DEPOSITION AL ENVIRONMENT DURING HOLOCENE OF THE RED [630630]

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DEPOSITION AL ENVIRONMENT DURING HOLOCENE OF THE RED
RIVER DELTA, NORTHERN VIETNAM

Tuan HOANG VAN & Gheorghe C. POPESCU
Dept of Mineralogy, Faculty of Geology and Geophysics, University of Bucharest, 1, Nicolae Balces cu Blvd.,
Bucharest; tuanhvdmt@g mail.com, [anonimizat]

Abstract : The Red River Delta (RRD) is located in the western coastal zone of the Gulf of Tonkin
(Vietnam ). The Holocene sedimentary of RRD are influenced by rives, wave and tidal processes and more
recently to grain -size distribution . A 36 meter s of depth long sediment core was collected in the wave –
dominated region of RRD. The parameter of sediment used to reconstruct the sedimentation environments
of RRD, sediment facies can be classified into silt, sandy silt and siltly sand. Besides , the Md values shows
that the sediment in core samples included from fine silt to very fine sand with a dominance of very coarse
silt and coarse silt. According to the lithological character istics, sediment grain -size distribution the
sediment core sample can be divided into six deposition environments which consisted of sub -tidal flats
and inter -tidal flats (from 36 to 30.1 m ); shelf-prodelta (from 30.1 to 18.9 m); delta front slope (from 18.9 –
11.7 m) ; delta front platform (from 11.7 to 4.1 m) , tidal flat (from 4.1 to 0.5 m) and flood plain (from 0.5
m to surface of sediment) . The textural characteristic s of core sample were closely correlated with the core
sample from previously study in RRD . In sediment core from 30.1 to 18.9 m, sediment showed erosion
surface during th e transgression at 8860 cal. y ear BP. The textural parameter of the RRD was resulted of
the interaction between sea level rise and fluvial inputs. In addition, the dominance of very coarse silt and
coarse silt can be indicated the prevalence of comparatively from l ow to high energy condition in the RRD .

Keyword: Sediment, g rain-size distributio n; deposition al environment; Red R iver Delta (RRD) ; Vietnam

1. INTRODUCTION

The reconstruction of environmental changes
during the Holocene in coastal zone aims to clarify
the charact eristics the environments and climate in
the past which related to sea lev el rise (Wilson, G. P.,
et al., 2005 ), climatic change, and monsoonal
variability (Li, Z., et al., 2006 , Meyers, P. A., 1997 ,
Zong, Y., et al., 2006 ). Studies on environmental
change during the Holocene provide cr ucial
information for simulating and predicting future
effects of climate and environmental change s
(Wanner, H., et al., 2008 ), and understanding the
correlation between the environment and humans (Li,
Z., et al., 2006 ). Climate change (CC) and sea level rise (SLR)
have already had observable effect on ecosystems,
biodiversity and natural resource, it changed life on
global scale. Vietnam is one of the most impacted by
climate change includes climate extremes, s ea level
rise, disaster,… (Schmidt -Thome, P., et al., 2015 ,
Thao, N. D., et al., 2014 ). In the last 50 years, the
average annual temperature in Vietnam increased 0.5
0C, sea level tends to fluctuations along the shoreline
of Vietnam around 2.8 mm/year, climate extr emes as
drought, the number of heavy rainfall days, tropical
cyclones tends to increasing (Monre, 2012 ). Studying
characteristics of CC was the most importance for
Vietnam, it will help to build high resolution

