
soda can" area police award.
– Reward the desired behavior of an individual or group promptly. For the reward to have its
maximum value, present the soldier with the reward as quickly as possible to reinforce the desired behavior.
– Present awards at a retreat, parade, or some other appropriate unit ceremony. This makes
the soldier receiving the award feel special. He/she is getting public recognition for doing something special.
This helps motivate the soldier as well as the unit. However, waiting a month for an award ceremony may
diminish the effect of the award.
– Give verbal praise liberally. Everyone likes to be told that they're doing a good job. Verbal
praise does not cost anything and has a tremendously positive impact on an individual or a group.
– Develop awards and ways of recognizing the majority of your soldiers who consistently meet
or exceed the standard.
– Promote those who work hard, achieve standards and influenc e others to achieve unit
standards. The consistently high performing soldier is a positive role model. By promoting this soldier first,
you send a silent message to the other members of your unit. By virtue of his or her performance, they
deserve recognition for their efforts.
Each of the tools above has the potential to become a motivator. A decoration, a medal, a badge, a
certificate, or a letter are small tangible objects, but they can mean a great deal to a soldier. Rewards are
visible evidence to the soldier that their leader, their unit, and their country appreciate their courage or hard
work. Well chosen rewards normally increase a soldier's motivation to work for more recognition.
b. Punishment : As a leader, you must correct a soldier who does not perform to standard. If a
soldier does not try, intentionally fails to meet your standard, or fails to follow your guidance, that behavior
must not be allowed to go unchecked. Punishment is designed to reduce undesired behavior and prevent its
recurrence. Leaders punish soldiers in an attempt to change behavior. It also shows others what they can
expect if they choose to perform in a similar manner. Seeing what happens to a person who is unwilling or
unmotivated to meet standards can have the same influence on behavior as firsthand experience. Although
this is one of the least desirable aspects of leadership, a leader has the responsibility to counsel and
punish. The leader has a number of tools available to motivate soldiers who do not perform to standard.
These tools are often referred to as the coercive tools of motivation. It is important to remember that the
type of punishment used should fit the situation. Examples of punishment or coercive tools of motivation
include the following:
– Give warnings about inappropriate behavior.
– Use verbal and written reprimands when appropriate.
– Conduct reprimands, counseling and corrective action as privately and as quickly
as possible after an offense.
– Direct the punishment or counseling at the behavior, not the subordinate.
– The subordinate must know the desired behavior and be able to perform it to standard.

D – 3When you use punishment tools you must:
– Let the soldiers know you are upset about the behavior and not ab out them.
– Let the soldiers know you care about them as people but expect more from them as soldiers.
– Do not punish soldiers who are unable to perform a task. Punish those unwilling or unmotivated
to succeed.
– Never lose control of your temp er.
– Do not hold a grudge after punishment is over.
c. Group rewards and punishments . While generally the same principles of reward and punishment
apply in both individual and group cases, the latter is vastly more complicated because of the greater
number of personalities involved, and because of their interactions–many of which the leader may or may
not be aware. The basic problem is that group solutions not only apply to the group collectively, but to each
individual in the group. It is often difficult for even the experienced leader to predict the important effects of
rewards and punishments that are applied to the group. A group reward will be regarded differently by the
various members. It is also unlikely that all group members performed or contributed equally hence, the
same reward may be differentially rewarding.
Nevertheless, the group is a powerful influence of behavior. When the leader can inform the group in
advance about the adverse consequence of their undesirable behavior, they may exert the internal pressure
necessary to avoid the adversity and the results can be beneficial. When the consequence is reward or
punishment for individuals or subgroups within a larger body, the leader must be sensitive to the resultant
perceptions of equity, fairness, and timeliness by group members who have performed as expected, as well
as those who did not. In this situation, the leader should also keep in mind that other organization members
who were not involved in the performance may form their own perceptions of how the reward or punishment
act was carried out.
Group rewards and punishments can be effective, especially when time is an issue. By using the group
approaches, the leader must be willing to sacrifice the desirability and greater precision of the individual
solution.
4. Recognizing and meeting soldier needs . All people have needs. Each of us needs food, water
and shelter. Beyond these we need to feel secure in our home and work place. We need to belong to and
be accepted by a group. We need to feel that we make a difference. Social scientists have developed
several motivational theories based on the concept of needs. The underlying concept of all need theories of
motivation is that an unsatisfied need creates a state of internal wanting or disequilibrium. In order to
restore equilibrium, we are energized to reduce the need. In simple terms, a person will be motivated to do
something which he or she perceives will satisfy a need or reduce the tension of an unpleasant situation.
5. Serving as, and developing, positive role models . Role models within a unit can also be used
as motivators. You know that soldiers learn through observation and imitation. We also know that a
soldier's level of commitment increases when he or she recognizes that the leaders are committed to the
unit and its goals. Each member of your unit is a role model and as such has the potential to contribute to
or detract from individual motivation. Positive role models can be:
a. Formal leaders . Members of the formal chain of command are obviously role models. The
actions of the officers and noncommissioned officers ( NCOs ) and the consequences of those actions are
observed by the members of the unit. Leaders are constantly under the scrutiny of their subordinates.
Officers and NCOs who demonstrate initiative, take responsibility for their actions, and develop well -trained,
cohesive units, are positive role models. Soldiers will emulate their leaders and ultimately improve their own
performance. When this occurs, role modeling is a positive motivator.
b. Informal leaders . Within each organization, leaders who are not part of the chain of command
emerge. An informal leader is an individual whom peers look to for direction. He or she is both trusted and
respected. Because the informal leader exercises a great deal of control and influence within an

D – 4organization, it is essential that leaders identify the informal leaders as quickly as possible. Informal
leaders can be used as an excellent role model for their peers. By tailoring your motivational tools to the
informal leader, you can influence the actions of the unit. However, you must be careful not to overlook the
beliefs and values of the other members of the unit. If informal leaders have a negative impact on the
motivation of a unit, they must be dealt with quickly.
c. Successful soldiers . Each soldier is a unique individual. Leaders who know their soldiers can
increase an individual's motivation by selecting tasks which are realistic yet challenging. A soldier's
successful accomplishment of a task will be observed by others in the unit. Successful soldiers become
role models for others who have not reached that level of achievement. An accurate understanding of your
soldiers and their abilities is essential in developing successful soldiers.
Successful soldiers who become informal leaders are excellent role models. They have earned the trust
and respect of their fellow soldiers. Leaders influence the actions of their unit by developing informal leaders
who are positive role models. However, the leader must also be aware that an informal leader may also be a
poor role model. If the informal leader models inappropriate behavior he/she negatively influences your unit
and more importantly, your soldiers. When developing the informal leader, use caution. You don't want to
give the impression that you're giving preferential treatment to a specific individual.
SUMMARY. Motivation results in action. By serving as an eth ical standard bearer, building cohesive
soldier teams, properly using rewards and punishments, recognizing and satisfying individual needs, and by
serving as, and developing, positive role models, leaders motivate their subordinates to act in a way that
helps the unit.
We have just presented actions which the leader can take to motivate subordinates. But how do you
decide which is the best action to take? Knowing actions you can take to improve motivation is important,
but understanding the underlying motivation factors can help you to be an even more effective leader. The
reading above included a short discussion of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and other theorists such as
Alderfer and Herzberg (summaries below), and discussed motivation in terms of motivation being internal to
the individual or work environment. These theories are concerned with identifying what it is within an
individual or the work environment that energizes and sustains behavior. That is, what specific things
motivate people?

