Prof. univ. dr. Ioana MURAR (Universitatea din Craiova) Conf. univ. dr. habil. Titela VÎLCEANU (Universitatea din Craiova) Lect. univ. dr. Alina RE… [624418]

ANA -MARIA TRANTESCU

ANA -MARIA TRANTESCU

THE VERB PHRASE IN ENGLISH

EDITURA UNIVERSITARIA
Craiova, 2018

Referen ți științifici:
Prof. univ. dr. Ioana MURAR (Universitatea din Craiova)
Conf. univ. dr. habil. Titela VÎLCEANU (Universitatea din
Craiova)
Lect. univ. dr. Alina RE ȘCEANU (Universitatea din Craiova)

Copyright@ 2017 Universitaria
Toate drepturile sunt rezervate editurii Universitaria

5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest
gratitude to Professor Ioana Murar, for her invaluable support
and guidance in the Verb Phrase research field, and for her very
helpful and pertinent suggestions.
I am also really grateful to my peer -reviewers, Associate
Professor Titela V îlceanu and Senior Lecturer Alina Reșceanu ,
for their commitment and accurate reading.

The author

6

7 CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………………………….. ………………………. 5
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGLISH VERB PHRASE ….. .. 13
1.1. Definition ………………………………………… … ………. 13
1.2. Classification of verbs ………………………………… ……. 13
CHAPTER 2
AN OVERVIEW OF THE GRAMMATICAL
CATEGORIES OF THE VERB ……………………………………….. … 38
2.1. The categories of person and number ………….. …………… …… 39
2.2. The category of tense ………………………………………………. ….. 39
2.3. The category of aspect ……………………………………………. …… 42
2.3.1. The perfective vs. non -perfective / imperfective ……….. .. 43
2.3.2. The progressive (or continuous) vs. simple aspect ……… 43
2.3.3. Verbs which are not normally used in the continuous/
progressive aspect …..………………………….………. 43
2.3.3.1. Dynamic (activity / action) verbs ………………………….. 43
2.3.3.2. State (stative) verbs ………………………….. ………………… 44
2.4. Voice ………………………….. ………………………….. …………………. 50
2.5. Mood ………………………….. ………………………….. ………………… 50
CHAPTER 3
THE INDICATIVE MOOD.
THE TENSE – ASPECT SYSTEM IN ENGLISH ………………… 53
3.1. The Present Tense ………………………….. ………………………….. . 53
3.1.1. The Present Tense Simple ………………………….. …………… 53
3.1.2. The Present Tense Continuous (Progressive) ……………… 59
3.2. The Past Tense ………………………….. ………………………….. …… 65
3.2.1. The Pas t Tense Simple ………………………….. ……………….. 65

8 3.2.2. The Past Tense Continuous/Progressive ……………………. 71
3.3. The Perfect Tenses ………………………….. ………………………….. 76
3.3.1. The Present Perfect ………………………….. …………………….. 76
3.3.1.1. The Present Perfect Simple ………………………….. …….. 76
3.3.1.2. The Present Perfect Continuous/ Progressive ………… 83
3.4. The Past Perfect ………………………….. ………………………….. …. 86
3.4.1. The Past Perfect Tense Simple ………………………….. …….. 86
3.4.2. The Past Perfect Progressive/Continuous …………………… 90
3.5. Means of Expressing Future Reference ………………………….. 92
3.5.1. The Future Tense Simple (Shall / Will Future) …………… 93
3.5.2. The Future Continuous/ Progressive …………………………. 95
3.5.3. The Future Per fect ………………………….. ……………………… 98
3.5.3.1. The Future Perfect Simple ………………………….. ……… 98
3.5.3.2. The Future Perfect Progressive ………………………….. 100
3.5.4 . Other means of expressing futurity …………………………. 101
3.6. Future Actions Seen from Past Perspective
(Future in the Past) ………………………….. ……………………….. 105
3.7. Tense and aspect use across registers and dialects ………….. 107
3.7.1. Tense use across registers ………………………….. ………….. 107
3.7.2. Perfect and Progressive Aspect across registers
and dialects ………………………….. ………………………….. …. 108
CHAPTER 4
THE GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF VOICE ……………. 110
4.1. Introduction ………………………….. ………………………….. ……… 110
4.2. Language levels of the passive transformation ………………. 111
4.2.1. The morphological level (the form of the verb) ….…… 111
4.2.2. The syntactic level …… ………………………….. …… 114
4.2.3. Passive -like causatives …………………………… …… 116
4.2.4. Classes of verbs used in passive constructions ………… 117
4.2.4.1. Transitive verbs ………………………….. …………………… 117
4.2.4.2. Intransitive verbs ………………………….. …………………. 120
4.2.4.3. Complex verbs ………………………….. ……………………. 121

9 4.2.4.4. Passivals (Pseudo -Passives) ………………………….. ….. 122
4.3.1. Passive voice in legal language ………………………….. ….. 123
4.3.2. Passive voice across registers ………………………….. …….. 124
CHAPTER 5
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD ………………………….. ………………. 126
5.1. Indicative versus Su bjunctive ………………………….. …………. 126
5.2. The forms of the Subjunctive ………………………….. ………….. 128
5.2.1. The Synthetic Subjunctive ………………………….. …………. 128
5.2.1.1. The Present Subjunctive ………………………….. ………. 128
5.2.1.2. The Past Subjunctive ………………………….. …………… 130
5.2.1.3. The Perfect Subjunctive ………………………….. ……….. 133
5.2.2. The Analytic(al) Subjunctive ………………………….. …….. 134
5.2.2.1. Should ………………………….. ………………………….. …… 135
5.2.2.2. May / Might ………………………….. ……………………….. 138
5.2.2.3. Will / Would ………………………….. ………………………. 140
5.2.2.4. Can / Could ………………………….. ………………………… 141
5.3. The distribution of the Conditional Mood
in various registers ………………………….. ……………………….. 141
5.4. The distribution of Subjunctive forms
in subordinate clauses ………………………….. ……………………. 143
CHAPTER 6
THE IMPERATIV E MOOD ………………………….. ………………… 145
6.1. Imperative sentences (Commands) ………………………….. ….. 145
6.1.1. Commands without a subject ………………………….. ……… 145
6.1.2. Commands with subject ………………………….. ……………. 146
6.1.3. Commands with LET ………………………….. ……………….. 146
6.1.4. Negative commands ………………………….. …………………. 147
6.1.5. Persuasive commands ………………………….. ……………….. 148
6.1.6. Other constructions having the value of a command …. 148
6.2. The form and function of Imperative Clauses ………………… 148
6.3. The use of the Imperative Mood in different registers …….. 149

10 CHAPTER 7
MODALITY AND MODAL VERBS ………………………….. ……. 151
7.1. Formal characteristics ………………………….. ……………………. 152
7.2. Semantic characteristics ………………………….. …………………. 153
7.2.1. Ability ………………………….. ………………………….. ………… 156
7.2.2. Permission ………………………….. ………………………….. ….. 157
7.2.3. Obligation ………………………….. ………………………….. …… 160
7.2.4. Possibility ………………………….. ………………………….. …… 166
7.2.5. Probability ………………………….. ………………………….. ….. 170
7.2.6. Volition, Willingness ………………………….. ………………… 173
7.2.7. Habit ………………………….. ………………………….. ………….. 175
7.2.8. Dare ………………………….. ………………………….. …………… 177
7.3. Pragmatic values of modal verbs ………………………….. …….. 179
7.4. Modal and semi -modals across re gisters ………………………. 180
7.4.1. The distribution of modal and semi -modal verbs ……… 180
7.4.2. Extrinsic versus intrinsic uses of modals
in different registers ………………………….. …………………. 182
CHAPTER 8
THE NON -FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB …………………….. 184
8.1. The Infinitive ………………………….. ………………………….. ……. 184
8.1.1. The forms of the Infinitiv e ………………………….. …………. 184
8.1.2. The grammatical categories of the Infinitive ……………… 187
8.1.2.1 The category of aspect ………………………….. …………… 187
8.1.2.2. The category of voice ………………………….. …………… 188
8.1.3. The subject of the Infinitive ………………………….. ……….. 189
8.1.4. The syntactic functions of the Infinitive ……………………. 190
8.1.4.1. Subject ………………………….. ………………………….. ….. 190
8.1.4.2. Predicative (Subject Complement) ……………………… 195
8.1.4.3. Attribute ………………………….. ………………………….. … 195
8.1.4.4. Object ………………………….. ………………………….. ……. 196
8.1.4.5. Adverbial Modifier ………………………….. ………………. 201
8.1.4.5.1. Adverbial Modifier of Purpose ………………………. 201

11 8.1.4.5.2. Adverbial Modifier of Result ………………………… 201
8.1.4.5.3. Adverbial Modifier of Condition …………………… 202
8.1.4.5.4. Adverbial Modifier of Comparison ………………… 202
8.1.4.5.5. Adverbial Modifier of Exception …………………… 202
8.1.5. The Infiniti ve in parenthetic constructions ………………… 202
8.1.6. Grammatical patterns of post -predicate infinitive clauses … 203
8.2. The –ing Forms ………………………….. ………………………….. …. 204
8.2.1. The Geru nd ………………………….. ………………………….. ….. 205
8.2.1. 1. The features of the Gerund ………………………….. …… 205
8.2.1. 2. The grammatical categories of the Gerund ………….. 206
8.2.1.3. The subject of the Gerund ………………………….. …….. 207
8.2.1.4. The syntactic functions of the Gerund ………………… 208
8.2.2. The Participle ………………………….. ………………………….. 216
8.2.2.1. The grammatical categorie s of the Present Participle .. 216
8.2.2.2. The syntactic functions of the Present Participle … 217
8.3. The Past Participle ………………………….. ………………………… 224
8.3.1. The uses of the Past Participle ………………………….. ……. 224
8.3.2. The syntactic functions of the Past Participle . ……………. 225
8.4. Complex Constructions ………………………….. …………………… 230
8.5. Non -finite clauses across registers ………………………….. ……. 230
BIBLIOGRAPHY ………………………….. ………………………….. ……. 233

12

13
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGLISH VERB PHRASE

1.1. Definition
Linguists define the verb as the part of speech which expresses
actions or states perceived as processes. This semantic definition must be
completed with morphological and syntactic criteria. From the
morphological point of view, the verb has forms according to the
grammatical categories of person, number, mood, tense, aspect and voice.
A finite verb discharges the function of predicate (syntactic criterion ).
A verb phrase may consist of a main verb alone, or a main verb
plus any modal and/or auxiliary verbs. The main verb always comes
last in the verb phrase (Carter at al., 2011):

He may have studied the subject before.

According to Quirk et al. (1979: 72 -73), the verb phrase can be
simple and complex . It is simple when it consists of only one verb
which may be in the Imperative Mood, the Present Tense Simple or
Past Tense Simple:

He studied hard last year.

The verb phrase is complex when it consists of two or more verbs,
as in:

She must have studied hard.

1.2. Classification of verbs
Further we shall approach the classification of verbs, taking into
account various criteria: form, lexical meaning and compl ementation .

14 A. In accordance with the criterion of form , verbs may be
classified taking into consideration their morphological structure and
their base forms.
Classification of verbs according to their morphological structure
According to their morpholog ical structure verbs fall into:
One-word verbs:
a) Simple verbs : verbs which cannot be further subdivided into
other morphological elements, e.g. get, read, study, swim, work;
b) Compound verbs : verbs formed of two or more morphological
elements written together, e.g. babysit , broadcast, underline,
blackmail , spotlight;
c) Derivative verbs , i.e. verbs formed by means of affixes (prefixes
and suffixes): discourage, enlighten, encourage, misprint,
amplify , symbolize.
Verb al derivational prefixes usuall y do not modify the word class,
that is, a verb -forming prefix is attached to a verb base to form a new
verb with another meaning:

move – remove
do- undo

Unlike prefixes, suffixes usually change the word category:

black – blacken
category – categorize

The productivity of an affix can be assessed by considering the
totality of words formed with it. Uncommon verbs formed with an
affix are likely to be new coinages or older coinages which have
become obsolete.
In their corpus -based book, Longman Grammar of Spo ken and
Written English (L.G.S.W.E ), Biber et al. (1999: 403) have studied the
frequency of affixes in a linguistic corpus consisting of different

15 registers. The research showed that the prefix re- and the suffix -ize
are the most productive, both in terms of the total number of verb
lexemes formed , and in terms of the number of relatively rare words.
There is a great similarity between conversation and academic
register concerning the frequency of derivational affixes.
The prefix re- is utterly productive in academic prose and news.
The most productive suffixes in conversation and academic style are:
-ize: familiarize
-ate: differentiate
-ify: simplify
-en: awaken
The authors also mention that all these four frequent suffixes are
used to form verbs meanin g ‘become’ or ‘cause to be’.
The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (1999)
describes the actual use of grammatical characteristics in various
registers of English: conversation, fiction, news, and academic prose.
The LGSWE adopts a corpus -based approach, i.e. the grammatical
descriptions are based on the patterns of structure and use found in an
impressive collection of spoken and written text, stored electronically,
and which can be searched by computer.
The book complements other grammatical descriptions by
investigating the linguistic structures actually used by the speakers and
writers in the last part of the twentieth century.
This is a proof that structure in use are not independent aspects in
a language; analysis of both is necessary to u nderstand how English
grammar really works in the everyday communicative activities of
speakers and writers.
d) Conversion or zero derivation refers to the derivational process
by which a word belonging to a word class is changed into
another word class, without the addition of an affix.
– a large number of nouns can be converted to verbs: to book , to paper,
to park, to service , to process, to water . Most nouns representing

16 various parts of the body can be used as verbs: to head , to elbow , to
eye, to face.
– adjectives may also be converted to verbs: to clean, to dirty, to wet.