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capacitance for CC, that way only real effective if it
based upon large amount of ne w and more
comprehensive data about characteristic of climate
and environment in the past time (Jansen, E., et al.,
2007 ). We need to building the data systems in the
last time and comparing with characteristics climate
and environmental at the moment which supply for
assessment and predicting of climate change in the
future.
The coastal zone of Vietnam is rich in natural
resources, with high population density and
concentration of many economic activities, but this
area is highly vulnerable by sea level rise and climate
change (Mai, T. N., et al., 2008 ). Therefore,
reconstruction of relative sea level in coastal
environments is fundamental to understanding past,
present and prediction the change of environment in
this area. Investigation of paleoenvironmental change
can be provide a mean to develop sea level rise model
which used to explain pattern of climate -driven across
coastal areas and to calculate and predict future
climate scenarios (Lambeck, K.&J. Chappell, 2001 ).
Sedimentary records in the large river deltas
along Asian coast are useful to reconstruct the
environmental and s ea level change during Holocene epoch (Liu, Z., et al., 2014 , Ta, T. K. O., et al., 2002 ,
Tanabe, S., et al., 2003 , Tanabe, S., et al., 2006 , Zong,
Y., et al., 2006 ). In these studies, Asian deltas had
experien ced multiple transgression, regressions and
climate. The e nvironmental and sea level change of
the deltas effected by hydrody namics, sediment
discharge, moon soon variability and acceleration of
sea level rise (Tanabe, S., et al., 2006 , Zong, Y., et al.,
2006 ).
Spanning some 150 km in width, the Red River
Delta (RRD) is located in the western coastal zone of
the Gul f of Tonkin. The RRD with about 120 km long
and 140km wide is the fourth -largest delta in
Southeast Asia, after the Mekong, Irrawaddy, and
Chao Phraya deltas (Chan, F. K. S., et al., 2012 ). Its
catchment covers parts of China and Vietnam and its
water and sediment discharges greatly influence the
hydrology in the Gulf of Tonkin (Figure 1).
In this paper, we present new date from newly
collected drilling core taken from the RRD. We then
compile data on sediment in previous study which
described sediment cores taken from the delta
previously. Base on the textural parameters (Md, So,
Sk, KG) we reconstruct the depositional environment
of sediments during the Holocene.

2. MATERIAL AND METHODS

2.1. Regional setting of Red River delta (RRD)

Figure 1. Location of Red river delta, Vietnam (modified from Tanabe el al. (2006)

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2.1.1 . Geographical setting

The RRD plain can be divide d into three
subsystems based upon surface topography and
hydraulic processes, including of fluvial -dominated,
tide-dominated, and wave -dominated (Mathers, S.&J.
Zalasiewicz, 1999 , Tanabe, S., et al., 2006 ). The
fluvial -dominated subsystem includes meandering
rivers, meandering levee belts, flood plain, and fluvial
terraces. It is located in the western part of the delta,
where the fluvial flux is relatively stronger than
others. The wave -dominated system spreads in the
southwestern section of the delta, where wave energy
is high due to strong summer monsoon. The system is
characterized by alternating beach ridges and muddy
tidal lagoon deposit. Besides, tide-dominated
subsystem reaches in to the northeastern part of the
delta, where Hainam I sland shelters the coast from
strong waves. The system consisting of tidal flats,
marshes, and tidal creeks/channels.
The regional climate is characterized by a
tropical monsoon climate with four seasons (spring,
summer, a utumn, winter) and humidity averaging
from 84 -100 % throughout the year (Lieu, N. T. H.,
2006 ). While in the summer monsoon from May to
October with heavy rainfall, hot and h umid weather.
In the dry season last from November to April of the
following year, the climate is dry and cold . The
average temperature is 29 – 30 degrees: the highest is
42 degrees in summer (but it lasts a few days per
month): May, June, July and the low est is 9 degrees
(But it lasts a few days per season) between January
and February. The climate in the investigation area is
therefore by cool, dry winters (December until
March) and warm, wet summers (May until October) characterizes (Pruszak, Z., et al., 2005 , Van Maren,
D., et al., 2004 ).
The behaviour of wave nearshore part is
varied from direction west -southwest (from June to
September) to west, northwest (from December to
March of the following year ). The mean tidal in this
area ranges 1.9 -2.6 m with t he maximum height of
wave is 2 -3 m (in the winter ) and 5 -6 m (in the
summer ). The tidal is characterized by there is one
time of high level and one times of low level. The
range of the tide at the coast is about 4.0 m. In the
summer monsoon season, tidal influences within the
delta are restricted because of the overwhelming
effect of the high freshwater discharge, but in the dry
season, tidal effects are evident in all of the major
distributaries almost as far inland as Hanoi (Mathers,
S., et al., 1996 ).
According to the data given by the General
Department of Meteorology and Hydrology
(Vietnam), from 18 84 to 1989, there were 1,993
storms and tropical depressions influenced on
Vietnam territory (about 5 storms/tropical
depressions per year) and 148 of which (30 %) came
to the RRD (Lieu, N. T. H., 2006 ). The statistics of
data showed an increase in the frequency and duration
of storms and typhoons during the second half of the
20th century . The increased storms and tropical
depressions lead to the raising of the annual average
wave height. It results in changing the
geomorphology and sedimentology (erosion,
accretion, shoreline, distri bution of sediment) of this
area (Lieu, N. T. H., 2006 ).