D – 5THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Section I : Needs Theories
Needs theories of motivation assume that all people share a common set of basic needs–internal states
of tension or discomfort that the individual is motivated to change . The needs theories of motivation are
considered to be the most popular of the motivation theories.
The underlying concept of all need approaches is that a need that is unsatisfied creates a state of
internal disequilibrium which is uncomfortable for the individual. In order to restore equilibrium, the individual
is “energized” to reduce the need. This approach assumes that human beings constantly seek a state of
equilibrium. When thirsty, one drinks to reduce the feeling of thirst. When dissatisfied with a job, we do
something to solve the problem. In motivation terms, the individual is motivated to engage in behaviors that
will satisfy a need and reduce associated tension.
A. MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
The best known of the need theories of motivation is Abraham H. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory.
Maslow’s theory is popular because of the optimistic picture of human nature that it presents. He originally
proposed his theory as a study of the ultimate human goals people seek. Maslow’s theory stresses two
basic premises:
1. Human beings are constantly in a state of “wanting.” Needs which are not satisfied are motivators.
Needs which have been satisfied can not be motivators. Humans rarely reach a state of complete
homeostasis or satisfaction. As soon as one desire is gratified, another surfaces to take its place. Maslow
believed that humans are always “wanting.”
2. Human needs are arranged in order of importance. Once a need is satisfied, another takes its place.
The needs range from fundamental animal needs (lower level) to the more advanced human needs that
represent the uniqueness of mankind (higher levels). They are represented in the chart below in ascending
order. Those at the bottom of the drawing must be satisfied before the higher-level needs can be satisfied.
a. Physiological needs are basic to the survival of the organism and include such things as food,
water, rest, shelter, and air. The physiological needs will dominate when they are unsatisfied. As a result,
no other need will serve as a basis for motivation until the physiological needs are met. For example,
Maslow stated, “a person who is lacking food, safety, love and esteem probably would hunger for food more
strongly than for anything else.”
b. Safety needs are concerned with providi ng a safe and secure environment, free from threats to
one’s existence. Safety needs also include areas such as protection from ill health, economic disaster,
physical harm and the unexpected. Safety needs may be manifested in the subordinate’s concern with job
security and benefits.
3. Social needs deal with the need for friendship, affection, and affiliation, and are sometimes referred
to as belongingness or need for love. It is at this point that the needs separate from the physical or quasi-
physical needs and where failure to satisfy the needs at this level can affect the individual’s mental health.
4. Esteem needs are concerned with the desire of individuals to have a stable, high evaluation of
themselves and to have respect from other people. Satisfaction of these needs leads to a feeling of self-
confidence and prestige.
5. Self-actualization needs refer to the desire to achieve self-fulfillment , to develop one’s
potential to the fullest, to become everything that one is capable of becoming, and to achieve fulfillment of
one’s life goals.

D – 6`
Higher Order Needs
Self
Actualization
Esteem Needs
Lower Order Needs Social Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
Maslow’s Five Levels of Needs
Maslow argues that needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance in which each lower level need
must be fulfilled to some degree of satisfaction before advancing to the next higher level need. Hence we
see that Maslow considers a lower level need as being the most potent motivator when it is not satisfied.
On the other hand, Maslow does not propose that a lower level need must be completely satisfied before the
next higher level need becomes important. In fact, Maslow said that “…most members of our society who
are normal are partially satisfied in all their basic needs…”
Maslow uses the concepts of deprivation and satisfaction to change his theory from one that merely
categorizes needs to one that tells how needs affect behavior. The deprivation/ satisfaction process deals
with the way in which needs are activated by the external environment to produce need-fulfilling behaviors.
The deprivation concept is used to explain the temporary dominance of a particular need level over others.
Maslow’s position is that environmental deprivation of lower level needs would lead to a domination of that
need level in the person’s day-to-day activities. For example, those who have been on a restricted diet know
the craving that follows notification that certain foods are now banned. The longer we go without satisfying
that need, the more it dominates every sensory attention. We may even notice pictures of the restricted
foods where we have never noticed them before. After that dominant need is finally satisfied, however, we no
longer pay particular attention to that food–another need is activated. So we have a continuous process
where each need level in turn becomes satisfied, and the next need level becomes dominant until all lower
level needs have been satisfied and we become primarily concerned with the need for self-actualization.
Maslow referred to lower order needs as “deficiency needs” and to higher order needs as “growth
needs.” The deficiency needs consist of physiological, safety, and social (love/ belongingness) needs. The
growth needs are esteem and self-actualization . The distinction between the deficiency needs and the
growth needs is key to Maslow’s theory. Deficiency needs motivate behavior only if they are in a state of
deprivation. In other words, the less you have, the more you want, and the more you will do for it. However,
once a deficiency need is satisfied, it loses its motivating force. People will go to great lengths to satisfy
thirst, but, once satisfied, water will probably not motivate behavior any longer (at least not
immediately). Growth needs, on the other hand, are those that continue to motivate behavior even when
whatever it is that satisfies the need is being received. For growth needs, the more you get, the more you
want, and the more you will do for it! Receiving recognition and praise from others usually increases the
motivational force of esteem needs.