Multi -word verbs :
A multi -word verb is a lexical verb which may be combined with
a particle, with a preposition or with a particle and a preposition
functioning as a verb with a un itary meaning. Grammarians divided
multi -word verbs into three categories: phrasal verbs, prepositional
verbs, phrasal -prepositional verbs.

a) Phrasal verbs: A phrasal verb consists of a verb and an adverbial
particle (e.g., make up, go away, get on, w ake up , build up, etc.).
The verb is usually a common English verb ( be, break, come, fall,
get, give, go, make. put, take, turn). The adverbial particle is an
adverbial of place (across, away, back, down, in, off, on, out,
over, up ). There are two kinds of problems raised by phrasal
verbs: semantic and syntactic.
1. The semantic issues:
Many phrasal verbs have a ‘literal’ meaning. They retain the
individual meanings of the (base) verb and the adverbial particle, i.e.
the meaning of the phrasal verb is simpl y a result of the meanings of
the two elements e.g. to sit down, stand up, to run away , etc.
In some cases, the base verb retains its meaning and the particle
simply adds a special sense. For example, on can mean ‘forward’, as
in go on, read on , etc.; up, off, out can mean ‘completely’,
‘thoroughly’, as in eat up , drink up, finish off.
Sometimes the, particle can be omitted without changing the
meaning of the sentence. However, the sentence seems more natural
with the particle, for instance:

I always wo ke at six o’clock when I was in high school.
I always woke u p at six o’clock when I was in high school.

17 There is also a large number of phrasal verbs whose idiomatic
meaning cannot be inferred from the individual meanings of the (base)
verb and the adverbi al particle.
The meaning of the phrasal verb is opaque. The particle changes
the meaning of the base verb to such an extent, that we have to learn
their meanings as a single unit, almost without association with the
base verb: to carry on (= to continue ), make up (= to invent), to show
up (= to appear, arrive ).
Phrasal verbs are quite common in informal English. In formal
language, they are sometimes replaced by one -word verbs (if there is
a synonym):
He was warned not to give away any information . (= reveal )
Some phrasal verbs are polysemantic and, depending on the
context, they can have a literal or an idiomatic meaning (Murar, 2010:
14). For instance, bring up:
Bring the fridge up. (the phrasal verb has a literal meaning,
i.e. ca rry the fridge up)
He brought his nephew up as his own child. (the phrasal verb
has an idiomatic meaning: ‘to raise’, ‘to educate’)
2. Syntactic issues of transitive phrasal verbs:
When the direct object is expressed by a noun, the object is placed
eithe r before or after the adverbial particle):
He let Peter down again.
He let down Peter again.
The verb and particle may be separated by a short noun phrase. If
the direct object is expressed by a long noun phrase, the particle come s
immediately after the v erb (the object is placed after verb + adverbial
particle):

They turned down very important European projects .

18 When the direct object is expressed by a pronoun, the adverbial
particle is placed after the object, i.e. a pronoun object always comes
before t he adverbial particle:

He let him down again.

In their book, which is a corpus – based approach to English
grammar, Biber et al (1999: 409 -413) also discuss phrasal verbs from
the frequency perspective. The large majority of phrasal verbs are
activity ve rbs and there are only few common phrasal verbs from the
fields of mental, communication, occurrence, and aspectual verbs.
Intransitive phrasal verbs are frequent in conversation and fiction, but
appear rarely in the academic register.
Transitive phrasal v erbs are more evenly spread across registers.
The scholars give the following examples: put on, make up, find out,
carry out, take up, set up, point out.
The most encountered combinations (base verb + adverbial
particle) are:

take + apart, back, down, in, off, on, out, over, up
get + along, around, away, back, down, in, off, on, out,
through, up
come + about, across, along, around, back, down, in, off, on ,
out, over, up
put + across, away, back, down, forward, in, off, on, out,
over, through, up
go + about, along, down, in, off, on, out, over, through, up

b) Prepositional verbs
There are verbs which take an obligatory preposition (e.g. look at,
look after, listen to, wait for, take after, dream at, think of, etc. ). The
verb and the prepositi on express a single idea .

He takes after his father . (= resembles)

19 The noun phrase following the preposition is termed Prepositional
Object. In fact, the purpose of the preposition is to connect the N P, i.e.
the object to the verb. With prepositional ve rbs, the objects are always
placed after the preposition, for instance:

Listen to the record .
Listen to it.
I’m waiting for the teacher .
I’m waiting for him.

In some cases, phrasal verbs with objects look identical to
prepositional verbs. But we can n otice the difference when we use a
pronoun as an object. (Murar, 2010: 16). For instance, run down :

He ran down his own friend . / He ran him down. (phrasal verb)
He ran down the hill . / He ran down it. (prepositional verb)

There are two major structur al patterns for prepositional verbs
(Biber et al, 1999: 413-415):
Pattern 1: NP + verb + preposition + NP

He asked for permission .

Pattern 2 : NP + verb+ NP + preposition + NP

He based his idea on his vast experience.

Prepositional verbs are especial ly common in fiction.
Prepositional verbs have a higher frequency than phrasal verbs. The
fact that they are relatively common in academic register proves that
they do not have the same informal nuances as the phrasal verbs.
The same authors (ibi d, 416) es tablished which are the most
frequent prepositional verbs:
 the verb look at is the most common in all registers

20  say to NP +quote is very common in conversation
 think of – in fiction
 depend on, be based on – academic prose.
c) Phras al – Prepositional verbs are combinations consisting of
three items: a base verb, an adverbial particle, and a preposition (e.g.
look forward to, look down on, catch up with, put up with, run out of ,
stand up for , etc.). The adverbial particle changes the meaning of the
base verb a nd the preposition links the Noun Phrase O bject to the verb.
Both the particle and the preposition come immediately after the verb.
Phrasal – prepositional verbs are quite common in informal English.
In formal English, single -word verbs are preferred.
I get on with my neighbours very well. (= to have a good,
friendly relationship with);
I can’t put up with his behaviour any longer (=tolerate);
d) Idiomatic expressions
These are combinations of a verb + other parts of speech,
espec ially nouns, e.g. give way (= yield), make haste (= hurry, hasten),
make fun of / poke fun at (= ridicule), etc. In these expressions, the
verb itself has a diminished lexical value, while the main s emantic
load is carried by the Nominal Phrase (Murar, 201 0: 17).

Classification of verbs in accordance with their base (inflectional)
forms . The forms of English verbs are:
1. The base form . It is the uninflected form (the first form of the
verb given in dictionaries) which can be used as:
a) the Infinitive ( often preceded by the Infinitive marker to);
b) the Imperative (2nd person singular/plural);
c) the Subjunctive (Present Synthetic);
d) The Simple Present Tense (all persons except the 3rd person
singular .):
E.g. live, eat, read, study, sleep, run, walk.

21 2. The Past Tense Form (V-ed): lived, ate, read, studied, slept,
ran, walked.
3. The Past Participle Form (V-en): lived, eaten, read, studied,
slept, run, walked.
4. The –(e)s form : is added to the base for the 3rd person singular
Simple Present Tense: lives, e ats, reads, studies, sleeps, runs,
walks.
5. The –ing form , also called the form for the Present Participle.
It is formed by adding –ing to the base: living, eating, reading,
studying, sleeping, running, walking.
The conjugation of the English verb is base d on the first three
forms (they are the dictionary forms of the English verbs): live – lived
– lived; swim – swam – swum . Depending on how they form the Past
Tense and the Past Participle, the English verbs are either regular
(live) or irregular (swim ).
Regular verbs : Verbs like live which have the Past Tense and the
Past Participle in –ed are called regular: Regular means that we can
predict all the verb forms of the English verb once we know the base
form and the rule of forming the Past Tense and the Pa st Participle by
adding –ed to the base. Most English verbs are regular. There is a
general tendency to regularization, especially in American English.
All new verbs that are coined or borrowed from other languages adopt
this pattern, for example xerox – xeroxes – xeroxed, xeroxing .
Irregular verbs : Verbs like eat, read, sleep, run, swim are
irregular in that we cannot predict their form for Past Tense and Past
Participle according to the rule. For an irregular verb, we must learn
the three forms (the base form, the Past Tense and the Past Participle)
individually. The irregular verbs form a small but very important
group of verbs from the point of their frequency in the lexicon.

B. According to the criterion of lexical meaning , verbs may be
classified into full/ main verbs and auxiliary verbs.

22 1. A full (main / lexical / ordinary) verb has a full lexical
meaning and can form the predicate by itself.

He studies hard every day.
He had always enjoyed life.

2. An auxiliary verb has no indepe ndent meani ng of its own a nd
must be accompanied by a main verb. Auxiliary verbs are used
before main verbs to help them express certain grammatical
functions or meanings.

Grammarians consider that there are two types of auxiliary verbs:
– primary auxiliary verbs : be, have, do . They are the most frequent verbs
in English. They can be used as auxiliary as well as main verbs. As
auxiliary verbs, combined with the infinitive, the present or the past
participle of main verbs, they form the grammatical categories of ten se,
aspect, voice. They are also used for interrogative and negative forms.
– modal -auxiliary verbs : can, could, may, might, must , ought, shall,
should, will, would . The modal auxiliaries are called so because they
express a variety of attitudes towards a n action or state to which the
main verb refers. The modal auxiliaries are used with the infinitive of
main verbs to indicate the speaker’s attitude towards the utterance:
permission, possibility, probability, prohibition, necessity. Unlike the
primary ver bs (be, have , do), the modal auxiliaries are never used as
main verbs, they are always used only as auxiliary verbs, i.e. they
cannot form a predicate, without the aid of a main verb.
The modal auxiliaries also differ from the primary auxiliary verbs
in that they are anomalous, i.e. they do not have forms for all the tenses
and moods and they do not add –s for the 3rd person singular.
Yet, all auxiliaries share certain characteristics in common,
characteristics that distinguish them from main verbs:
1) The n egative of a verb phrase which contains an auxiliary is
formed by adding the negative particle not after the auxiliary:

23 Affirmative: Jean is reading now.
Negative: Jean is not reading now.
Affirmativ e: Jean could read when she was five.
Negative : Jean could not read when she was five.

Main verbs need the auxiliary do to form the negative:

Affirmative: Jean reads every day .
Negative: Jean does not read every day.

2) Auxiliaries admit inversion (the word order of subject and verb
in the sentence is ch anged; the auxiliary is placed before the
subject):
Interrogative sentences:

Affirmative: Jean is reading now.
Interrogative : Is Jean reading now?
Affirmative: Jean could read when she was five
Negative : Could Jean read when she was five?

Main verbs require the use of the operator do in order to form this
inversion:

Affirmative: Jean reads every day
Negative: Does Jean read every day?

For emphasis:

I have seldom seen such a mean woman . → Seldom have I
seen such a mean woman .

If the verb phrase i s expressed by a main verb alone, then we need
the auxiliary do to perform the emphasis:

Mary knew very little about the subject . → Little did Mary
know about the subject .

24 3) Auxiliaries can be contracted in speech and in informal writing.
Contraction is a short form of a word, when we spell and
pronounce it. The contraction is added to the end of a word and
is marked in writing by an apostrophe ( ’).
All auxiliaries can be contracted when used in the negative:
usually not is spelled n’t and is added to th e auxiliary:

Jean is not reading now . → Jean isn’t reading now.
Jean could read when she was five . → Jean couldn’t read
when she was five .

There are no negative contracted forms for am and may: In tag
questions and in informal register, aren’t is used as a contraction for
am I not : Aren’t I smart?
In informal English, in negative sentences we can choose between
the contraction of the verb or contraction of not:

She’s not reading. or She isn’t reading.
He’ll not miss the chance. or He won’t miss the chance.

Be (am, are, i s), have (has, had ), will (would ) can be contracted in
the affirmative. The word which precedes the contraction is usually a
personal pronoun:

I’m working.
I’ve seen everything.
I’ll open the window.

Had and would have the same contracted form: ’ d

I’d seen everything. (= had)
He’d buy the car if he had enough money. (= would)

25 Is and has use the same contraction: ’ s

He’s working. (= is)
He’s worked a lot this week. (= has)

Contracted forms are enclitic, so they cannot occur at the
beginning or end of a sentence:

I haven’t been to Paris, but he has. (has can’t be contracted)

4) Emphasis : In conversation, special emphasis is often placed on
auxiliary verbs. This emphasis can give some emotional force
to the whole utterance or it can make t he difference between
true and false, or between present and past (Murar, 2010: 23).

These are the facts , you must believe me.

Normally, we use the weak forms [məst]. But if we want to stress
the fact that I am not lying, we place special emphasis on the
auxiliaries by using the strong forms [mʌst].

5) Auxiliaries can function as substitutes for main verbs when we
want to avoid repeating the previous verb. These reduced
constructions are used in:
 short answers:

‘Is she cooking dinner? ’
‘Yes, she is (cooking dinner ). / ‘No, she isn’t.
‘Can s he read now? ’
‘Yes, she can (read)’/ ‘No, she can’t .
‘You’ll be a doctor next year ’.
‘Yes, I will.’

Main verbs in the Present Tense Simple and Past Tense Simple
require the use of do as their s ubstitute:

26 ‘Mike lives here .’ ‘Yes, he certainly does.’

 additions to remarks (ibid: 24):
The addition may be affirmative and the patterns are:
so + auxiliary + subject or subject + auxiliary + too

Pamela could dance and so could her brother . (could replaces
the verb phrase could dance)
Pamela could dance, and her brother could too.

Main verbs which have no auxiliary in their composition need the
use of do as their substitute:

Pamela danced and so did her brother .

For negative additions, the patterns a re:
neither / nor + auxiliary + subject
subject + auxiliary negative + either

Pamela couldn’t dance and neither could her brother .
Pamela couldn’t dance, and her brother couldn’t either.

The functions of the primary verbs: be, have, do

Be, have , do can function both as main and as auxiliary verbs.
Be can be used as:
1. Main verb: in existential sentences, expressing the idea of
being or existence:

They were all there waiting for you.
There is a patient in the waiting room.

Be behaves like an au xiliary even when it functions as a main verb.
For example, it has no do auxiliary for negation or (interrogation). The

27 main verb be is used with the auxiliary do in negative imperative
sentences and in emphatic imperative sentences:

Don’t be naive!
Do be quiet , will you?

2. Auxiliary verb:
Be + -ing form (present participle) of a main verb forms the
progressive aspect of that verb:

John is studying .

Be + -en form (past participle) of a main verb forms the passive
voice of that verb:

The book was r ead.

Be + to-infinitive of a main verb is used as a modal auxiliary to
express an order, a command:

You are to leave before noon.

Have can be used as:
1. Main verb: As a main verb, have expresses different meanings:
State meaning : ‘to possess’, ‘to o wn’:

He has a new fancy car.