2.1.2 . Geological setting

The RRD is surrounded by mountainous areas
formed of Precambrian crystalline rocks and
Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks and the
structure is dominated by NW -SE aligned faulting
trending sedimentary basin approximately 500 km
long and 50-60 km wide . RRD developed overlying
one trough valley which was formed by faults. The
NW-SE aligned Red River fault system regulates the
distribution of the mou ntainous areas, the drainage
area, and the straight course of the Song Hong.
However, fault movements have been considerably
minor since the late Miocene (Pruszak, Z., et al.,
2005 ). The trough valley was developed from early Cainozoic and filled with Neocene and Quaternary
sediments with a thickness of m ore than 3 km and the
subsidence rate of the basin is 0.04 -0.12 mm/year
(Mathers, S.&J. Zalasiewicz, 1999 ).
The Quaternary sediment, which unconformly
overlies the Neoge ne deposits, are consists mainly of
sands and gravels with lenses of silt and clay. In the
RRD, the sediment is thick approximate 100 m
beneath Hanoi and thickens eastwards to attain 200 m
beneath parts of the coastal area (Mathers, S.&J.
Zalasiewicz, 1999 , Pruszak, Z., et al., 2005 ). In the
coastal area of delta, the shallow water depths in the
Gulf of Tonkin (< 50 m) suggest that much of the

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sequence is preserved in the floor (Mathers, S.&J.
Zalasiewi cz, 1999 ). The Quaternary depression in the
RRD was mainly filled by continental deposits in five
geological cycles as follows: early Pleistocene (Lechi
formation), middle to late Pleistocene (Hanoi formation), late Pleistocene (Vinhphuc formation),
early to middle Holocene (Haihung formation) and
late Holocene (Thaibinh formation) (Nghi, T., et al.,
1991 ) (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Simplified onshore Quaternary stratigraphic column of the RRD Basin
(Modified from Tran & Nguyen , 1991)

The simplified onshore and nearshore
Quaternary stratigraphy developed by Vie tnamese
workers comprises two main series: sea -level lowstand sediments (Pleistocene) and sea -level
highstand sediments, the latter building the modern
delta (Holocene) (Tran, M.&V. D. Nguyen, 1991 ).

2.1.3 . Hydrology

The catchment area of the Red River (RR) is
about 169.000 km2 with the annual discharge of the
RR is about 137 × 109 m3 of water and 116 × 106 tons
of suspended sediment, ranking among the 15 largest
sedimentary discharges in the world (Milliman, J.
D.&R. H. Meade, 1983 , Pruszak, Z., et al., 2005 ). The
Red River distributes its flow through five branches
with 25% of the flow of the Red River discharging
into the sea via the Ba Lat mouth (Song Hong mouth).
The water discharge in RRD region varies seasonally because most of the drainage area is under a
subtropical monsoon climate regime . The averages of
year precipitation in the summer is about 1,600 mm
(occupy 85 -95 % of the total yearly rainfall occurs).
Approximately 90 % of the annual sediment
discharge occurs during the summer monsoon season,
when the sediment concentration may reaches 12
kg/m3 (Mathers, S.&J. Zalasiewicz, 1999 ).

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2.2. Sediment core sampling processing

The core sample was collected by a rotary drill
(diameter 10cm) from the wave dominated system in
the RRD. The geographical location was
106°24'7.46" E, 20°25'39.86" N (core VL) with an
altitude of 0.5m. Immediately following collection,
the core sample was placed in PVC tubes and
transported to t he laboratory in cool condition . In the laboratory, sediment cores were
processed within 12 h of collection by first removing
of the outer layer (0.5 cm in thickness), then sliced
into 154 sample at 20 cm intervals. The sediment
samples were packed in labelled polyethylene bags
for further analysis.