D – 7

D – 8B. ALDERFER’S THEORY : EXISTENCE, RELATEDNESS, AND GROWTH
Research based on Maslow’s concept of needs demonstrated some problems with his hierarchy of
needs theory. Although findings appeared consistent in the very low levels and at high levels, conflicting
findings were reported in the areas of social, safety, and esteem. Primarily, there appeared to be a great
deal of overlap in these three levels. For this reason, Clayton P. Alderfer, another need theorist, modified
Maslow’s approach and developed what he calls Existence, Relatedness, and Growth (ERG) theory. The
major differences between the Maslow and Alderfer approaches center around three concepts : how needs
are categorized , the relationship of needs and levels, and what happens when a need is not satisfied.
To clear up the overlaps in Maslow’s hierarchy, Alderfer rearranged Maslow’s five levels into three
categories shown in the figure below. Alderfer proposed that security, social, and esteem (from others) are
a common type of need as they all involve some interpersonal relationship. He therefore combined these
into a single class of needs called “relatedness needs.” Self-esteem is based on internal cues of personal
achievement, independence, and goal achievement, and thus appears very close to self-actualization.
These two needs are combined into “growth needs” in ERG theory. Finally, those safety needs, which are
related to physical (as opposed to interpersonal) security, could be seen as strongly akin to physiological
needs. These two levels he combined into “existence needs.”
The second concept addressed differently in the two theories is the relatio nship between needs and
levels. Recall that Maslow suggests a strict hierarchy–all lower needs must be minimally satisfied before a
higher need can be operative. ERG theory, although hierarchical, does not presuppose a strict hierarchy.
Thus, in ERG theory, it is not contradictory that a person will deny himself basic needs in order to be
creative or to gain the esteem of others. Consider, for example, the inconsistency that the hunger striker
poses for a strict hierarchical approach.
The final diffe rence concerns the relationship of needs and dissatisfaction. Although Maslow and
Alderfer would agree that satisfaction at each need level leads to desire at the next higher one, they see a
difference in what happens to unsatisfied needs. In Maslow’s theory, an unsatisfied need provides
motivation. For example, to the extent that all lower level needs are satisfied and self-actualization is not,
people will be motivated to self-actualize. ERG theory provides a more complex view of this relationship. To
the extent that a need is not satisfied, it provides motivation. However, if the drive for that need is frustrated,
people may compensate by substituting fulfillment at the next lower need level. Thus, to the extent that
growth needs are desired and not satisfied, people may turn to relatedness needs as an alternative. Also,
to the extent that relatedness needs are unsatisfied, people will continue to seek relatedness, but may also
increase their desire for existence needs. Thus, according to Alderfer, an unsatisfied need does not
necessarily motivate only at that level, but may also be compensated for at a lower level.

D – 9This distinction is particularly important because the leader may compensate a subordinate by
concentrating on relatedness needs when growth needs cannot be met on the job. For instance,
sometimes organizations emphasize the “family” aspect of the organization or use slogans such as “We
take care of our own” as compensation for the lack of challenging jobs. This, in effect, emphasizes the
fulfillment of the need to feel wanted or secure to make up for the deficiency in a feeling of accomplishment
or achievement.
MASLOW ALDERFER
Comparison of Maslow and Alderfer’s Need CategoriesSELF-ACTUALIZATION
GROWTH
ESTEEM (SELF)
ESTEEM (OTHERS)
SOCIALRELATEDNESS
SECURITYSAFETY
EXISTENCE
PHYSIOLOGICAL

D – 10

D – 11C. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY:
Herzberg’s work centered on the job or work itself and what can be done with it to enhance individual
motivation. Basically Herzberg’s work looks at such issues surrounding restructuring a job to increase
subordinate performance. His studies deal with factors which are job satisfiers and how they differ from
factors which result in dissatisfaction. His work lead him to draw two main categories of factors:
1. Maintenance factors . There are factors/ conditions which serve primarily as dissatisfiers to workers
when they are not present. Herzberg called these factors the Maintenance Factors. The presence of
Maintenance Factors does not result in strong motivation. Rather, it is the absence of these factors which
leads to dissatisfaction. In other words, the factors are more potent as dissatisfiers when they are absent
than they are as motivators when they are present. Some of these factors include:
Policy and administration Salary
Technical supervision Job secur ity
Interpersonal relations with supervisor, peers Personal life
and subordinates Work conditions
Status
2. Motivational factors . Herzberg also identified a second set of factors that lead to high levels of
motivation and job satisfaction when they are present, but which do not prove to be highly dissatisfying if
they are absent. Herzberg named these factors Motivational Factors. The following factors are among
those he identified as Motivational Factors:
Achievement The work itself
Advancement Possibility of personal growth
Recognition Responsibility
Thus, Herzberg found that the opposite of job “satisfaction” is not “dissatisfaction” but “no
satisfaction.”
A comparison of Herzberg’s two factors is presented below:
FACTOR TYPE ABSENCE OF FACTOR PRESENCE OF FACTOR
Maintenance Factors Dissatisfaction No dissatisfaction
Motivational Factors No satisfaction Satisfaction
Herzberg’s work has led to interest in job enrichment that attempts to restructure the job to
increase the worker’s job satisfaction. Herzberg ‘s theory implies that if leaders focus on Maintenance
Factors, motivation will not occur. Motivation must be built into the job itself in order to improve motivation.

D – 12Below is a compariso n of the three motivational theories about which you read : Maslow, Alderfer, and
Herzberg. Similarities and differences between the three theories can easily be seen.
Self-Actualization
Growth
Motivational Factors
Self Esteem (Self)
Self-Esteem (Others)
Relatedness Social
Maintenance Factors
Security
Safety
ExistencePsychological
ALDERFER MASLOW HERZBERG
COMPARISON OF ALDERFER, MASLOW AND HERZBERG’S THEORIES

D – 13Section II : Process Theories
Other theories of mot ivation try to explain and describe the process of how behavior is energized,
directed, sustained, and finally stopped. Some of the theories of this type we are going to cover include the
following approaches : Equity Theory, Expectancy Theory, Goal Setting and Job Redesign. These theories
provide you with ways that you can look at your work environment and make appropriate behavioral and
organizational changes which may result in increased motivation on part of your subordinates. These
theories first attempt to define the major variables necessary for explaining choice (e.g., should I work hard),
effort (e.g., how much do I need to work), and persistence (e.g., how long do I have to keep this pace).
A. EQUITY THEORY
Have you ever been in a situation where, after you worked hard to obtain a reward, you were dissatisfied
with the reward you received? Perhaps the reward was one that was offered to other people also. Was it
received by someone you didn’t think devoted as much effort to earning it as you did? Perhaps your sense
of fairness was violated. Humans have a culturally induced belief that life owes them a "fair shake." This
desire for equity is based on the belief that there should be an equitable distribution of rewards based on
contributions. What we get out of our work should reflect what we put into it. Equity theory states that we
judge the equity of our outcomes by a process of comparison. We generally believe that there should be an
equitable distribution of rewards based on an individual’s input.
Equity theory removes needs from their social isolation and makes the assumption that people
engage in social comparison and are attentive to the process of exchanging their work contributions for
organizational rewards. Either the exchange is perceived as equitable, or some adjustment will have to be
made. As with need theories ( Maslow is an example), equity theory assumes that a feeling of inequity will
result in tension within the individual, and that the individual will be motivated to reduce that tension. The
behaviors associated with this tension reduction provide the key for a motivational strategy for leaders.
The clear implication of equity theory for leaders is that they must insure that there is a perception
of fairness associated with the organizational rewards system. If this sense of fairness does not exist, the
leader must take steps to establish it in the minds of the subordinates as well as within the objective reality
of the rewards system. (It is important to remember that the way people perceive things is more important
to subsequent behavior than is the objective reality–the way things actually are.)
Equity theory involves the inputs a person brings to the work environment and the outcomes the
person receives as a result of those inputs. It is the ratio of these inputs to outcomes in comparison with
the perception of this ratio for other persons which is of importance to the leader. People normally compare
themselves with others whom they see as being like themselves in terms of either similar past experience or
similar interests. For example, the “A” student probably compares himself/herself with other “A” students.
The comparison person usually is not the same in all situations. For example, we do not use the same
comparison person in academic, sports, and work situations. Also, the comparison person may be a
composite, or ideal, rather than an actual person.
The notation used to describe the comparison ratio is:
Own Outcomes compared with Other’s Outcomes
Own Inputs Other’s Inputs
Suppose you work hard and the organization promotes you ahead of schedule, while peers fail to
work hard and are not promoted early. The notation would be as follows:

D – 14Individual Others
High Outcome (Early promotion) compared with Low Outcome (No early promotion )
High Input (Work Hard ) Low Input (Not working hard )
Based on the ratios above, you would probably conclude that this is an equitable situation where
hard work resulted in your early promotion while your peers, who did not work hard, did not receive a reward.
If however, the situation presented by the following set of ratios occurred, you might not feel the same way:
Own Others
High Outcomes compared with High Outcomes
High Inputs Low Inputs
In the second example, where peers receive the same outcome without contributing the same
degree of inputs, you would probably find inequity existing and would probably be disturbed and frustrated.
As you can conclude, inequity has two aspects. First, people feel underrewarded when they receive fewer
outcomes than they think they deserve. Second, people feel overrewarded when they receive more in
outcomes than they feel they deserve. Thus, the three conditions which can result under equity theory are
equity, under-reward, and over-reward.
How does the equity theory relate to motivation? As long as a feeling of equity exists, individuals
will continue to operate as they have been doing. A feeling of over reward usually is not a problem for the
individual. However, if the individual feels under rewarded, you have a motivation problem. Additionally, the
theory suggests that the strength of the motivational force is directly proportional to the degree of inequity.
Equity Restoration Strategies
A person experiencing inequity uses one of six equity restoration strategies to return to a state of
equity.
1. The individual may alter inputs . The most direct motivational strategy is for the individual to change
their job input–to do more or less work–thereby restoring perceived equity. If, for instance, the imbalance is
the direction of underreward, reduction of input is a common strategy. When people feel overrewarded,
however, they tend to restore equity by means other than increasing input. People are reluctant to change
inputs which are directly related to self-esteem–few people, for instance, will de-value themselves to gain
more organizational rewards. For the leader, this means that providing more rewards may not increase
performance (input), but that providing too few may reduce it.
2. The individual may alter outcomes . Usually this involves trying to get more for what is being done,
rather than trying to get less for doing too little. People will try to maximize outcomes that are important to
them as well as resist changing outcomes which threaten self-esteem. Sometimes they may even resort to
unethical efforts to restore equity. For the leader, this reinforces the need to be sensitive to perceived
inequity, and to increase rewards when appropriate.
3. The individual may cognitively distort inputs and outcomes. Although it is difficult to distort objective
reality, people can and will distort the impact of different aspects of the real situation to resolve inequity. To
say to oneself, “That wasn’t very important anyway,” is one way to distort an outcome which you have
worked for but failed to receive. Again, cognitive changes that threaten self-esteem will be resisted. Also, it
is often easier to distort one’s perception of someone else’s inputs or outcomes than our own. The

D – 15individual may say, for example, “We may be getting the same pay, but the boss thinks more highly of me
than of him because I work harder.”
4. The individual may act on the comparison other . Simply, the individual may try to get the
comparison other to change either inputs or outcomes. We observe this happening with informal norms that
restrict production, or in situations where pressure is placed on a group member to decrease work inputs.
Comments such as, “What are you trying to do, make the rest of us look bad?” are powerful demotivators
which seek to restore equity.
5. The individual may change the comparison other. If people cannot resolve the inequity between
themselves and a reference other, they may simply change the reference point. People who have a
comparison other that they have been using for a long time, however, normally find it difficult to change the
object of comparison.
6. The individual may leave the field . Quitting is a realistic escape from a situation of inequity, and
absenteeism and turnover are prime indicators of perceived inequity. For people who have been with the
organization for a long time, quitting is usually a last-resort strategy.
Equity th eory predicts that one or more of the six steps discussed above will be taken as an
inequity resolution strategy by subordinates in organizations. Note that the only strategies with a direct
effect upon behavior changes are the alterations of one’s own inputs and quitting. All of the other strategies
may affect behavior indirectly, but generally restrict themselves to attitude changes or attempts to change
environment rather than performance. The most appropriate place for the leader to intervene, then, is where
inequity affects behavior. It is important for the leader to understand the vital role of perception in motivation.
A person’s expectancies, depend upon a person’s perceptions. The importance of perceptual differences
among workers with similar skill levels is made obvious by the expectancy theory. Different levels of
motivation among people with similar skills could be explained in terms of perceptual differences.
The major observation for the leader here is that several of the resolution s trategies are potentially
adverse for the organization. Therefore, the lesson of equity theory for the organizational leader is prevention
of perceived and actual inequity. The major underlying premise of equity theory is that the whole
comparison process is based on the perceived situation, which may or may not reflect reality. The leader
must be alert to perceived inputs by subordinates, as well as to the fairness of the outcomes provided for
those inputs. A knowledge of equity theory puts pressure on the leader to discriminate in allocating rewards
based on performance. Further, perceptions of inequity demand that the leader insure that the objective
reality of organizational reward systems is clear to all subordinates. Leaders should be able to analyze the
reward system from a subordinate’s viewpoint. In conclusion, equity theory tells us that organizational
rewards must depend on level of performance so that there is perceived equity (not necessarily equality).

D – 16B. EXPECTANCY THEORY
The antici pation of a reward or punishment also motivates people. This is called expectancy theory.
When a person expects an important reward, there is an increase in the intensity and persistence of
behavior directed toward that reward. The expectancy of a reward motivates behavior. The expectancy
theory is based on four assumptions:
1. Behavior is caused by a number of forces in the work environment and in the individual.
2. People consciously make decisions about their behavior.
3. People have differe nt types of needs, goals, and desires.
4. People will do things which will result in favorable outcomes and will avoid those behaviors which
lead to unfavorable outcomes.
A person who expects or anticipates a valued reward will work hard to achieve th e level of performance
necessary to receive the reward. However, performance is not simply working hard. In addition to effort, the
performance level of an individual is limited by innate skills and abilities. If this is the case, no matter how
motivated the subordinate is, it is unlikely that performance will exceed a certain ability level. Therefore, a
leader’s motivation strategy must include an assessment of the skills and abilities of subordinates. A third
variable that must be considered by the leader is the knowledge on the part of the subordinate of those job-
related behaviors which lead to a desired performance level. This is different from ability. Such behaviors
may include some work behaviors that the boss desires even though the subordinate may not see the
relation between these and objective performance outcomes. People may learn “what to do” through prior
learning in similar circumstances, through communication with more experienced workers, and through
experience on the job. They usually learn “how to do” from the boss. That is, they learn how the boss
wants the job performed. So, performance in work settings is a function of three interrelated variables :
subordinate skills, abilities, and personality; subordinate effort; and accuracy of subordinate perception of
how the boss wants the job done.
The expectancy theory is a complex motivational theory. However, it is an important theory as it
provides a great deal of insight into why some attempts to motivate soldiers are successful and others fail.
In order to better understand the theory, let's build a model of the theory.
Individual Behavior Performance Outcomes Reward Outcomes
Expectancy Theory Model
Individual behaviors are the actions a person performs. Performanc e outcomes are the results of the
individual's behavior or action. Some of these outcomes are desirable for the unit, others are not. Use the
following example to clarify the model.
Example : Everyone has to take the PT test twice a year. If we practice the three events regularly
(individual behaviors), the practice should result in a higher number of repetitions and faster time on
the two-mile run (performance outcomes). The high number of repetitions and faster time, however,
are valuable to us only because of the reward outcomes associated with them which is pass the PT
test or, in many cases, max the PT test.
Reward outcomes are either intrinsic or extrinsic. The satisfaction and sense of achievement from being
physically fit may be reward enough. This is an intrinsic reward because the behavior is important in and of
itself. If, on the other hand, the soldier strives to obtain a high score on the PT test just to earn the respect