A semantic distinction is made between : dynamic verbs, i.e. verbs
which express activities and state verbs, i.e. verbs which express
states. This distinction has an important role in the morphological
behaviour of the verbs, since state verbs do not occur in progressive
forms or in passive constructions.
There is an alternative to this form of have when it means ‘to
possess’: have got (have got is Present P erfect in form but its meaning
is Present S imple ):

28 He’s got a new fan cy car .

Have forms the interrogative and negative in either of the two
ways:
a) according to the rule for main verbs, i.e. with the auxiliary do:

He doesn’t have any friends here .

b) as an auxiliary with inversion (only in British English ):

He hasn’t any f riends here .

Dynamic/ action meanings , such as ‘take’, ‘eat’, ‘receive’,
‘experience’, etc. The interrogative and negative are always formed
with the auxiliary do, according to the rule for main verbs.

How many meals do you have a day?
We’re having an En glish class now .
They were having lunch.

2. Auxiliary verb:
Have + the past participle of a main verb is used to fo rm the
perfective aspect, i.e.: The Present Perfect, The Past Perfect, The
Future Perfect, The Perfect Infinitive, The Perfect Participle, The
Perfect Gerund.

They have just come .

In Spoken English, the weak forms [həv], [həz], [həd], or the
contracted forms [‘ ve, ‘s, ‘d ] are used.
Have + to-infinitive of main verbs expresses the modal value of
obligation and provides all the tenses and forms that the defective
modal verb must has n ot (past, future). In this case, the strong forms
are used and they are never contracted:

29 I have to be at my office at 7 o’clock.
Have is contracted only when got is added to it:
I’ve got to be there .

The interrogative and negative forms are made accord ing to the
rules for main verbs, i.e. with do:

Did you have to be there at 7 o’clock?

When got is added to have , the interrogative and negative forms
are made according to auxiliary verbs (without do):

I haven’t got to study tomorrow .

When followed b y an object in the Accusative + a base verb (short
infinitive) have has a causative meaning = ‘make’:

I’ll have my engine checked tomorrow.

Have + object + Present P articiple of main verbs means:
a) ‘cause’, ‘make’:

He had us studying very hard . (= made us study)

b) ‘permit’, ‘allow’ in negative sentences:

I won’t have you finishing so late.

Have + object + Past P articiple of main verbs has a causative
meaning: ‘to cause someone to do something’, or ‘to cause something
to be done’:

I had my fence painted. (= I caused, i.e. employed someone
to paint it).

30 The interrogative and negative of Present and Past S imple are
formed with the auxiliary do:

Did you have your fence painted ?

Do can be used as:
1. Main verb. As a main verb, do means: ‘to perform’, ‘to carry
out’.

What are you doing there ?

As a main verb, do forms the interrogative and negative in the
Present and Past Simple with the auxiliary do (did) :

What did you do there?
I didn’t do my homework.

Do can combine with a NP to form idioms:
Do+ a bit, the job, the car, the dishes, time , some work, your hair .

I must go and do the car .

We can notice that do has minimal lexical content, referring only
to the performance of an activity that is relevant to the object noun
phrase ( Biber et al.,19 99: 430)

2. Auxiliary verb:
Do / did + the base form of the main verb is used to form the
negative of the mai n verb in the Present and Past S imple:

He wants to read.
He doesn’t want to read.
He wanted to read.
He didn’t want to read.

31 Do / did + the ba se form of the main verb is used to form inversion :
a) in interrogative sentences:

He wants to read.
Does he want to read?
He wanted to read .
Did he want to read?

b) When a negative or restrictive adverb is placed in initial position
(at the beginning of a cl ause) for emphasis.

Little does she know about linguistics.

Do / did + the short Infinitive of the main verb is used to add
special emphasis to the verb (to stress the action expressed by the verb)
in the Present and Past Simple. Do / did are stressed in speech:

I did go here! Don’t you remember?

Do is also used in an imperative sentence for emphasis:

Do read the letter and don’t waste our time!

Most frequent verbs that occur with emphatic do are: have, get,
know, go , look, say , want , come, feel, se e, think, make, like, need, take,
tell, work, believe, happen, hope, seem, occur (ibid.: 434).

c) As a substitute for a verb, functioning as a pro -verb when we
want to avoid repeating the verb:

Meg promised she would come and she did.

It is frequently u sed in short answers:

‘Do you like reading?’
‘Yes, I do.’

32 The pro -verb do is very frequently used in conversation, relatively
common in fiction and rarely found in journalistic and academic prose
(ibid: 432).

The structure of the finite verb phrase
a) Simple Finite Verb
A finite verb is simple when it contains only one verb which may
be in the Imperative or in the Indicative Mood (Present Tense Simple
and Past Tense Simple):

Read , the letter, please!
She finished the book yesterday .

b) Complex finite ver b phrase
A finite verb is called complex when it consists of two or more verbs:

Peter is studying hard for the exam.
Helen may have read the book.

When a verb phrase consists of more than one verb, they are
combined according to certain rules.
There are four basic types of complex finite verb phrase (Quirk et
al., 1979: 73) :
A. MODAL or PERIPHRASTIC type: A modal auxiliary is followed by
the base form of the verb (a verb in the Infinitive, the phrase head):

You must study .

B. PERFECTIVE TYPE: A form of the auxiliary have is followed by
a verb in the Past Participle:

He has studied .

33 C. PROGRESSIVE type: the auxiliary be is followed by a verb in the
Present Participle:

He is studying .

D. PASSIVE type: the verb be is followed by a verb in the Past
Participle:

This subject is studied at our university.

These four basic patterns may also combine with each other to
form more complex verb phrases (longer strings of verbs in one single
phrase). The order of the auxiliaries is a fixed one (alphabetical order):
(A) + (B) + (C) + (D) (Murar, 2010 :32).
Quirk et al. ( 1979: 73) provide the types of combinations. Some
of these are:

AB: He must have checked .
AC: He must be checking .
AD: He must be checked .
BC: He has been checking .

In these chains, the complex verb phr ase types are telescoped into
one another, i.e. combinations of the basic types form structures where
the head of the first is the auxiliary of the second (ibid.: 73 -74)
The lexical meaning is contained in the last word: the main verb.
But the grammatical categories of person, number, or tense are
rendered by the first auxiliary (it is the first auxiliary that makes the
verbal group finite).
The first auxiliary in a verb phrase is called the operator. It performs
several important operations: negation, inv ersion, substitution.

C. Classification of verbs according to their complementation
According to complementation, verbs fall into: intransitive,
transitive and linking verbs.

34 1. Intransitive complementation refers to the use of verbs
without any other objects being necessary to complete their
meaning, for example verbs such as arrive , appear, come, die,
go, laugh, run, swim , etc. An intransitive verb is a verb of
complete predication. It does not need an object to complete
its meaning :

Birds fly.

Intra nsitive verbs are sometimes followed by adverbials of
manner, place and time (optional elements):

He came last month .
Mary swims well.

2. Transitive complementation refers to the type of
complementation a transitive verb requires to complete its
meaning. A transitive verb needs one or two objects to
complete its meaning when used in the active voice. Verbs
such as ask, bring, carry, do, find, get, give, love, make, offer,
read, take, write, hand , use, are typically used transitively:

He gave me a lot of books .
John read the lette r over and over again .

There are verbs which can be transitive or intransitive according
to whether an object is present or not . They can occur with or without
an object :

He is smoking . (intransitive V)
He is smoking a cigar . (transitive V)

3. Linking verbs (or copula(r) verbs )
A linking verb connects two Nominal Phrases: the subject of a
sentence to its predicative . The subject complement is usually a noun

35 or an adjective which completes the meaning of the subject. The most
common linking verb is be which is practically devoid of meaning and
only serves to link the subject with the subject complement:

Roger is polite .
Roger is a doctor .

The other copula verbs are not entirely devoid of meaning.
The class of copulative verbs can be subcategorized into:
a) (+existential) (Verbs of state/B eing): be, feel, lie, stand, stay ,
sound, smell, taste .

He felt dizzy.
The doctor stood firm: he must avoid the sweets .
The cake tastes delicious.
It sounds interesting .

b) (+aspectual) (V erbs of Remaining): continue, hold, keep, remain,
rest:

Jane kept silent, in spite of all our questions.
He remained the same honest man.

c) (+inchoative) (Verbs of Becoming or Resulting Verbs ): become,
come, fall, get, grow, go, make, run, turn :

His daugh ter became a teacher.
He’ s growing old.
She will make an excellent wife.
This river ran dry in August.
He turned pale.
I went mad when I he ard that.

d) (+appearance) (Verbs of Seeming/Appearing): appear, look,
loom, seem.

36 He looked so sad .
The threat of misery looms large in Janet’s mind .
It seems a nice place.

Being completely devoid of lexical meaning, the verb be displays
the largest number of possible combinations , with any part of speech
that can have a nominal function, i.e. with a noun, an ad jective or a
past participle, a pronoun, a numeral, an infinitive, a gerund.

He is a doctor /incompetent /impressed .
This book is mine .
They were only four.
To succeed is to try .
His pleasure was reading old books.

Almost all copulative s combine with ad jectives: appear, become,
continue, fall, feel, get, go, grow, lie, hold, look, keep, remain, run,
seem, stay, turn.
The function of connecting the subject with the subject
complement may be performed not only by a verb which has lost
its lexical meaning, but also by a verb of full meaning:

The sun rose red. = The sun was red when it rose. (The verb
rose performs here the r ole of a link – verb connecting the subject
sun with the subject complement red.)

Compare the following (Murar et al., 201 7: 81):

The sun shone brightly (Verb + Adverbial Modifier of Manner ).
The sun shone bright and hot (Verb + Subject Complement ).
The sun rose brightly and unclouded above the mountains
(Verb + Adverbial Modifier of Manner +Subject Complement ).

Biber et al. (1999: 437 -450) discuss the register distribution of link
verbs and common predicative adjectives .

37 The copula be is the most frequent verb taking an adjectival
complement and the pattern is more common in academic prose and
fiction. This linking verb displays all the possible combinations. The
verbs become, get, look, and feel are the next four most common
linking verb which take an adjectival complement.
Sensory copula verbs ( feel., taste, smell ) are present especially in
fiction.
The copular verb look is very comm on in fiction and relatively
common in informal style . It usually takes the adjective nice as subject
complement.
Seem is the most frequent in fiction, combining with adjectives to
express personal opinions.
Remain , keep, and stay express continuation of a certain state. Of
these verbs, the most common is remain , often encountered in
academic prose and journalistic style. Remain is associated with static
adjectives: constant, intact, low, open, closed , etc.
The resulting verb become is utterly frequent in a cademic register
and relatively common in fictional style, but rarely encountered in
informal English , in conversation. On the contrary , get is very
common in conversation. It is also common in fiction register and has
a number of uses, expressing an exper ience, a change to a new state.
The link verbs be, seem, and appear can take a larger range of
valency patterns than the other link verbs. The complement of these
verbs can be an Adjectival Phrase, a Noun Phrase, Prepositional
Phrase, or complement clause .

She is a doctor .
This seems a good reason .
Peter seemed in charge .
This seems to prove the facts . (To Infinitive Clause)
The problem was that he rejected the proposal . (That Clause,
Predicative Clause)

38
CHAPTER 2
AN OVERVIEW OF THE GRAMMATICAL
CATEGORI ES OF THE VERB

The English verb has the grammatical categories of person,
number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. Depending on the presence or
absence of the categories of person, number, and tense), the verbal
phrases are divided into finite and non -finite forms .
A finite form of the verb has the grammatical categories of
person, number, tense and it can function as a predicate:

He always tells the truth.

In a more complex finite verb phrase (consisting of a string of
verbs) only the first verb is fi nite, the others are non -finite:

He is always telling lies. (is = finite verb form; telling = non –
finite verb form: Present Participle).

The finite forms of the verb in English are : the Indicative, the
Imperative, the Subjunctive and the Conditional.
The non-finite forms of the verb are represented by the Infinitive ,
the -ing forms ( Present Participle, Gerund) and Past Participle . The
non-finite forms lack the categories of person, number, and tense.
Syntactically, they cannot form the predicate in a sent ence; they occur
on their own only in subordinate /dependent clauses (called non -finite
clauses, i.e. clauses without a finite verb):

Having been stung by the bees , he hates these insects.

39 2.1. The categories of person and number
The English verb h as only one formal marker for these categories,
namely the -s for the 3rd person singular Present Tense, Indicative Mood:

He studies in the library every Monday .

Since English has evolved from a highly inflected language to
almost an isolating one, these two categories (of person, number) are
usually identified by means of the subject (unlike Romanian where the
category of person can be identified by means of specific endings:
studiez, studiezi, studiază, studiem, etc. ). Thus, the presence of the
subject is compulsory in English.

I / you study.

The category of person, namely 1st pers. vs 2nd person is identified
by means of the subjects I vs. you.

2.2. The category of tense
The category of tense is specific only for the verb.
Time is an extra -linguistic, a universal concept, which exists
independently of the grammar of any particular language. Yet, when
using language, we make linguistic reference to this non -linguistic
reality by means of the linguistic category of tense. By tense we
understand the correspondence between the verbal form and our own
conceptualization of time (Paidos, 2001: 7)
The non -linguistic (extralinguistic) concept of time has three
divisions: PAST, PRESENT and FUTURE .
The concept of time can be represented by means of an axis (a
horizontal line, theoretically an infinite one) on which the PRESENT
moment (the point of reference – NOW) is located. Anything ahead of
the present moment is in the FUTURE , anything behind the present
moment is in the PAST.

40 Then Now
PAST PRESENT FUTURE
X X X
Temporal axis

Unlike other languages, where there is only one term for both
concepts (extralinguistic and lingu istic), cf.. Romanian timp, French.
temps, English grammatical terminology has two terms: time for the
extralinguistic concept and tense for the linguistic notion, i.e. for the
verbal forms.
In English, there is little morhological indication of tense. The Present
Tense is actually the base form of the verb, ex cept in the third person
where -s is added, and the Past Tense is realized by adding -(e)d.
The correlation between tense and time is not straightforward,
according to Wales (2001: 389), since ther e are only two tenses in
English, but three main distinctions past, present and future.
As Lyons (1977) notices tense is a deictic category since temporal
reference is settled in relation to the speker’s now or then in the
discourse situation .
In fictiona l register where the world of the fiction intersects with
the world of narration, and also the world of the reader, temporal
relations are very complex (Wales, 2001: 389).
The grammatical category of tense relates the time of an event to the
moment when th e utterance is produced about the respecti ve event
(Ștefănescu, 1988: 320). Since the category of tense is obviously dependent
both upon the speaker (i.e. the person who produces the utterance) and upon
the time of the communication, tense is a deictic category.
Deictic is a term which subsumes t hose items of the language
which refer to the personal, temporal or locational characteristics of
the situation within which an utterance takes place, whose meaning is
thus relative to the situational context: personal pronouns (I, you),
demonsratives, pla ce and temporal adverbials.