2.3. Sample preparation and analysis

Variation of the grain -size distribution can be
an important facies indicator , sedimentary
development and environmental change (Blott, S.
J.&K. Pye, 2001 , Bui, E., et al., 1989 , Folk, R. L.&W.
C. Ward, 1957 , Friedman, G. M., 1979 ).
In the laboratory, five grams of fresh sediment
were put into a beaker. Then, sediment sample was
pretreated with H 2O2 solution (10 %) and HCl 1N to
assure complete removal of organic matter and
carbonates. In this processes, organic matter
fragments and r oots were removed by a stainless steel
forceps. Prior to analysis, 10 ml of distilled water was
added and dispersed using an ultrasonic cleaner for three minutes. Sediment grain -size was used laser
beam diffraction, using a Particular LA -950 (Horiba)
instrument at the GEO – CRE (Key Laboratory of
Geo-environment and Climate Change Response),
Vietnam National University (VNU). This device can
measure suspens ion samples liquid in the grain -size
range 0.01 -3000 μm. Each sediment a sample was
analysed in tripli cate to yield the percentages of the
related fraction of a sample with a relative error of
less than 1 %. Mean, mode, sorting, skewness and
other statis tics were calculated by a grain -size
distribution and statistics program (GRADISTAT
program) (Blott, S. J.&K. Pye, 2001 ).

Table 1. Size scale adopted in the GRADISTAT program, a modified Udden (1914), Wentworth
(1922) and Friedman and Sanders (1978) (Blott, S. J.&K. Pye, 2001 )

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3. RESULTS

The parameters shows sediment grained size
distribution, which used to reconstruct the sediment
environments (McLaren, P.&D. Bowles, 1985 ). They
are controlled by the direct of transport and the
sedimentary processes. In this study, Md values
showed the sediments were classified from the fine
silt to very fine sand, with a dominance of very coarse
silt and coarse silt followed geometric Folk and Ward
graphic measures (Folk, R. L.&W. C. Ward, 1957 ).
Sediments of core samples are mainly
consisted of sand, silt and clay, which ranged from 3.3-73.4, 22.9 -87.2, and 1.5 -25.5 %, respectively.
Sediment facies of core sample can be classified as
sandy silt, silty sand and sand (Figure 3). Base o n
lithodology, colour and grain -size parameters, the
sediment can be divided into six section and two
second sedimentary units with the following depth
range: unit 1 – estuarine sediments (from 36 m to
30.1m); unit 2 – deltaic sediment (from 30.1 m to 0
m) (Figure 4). Th e depositional environment during
the Holocene of the RRD was resulted of the
interaction between sea level rise and fluvial inputs.

Figure 3 . Tri-plot for textural analysis of all sediments in core sample RRD

3.1. Core section 1: at the depth from 36 to 30.1 m

This section is characterized by reddish gray in
colour and consisted of very fine sand and clay
lamination (as faint lenses 3 -8 mm thick ) and a large
portion of this facies is bioturbated . Mud content of
the sediment slightly decrease from the core bottom
to the smallest value at the depth of 32. 3 m (Figure
4). The mean grain -size (Md) tended to gradually
increase upward with average value was 18.39 µm.
The average value of sorting (So) was 4.45±0.46 and
a large portion of value is classified as very poorly
sorted. The mean of skewness (Sk) ranged -0.29±0.1 ,
it divided into very fine skewness and fine skewness
sediment. Kurtosis (KG) values tended to increase
upward with two high value were 1.65, 1.28 at the
depth 32.3 m, 31.3 m, respectively . The KG value can
be divided thr ee, but a large portion value indicated platykurtic sediment (Figure 4) . The lithological
characteristic of core sample were close ly correlated
with the core sample from and previously study by
Tanabe el al. (2006). Therefore, the geochronology of
the sediment was calculated according to the
sedimentation rates with result of accelerator mass
spectrometry (AMS) 14C for RRD (Tanabe, S., et al.,
2006 ) (Figure 5).
In the e arly part of the Holocene, the sea level
was about 31 m below prevent and increased at a
relatively constant rate of about 9 mm per year
(Tjallingii, R., et al., 2010 ). The reddish gray color of
the sediment showed erosion processes during low
stands. In addition, below 30.1 m in depth, sediments
consist of th e reddish gray color, which correspond to
erosion processes during low -stands. The

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sedimentary parameters illustrated a large portion of
coarse silt and fine sand sediment which were mainly formed in high energy environments (McLaren,
P.&D. Bowles, 1985 , Rajganapathi, V., et al., 2013 ).