D – 17of his peers or superiors, the reward is extrinsic. The reward is not tied to the behavior but rather to the
associated needs. Intrinsic rewards are controlled by the individual. Extrinsic rewards are generally
controlled by others.
Unfortunately, not all soldiers are intrinsically motivated to accomplish their assi gned tasks and
responsibilities. Leaders who understand what motivates their soldiers can use expectancy theory to
improve individual and unit performance. Let's take a more detailed look at our model.
How can the leader view the expectancy theory in t erms of value to the organization? We have three
sets of variables displayed in the model: individual behaviors, performance outcomes, and reward outcomes.
The relationship between the individual's behavior and the performance outcome is the expectancy or the
belief that a given behavior will result in the desired performance outcome. This belief is subjective
Example: The belief is that by practicing push-ups or sit-ups, you will achieve the performance
outcome (a high number of repetitions on the PT test) is the expectancy.
Leaders affect the expectancy or belief by teaching the subordinate behaviors that lead to the
performance outcome. If the subordinates really believe that the behaviors they learn or do lead to the
performance outcome, there is a high degree of expectancy.
Example : Let's look at our PT test example. A platoon leader starts a PT test training program
with the goal of having everyone in the platoon achieve a minimum of 60 push-ups, 60 sit-ups and
running 2 miles in 15 minutes. The behaviors are training in preparation for the PT test. The
performance outcomes of obtaining 60, 60 and a 15-minute two-mile time would have a high
expectancy for most soldiers since most of the soldiers probably believe that, with practice, they
can obtain these goals.
There is also a relationship between the performance outcome and the reward outcome. If the
subordinate knows that by achieving the desired level of performance, valued reward outcomes follow, we
can say that the act of achieving the performance outcome is instrumental in obtaining the reward
outcomes. We call this relationship the instrumentality relationship. You'll notice that the instrumentality is
a relationship between two outcomes–performance and reward. Leaders exercise the greatest degree of
control over these two outcomes. First, they are generally the ones who set the performance standard.
Second, they generally have full control over the reward for achieving the desired level of performance. In
order to motivate soldiers, the soldiers must be reasonably certain that the reward will be provided by the
leader. If the leader's track record of providing rewards is good-there will be a high instrumentality level. If
the leader's track record is poor-the instrumentality level is low and the subordinate is less likely to achieve
the performance outcome. In short, the instrumentality is dependent upon the leader's ability to ensure the
promised rewards are available from the organization.
Example: Our platoon leader wants to reward all those soldiers who achieve his goal of 60, 60 and 15
minutes. He/she decides to make PT optional for those who achieve his/her goal. Since the PT test
training sessions are the idea of the platoon leader and he/she runs the sessions, then the
instrumentality of this reward would be high. The soldiers can expect to achieve this reward if they
obtain the leader’s PT goals. If the PT test training program is a company level program and the platoon
leader promised the same reward while the company commander announces something different, then
the instrumentality of the platoon leader's reward would be low.
The final aspect of the basic expectancy theory addresses the importance of each outcome. The term
given to the importance that the subordinates place on each outcome is called valence.
In our example, the reward of being exempt from the PT sessions may have a high valence if the PT
sessions are held under unpleasant conditions or after duty hours. Also, if being recognized as an individual
excused from PT gives soldiers additional status or recognition from other soldiers, that may contribute to a

D – 18positive valence of the reward outcome. If, however, the soldiers who are excused from PT catch a lot of
flack from other soldiers, that reward outcome may have a negative valence. This would also be true if
attending the PT sessions is viewed by the soldiers as a fun, team building activity. In both of these cases,
the valence of the reward outcome would negate the purpose of the reward. The important point is that the
leader must carefully determine the valence of the reward outcome before linking the performance outcome
to the reward outcome.
The brief summary below presents an illustrative list of leader actions available to the orga nizational
leader to increase a subordinate’s expectancy, instrumentality and/or valence:

D – 191.To increase expectancy (Can I achieve the desired level of task performance?):
a. Clarify the relationship between individual behavior and performance o utcomes. Show the
subordinate what specific behavior will lead to the desired performance outcome.
b. Lower the performance outcome/standard, if consistent with organizational goals.
c. Conduct additional training for the subordinate.
d. Alter th e subordinate’s perception of his/her capabilities, (i.e., build the subordinate’s self-
confidence).
e. Restructure the work environment (resource availability, etc.).
2.To increase instrumentality (What is the probability that rewards will be receive d as a result of the
performance?):
a. Ensure that a well-defined performance outcome to reward outcome relationship is established,
effectively communicated, and understood by all. Make the reward contingent on the desired performance
outcome.
b. E nsure that equitable rewards are available, contingent on performance, and consistently
administered in a timely manner.
3.To increase valence (How highly do I value the reward outcomes?):
a. Determine what reward outcomes are valued (via surveys, dir ect observations, direct inquiries, need
theories, etc.) and provide those outcomes.
b. Clarify individual perceptions concerning the value of reaching particular performance outcome. The
individual may be overlooking some critical reward outcomes that are associated with the performance
outcome in question.
How can you use this theory? You, the leader, can motivate soldiers by influencing the expectancy, the
instrumentality, and the valence. You can make the expectancy high by making the desired performance
outcomes challenging but achievable. You can make the instrumentality high by promising only the rewards
that you can provide and by following through with the rewards you promise. Finally, you can make sure
that the awards are desirable. High expectancy, high instrumentality and high valence help motivate
soldiers to perform at a high level.