41 Ștefănescu (1988: 226) and Murar (2010: 38 -39) adopt
Reichenbach ’s (1947) tense theory, according to which three concepts
are necessary for the temporal characterization of an event:
1. The speech time (ST): it is the time when the utterance is
produced, i .e. when the communication takes place (the NOW
of the deictic system).
2. The event time (ET) : it is the time at which the event takes place.
3. The reference time (RT) : it is the time represented on the
temporal axis (present, past, future) specified i n the sentence.
A sentence specifies the reference time by the combination of
tense inflections and time adverbs.
Taking the three divisions of time on the temporal axis as
reference points, events may be viewed in two ways: as being either
simultaneous with the reference points (i.e. they are performed at
these reference points) or perfected / completed before these
reference points.
If the reference point of time is PRESENT (symbolized by the
deictic adverb now), events can be expressed by means of two forms:
– events simultaneous with the present moment (i.e. performed at the
present moment ) are expressed by the Present Tense;
– events completed before the present moment are expressed by the
Present Perfect Tense.
If the reference point of time is PAST (marked by the deictic
adverb then) events can be expressed by means of two forms:
– events simultaneous with the past moment (i.e. performed at the past
moment) are expressed by the Past Tense ;
– events perfected before the past moment are expresse d by the Past
Perfect.
If the reference point of time is FUTURE, events can be expressed
by means of two forms:
– events simultaneous with the future moment (performed at the future
moment) are expressed by the Future Tense or by other means
expressing f uturity.

42 – events finished before the future moment are expressed by the
Future Perfect.
English tenses are verbal constructions expressing points of time
combined with the category of aspect .
Biber et al. (2005: 156) make a review of the category of ten se:
 The verb in English is marked only for two tenses: present and
past.
 Verbs that are marked for tense are more frequent than those
with modal verbs.
 Future time is usually marked with modal verbs.
 Verbs expressing mental states are commonly in the Prese nt
Tense and activity and communication verbs are frequently
used in the Past Tense.

2.3. The category of aspect
Aspect is the grammatical category applied to verbs referring to
different perspectives of viewing the temporal constraints of an event
(Wales , 2001:31). It is the manner in which an action is perceived, or
experienced by the speaker or writer (Paidos, 2001: 7) . In English, aspect
is concerned mainly with how the speaker perceives the duration of
events, and how different events relate to o ne another in time.
Wales (2001:31) states that we can separate the two categories :
tense and aspect.
In time, the distinction between tense and aspect has become
blurred. Celce -Murcia and Larsen -Freeman (1999: 110) consider that
if the natural distinction between the two categories, tense, which
relates to time and aspect, which is based on the internal structure of
the action occurring at any time, are treated separately at first, the
system that results from their subsequent combination is easier to
notice, and hence, easier to study.
Unlike tense, aspect is a non -deictic category.
English is marked formally for two aspects: perfect(ive) aspect
and progressive (continuous) aspect.

43 2.3.1. The perfective vs. non -perfective / imperfective :
The perfective indicates that an event was finished (perfected or
completed) at / before a certain point in time: before present (NOW),
before past (THEN), before future.
The perfective aspect is formed by the auxiliary have + the Past
Participle of the main/lexical ver b.

2.3.2. The progressive (or continuous) vs. simple aspect :
With progressive aspect, the focus is principally on the duration
of the event. It may therefore be used to indicate that something is in
progress, unfinished, or that it is extended but tempor ary. It may
indicate that something is/was/will be already in progress when
something else happens/happened/will happen. In other words, the
focus is not on the starting or finishing point of an event but on the
event itself.
The progressive (or continuous ) aspect describes an action in
progress at a given time (past, present, future). The action is incomplete
and temporary. The progressive aspect is realized by the auxiliary verb be
+ the –ing form (the Present Participle) of a lexical verb.
The simple as pect refers to an action which is complete or is used
when the duration of the action is not relevant. ).
The lexical aspect of the verbs and their grammatical aspect are
interrelated. On account o f their meaning, some verbs are not normally
used in the progressive aspect.

2.3.3. Verbs which are not normally used in the continuous/
progressive aspect .
There are two categories of verbs: dynamic (activity / action)
verbs and state (stative) verbs.

2.3.3.1. Dynamic (activity / action) verbs describe actions that
happen in a certain limited period of time, with a definite beginning
and end. A dynamic verb mainly expresses activity ( study, read, work,

44 write, translate, sing, paint) , process ( change, grow, increase ) and
bodily sensation ( ache, hurt ). Dynamic verbs are normally used in the
continuous aspect. These verbs fall into two subclasses:
a) Durative verbs, i.e. verbs denoting actions that last in time, i.e.
have duration: read, write , work , play, eat, paint, build , etc. This
is a class of verbs typically used in the progressive aspect,
showing that the action is in progress at a certain time (past,
present, future).

She is translating a poem. (the action is in progress at the
present moment; it is not finished yet)
She was translating a poem wh en I came. (the action was in
progress at a certain moment in the past; the action was not completed
and was temporary)

b) Non-durative (momentary ) verbs: verbs denoting momentary
events, actions that occur very quickly, i.e. actions that are
completed al most at the same time they are performed: bang,
catch, find, hit, jump, kick, knock, nod, slam, slap.
They cannot normally be used in the progressive aspect, because
they express momentary actions, perceived as having no duration.
Yet, when these non -durative verbs are used in the progressive
aspect, they denote a repeated action (a series of events).

He knocked at the door.
He was knocking at the door.

2.3.3.2. State (stative ) verbs describe states or situations which
continue over a period of time. State verbs exppess permanent
duration and are not normally used in the progressive forms because
their meaning is incompatible with the essence of the progressive
aspect, i.e. an action in progress, of limited duration, having a definite
beginning and an end, an incomplete action.

45 These verbs are subdivided into the following classes:
a) Relational verbs (verbs which express the idea of being or
possessing): be, belong, comprise, consist, contain, deserve,
have, include, lack, need, owe, own, possess, requi re, etc. Since
these verbs indicate permanent duration, they do not normally
occur in the progressive forms:

He has / owns / possesses a fancy car.
Jean is a good student.
The book includes all the details.

When the speaker wishes to emphasize a tempo rary situation, not
a permanent one, to express a temporary quality, state or behaviour be
can occur in the continuous aspect .
Be is used in the progressive a spect with certain adjectives such
as kind, obstinate, rude, polite, absurd, silly, stupid etc. t o indicate
temporary behaviour. We can notice the difference:

John is a polite boy. ( the simple aspect is used to express a
permanent state/quality/behaviour)
John is being a polite boy today. (the progressive aspect
expresses a temporary quality, state/b ehaviour)

Have is used in the continuous aspect when it does not mean ‘to
possess, to own’, when it is semantically recategorized. Compare:

I have a new bike.
I am having lunch.
They are having an English class.

In the last two sentences have is an acti vity verb.

b) Verbs of inert (involuntary) perception are verbs which
express an involuntary use of the senses, such as: feel, hear, see,
notice, smell, taste:

46 I feel a little bit awkard.
Do you hear the music?
I see Jane coming in .
The food tastes delicious .

These verbs commonly occur with the modal verb can / could to
show that a sense experience is going on at a given moment, or we can
use a synonym: watch, look at, listen to.

I can see Jane coming in.
Can you hear the music?
What are you loking at?

Perception verbs ( see, hear ) may ocurr in the progressive forms
when they change their basic meaning and are used with other
meanings: they are no longer verbs of inert perception, expressing a
deliberate action Notice the difference:

Do you see anybody? ( see: basic meaning ‘sense with one’s
eyes’).

I’m seeing Henry tonight (see ‘meet’)
Yes, I hear you, but I don’t believe you.
They are hearing the witnesses now.
I’m hearing he is coming tonight. (hear = ‘get news from him)

The v erbs smell, taste, sound may be used in the progressive
aspect when they express a voluntary action of the subject, a
deliberate use of the senses, when they have a direct object, becoming
transitive verbs. Compare:

The rose smells so nice. (involuntary u se; it is a permanent
quality of the flower.)

47 I’m smelling the rose. (voluntary, deliberate action: the
progressive aspect refers to an activity taking place at the moment of
speaking and limited in duration; it is a transitive verb).
The soup tastes delic ious.
I am tasting the soup .

Feel is used in the progressive aspect if we refer to a person’s health:

‘How are you feeling today? ’
‘I’m feeling better, thank you’

c) Verbs of inert (involuntary) cognition (verbs of thinking,
referring to the activity of the mind): believe, consider, doubt,
forget, expect, guess, imagine, know, mean, realize, remember,
suppose, think, understand:

I think it is a very difficult subject.
‘Do you understand what this means?’ ‘No, I don’t
understand a wor d.

By inert or involuntary we understand an action happening
without conscious control or intention.
Some state verb of thinking ( think, expect, consider, imagine ) are
recategorized as activity verbs. In this case they can be used in the
progressive aspe ct:

I think he is an intelligent student. (think ‘it is my opinion’ ; verb
of inert, involuntary cognition , expressing a passive state of mind)
I’m thinking of my problems. (think ‘ponder, reflect’ [activity verb]
I don’t consider him an intelligent man. (it’s my opinion)
I’m considering leaving the region for good . (consider ‘think
of, reflect’).
Peter expected his brother to be a responsible man. (expect
‘think, believe’).

48 Peter is expecting guests ( expect =‘wait for’)

Some of these verbs can be used in the continuous forms when
there are some emotional overtones implied:

Is she forgetting her manners?

d) Verbs referring to feelings, emotions (likes and dislikes): adore,
desire, detest, like, loathe, love, hate, prefer, want, wish, etc. :

He hates Roger Thorpe.
She wante d to leave at once .
I love him.

Verbs denoting feelings can be used in the progressive aspect if
they express temporary actions: (e.g., at a party, show, etc.):

‘Are you enjoying the wedding’?
‘I’m loving every minute.’

In their co rpus -based grammar, Biber et. al (2005: 165 -166)
synthetize the use of aspect across the registers and dialects as follows:
 There are two aspects in English: perfect and progressive and
they can be combined with Present, Past and Future.
 Perfect aspect ‘p oints back’ to a previous time, and usually
indicates that the circumstance, or its result, continued up to a
given time.
 Perfect aspect is most common in fiction register and news.
British newspapers use perfect aspect much more than
American newspapers.
 Perfect aspect verbs are often used with time adverbials that
make the time reference clear. Past perfect is often used in
dependent clauses, and the main clause makes the time
reference explicit.

49  Progressive aspect signals an event in progress in the pres ent
or one in the future that is quite certain.
 Continuous aspect is more frequently used in spoken English,
and American English conversation uses the progressive
forms far more than British English conversation.
 Surprisingly, the most common verbs in con tinuous aspect
include both dynamic and stative verbs.

The following chart (Celce -Murcia & Lars -Freeman, 1999: 110)
lists the three tenses along the vertical axis. The four aspects – simple
(sometimes called zero aspect), perfect, progressive, and their
combination, perfect progressive – are placed along the horizontal
axis. We illustrate the tense – aspect combinations with the irregular
verb eat and the regular verb study.

In conclusion, the Indefinite/Si mple Aspect expresses: 1. mere
information about a fact, when the duration of the action is not
relevant; 2. unlimited, permanent duration; 3. momentary action.
The Progressive/Continuous Aspect expresses: 1. an action in
progress of limited, temporary du ration; 2. an incomplete action
(Murar, 2010: 48 -49).
Simple Perfect Progressive Perfect Progressive
Ø have + -en be + -ing have + -en be + –
ing
Present eat/eats
study/studies has/have eaten
has/have
studied am/are/is eating
am/are/is studying have/has been eating
have/has been
studying
Past
ate
studied had eate n
had studied was/were eating
was/were studying had been eating
had been studying
Future will eat
will study will have eaten
will have
studied will be eating
will be studying will have been eating
will have been
studying

50 2.4. Voice is the grammatical category that concerns not only the
verb phrase but also other constituents of the sentence.
Voice expresses the relationship between the verb (the predicate)
on the one hand and the subject and object of the verb, on the other.
There are two voices in English: The Active and the Passive.
In the Active Voice, the grammatical subject and the agent / doer
of the action are identical:

Mary read the book.
Mike gave me a b unch of flowers.

The Active Voice shows that the grammatical subject ( Mary,
Mike ) performs the action (the grammatical subject is the agent, or
doer of the action). The grammatical subject is also the logical subject
of the sentence.
The previous example s changed into the Passive Voice become :

The book was read by Mary .
I was given a bunch of flowers.
A bunch of flowers was given to me.

We notice that the grammatical subject ( the book, I, a bunch of
flowers ) is the goal/ recipient, receiver, or unde rgoer of the action. The
grammatical subject is no longer the logical subject of the sentence.
The by-phrase ( by Mary,) indicates the agent, the real doer of the
action, the logical subject.
It is obvious that in a passive sentence the emphasis is on the
action itself, not on the doer.
This grammatical category will be treated in extenso in a separate
chapter.

2.5. Mood is the grammatical category by means of which we
express modality, i.e. the attitude of the speaker towards the action
denoted by the verb . Thus, the speaker can present the action as being:

51 1. [+ real], i.e. actual, factual, existing in fact;
2. [- real], i.e. not real, non -factual, hypothetical, possible, p robable,
necessary, desirable, etc.
There are grammarians who distinguish four fin ite moods: the
Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Conditional and the Imperative (Leon
Levițchi, Alice Bădescu).
Some grammar books (see Carter and McCarthy, 2006: 911)
distinguish three moods:
1. Indicative expressing a factual meaning: Margaret studied here
four years.
2. Imperative expressing a directive meaning: Let’s study!
3. Subjunctive expressing a non -factual meaning: We insist that
he study Chemistry.
Other grammars limit the number of moods to only two: the
Indicative and the Subjunctive.
Accor ding to modern grammarians, the Conditional should be
analysed as a type of the Subjunctive on account of its form and
meaning. From the point of view of its form, the Conditional is
identical with some forms of the Analytical Subjunctive (it is formed
with the auxiliaries should and would ); in point of meaning, just like
the Subjunctive, the Conditional expresses hypothetical values.
In our book we shall deal with three moods: the Indicative, the
Subjunctive and the Imperative. The conditional Mood will be
analysed as a subtype of the Analytical Subjunctive.
The Indicative and the Subjunctive are seen as the two basic
propositional modalities of English (Murar, 2010: 129).
The Indicative Mood is the mood of assertion , it presents the
action as real (or in close relation to reality) or as factual (i.e. as
existing in fact). It is the most common form and involves all the
categories: person, number, tense, aspect, modality and voice. The
tenses of the Indicative Mood cover all the divisions of time on the
temporal axis: past, present or future (as we will discuss them in the
next chapter).