Figure 4 . Sedimentary parameters in grain -size distribution from core sample showing variations with depth
in sediment core (m)

Plant and shell fragments are scattered in core
sediment and a large portion of shell fragments is
concentrated from 31.6 to 32.5 m. Therefore, this
section was interpreted as sub-tidal and inter -tidal flat environment with a high frequency of tidal flooding
(Tanabe, S., et al., 2006 ). Sedimentation rates in this
section interpreted as 0.42 cm/year (Li, Z., et al.,
2006 ).

3.2. Core section 2: at the depth from 30.1 to 18.9 m

The section was separated by an underlying
sediment section from surface erosion (depth core
sample about 30 m). Sediment was characterized by
blue gray bioturbated clay and consisting of
laminated fine sand, silt with reddish gray in colour.
Beside, sediment was bioturbated by gray clay and
rich in shell fragments. Mud values in this section
ranged from 69.16 to 95.48 %. Md values tended to
gradually increase upward from the erosion surface to
27.5 m and decreased to the depth 18 .1 m. The value
of sorting (So) were divided into two types with a
high portion of values were very poor sorted
sediments (30 -21.9 m of the depth sediment core) and
other was poor sorted sedi ments. Based on Sk values,
sediments can be divided into 4 types, consisting of
very fine skewness, fine skewness, symetrical and
coarse skewed sediments. KG values showed stability
of values which indicated for platykurtic sediments
(from 30 -26.5 m in the depth) and the upper layer
fluctuated in a high range which indicated form very
platykurtic to leptokurtic. In the middle part of the Holocene , the
sediments can be divided into two part. At the lowest
part, sediment facies suggested as a ravinement
surface during the transition (Tanabe, S., et al., 2003 ,
Tanabe, S., et al., 2006 ). Between 30.1 and 27.5 m in
depth sediment core show ed the transgressive sand
sheet was overlain the erosion surface, characteristics
of Sk corresponds to lower energy environment and
abundant sources of sediment input s. Between 26.7
and 18.7 m in depth of core sediment , the Md and Sk
values varied over a small range , which corresponds
to low hydrodynamic energy condition . A large
portion of mesokurtic and leptokurti c sediments
suggested continuous addition of coarse grain -size
after the winnowing and retention action of tidal
currents.
The environment of this section was
interpreted as shelf to pro -delta sediments because
shell fragments in this section were decreased than
lower layers a nd the increased mud content (Tanabe,
S., et al., 2006 ). The sedimentation rate in this section
ranged from 0.06 to 1.14 cm/year (Li, Z., et al., 2006 ).

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3.3. Core section 3: at the depth from 18.9 to 11.7 m

This section was characterized by reddish gray
or black and laminated silt clay that was rich in shell
fragment and plant matter. Mud content tended to
slightly decrease with ranged from 70.77 to 96.70 %.
Md values between from 6.40 to 20.49 µm and tended
to gradually increase upward. Sk values were
gradually decrease upward and classifying it as
symmetrical and coarse skewed sediment. The values
of kurtosis showed relative low variation from 0.69 –
1.29, classified as platykurtic, mesokurtic and
leptokurti c sediment. Between 18.9 and 11.7 m in depth sediment core, values of Md an d sand content
slightly increased upward which indicated higher
hydrodynamic energy .
The sediment with abundant shell and plant
fragments is typical of delta, therefore the
environment of this section changed to delta front
slope sediment (Tanabe, S., et al., 2006 ). The
sedimentation rate in this section ranged from 0.26 to
2.13 cm/year (Li, Z., et al., 2006 ).