D – 20C. GOAL SETTING THEORY
Goal setting also affects motivation. Simply stated, goal setting is a process where leaders and their
subordinates jointly identify common objectives, define subordinates’ major areas of responsibility in terms
of the results expected, through mutual agreement obtain the subordinates’ personal commitment, and use
these objectives as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of each of its members.
This is one approach to motivation–establishing clear goals and objectives. The subordinates want to work
because they thoroughly understand what is expected of them and what they need to accomplish. The
subordinates feel a sense of ownership in the organization's goals. Goal setting is the theory behind the
current officer evaluation report support form.
The positive side of goal setting is that it places the leader's emphasis on results rather than handling
daily crises. Teamwork is improved because of more clearly defined goals, established priorities and
planned resource allocation. Goal setting provides for the possibility of clear standards for performance
evaluation and creates an environment for constructive and timely criticism, better communications and
greater subordinate development. Since subordinates know what is expected of them, know what
constitutes success, and agree to the objectives, they are motivated to accomplish their jobs.
The leader must be careful that the goal setting process fits the needs and realities of the organization.
Some leaders feel threatened by goal setting because they believe they lose control and authority when
subordinates are allowed to help in setting goals and action plans. The leader must ensure the goals are
achievable by subordinates but still challenging. Leaders must be careful not to place too much emphasis
on numerically measurable results. This creates a climate of leadership by statistics and involves an
extraordinary amount of paperwork. If used well, the positive aspects of goal setting outweigh the
limitations. The periodic review of the progress achieved by the leader and subordinate greatly assists in the
development of subordinates, improves communication, increases individual motivation and improves the
organization's planning capability.
How can you use this theory? Research indicates that goals which are both specific and difficult result
in consistently higher effort and performance than when the established goal focuses on “do your best” type
goals. Secondly, goal commitment is critical. Even though subordinate participation in developing the goals
is one way to increase commitment, goals set by the leader or jointly between the leader and subordinates
can both result in the accomplishment of the desired goal. Subordinates were as committed to goals
assigned to them as they were to the goals they helped establish when they viewed the leader as having the
legitimate authority, having confidence in the subordinates and having clear standards for the performance.
Regardless of the source of the goals, subordinates exerted the greatest effort when the goals were
accompanied by feedback–subordinates getting goals or feedback alone generally exerted less effort to
accomplish the goals.
In research dealing specifically with group performance, it is found that goal specificity is critical for
improving group performance. Leaders with the highest performing groups worked with followers to jointly
set goals and also gave concrete feedback on goal progress. Leaders who used participatory goal setting or
provided feedback were not as successful. If time is limited, however, it may be preferable for the group
leader to establish challenging goals and provided ongoing concrete feedback instead of taking the time to
engage the group in participative goal-setting efforts.
In summary, successfully completing goals provides subordinates with a sense of accomplishment and
satisfaction, and a greater sense of motivation. You can achieve these goals by talking to your
subordinates about the unit goals, your goals and their goals, involving the subordinates in establishing
goals when possible, and providing them on-going concrete feedback about the accomplishment of the
established goals.

D – 21D. JOB REDESIGN
The last motivation concept we will examine is that of job redesign. The main assumption in job
redesign is that the job itself promotes motivation. To use a term we discussed earlier, the intrinsic rewards
of the job are the most important rewards. You may not be able to use the concept of job redesign in every
assignment, but you can use the concept when you reach positions of greater authority and responsibility.
As you read the material on j ob redesign, you will find that high growth strength persons–persons who
characteristically seek additional responsibility and challenge in their work–prefer jobs that they find
challenging. The absence of certain core dimensions which make the jobs challenging may cause high
growth need strength persons to become dissatisfied, unmotivated, and unwilling to perform well or even to
attend work regularly.
Core job dimensions represent the key attributes of the job itself which can be affected by the leader
through job design efforts. There are three major core job dimensions : skill variety, the degree to which
different skills are needed for the job; task identity, the degree to which the job can be seen as a meaningful
chunk of work by the subordinates; and task significance, the degree to which the subordinate sees the job
as having importance for the organization as a whole. The three core job dimensions impact directly on the
experienced meaningfulness of the work the subordinate does. Essentially, if subordinates can say to
themselves that their work is important to others, requires a number of challenging skills, and can be
identified as a meaningful whole, the experienced feeling of the subordinates will be one of meaningfulness.
Two aspects of the work that can impact directly on critical psychological states are the autonomy
which the work allows and the feedback from leaders and others which the subordinates gain from doing the
work. Increased autonomy will bring about feelings of increased responsibility for the outcomes of the work.
Likewise, increased feedback will give the subordinate a more complete knowledge of the actual results of
the work activity.
Implementing concepts:
The following implementing concepts are strategies which leaders can employ to redesign work, thereby
increasing subordinate motivation toward quality organizational performance:
1. Combining tasks refers to the strategy prevalent in most job enlargement (adding additional duties or
rotating the subordinate through a number of different jobs) and job enrichment efforts (enriching the job
through vertical expansion). Segmented jobs are re-combined to add depth or scope to each job. This
strategy affects both the skill variety and task identify dimensions–which, in turn, impacts on feelings of
meaningfulness.
2. Forming natural work units means breaking up the work flow at some natural break point to create a
meaningful chunk of work. Work units are designed so that one worker or group of workers, in the case of
large tasks, has responsibility for an identifiable body of work (such as a jeep engine). This strategy is
expected to increase both task identify and task significance.
3. Establishing client relationships has to do with increasing the control o f the subordinate for the input
and output aspects of the job. The individual is given responsibility for direct contact with those who receive
the finished output and contact with the client is maintained by the subordinate rather than by someone else
in the chain of command. This strategy can affect skill variety and autonomy and can provide the individual
subordinate with direct and work-relevant feedback.
4. Vertical loading as a strategy (involving much more than just adding jobs) directly affects job
autonomy and, in turn, the feeling of responsibility for work outcomes. Vertical job loading involves not only
performing the job but includes giving the soldier responsibility for planning the job and evaluating the
product of the job. The seven principles of vertical job loading are:

D – 22(a) Remove some controls while retaining accountability. An example is giving a radio mechanic
the weekly goal of trouble shooting and repairing all the radio equipment in a company, but allowing the
soldier to determine the work pace.
(b) Increasing the accountability of individuals for their own work. By making this radio mechanic
responsible for the proper diagnosis and repair of the company's radio problems, you increase the
accountability of the soldier.
(c) Giving a person a complete natural unit of work. ( division, product, area.). An example of this is
to take a clerk working in the S1 shop and put him in charge of all the battalion's issuing meal cards to new
soldiers, accounting for the cards on hand and collecting them from soldiers leaving the unit.
(d) Granting additional authority to a worker. If you were the SFC, you could grant additional
authority to the meal card clerk. When the battalion goes to the field, rather than you coordinating with the
first sergeants for issuing field meal cards, allow the clerk to coordinate with the first sergeants and allow
him to set his own schedule for issuing and collecting the field meal cards. As a result, he/she develops a
sense of responsibility.
(e) Make periodic reports directly available to the subordinate, rather than the supervisor. Divisions
usually publish statistics on various administrative and logistics data once a month. Give the results of all
the reports about meal cards (inventories, finance notification, and errors) directly to the meal card clerk
rather than routing it through the SFC. This gives the subordinate immediate feedback on his/her efforts and
gives him/her some autonomy. He/she then knows where to focus his/her efforts.
(f) Introduce new and more difficult tasks not previously handled Take our steadily improving meal
card clerk and have him/her submit the required reports after the unit returns from the field. He/she collects
the information from each company, puts it in the correct format and submits the report to finance within the
established timelines. This provides the individual a new, more difficult task and makes him/her responsible
for the completion of that task.
(g) Assign individuals specific or specialized tasks, enabling them to become experts. We have
done this with our meal card clerk. He/she is now the battalion's expert in all meal card operations. He/she
is a valued member of the team and has earned recognition along with increased responsibility.
(h) Opening feedback channels between the subordinate and the leader and among peers
delineates a strategy for increasing feedback. However, feedback is most effective when it comes directly
through the accomplishment of the task.
Properly appl ied work redesign programs have resulted in increased motivation and job satisfaction. On
the other hand, it has not been found that the quality and quantity of production also increases. One
possible explanation is that although individuals may be more satisfied on the job, they may not necessarily
put the satisfaction into greater effort on their jobs. Other studies have found that satisfaction which leads to
high effort is dependent on the worker’s satisfaction coming from meeting higher-order needs, such as the
needs for recognition and achievement. Referring back to the expectancy theory, the expectancy that high
effort will lead to good performance and subsequent reward must be present.
Job redesign does not work for all jobs. Many low-level job s may be not be applicable
because the tasks involved do not allow for enrichment–such as manual type labor. On the other hand,
there are jobs which are already so enriched that little can be done to change them and make them more
enriched–such as some research jobs. Finally, job redesign only works for subordinates who have high
growth needs. For the person with low growth needs, a job redesign effort by the leader may be
counterproductive. Individuals with low growth needs (have little desire to acquire more responsibility) who
are given more responsibility may demonstrate adjustment problems, erratic performance, and even

D – 23increased absenteeism and turnover. It is also important to note that it is just as dysfunctional to have an
individual motivated by lower-order growth needs in an enriched job as it is to have an individual motivated by
higher-order growth needs in a simple, routine job. The important question for the leader to answer is, “Does
this subordinate want more responsibility?” The table below summarizes these points:
SIMPLE, ROUTINE JOB “ENRICHED” JOB
HIGH-GROWTH NEED
INDIVIDUALIndividual feels underutilized
and bored. High frustration,
dissatisfaction, and turnoverVery high quality performance.
High satisfaction, low
absenteeism and low turnover.
LOW-GROWTH NEED
INDIVIDUALEffective performance. Adequate
levels of satisfaction. Low
absenteeismIndividual overwhelmed by job
demands. Psychological
withdrawal from job or overt
hostility and inadequate job
performance
Core Job Dimensions :
The final aspect of job redesign that we will look at concerns changing the core job dimensions to
motivate our soldiers. As we discuss each of the core job dimensions, we see how the previously
mentioned principles fit into this concept. If we positively influence these aspects of the job, we help
motivate our soldiers.
1. Skill Variety : Recall that when we talked about vertical job loading, we mentioned that
introducing new and more difficult tasks would help motivate soldiers. This is skill variety. Give soldiers
more to do. Make the conditions more challenging by decreasing the time allowed or by requiring the
soldiers to perform the tasks while wearing chemical clothing. As the soldier masters the task under
increasingly more difficult conditions, he develops self -confidence and which, in -turn, helps create a
cohesive team.
2. Task Identity : This means developing a sense of task ownership by the soldiers. We mentioned
this aspect as a part of goal setting. You can also improve task identity by providing a natural work unit
rather than making soldiers work on just a portion of a bigger job. The soldier wants to work because it
means something to him.
3. Task Significance : This dimension is closely related to task identity. Also, it is influenced by
forming natural work units. If we make the soldier understand how his/her job helps the unit, he/she
appreciates the importance of his job. This recognition, in turn, gives him/her high internal work motivation.
4. Autono my: A key core job dimension is autonomy. When soldiers speak of being their own
boss, they are talking of autonomy. We all, to some degree, want and need some autonomy. We increase
autonomy by vertical job loading and goal setting. By increasing autonomy we trigger the internal motivators
or the intrinsic rewards in a job. When you hear someone tell you that it's better to tell someone what has
to be done rather than how to do it, they are speaking of appealing to someone's need for autonomy. All the
examples we mentioned on vertical job loading relate to autonomy.
5. Feedback: Feedback is the last core job dimension we need to discuss. When we talk about
feedback, we are talking about giving an individual information on his/her job performance. There are a
couple of ways to do this. Through regular performance counseling we inform subordinates on what they are
doing well and what they must improve on. Also, we can improve the feedback dimension by establishing
client relationship. We can easily do this when we find ourselves in charge of a staff section or in a support
job. We should talk to the leaders of the section or unit we support. Let the soldiers talk to the leaders
they support. Let the soldiers associate faces with the paperwork they process or equipment they repair.

D – 24We should ensure that all of our soldiers are regularly counseled on their performance and receive copies of
any periodic reports on subjects they influence.
How can you use this concept? We all want our subordina tes to perform their jobs well, be very
satisfied with their work, and have a high amount of internal motivation. In order to achieve all of these
outcomes, our subordinates must have a feeling of the importance of their work, their responsibility, and the
results of their job. To create this positive feeling, we have to influence the core job dimension of their
particular assignments.
How can the leader use this concept? Just changing the job conditions doesn't help motivate
soldiers. To motivate, you change the nature of the job to fit the individual and increase the job's intrinsic
rewards. Job redesign, however, is not for everyone or for every type of job. Consider the job and the
individual before you recommend a job redesign or before you redesign a job. The chart below shows the
benefits which can result from job redesign:
IMPLEMENTING CORE JOB CRITICAL PERSONAL AND
CONCEPTS DIMENSIONS PSYCHOLOGICAL WORK OUTCOMES
STATES
COMBINING SKILL EXPERIENCED HIGH INTERNAL WORK
TASKS VAR IETY MEANINGFULNESS MOTIVATION
OF THE WORK
TASK
FORMING IDENTITY
NATURAL
WORK UNITS
ESTABLISHING TASK HIGH QUALITY WORK
CLIENT SIGNIFICANCE PERFORMANCE
RELATIONSHIPS
EXPERIENCED
VERTICAL AUTONOMY RESPONSIBI LITY HIGH SATISFACTION
LOADING FOR OUTCOMES WITH THE WORK
OF THE WORK
OPENING FEEDBACK KNOWLEDGE OF LOW ABSENTEEISM
FEEDBACK THE ACTUAL AND TURNOVER
CHANNELS RESULTS OF THE
WORK
ACTIVITIES
SUBORDINATE GROWTH
NEED STRENGTH

D – 25SUMMARY
Motivating subordinates to do their jobs well is a major task for any leader. Motivation gives the
soldiers the will to do what must be done to accomplish the mission. You can motivate your subordinates
by serving as the ethical standard bearer, developing cohesive soldier teams, properly using rewards and
punishments, recognizing and satisfying soldier needs, and by serving as positive role models.
We gain a deeper understanding of motivation through the concepts of equity, expectancy, goal
setting and job redesign and how they apply to a situation. These concepts give us a better insight into why
people may or may not react when you attempt to motivate them. Each of these concepts should improve
your ability to motivate your subordinates.