52 The Subjunctive Mood is non-assertive , it presents non-factual ,
hypothetical situations. By using the Subjunctive, the speaker sees the
action not as a real one, but as a hypothetical, possible, probable,
necessary action. Unlike the Indicative, the Subjunctive lacks deictic
temporal orientation.
The category of mood will be further dealt with in the chapter The
Subjunctive Mood .

53
CHAPTER 3
THE INDICATIVE MOOD. THE TENSE – ASPECT
SYSTEM IN ENGLISH

As we have already mentioned, in the previous chapter, the
categories of tense and aspect are interrelated in English. This close
connection is best proved within the Indicative Mood. That is why , in
this cha pter we shall give a detailed description of the tenses of the
English Indicative Mood.

3.1. The Present Tense
3.1.1. The Present Tense Simple
Form: The Present Simple is formed using the base form (the
Infinitive) of the verb for all persons excep t the third person singular. The
third person singular is formed by adding –s or –es to the base form.
Do /does are used for the interrogative and negative forms:

I/you/we/they/the students study hard.
He/she /studies every day.
Linguistics is a science. It studies language.
Do I/you/we/they/the students study hard?
Does he/she study hard?
I/you/we/they/the students do not study hard.
I/you/we/they/the students don’t study hard.
He/she /the student does not study hard.
Ellen doesn’t study at the Universit y every day.

Spelling issues of the Present Tense Simple:
 Verbs ending in -s, -ss, -ch, -sh, -x and -o add -es to form the third
person singular:

54 He watches a movie every night.
Gina brushes her hair daily.
She always goes to visit her parents .

 Y is changed into i and -es is added when y follows a consonant:

George studies in the library.
He always tries to do his best .
Verbs ending in y following a vowel obey the general rule:
The boy plays here every day .

Uses and values :
1. One of the most encoun tered uses of the Present Simple is the
unrestrictive (or timeless ) use: it expresses an action or state
that extends over a certain period of time centered in the present
moment. This use refers to two subdivisions: Generic (or
Universal ) Present and Habi tual Present.
a) Generic (or Universal ) Present: The Present Simple denotes
generic actions that take place in an unspecified period of time
which includes the moment of speaking: they exist now, existed
in the past and probably will exist in the future.

P
α X X X X X α

The Generic (or Universal) present is used to express generic,
eternal, scientific or universal truths, facts which are always true or
proverbs, as in the following examples:

The Sun rises in the East.
Water freezes at 0ș C.
The Danube flows into the Black Sea .

55 None of these sentences refers to a specific situation. The sentences
do not specify a particular moment or interval of time. The verb is
completely timeless: it refers to what is eternally true. In fact, generic
statements imply the presence of the adverb always in the deep structure.

b) Habitual Present : The Present Simple denotes habitual, re peated,
general, regular actions.
The repetition of the action is often stressed by adverbs of
frequency, such as often, usually, n ever, always, generally, rarely,
sometimes, every day / week / month, on Mondays , once a week / twice
a day, etc.:

Mary always goes to work in the morning .
I visit my grandparents twice a week .
Victor studies every day.

2. The Instantaneous Present contrasts with the generic or
habitual present uses in that it refers to a specific event which
is simultaneous with the moment of speaking. The event takes
place at the very moment of speaking. Normally, this value
should be expressed by the progressive as pect, since the
progressive aspect is used to denote a single occurrence of an
event happening simultaneously with the moment of speaking .
The Present Simple is used with dynamic verbs when no duration
is thought of or when the stress is not so much on th e duration of the
action but on the quick succession of events: the event develops so
quickly that it cannot be perceived in its entirety.
Taking into account these temporal and aspectual features of the
Instantaneous Present Simple, this form occurs on ly in a limited
number of contexts:
a) in radio or TV commentaries , especially sports ones. In making
a commentary, the speaker sees the events in a sequence of

56 complete acts; he is merely reporting the events, he is not
interested in their duration:
Jones passes the ball to Brown who misses it.

In such a commentary, the commentator does not insist on the
duration of the events but on their rapid succession: the events are seen as
momentary, being completed almost at the same time they are performed.

b) In description of experiments and demonstrations:

Now I mix the ingredients in this bowl.

c) In stage directions (when the playwright gives directions to the
actors) :

She enters the room and looks around her.

The reason for not using the progressive aspect here – points b)
and c) is that it is the idea of repetition which is implied rather than
something going on at the moment of speaking. In other words, these
actions will happen each and every time the same circumstances are
created (viz. cooking that dish or performing that particular play)
(Murar, 2010: 52)
d) In exclamations introduced by here, there :

Here comes the train!
There goes our bus !

If these statements were not exclamatory, the progressive aspect
would be used:

The train is leaving now.

57 e) In assertions that use performative verbs. Performative verbs are
those verbs for which the event consists in the very uttering of
the statement; the action happens at the moment of speaking
when we describe what we are saying: accept, apologize, admi t,
deny, hope regret, thank etc. Syntactically, they usually occur in
the 1st person:

I apologize for all.
I hope you’ll be well soon .

3. The Present Simple is used with state verbs (verbs which cann ot
be used in the progressive aspect):

I love you.
She know s all the facts .

In conclusion, the Present Simple has different values (generic,
habitual, instantaneous) which all have as a basic meaning the fact that
the event covers the present moment.
The Present Simple can indicate other temporal values: i t can be
used to refer to the future and to the past.

4. The Present Simple referring to future time
The Present Simple with future time reference occurs in simple /
independent sentences and in subordinate clauses.
a) In simple sentences : The present simple denotes officially
planned future actions, when the future action is considered part
of an already fixed programme, particularly when it refers to
statements about a trip, travel arrangements, timetable , a
schedule, etc.
Adverbials indicating futu re time are compulsory for the correct
interpretation of the temporal value:

The plane takes off at 8:30.

58 What time does our holiday begin?

The present simple is used only in those contexts in which the
anticipated event is considered as an unalterable f act. There is an
evident modal nuance of certainty with this use, this being the most
certain means of expressing futurity According to R. Quirk, “the
anticipated event is attributed the same degree of certainty that one
usually associates with present or past events” (apud Murar, 2010: 54).

b) In subordinate clauses : The present simple with future time
reference is used in certain types of subordinate clauses, i.e.
Adverbial Clauses of Time and Condition. The idea of futurity
is clearly denoted in the main clause which expresses or implies
future time:

When I meet him, I will tell him everything .
If the weather stays fine, we will leave.

5. The Present Simple referring to past time
The Present Simple sometimes refers to events in the past in
certai n contexts:
a) The Present Simple is used with reference to actions in the past
in order to express vividness in narration, to make past
happenings seem present, as if they were going on right now,
under our own eyes. This use is traditionally known by the te rm
Historic or Narrative Present Tense . From the stylistic point of
view, the Historic Present Tense occurs in speech (oral style) as
well as in literary register. Thus, the reported events seem more
dramatic. It is used in jokes, narrations, s ummaries of historical
events, plots of stories, novels, movies, newspaper headlines, etc.

In the end the German army is defeated in Stalingrad.
Plane crashes in strange circumstances.

59 In telling stories, both Present Tense Simple and Progressive can
be used, a lthough there is a difference. The Simple Present is used for
events which happen one after another, the Present Continuous is
employed in background situations, that is with activities that are
already happening when the story starts or at a certain momen t in the
development of events (Paidos, 2001: 8):

He comes in there, lights a candle and he sees an old woman.
The old woman is knitting .

b) with some verbs of communication: forget, gather, hear, learn,
tell, understand the Present Simple is used instea d of Past Tense
in order to express the present effect of a past communication (in
colloquial style) :
I hear you have left the company.
They tell me you are leaving abroad.

3.1.2. The Present Tense Continuous (Progressive)
Form : It is formed of the Prese nt Tense of the auxiliary be + the
Present Participle of the main verb:

I am studying .

Spelling notes of the Present Participle :
 When the verb ends in a single -e, this is deleted before -ing:

make -making
hate-hating

There are some exceptions:

– age, be, dye, and singe: ageing, being dyeing, singeing;
– verbs ending in -ee:

60 agree -agreeing
see-seeing
 If the verb of one syllable has a single vowel and ends in a single
consonant, this consonant is doubled:

run-running
put-putting

Verbs formed of two o r more syllables whose last syllable
contains only one vowel and ends in a single consonant, double this
consonant only if the stress is on the last syllable:

refer -referring
begin -beginning

A final – l after a single vowel is always doubled, except in
American English:

travel -travelling in British English, but traveling in American
English.

 -ing can be added to a verb ending in -y with no change in spelling
of the verb:

study -studying
try-trying

Uses and values :
1. The Present Progressive denotes an act ion in progress,
happening at the moment of speaking (it is seen at some point
between its beginning and end: the action has already begun
but is not yet finished) :

I am writing an essay right now .

61 Time markers (adverbs of time) are optional with the Pre sent
Continuous because the tense itself is understood to mean ‘right now’.
These adverbials of time can be: now, right now, just now, at the
(present) moment:

Mike is reading the letter now.
She is studying for the exam right now.

The verbal form is stu dying expresses an action which is in
progress at the moment of speaking: the action began in the recent
past, before the moment of speaking ‘right now’ and will probably
continue or will end at some point in the future.

2. The Present Continuous can al so express an event which is
happening around the moment of speaking but not necessarily
exactly at the moment of speaking, extendin g over a slightly
longer period of time, including the moment of speaking.
Adverbial phrases such as: these days, this week / month / year,
etc. are usually used in this case:

I’m saving a lot this month .
She is reading a lot of poetry for her exam these days.

3. It can also express a temporary action, i.e. an action of limited
duration and not yet finished:

I teach French, but this year I am teaching English.
He lives in London, but this month he is staying in New York.

62 4. The Present Continuous expresses a developing or changing
activity, a transition from one state to another, which therefore
implies limited duration . It usually occurs with adverbials of
degree and adjectives expressing gradual comparison, such as
more and more, faster and faster, gradually, increasingly, etc.:

It is getting warmer and warmer. Summer is coming.
More and more people are working abroad .

5. The Present Progressive has a connotative value when it is used
in combination with a frequency adverb such as always, forever ,
continually, constantly, all the time , incessantly. In this case the
use of the progressive aspect expresses a repeated, freq uent
action which annoys the speaker.

They are always complaining .
That dog is continually barking .
He is always calling me when I try to sleep..
Those girls are talking about the fashion all the time.

6. Future time reference :
a) planned or arranged future action in independent sentences
The Present Continuous is the most usual way to express a
person’s immediate plans, intentions or definite arrangements for the
future. An adverbial of time is always used to indicate the time of the
action, as other wise there might be confusion between present and
future values.

I am leaving tomorrow/next Monday.
We’re giving a party tonight.

As compared to the Present Simple with future time reference, the
anticipated event rendered by the Present Progressive i s less certain;
the plan or arrangement may be changed. The Present Continuous is

63 used when the future action is the result of a personal arrangement of
the subject, while the Present Simple is used when the future activity
is regarded as part of a settled programme, timetable, schedule, etc .
The difference between the Present Progressive and the Present
Simple can be seen in the following sentences:

I’m getting there tonight. ( I have decided to arrive there)
I get there tonight. (this is part of an offic ial plan)

The Present Simple is more impersonal than the Present
Progressive (Murar, 2010 : 62)
The fact that the present progressive expresses personal
arrangement in the future, restricts its use to verbs having animate [+
human] subjects:

Ellen is lea ving at 7 at o’clock p.m.
* The train is leaving at 7 o’clock p.m .
The correct form: The train leaves at 7 o’clock p.m .

b) The Pres ent Progressive is also used in subordinate clauses of
time and condition:

I like to listen to the music while I’ m cleanin g the house.
I’ll tell her about the party if she is coming tomorrow.

The Present Continuous is sometimes used in subordinate clauses of
time and condition to refer to an action that may be going on at any time:

I don’t like to listen to the music when I ’m studying
She seems so nice if she is smiling.

Comparison between the Present Progressive and the Present
Simple
In order to distinguish the Present Progressive from the Present
Simple it is necessary to analyse three separate contrasts of meaning:

64 a) The Present Progressive indicates a limited, temporary action
and is, thus, distinguished from the unlimited (Generic and
Habitual Present Simple). The difference between the limited
and unlimited duration is evident from the following examples
in which the Pr esent Simple (expressing unlimited, permanent
situations) contrasts with the Present Progressive (expressing
limited, temporary situations):

The Sun rises in the East.
Look! The Sun is rising!
I always save money.
I am saving a lot this year since I want to buy a house .

b) The Present Progressive indicates duration and is, thus,
distinguished from the non -durative, Instantaneous Simple. The
durative meaning of the Present Continuous can be seen in the
contrast of:

I mix the eggs with the o ther ingredients .
I am mixing the eggs with the other ingredients .

In the first sentence , the event is mentally perceived as an
indivisible entity, without duration (the sentence suggests a sudden
movement); in the second sentence, the event is conceived as having
duration (the sentence suggests a gradual movement).
The choice of verb form may depend entirely on the speaker’s
perception. The speaker may wish to take a synoptic view, a view of
an action or series of actions as a whole, in which case he/she chooses
the Present Simple. In describing a scientific experiment, a researcher
is more likely to use the sipmple aspect: he/she is interested in his acts
or in phenomena as elements in a chain of events.
If the speaker is more concerned with drawing atte ntion to the fact
that an activity is in progress or in a state of incompletion he/she
chooses the progressive form:

65 In each case the actions or phenomena are the same, but the speaker
looks at them differently (Leech, 1978, apud Murar, 2010: 59).
c) Anothe r contrast is complete action versus incomplete action.
The Present Continuous indicates that the action is not complete
and, thus, it is again distinguished from the Present Simple. This
difference between complete and incomplete actions is
illustrated by event verbs ( become, fall, get, go, stop) which
express a transition from one state to another.
The train stops . (The Present Simple indicates that the vehicle
arrived at a state of rest) [+complete].
The train is stopping . (The Present Continuous indic ates that the
vehicle is only slowing down (in order to stop) [ -complete].