3.4. Core section 4: at the depth from 11.7 to 4.1 m

The section was characterized by gray, fine
sand and clay sediment with rich of plant matter. Mud
values in sediment tended to decrease and the
minimum value at depth of 8.7 m (32.4 %). Md values
tended to increase and ranged between 11.06 and
56.55 µm. So values was a small range from 2.99 to
4.97 with mainly categorized very sorted sediment.
Sk value fluctuated and indicated as very fine skewed,
fine skewed and symmetrical sediment. KG va lues
fluctuated and predominantly indicating platykurtic
and mesokurtic sediment.
Between 11.7 and 4.1 m in depth sediment
core, the sedimentation rate markedly increased to the high value of 1.94 cm/year within the study area (Li,
Z., et al., 2006 ). The sediment volum e supplied by the
Red River during the last 2000 cal. yr BP was much
higher than others, correspond to an increase in the
progradation of the delta system (Hori, K., et al.,
2004 ). The coarsening succ ession upward which
sugges ted that the energy of the environment
increased .
The environment of this section was
interpreted as delta front platform sediment (Tanabe,
S., et al., 2006 ). The sedimentation rate in this section
ranged from 0.82 to 1.94 cm/year (Li, Z., et al., 2006 ).

3.5. Core section 5: from 4.1 to 0.5m

Figure 5. Sedimentary columns of the core sample in RRD . (A) Lithological characteristic of sediment core;
(B) Mud content in sediment core ; (C) Sedimentation rates were calculated by linear interpolation
between 14C ages (Li, Z., et al., 2006 , Tanabe, S., et al., 2006 )

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This section consisted of gray fine sand, silt
and peat lenses 1 -5 cm thick. Mud content tend to
decrease. Inversely, sand content tended to slightly
increased upward with max imum value at the depth
of 0.5 m (36.5 %). Md values varied in across a wide
range, continuously decreasing from underlying
facies to the depth of 1.7 m upward. The So values
tended to slightly increase from underlying facies and
reached a peak at a depth of 1.7 m. In this layer, most
of the sediment was categorized as very poorly sorted.
Sk values continuously fluctuated widely from very
fine to fine -skewed sediments. KG values varied marginally with the exception at depth 0.9 m in which
there was an indic ation of platykurtic sediments. The
increasing of clay content and decrease in Md values
suggested decreasing tidal and wave energy.
Between 4.1 and 0.5 m in depth sediment core
sugges ted decreasing tidal and wave energy. In this
section, abundant plant fragment and root and
laminated clay indicate d it influenced by tidal
environmental (Tanabe, S., et al., 2006 ). The
sedimentation rate in this section interpreted 0.82
cm/year (Li, Z., et al., 2006 ).

3.6. Core section 6: at the depth from 0.5 to 0 m

Sediments in this section consisted of reddish
brown clay silt, fine sand and abundance of fine roots
because is corresponds to a lateritic weathering
profile develop in floodplain (Tanabe, S., et al.,
2006 ). The mean of grain -size (Md) tended to
increase upward . Base on the changes in sediment
parameters, sediment in this section can be classified
as very poorly sorted, very fine skewed and platykurtic sediment. Sand content were form 36.5 to
64.9 % and mud content markedly dropped to the
lowest levels of 35.08 % which suggest ed the
sediments we re mainly formed in high energy
environments. The Md values in the surface were
high, because it were influenced by channel -levee
sediment at the land surface of core site.

4. CONCLUSIONS

The depositional environment of the RRD
result of the interaction between sea level rise and
fluvial inputs . Base on lithological characteristics,
sediment grain -size distribution core sediment can be
divided into six depositional environment during the
Holocene, including of (1) sub -and inter -tidal flats;
(2) shelf -prodelta; (3) de lta front s lope; (4) delta front
platform ; (5) tidal flat and (6) flood plain. The
lithological characteristic of core sample were closely correlated with the core sample from and previously
by Tanabe el al. (2006) . The variation of sedimentary
parameters showed generally deposited at
environment conditions from low to high energy. In
the late part of the Holocene, sedimentati on rate
increased to the maximum of value (1.94 cm/year)
with higher energy environment condition at the
depth from 11.7 to 4.1 m .

Acknowledge

This paper is supported by Vietnam National
University, Hanoi (VNU) under project number QG.16.16.
Thank to Dr. Nguyen Tai Tue for all logistic supports
during field sampling.

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