D – 26To be completed prior to class
Examination
1.(3 points ) What are three methods of motivating subordinates?
a. Planning, Organizing, Controlling
b. Cohesiveness, Positive Reinforcement, Rewards
c. Ethical Standard Bearer, Cohesive Soldier Teams, Rewards and Punishment.
d. Negative reinforcement, Attitude Adjustments, Positive Approach
2.(3 points ) This reinforces a positive behavior.
a. Attitude
b. Affiliation
c. Rewards
d. Privileges
3.(3 points ) What approach reduces undesirable behavior?
a. Team Concept
b. Counseling
c. Punishment
d. Leadership
4.(3 points ) This procedure is used when leaders and subordinates work together to identify the tasks to
be accomplished and the standards for those tasks.
a. Mind setting
b. Objectives
c. Goal Setting
d. Standards
5.(3 points ) The motivation tool which emphasizes caring is
a. Serving as an ethical standard bearer
b. Developing cohesive soldier teams
c. Rewarding and punishing soldiers
d. Servi ng as and developing role models
6.(3 points ) The underlying concept of all need theories of motivation is that an unsatisfied need creates a
state of disequilibrium.
a. True
b. False
7.(3 points ) A soldier’s level of commitment decreases when he/she recognizes that the leaders are
committed to the unit and its goals.
a. True
b. False
8.(3 points ) An informal leader
a. Is not part of the chain of command .
b. Is both trusted and respected.
c. Can be a negative role model for peers.
d. All of the above.
e. a and b above.
9.(3 points ) The best role model is
a. A formal leader.

D – 27b. An informal leader.
c. A successful soldier.
d. A positive role model.
e. All of the above.
10.(3 points ) Alderfer’s relatedness factors include
a. Maslow’s physiological, social and security levels.
b. Maslow’s physiological, self- esteem, and security levels.
c. Herzberg’s motivational factors.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.
11.(3 points each ) What are the two basic premises of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?
a.______________________________________________________________________
b.______________________________________________________________________
12.(3 points ) In Maslow’s Theory, where do physical needs separate from physical and quasi-physical
needs:________________________________________________________________
13.(3 points each ) Describe each of the following terms and identify the theory to which they belong.
a. Theory :_______________________________________________________________
b Maintenance factors_____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
c Motivational factors_____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
14.The expectancy theory is based on four assumptions. Define expectancy theory and list and define
each of the four assumptions.
a. (3 points ) Expectancy Theory defined:_________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
b. ( 4 points each) Four assumptions and definitions:
(1)_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
(2)_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
(3)_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
(4)________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
15.(3 points each ) The equity theory strategies which have a direct effect upon behavior changes are
___________________________and ____________________________________.
16.(3 points each ) Basic to the expectancy theory, performance is dependent upon ________
and__________________________________________________

D – 2817.(3 points) The main assumption of job redesign is that_______________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
18.(3 points each ) The three core job dimensions which impact directly on the experienced
meaningfulness of the work the subordinate does are:_________________________________,
_______________________________, and___________________________________________
19.(3 points each ) The two core job dimensions which can impact directly on critical psychological states
are:________________and ______________________________________.
20.(3 points ) The individual who practices push-ups so that they can achieve a high PT score is and
example of the _____________________________________________motivation theory.

D – 29Examination Solution
1.What are three methods of motivating subordinates?
a. Planning, Organizing, Controlling
b. Cohesiveness, Positive Reinforcement, Rewards
c. Ethical Standard Bearer, Cohesive Soldier Teams, Rewards and Punishment .
d. Negative reinforcement, Attitude Adjustments, Positive Approach
2.This reinforces a positive beh avior.
a. Attitude
b. Affiliation
c. Rewards
d. Privileges
3.What approach reduces undesirable behavior?
a. Team Concept
b. Counseling
c. Punishment
d. Leadership
4.This procedure is used when leaders and subordinates work together to i dentify the tasks to be
accomplished and the standards for those tasks.
a. Mind setting
b. Objectives
c. Goal Setting
d. Standards
5.The motivation tool which emphasizes caring is
a. Serving as an ethical standard bearer
b. Developing cohesive soldier teams
c. Rewarding and punishing soldiers
d. Serving as and developing role models
6.The underlying concept of all need theories of motivation is that an unsatisfied need creates a state of
disequilibrium.
a. True
b. False
7.A soldier ’s level of commitment decreases when he/she recognizes that the leaders are committed to
the unit and its goals.
a. True
b. False
8.An informal leader
a. Is not part of the chain of command .
b. Is both trusted and respected.
c. Can be a nega tive role model for peers.
d. All of the above.
e. a and b above.

D – 309.The best role model is
a. A formal leader.
b. An informal leader.
c. A successful soldier.
d. A positive role model.
e. All of the above.
10.Alderfer’s relatedness factors include
a. Maslow’s physiological, social and security levels.
b. Maslow’s physiological, self- esteem, and security levels.
c. Herzberg’s motivational factors.
d. All of the above.
e. None of the above.
11.What are the two basic premises of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?
1. Human beings are constantly in a state of wanting.
2. Human needs are arranged in order of importance. Lower level needs are satisfied first.
12.In Maslow’s Theory, where do physical needs separate from physical and quasi-physical needs : Social
needs level .
13.Describe each of the following terms and identify the theory to which they apply
a. Theory Herzberg ’ s Two-Factor Theory.
b. Maintenance factors : Factors/conditions which serve primarily as dissatisfiers to workers when they
are not present.
c Motivational factors: Factors/conditions that lead to high levels of motivation and job satisfaction
when they are present but which do not prove to be highly dissatisfying if they are absent.
14.The expectancy theory is based on four assumptions. Define expectancy theory and list and list the
four assumptions.
a. Expectancy Theory defined : Views motivation as a process governing choices. In this model, a
person who has a goal weighs the likelihood that various behaviors will achieve that goal and is likely to
select the behavior he/she expects to be most successful.
b. Four assumptions:
(1 ) Behavior is caused by a number of forces in the work environment and in the individual.
(2) People consciously make decisions about their behavior.
(3) People have different types of needs, goals, and desires.
(4) People will do things which will result in favorable outcomes and will avoid behaviors which lead
to unfavorable outcomes.
15.The equity theory strategies which have a direct effect upon behavior changes are alteration of one’s
own inputs and quitting .
16.Basic to the expectancy theory, performance is dependent upon effort and innate skills and abilities.
17.The main assumption of job redesign is that the job itself promotes motivation.

D – 3118.The three core job dimensions which impact directly on the experienced meaningfulness of the work the
subordinate does are : skill variety, task identity, and task significance.
19.The two core job dimensions which can impact directly on critical psychological states are:
autonomy and feedback.
20.The individual who practices push-ups so that they can achieve a high PT score is an example of the
expectancy motivation theory.