3.2. The Past Tense
3.2.1. The Past Tense Simple
Form :
a) Regular verbs form their Past Tense simple by adding –ed to the
short infinitive:

to study: I / you / he studied.

Spelli ng issues of regular verbs in the Past:
 The rules about doubling the final consonant when adding -ing
apply also when we form the Past Tense:

stop-stopped
refer -referred
travel -travelled

 Verbs ending in -y following a consonant change the -y into i:

study-studied
cry-cried

66 try-tried

There is no change when the -y follows a vowel:

play-played

b) Irregular verbs form their Past Tense in various ways: sing – sang
(internal vowel change); send – sent (change in the last
consonant); hurt – hurt (invariable forms); be – was/were -been
(different roots: suppletive forms). The Past Tense of such verbs
is the second form listed in dictionaries or grammars: I / you / he
made.

Uses and values :
1. The Past Tense Simple expresses a completed action or state
that too k place at a definite past moment. The event or the
state has no longer any connection with the present.

PAST Present
X

The definite past moment denoted by the verb in the Past Simple may
be expressed explicitly by adverbs or may be implied from the context.
The definite past moment is expressed explicitly by time markers
(adverbials of definite time): yesterday, combinations with last (last
night, last month, last year ), combinations with ago (five days ago, ten
years ago, a long time ago), once, the other day ; specific points in time
introduced by in, at, on (in 1989, at 3 o’clock p.m., at noon ); special
questions introduced by when, what time (because we expect the answer
to contain the exact moment or date when the action took place):

I wrote the application letter yesterday .
He move d here 15 years ago .

67 When did you meet him? (the definite time is asked about)
I met him two days ago.
‘What time did Mike come ?’
‘Last night.’

The definite past moment may be implied from the context: it is
not necessary for the Past Simple to be accompanied by an explicit
marker of time since the speaker/writer has in mind a definite time at
which the action / state took place . Actions finished at a definite point
in the past which is not given but implied or understood as past time
occur in the following cases:
– in the narrative style: The Past Tense is used to narrate situations
that happened at a time before NOW, but which is not explicitly given.
In fact, the Past Tense Simple is the narrative tense par excellence , a
tense normally used for the description and narration of past events,
when there is a series of events occurring in a sequence:

I got up , took a shower and drank the coffee.

– the place of the action is specified/is gi ven:

I found the letter in the room . (the definite time in the past is
identified by the adverbial of place which, indirectly, shows when the
action took place).

– the Past Simple is used for an action whose time is not given but
which took place in a period of time now finished:

Mr. Marler worked in Chicago for a long time . (but he is not
working there now)

– sometimes the time becomes definite as a result of of a preceding
verb in the Present Perfect . A sentence or conv ersation often begins
with the Present Perfect (which denotes an indefinite time) but

68 normally continues in the Past Tense. This is because the action
previously mentioned has now become definite in the minds of the
interlocutors .
The fact that by using th e Past Tense the speaker has a definite time
in mind differentiates this use of the past simple from the indefinite use
of the Present Perfect. According to Leech, a parallel can be drawn
between the Past Tense / Present Perfect pair and the definite / ind efinite
article pair. The difference between: I met him and I have met him is
therefore parallel to that between the author and an author .
Just as, at the beginning of a narrative, the definite article tends to
be preceded by the indefinite article, which establishes the initial
framework of reference, so the Past Tense tends to presuppose a
framework of time reference already established by the Prese nt Perfect
(Leech, 1978: 144).
Both aspects can be noticed in the following examples:

I have just spoken to a woman and her daughter. The woman
wanted to know whether you could help her.
‘Where have you been ?’ ‘I’ve been to Paris.’ ‘ Did you like
it? I loved it.
She has just left the house . It was a surprise for all of us .

2. The Past Tense Simple expresses ha bitual, repeated past
actions, i.e. actions that regularly happened in the past but no
longer happen. The past simple is usually accompanied by an
adverbial of frequency such as always, never, often, frequently,
regularly:

I often studied in the morning w hen I was young.

Repeated actions in the past may also be rendered by means of
modal verbs used to + Infinitive or would + Infinitive.

Used to + infinitive is used for:

69 a) Past habit: with dynamic verbs it expresses repeated actions in
the past, i.e. a past habit which contrasts with the present. A time
expression is not necessary:

I used to drink a lot of coffee , but now I drink only green tea.
When I was young I used to go fishing every summer .

b) Used to + the infinitive of state verbs can also describe past states
(a permanent state in the past, a state which no longer exists:

Her hair used to be black , but it is gray now .

The construction used to + the infinitive of state verbs can be
rephrased by once + Past Tense (Murar, 2010: 67 ):

Her hair was once black , but it is gray now .

Would is used to describe a person’s typical, habitual, repeated
activities in the past . There is a nuance of prediction that can be felt in the
context. It can only be employed to describe repeated actions, not states:

She would sit for hours in her arm -chair watching soap -operas.
Peter would talk on the phone for minutes whenever he had
some spare time.

Would is typical of narrative style (mainly used in writing) , but
used to is more c haracteristic of informal English.
According to Celce -Murcia et al. (1999, apud Murar, 2010: 68),
when used to and would occur together, used to tends to frame the
discourse, and would serves to elaborate (the topic):

When we were children, we used to pla y in the garden for
hours. We would stop only when we were called for dinner.

70 3. The Present Tense Simple is changed into the Past Tense
Simple in Reported Speech after a Past Tense in the main
clause:

’I work here’, the man said.
The man said he worked there.

4. The Past Simple with other temporal values
a) The past simple with present time reference
The past simple with the value of present is also called a ttitudinal
past because this verbal form is related to the attitude of the speaker
rather than to time. The Past Tense (instead of the Present Tense) of
verbs like: hope, intend, want, wish, wonder is used as a marker of
social distance, indirectness, as a strategy of politeness. The Past
Tense with these verbs is used to express a polite request or q uestion.
This is because the Past Tense distances an event from the present, and
this can, thus, become less direct.

I wondered if I could give a call.
Did you want to talk to me?

The effect of the Past Tense in a question such as Did you want to
talk to me? is to make the inquiry indirect and therefore more polite
than a question with the Present Tense: Do you want to talk to me?
The Present Tense in this case would seem rather brusque and
demanding (Leech, 1978: 15)

b) The Past Simple with the value of the Past Perfect
The Past Simple may occur instead of the Past Perfect in clauses
of time introduced by conjunctions like after (indicating the priority
of the action in time to the action of the main clause):

He left the house after he locked / had locked the door.

71 c) The Past Tense with future time reference:
– the Past Tense can refer to future actions in temporal and
conditional clauses when the main verb is in the past:

He promised me he would call when he arrived in London.
He said he woul d buy a new car if he had enough money.

– The past simple with the value of an anticipated event:
This value is possible only with the verb be in constructions like:
be to, be going to, be about to expressing an event that was due to
happ en after a time in the past (Future -in- the- Past)

I was to leave the neighbourhood, but something happened,
and I changed my mind.

3.2.2. The Past Tense Continuous/Progressive
Form : The Past Tense progressive is formed of the Past Tense of
the a uxiliary be and the present participle of the main verb: I was
studying , etc.

Uses and values
1. The past progressive is used to express an action in progress at
some time in the past. It stresses the duration of a single event
which was temporary. It co ntinued for a certain time, but not
up to the present.

The particular past moment (which is the time of reference for the
verb in the past progressive) can be explicit or can be implicit .
a) The particular past moment is rendered explicitly by an adverb ial
of time or by a clause:

72 – an adverbial of definite time: at 6 o’clock, at that time, all day, this
time yesterday/ last year , etc.

At this time yesterday, we were having lunch with our friends .
At that time, we were studying in a research centre.
‘What were you doing at this time yesterday?’
‘I was having an examination .’

– by a clause which contains a verb in the Past Simple. In this case, it
expresses an action that began and probably continued after the other
(shorter) action which interrupte d it:

I was studying when my brother called me. (the action in the
Past Progressive – was studying – started before the action in the past
simple – called – and probably continued after it)
When I met Roger, I was walking in the park.
While she was cooki ng, somebody knocked at the door.

It is obvious that the Past Continuous is used as a kind of
background or frame (a longer action) for the action rendered by the
past simple (a shorter one). Therefo re, the relationship of meaning
between the Past Continuous and the Past Simple is one of inclusion :
the action expressed by the past simple is included in that of the past
progressive ( Murar, 2010: 72):

When we got there she was packing .

On the contrary, the relation between two Past Simple forms is
one of succession, i.e. the two actions are consecutive:

When she heard the bell, she went to open. But nobody was there.

b) The past progressive is sometimes used without a time expresion:
the pas t moment may just be implied. This is frequently found in
descriptions: the Past Progressive expresses durative actions in

73 progress which contrast with non -durative, successive or completed
actions rendered by the Past Simple:

I entered the room, turned on the lights and sat down .
It was raining heavily. But in the house was very pleasant. A
fire was burning and father was reading a story .

2. The Past Continuous is used to express two simultaneous,
parallel actions in the past:

I was studying while my sis ter was playing in the yard .

3. The past progressive is used to express a frequently repeated
action in the past, an irritating habit. The adverbs of frequency
used in this case are: always, forever, continually, all the time , etc.

Those girls were forever talking about fashion.
They were always complaining about something.
John was always ringing me up when I tried to sleep.

4. Present Tense Continuous is changed into Past Tense
Continuous in Indirect Speech, after a verb in the past:

‘I am workin g on a new project now’, Claude explained .
Claude explained that she was working to a new project then.

5. Future value use
Just as the Present Progressive can be used to express a personal
future arrangement ( I am having a party tonight) , so the Past
Progressive can express a personal future plan seen fro m a past
perspective. It is a form of the Future – in- the- Past.

I was leaving abroad on Sunday morning.
The festival was taking place the next day.

74 The use of an adverb of time is compulsory: the n ext day, on
Monday , etc.
The past progressive can refer to Future – in- the- Past, especially
in Indirect Speech (the past equivalent of the Present Continuous):

When I told Vanessa I was moving to New York the next
month, she was very surprised .

The C ontinuous can also refer to plans that did not materialize
(unfulfilled past intention):

I was packing to leave town, the next day, but something went
wrong and I could not leave .

More frequently the form going to is used for unfulfilled plans :

Melinda was going to invite Beth, but her parents rejected the
idea.

The Past Simple versus the Past Continuous
a) While the Past Simple expresses a complete action in the past,
the Past Continuous is used to express an incomplete one:

I was cleaning my room yesterday. (an incomplete action. I
didn’t finish it.)
I cleaned my room yesterday. (a complete action)

Especially with achievement verbs there is a sharp difference between
the two variants:

Mary was dying .
She died.

The sentence with the Pa st Simple implies that the event actually
took place (death,), while in the second sentence with the Past
Progressive, the event did not take place if it was interrupted:

75 Mary was dying when the doctor g iving that medicine saved her.

b) The Past Simple must be used if we indicate the number of times
the action occurred:

She was writing e-mails all afternoon.
She wrote twenty e -mails in the afternoon.

c) The Past Simple sees the event as fulfilled, with no room for
change; the Past Progressive indicates that an event has already
begun and extends the event in time and, thus, a change or
interruption is possible (Murar, 2010):

Sarah left when I got there.
Sarah was leaving when I got there . (and so may have
changed her mind and remained).

d) The Past Progress ive can be used as an alternative to a Past
Simple form to indicate a less deliberate action:

Peter was talking to John last evening.
Peter talked to John last evening. (the Past Simple expresses
a deliberate action: it indicates that the subject –Peter – has the
initiative of starting the conversation.

e) The Past Progressive with the verb wonder has a polite nuance:

I was wondering if you could help me with the project.

With the verb think the Past Progressive implies uncertainty:

I was thinking of working together to the project.

76 3.3. The Perfect Tenses
The three perfect tenses (The Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, the
Future Perfect) render the completion of an action before, by a given
time or leading up to another time, e.g. P resent Perfect leads to present,
Past Perfect leads to past.

3.3.1. The Present Perfect
3.3.1.1. The Present Perfect Simple
Form :
It is formed of the Present Tense of the auxiliary have and the Past
Participle of the main verb: I have studied , etc.

Uses and values:
The Present Perfect describes an event seen from the present axis
perspective, anterior to the moment of speaking, whose anteriority is
not settled, having an indefinite character. This tense may be said to
be a sort of combination of pr esent and past: it is used to relate events
or states taking place in the past to a present moment. It always
suggests a strong connection with the present.
The Present Perfect Simple expresses the completion or perfection
of an event before the prese nt moment NOW. The event happened at
an unspecified indefinite time, sometimes in the past (the event is
located somewhere before the moment of speaking).

Within this very general framework of the Present Perfect several
uses can be identified:

77 1. Presen t Perfect Simple expresses an action anterior to the present,
i.e. happened in the past, but whose moment is not specified:

I have studied a lot.
I have met Eric.

2. This tense is associated with an open, unfinished period of
time: today, this morning, this week, this year, etc.

We have had three tests this week.

3. It is used for an action which was recently finished, sometimes
right before the moment of speaking. This use is sometimes
accompanied by adve rbs like: already, yet, just, recently, of
late, latel y, up to now, so far.

She has just left
I have already done this.
Catherine has not finished yet.
I have managed by myself so far.

4. The performer of an action in the Present Perfect Tense
Simple must be alive. We cannot use this tense with dead
persons. C ompare:

My husband has written a lot of articles on this topic. (My
husband is alive.)
Shakespeare wrote a lot of famous plays. (Shakespeare is dead.)

5. The Present Perfect Tense Simple is used to express an action
or state started in the past, but still c ontinuing in the moment
of speaking and maybe after.

The verb expressing this use is compulsorily accompani ed by an
adverbial of duration. The usual adverbials of duration are those

78 introduced by since (to denote the beginning of the period of time that
continues up to the present moment); by for (to denote duration, the
length of time); other adverbials of duration are also expressed by
long, how long . The present Perfect Simple has this meaning for those
verbs that are not normally used in the progressiv e aspect (state verbs) :

I have been here since 2 o’clock .
I have been here for two hours .
I have known him since 1998.

The preposition for can be deleted in informal English:

He has lived in Springfield twenty years .
How long have you lived here?

Since can be a preposition, adverb, conjunction:

I have been here since July . (preposition)

When since is used as a conjunction, it introduces a clause of time
with the verb in the Past Tense, i.e. the Present Perfect is used in the
main clau se while the Past Tense is used in the subordinate clause
introduced by since:

I have liked his music movies ever since I was a teenager .
Mike has lived here since he was born .

But the Present Perfect is also used in the Te mporal Clause if the
action expressed is still going on, i.e. if the two actions are parallel
(with verbs such as be, live, stay ):

I’ve known all these good people since I ’ve lived in this town .

6. The Present Perfect Tense Simple can also express a
chara cterisic, repeated action in the past, present and maybe

79 in the future. This use is accompanied by adverbs of
frequency : always, often, never, ever, sometimes, etc.

I have always studied hard.
She has never done such kind of things.

7. Present Perfect Tense Simple is used in Temporal and
Conditional clauses to express an action anterior to the action
of the main clause, when the verb is in the Imperative, Present
or Future. So, here it has a future value, being used instead of
The Future Perfect.

Let me kno w when you have got there.
I will help you when I have finished my own work.
Ross will call if he has found out something.

In these cases Present Tense Simple can also be employed, but the
use of the Present Perfect emphasises the idea of anteriority.
The values of the Present Perfect Tense Simple can be synthesized
as follows:

I. Resultative Value
The present perfect is used to express an action which was
completed in the past, but which still has present significance, its
effect being felt in the present . The value of the present perfect is
called resultative because, although no longer continuing in the
present moment, the verbal form stresses the result, the effect of the
action at the present time.
With this value, the present perfect does not need adv erbials (it is
used without any time adverbials), since we are not interested when
the action happened, we are interested only in the fact that the past
action has some effect at the present time, has present relevance:

I have read the study.

80 He has lef t town.

II. Indefinite Value/ Perfect of Experience
It is called indefinit e because the time of the event is unspecified
(the events happened at an unknown time in the past). The present
perfect can express indefinite events in a period extending up to the
present time. This value is also known as perfect of experience because
it refers to what has happened once or more than once, with a certain
fequency within someone’s experience.
This use of the Present Perfect is often accompan ied by an
adverbial of time.

Have you ever been to Paris ?
I have never eaten caviar.
Mary has always studied.
We have had bad weather this year .
I haven’t called my brother this morning.

Murar (2010: 78) notices that:
i. American English often uses t he Past Simple with (n)ever, yet,
already instead of the present perfect, e.g. Did you finish yet?
ii. There is an idiomatic use of the Past Tense Simple with always,
ever and never to refer to a state or habit leading up to the present: I
always said (= have said ) that her son would be a loser and would
end up in trouble.
The Present Perfect can be used with this morning only up to about one
o’clock p.m., because after that this morning becomes a completed period
and actions happening within this p eriod must be put in the Past Simple.

I called him several times this morning . (It is two o’clock now).

81 III. Continuative Value
The verb in the Present Perfect denotes a state or an action which
began in the past and is still going on in the present and maybe in the
future. The verb expressing this use is compulsorily accompanied by
an adverbial of duration. The usual adverbials of duration are those
introduced by since (to denote the beginning of the period of time that
continues up to the present moment ); by for (to denote duration, the
length of time that continues up to the present moment); other
adverbials of duration are also expressed by long, how long . The
present perfect simple has this meaning for those verbs that are not
normally used in any of the continuous forms (state verbs) :

Mr. Palmer has been here for twelve years.
Mr. Palmer has been here since I was born.

Comparison between the Present Perfect and the Past Tense
The Present Perfect and the Past Tense are two important me ans
for expressing past reference. In general, the Present Perfect relates a
happening in the past to the present point of orientation NOW (present
axis); the Past Tense relates a state or an action in the past to a past
point of orientation THEN (past axi s).
1. As a means of referring to the past, the Present Perfect differs
from the past simple in three aspects:
a) Present result (resultative use)
The present perfect has a resultative value, the Past Tense, by
contrast, has no resultative value:

I have broken my arm . (It is still bad).
I broke my arm . (Now it is better)

b) Indefinite time
The Present Perfect is used for a temporally indefinite action while
the Past Tense for a definite action. When using the Present Perfect,
the time of the action is not given, and it is not important. We are

82 especially interested in the result. The Past Tense is used when our
interest falls not only on the occurrence but also on the moment of the
event (when there is specific indication of past time in the s entence).

I’ve studied that chapter .
I studied that chapter last month.
I’ve spoken to Bob (indefinite)
I spok e to Bob on Monday (definite time)

c) Continuation up to the present
The Present Perfect implies that whatever was going on during the
period in question may still go on or is still possible in the present; on
the contrary the Past Tense, has no connection to the present, no
continuative value:

Have you seen the movie? (it is still running on the cinema)
Did you see the mov ie? (it is not running any longer)

2. It is also important to approach the relationship between the
tense forms (the Present Perfect / the Past Tense) and the time
expressions (adverbials) which may accompany them.

a) There are some adverbials which occur only with a certain tense:
– The Past Tense is used with definite adverbials naming a specific
time in the past: yesterday, in 1572, ago (four years ago), the other
day, then, when, last week, on Monday, in July what time
– The Pre sent Perfect goes with some indefinite adverbials describing
a period up to the present: so far, until now, by now, up to now, yet,
already, since, lately, of late.

c) There are some adverbials ( usually describing a period of time)
which can be used with bot h the Present Perfect and the Past Tense
but in different situations. With the present perfect the period of
time continues up to the present and maybe after (it includes the

83 present), while with the Past Tense the period of time is completed
(it excludes the present): always, ever, never, often, seldom, for
five months, all life, today, this morning, how long:

I’ve never flown by plane (in my whole life, up to now)
I never flew by plane when I was a child (but I do now)
He was a mean man all his life. ( He is dead now .)
He has been a mean man all his life. ( He is still alive .)
How long has he been in this company ? (He is still there .)
How long was he in this company ? ( He has moved .)
He lived in Berlin for 20 years. (He no longer lives in Berlin .)
He has lived in Berlin for 20 years . (He still lives there .)
Did you send Madeleine a message this morning ? (the
question is asked maybe in in the afternoon or evening, thus, the
speaker considers the period of time ‘this morning’ completed)
Have you sent Madeleine a message this morning? (the
question is asked maybe around 11 o’clock when it is still morning –
the period of time ‘this morning’ is not over yet)
I once was there. (once means’on a certain occasion, at one time’)
I’ve been there once . (once here is in contrast with twice)

3.3.1.2. The Present Perfect Continuous/ Progressive
Form:
It consists of the Present Perfect of the auxiliary be + the present
participle of the main verb: I have been studying , etc.

Uses a nd values:
1. The Present Perfect Progressive expresses an action which
began in the past and is still continuing at the moment of
speaking and maybe after.

84

The period / length of time that has elapsed before the present time
is indicated by an ad verbial phrase introduced by since (when the
starting point is given), for (when the duration is given), all, long:

I have been studying since 8 o’clock (the action started early in
the morning, I am still studying, and I will perhaps do so for some time) .
John has been writing e -mails for two hours.

When since is a conjunction it introduces an Adverbial Clause of
Time with the verb in the Past Tense:

I have been studying since you left.
You have been working here since you came in our town.

The present perfect is used in the subordinate clause if the verb
denotes an action begun in the past and continued into the present.
Compare:

The students has been reading since they came here.
The students has been reading since they have come.

It expresses an incomplete activity:

I’ve been working on the project, but I still haven’t finished.

2. When this tense is used without any specific mention of time,
it expresses a general activity in progress. The adverbials
recen tly, lately are in the deep structure.

I’ve been studying Chemistry and Biology.

85 3. Resultative use: The present perfect progressive indicates a
recently finished action which explains a present result, a
present effect. (the results of the past action are still
apparent). The verb is used without any adverbial of time:

She has been working in the garden. That’s why she’s exhausted.

4. The present perfect progressive of non -durative verbs
expresses repeated actions :

My sister -in-law has been asking me about that job for
almost a month.

Comparison between the Present Perfect Simple and Progressive

There are contextual situations in which both verbal forms are possible
but with some slight shades of different meaning:

1. An action begun in the past and still continuing in the present
maybe in the future can, with certain verbs, be expressed by
either Present Perfect Simple or the Present Perfect
Progressive. Verbs which can be used in this way include: live,
stay, learn, study , work , i.e. verbs expressing, longer duration.
The use of the progressive aspect instead of the simple aspect
merely emphasizes the idea of duration, the continuity of the
action:

How long have you studied Biology?
How long have you been studying Biology?

2. The Present Perfect Simple indicates completion, a recently
finished action while the Present Perfect Continuous indicates
an incomplete action.

I’ve worked on this project since last year. (I’ve just finished it)

86 I’ve been working on this project since last year ( I haven’t
finished it – I’m still working)
They’ ve built a new resort. (The work is finished)
They’ ve been building a new resort . (They are still working)

3. If the number of items / actions completed in a certain period
of tim e is mentioned, the Present Perfect Simple is used:

He has written twenty e -mails .
He has been writing e-mails since he came home.

3.4. The Past Perfect
3.4.1. The Past Perfect Tense Simple
Form :
It is formed with the Pa st Tense of the auxiliary have and the Past
Participle of the main verb: I had studied , etc.

Uses and values:
The Past Perfect Simple is the past equivalent of the present perfect
simple on the past axis. The Past Perfect and the Present Perfect tenses
express similar temporal relationships although within different frames.
The Present Perfect indicates a time earlier than the present tense. The
Present Perfect is placed on the present axis, it refers to ‘before NOW’.
The Past Perfect indicates a time ear lier in the past than the Past
Tense. The Past Perfect is placed on the past axis, it refers to ‘before
THEN’. Compare:

He says that the plane has arrived .
He said that the plane had arrived .

1. The Past Perfect Simple expresses an event in the past which
took place before a given past moment or before another past

87 action. It actually indicates a time further back than a certain
point in the past.

Time markers (which express a point of time or activity the pa st)
are rendered by:
a) an adverbial phrase of time: before, already, adverbial phrases
introduced by the prepositions by, until.

All people had already left by 11 o’clock.
Until last year I had been to Paris

b) a clause which contains a verb i n the Past Tense. We particularly
need the Past Perfect when we wish to stress the anteriority of an
earlier action: the action expressed by the Past Perfect was completed
before another action in the past (expressed by the Past Tense).
Syntactically, the verb in the Past Perfect occurs in:
– The main clause contains a Past Perfect while the Clause of Time a
Past Tense. The clause of time is introduced by the conjunctions
before, by, when:

All had left by the time we got there .
I had finished studying by the time my parents came .
Meg had called the police when her husband arrived.

The adverbs already, just, hardly, scarcely, no sooner are often
used with the Past Perfect to show that the action expressed by the Past
Perfect simple is completed immediatel y before the other past action
expressed by the Past Tense:
When The Titanic hit an iceberg the passengers had just gone
to bed.

88 I had scarcely got into the room when it started to rain.
I had hardly/just got into the house when the phone rang.
They had no sooner entered the house than they started to argue.

For emphasis reasons, hardly, scarcely, no sooner can be placed
in initial position. This requires inversion of subject and auxiliary :

No sooner had they entered the house than they started to argue.

– The main clause contains a Past Tense while the subordinate Clause
of Time contains a Past Perfect:
i. in Adverbial Clauses of Time introduced by after, until, as soon as,
when:

She left the house after she had checked everything.
When he had finished he went for a walk.

The Past Tense is commonly used instead of the Past Perfect in
temporal clauses introduced by after, until, before owing to the lexical
meaning of these conjunctions (the Past Perfect is not compulsory
since the time rel ationship of anteriority is rendered through the
conjunctions):

After she (had) checked everything, she left the house.

ii. in Adverbial Clauses of Cause/Reason the Past Perfect is used to
express the cause of a past effect:

His state deteriorated b ecause he had drunk a lot.
Pete couldn’t apply for the job because he’ d been already
rejected .

2. The Past Perfect Simple expresses a past action that took place
over a period of time. The action began before a given past
moment or past action and conti nued up to that past moment or

89 action. The Past Perfect Simple is used with this continuative
value for those verbs which cannot be used in the continuous
aspect.
In this case, this tense is associated with two time markers:
 a time marker introduced by for or since to show the
length/period of time or the starting point of time
 a time marker to express the past point of time / action

The divers came across a wreck that had lain on the seabed for
over 200 years.

I had been in this town for five years when the accident
happened.

3. The Past Perfect Simple with Future value
The Past Perfect Simple has this value in Temporal Clauses
corresponding to the similar value of the Present Perfect Simple, i.e. it
expresses a future action which is comple ted before another future
action (expressed by a verb in the Future in the Past):

He promised that as soon as he had got there he would let us know.

4. With the verbs hope, intend, mean, expect, suppose, think,
want , the Past Perfect Simple shows that the action was not
accomplished:

I had meant to apologize, but I didn’t have the time.

The Past Tense of these verbs + Perfect Infinitive expresses the
same idea:

I meant to have apologized, but I didn’t have the time.

90 5. In reported speech (Object Clauses), the Past Perfect replaces both
the Present Perfect and the Past Tense when the reporting verb is
in the Past Tense ( said, asked, told, explained, thought , etc.):

Direct speech:

‘I’ve seen Mary. I told her everyt hing yesterday’.

Indirect speech:

Elizabeth said she had seen Mary. She added that she had told
her everything the day before.

3.4.2. The Past P erfect Progressive/ Continuous
Form :
It is formed of the Past Perfect of the auxiliary be and the Present
Participle of the main verb: I had been studying , etc.

Uses and values:
The Past Perfect Progressive has the same relation to the Past
Perfect Simple that the Present Perfect Progressive has to the Present
Perfect Simple, but the time of reference is not the time of speech
NOW, but some point in the past: THEN. The action is placed on the
past axis.
1. The Past Perfect Continuous denotes an action which began
before a point in the past, continued ri ght up to it and may have
continued even after. The Past Perfect progressive emphasizes
the duration of an activity that was in progress before another
point of time or before another activity in the past.

91

When this tense is used with this Continuative value, two time
markers are required:
– an expression of time (a prepositional phrase) introduced by for or
since usually accompanies the Past Perfect Progressive.
– the past point of time or activity before which the action expressed
by the verb in t he Past Perfect progressive takes place. This past point
of time may be indicated by:
i. an adverbial phrase introduced by the preposition by:

By that time, I had been studying Chemistry for 15 years.

ii. a Temporal Clause with the verb in the Past Tense:

How long had you been working on your project when your
funds were increased ?
She had been studying Chemistry for 15 years when she met
her husband.

The Past Perfect Progressive is only used when we want to
emphasize the continuity of the action, not the number of times the
action was performed, or the things accomplished in that period of
time. If the number of times or things is given, the Past Pefect Simple
is used:

He had been writing e-mails for 2 hours when I came in.
He had written 15 e -mails when I came in.
Melanie had tried five times to find her.

92 2. Resultative value : The Past Perfect Progressive expresses an
action started before a given past moment but no longer going
on at that moment. The verb in the Pa st Perfect Continuous
explains the cause of an effect which was felt at a certain
moment in the past. The verb in the Past Perfect Progressive
usually occurs with this value in Adverbial Clauses of Cause
or Reason:

She was exhausted because she had been studying hard all day.

3. The Present Perfect Continuous or Past Tense Continuous
become Past Perfect Continuous in reported speech after a
verb in the Past Tense in the main clause:

‘I have been studying for four days. ’ is changed into:
She said she had been studying for four days.

In Temporal Clauses the Past Tense rests unchanged:

‘When I was living in the capital I often visited them’is changed into:
He said that when he was living in the capital h e he (had) visited
them.

3.5. Means of Expressing Future Reference
There are several means of expressing futurity in English which
have their own shades of meanings and are therefore not always
interchangeable (Murar, 2010: 9 5).
There are five chief ways of expressing future time in the English
verb phrase. The five means of referring to future time can be arranged
along a scale of certainty in the following way: simple present (most
certain), simple future, continuous future , be going to (least certain),
present progressive (least certain) (G. Leech, 1978: 65).

93 Thomson & Martinet (1969: 168) distinguish between future with
intention and future without intention :
 Future with intention: a form which expresses a future action
which will be accomplished by the speaker in accordance with his
wishes. The Future Simple , Be Going To – form and Present
Continuous can be used in this way.
 Future without intention: a verbal form which merely states that a
certain action will happen (The Present Simple and Future
Progressive)

3.5.1. The Future Tense Simple (Shall / Will Future)
Form: This tense is formed of the auxiliaries shall / will and the
Short Infinitive of the main verb. Shall is normally used in the 1st
person singular/plural Th is use is more frequent in formal British
English, while in spoken language, as well as in American English it
is often replaced by will. Will is used for the 2nd and 3rd persons
singular/plural.

Uses and values :
The Future Simple is used to express a ctions which will take place
sometimes in the future (i.e. after the present moment). Thus, the
Future Simple is often used for predictions about the future:

I’ll leave next month.
It will be rainy tomorrow.
When they see him they will recognize him imm ediately.
If you don’t hurry, you will miss the train.

The future is not used in Time and Conditional Clauses. The
Present Tense is used instead.
The Future Simple occurs with time markers such as: tomorrow,
combinations with next ( next year ), prepos itional phrases introduced

94 by in (in the future, in ten years, in ten days’ time), expressions with
from now (two months from now) etc.
This verbal form is tinged with modal values due to modal
auxiliaries will and shall, that is why it is not so common, other means
of expressing future reference being preferred. Besides future
reference, shall and will can acquire modal value when used in other
persons than specified above, or when used in some special
constructions (interrogative, negative).
It seems tha t the double function of shall and will as ‘future
auxiliaries’ and as ‘modal auxiliaries’ lies in the very nature of
futurity. We cannot be as certain of future happenings as we are of
events past and present and for this reason even the most confident
prognostication must indicate something of the speaker’s attitude and
so, be tinged with modality (Leech, 1978: 52).

Shall acquires special values:
a) in the 1st person singular/plural interrogative sentences it expresses :
– request for advice or suggestion :

Where shall I go?

– making an offer:

Shall I help you?

b) in the 2nd and 3rd persons singular/plural shall expresses: the
speaker’s intention to do a certain action or a command. (formal
and old –fashioned)
– the speaker’s intention to perfo rm a certain action:

They shall not enter here.

– command, formal instruction:

All students shall attend practical courses.

95 This construction is mainly used in regulations, legal documents,
or older texts (e.g. the Bible “ Thou shalt not kill ”). In informal English
must, have to or be to are used instead of shall .in the above sentences.
The same modal verbs replace shall in indirect speech.

Will expresses modal values:

a) in the 1st person singular/plural. will expresses unpremeditated
intent ion, immediate decision:

‘Somebody is knocking.’
‘I’ll g o to see who it is.’

b) in the 2nd, 3rd pers. singular/plural, interrogative sentences , will
expresses willingness: request, invitation:

Will you help me with the study?
Will you sit down , plea se?

c) in negative sentences will expresses refusal.

I won’t speak to her again. (refusal)
I shan’t speak to her again . (There will be no opportunity for
a discussion)

3.5.2. The Future Continuous/ Prog ressive
Form : It is formed of the Future Simple of the auxiliary be + the
Present Participle of the main verb: I shall/will be studying .

Uses and values :
1. It expresses an action in progress at a certain time or period in
the future: Like the past progress ive, the future progressive is
generally used to set up a background or frame activity that is

96 in progress at a certain future time or when another action takes
place (Murar, 2010: 100).

Time markers to indicate the given future time are expressed by:
– an adverbial phrase denoting a point of time: at 2 o’clock, this time
tomorrow / next year etc.:

This time tomorrow I’ll be studying in the library.
John will be working hard every day next summer.

-a Temporal Clause (the verb is in th e Present Tense):

I’ll be studying when you come back .
I’ll be working in the garden while you are reading .

2. Future -as-a-matter -of-course (future without intention)
The future progressive may refer to a future event which will take
place as a matter of course . Leech (1978: 62) considered that: this use
has occurred through the need to have a means of referring to the
future uncontaminated by factors such: volition, intention, plan
specific for the future meanings of Shall/Will + Infinitive, Present
Progressive and Be Going To.
The Future Continuous suggests that the activity is part of the
natural course of events, an activity without any implication of
personal intention. The construction is particularly useful for avoiding
the suggestion of intentio n in the Future Simple .
This is relevant if we compare the Future Simple and the Future
Progressive.

97  in affirmative sentences: unlike the Future Simple which
expresses the speaker’s intention of a future action, the Future
Progressive does not express in tention:

I will speak to my brother . (I intend to speak to him)
I will be speaking to my brother . (The Future Progressive
denotes no intention: it’s a simple statement of fact).
I’ll be meeting him tomorrow morning on my way to school .
(It is part of the normal course of events; this happens every morning)

The Future Simple expresses a definite plan, while the Future
Continuous allows for the possibility of change concerning the future
event:

We’ll walk in the park . (definite plan)
We’ll be walking in the park, unless it is raining (less definite
in that it allows for a change in plans)

 in interrogative sentences: the Future Simple expresses
intention, request or invitation while the Future Progressive
expresses a mere question about a possible future action:

When will you come again? (is a question about the listener’s
intentions)
When will you be coming again? (simply asks the interlocutor
to specify the time of his next visit)
‘Will you bring the books here?’
‘Yes, of course’
Will you be bringing the books here?
‘No, I think I will move them upstairs’.

 in negative sentences: the Future Simple expresses refusal,
while the Future Continuous merely states that a c ertain action
will not take place:

98 ‘I won’t come to the party if that woman is driving’ .
‘She won’t be driving’ .

3. The Future Progressive with other temporal values
The future progressive can express strong probability referring to
the present, virtual certainty in the present:

She’l l be studying now.

3.5.3. The Future Perfect
3.5.3.1. The Future Perfect Simple

Form : It consists of the future tense of the auxiliary have + the
Past Participle of the main verb:

I shall / will have studied .

Uses and values :
1. The Future Perfect expresses a future action which will be
completed before a certain future moment or before another
future action.

The verb in the future perfect is used with a reference point (a time
marker ) to indicate the future moment / action before which this future
action is seen as accomplished. The future moment from which the
action is viewed as completed may be indicated by means of:
– an adverbial phrase introduced by the prepositions by, before, in:

I will have finished studying this chapter by Monday.

99 In four years’ time, I’ll have graduated this university.

– a Time Clause introduced by the conjunctions before, when, by the
time (the verb is in the P resent Tense):

I will have finished by the time you come back .

2. Continuative use
With verbs which cannot be used in the progressive forms , the
Future Perfect Simple expresses an action started before a given future
moment and still going on at that future moment.

Usually, two -time markers occur with the Future Perfect Simple
having a continuative use:
– a time marker which expresses the reference point: a certain future
moment ;
– a time marker introduced by for to indicate the length of time (the
duration)

By the end of the month I will have been in London for 6
months .

3. The Future Perfect with other temporal values
The Future Perfect can be used to express modal values such as
supposition, strong probability, an assumption on the part of the
speaker about an action performed at a previous moment (in the past).
The verb is used in the 2nd or 3rd persons:

They will have finished by now . (= I think they have already
finished)

100 If we compare the Future Perfect to S imple Future, we notice that
like other perfect aspects, the Future Perfect denotes an event/ activity
that is completed prior to a future moment or action while the Simple
Future merely suggests that the event starts with that future moment:

I will have decorated all my house by the time the guests arrive.
I will decorate my house next week.

We use Present Perfect instead of Future Perfect in Time Clauses:

I will help you as soon as I have finished my own work.

With all perfect tenses (Present Perf ect, Past Perfect, Future Perfect)
the adverb already emphasizes that the action expressed by the verb is
completed immediately before another reference point:

I have alread y studied . (implied reference point: NOW)
I had already studied for the exam whe n my brother came .
(expressed reference point: a past action – came )
I will already have studied for the exam when my brother
comes . (expressed reference point: a future action – come )

The future perfect becomes the Pre sent Perfect in temporal clauses:

He won’t go away till you have promised you’ll accept the
invitation.
When the first buds have come out spring will not be very far
away.

3.5.3.2. The Future Perfect Progressive
Form : It consists of the Future Perfect of the auxiliary be + the
Present participle of the main verb:

I shall/will have been studying .

101 Use:
It expresses an action started before a certain future moment or
future action and still going on at that future moment or action and
maybe afte r.
Two time markers are usually required with this verbal form:
– a time marker introduced by the preposition for to indicate the length
of time (duration) of the activity
– a time marker which expresses the reference point (a given future
moment). The given future moment can be rendered by:
a) an adverbial phrase usually containing the word by:
By the end of the summer we will have been living in London
for ten years .
By five o’clock I will have been studying for 3 hours.
b) a subordinate Clause of Time (with the verb in the present tense):
When my father retires he will have been working in the same
company for 37 years.

3.5.4 . Other means of expressing futurity
Besides the future tense forms with shall and will anayse d above,
there are some other constructions which can be used to express future
reference.

a) Be Going To
Form : the be going to – construction is formed of the progressive
form of the verb go + the long infinitive of the main verb: I am going
to study , etc. In this structure, go loses its meaning as a verb of
movement and becomes a mere auxiliary)

Uses and values :
The going to – construction has the following values:

102  Intention : The be going to – form expresses the subject’s present
intention (plan, decision ) to perform a certain future action. This
use is found mainly with human [+animate] subjects :

I’m going to be an architect when I grow up .

 Used without a time expression, this form refers to immediate or
near future .

I’m going to read you the lett er.

 Prediction , i.e. the speaker’s feeling of strong probability, (the
future fulfilment of present cause). The going to – form expresses
a future action which appears inevitable due to present causes or
circumstances. The construction is used wi thout a time
expression but usually refers to the near or immediate future. The
construction is found both with animate and inanimate [ +
animate] subjects.

It’s going to be a storm. Look at the clouds!

Comparison between the be going to form and other means of
expressing futurity :

Be going to – form and the Present Progressive
Be going to – form can be used with a time expression as an
alternative to the Present Progressive for the near future. The present
progressive, howe ver, emphasizes that the personal arrangements
have already been made, while be going to is centered more on the
speaker’s plans or intentions:

I’m going to discuss this at the meeting, at 2 p.m.
I’m discussing this at the meeting at 2 p.m. (the Present
Progressive implies an arrangement)

103 The present progressive is not used to express the future with
stative verbs or where the subject is inanimate:

*That fence is falling soon.
That fence is going to fall soon.

Be going to – form and Simple Future ( will + infinitive)
Both forms express intention: The be going to – form always
implies planned, premeditated intention, meaning that the decision has
been made before the moment of speaking. The simple future (w ill +
infinitive) implies unplanned, unpreme ditated intention: it is used for
quick, spontaneous decisions.

I have saved and I’m going to buy a car .
‘It’s very hot.’
‘I’ll open the window.’

When they occur together, the be going to tends to come first, to
introduce the event, with details suppli ed with will (Murar, 2010).

Tonight, we’re going to have a party. Our friends will bring
something to drink and we ’ll buy the rest .

b) Be To + Infinitive
The construction has the following values:

 an arrangement which has been planned for the future

The exam is to begin at 9 o’clock.
I am to move to U.S.A. in October.

 an order, instruction, command, usually an indirect one: the
speaker simply passes on orders issued by someone else. It is
s not the speaker’s will:

104 You are to be here by 1 o’clock .

Be to + Passive Infinitive occurs in notices and instructions:

These medicines are to be kept out of the reach of children .

 pre-destined future (a future action which is bound to happen):

If he is to become famous.

c) Be about to + Infinitive
The construction expresses an imminent future. It may be seen as
an equivalent to the be going to – form and Present Progressive.
The construction is used with animate and inanimate subjects.
Time markers are usually not required si nce the construction itself
means ‘soon’, ‘right away’.

Hurry up! They are about to leave .
The little girl is about to cry .

A similar construction which emphasizes the nearness of a future
event is on the point/verge of:

They are on the point of l eaving town.

d) The Present Simple (with future meaning) expresses an official,
settled plan or an arrangement seen as unalterable (future events
which we cannot control, such as events in a timetable,
programme, departures):

The bus leaves at 10 a.m.

The presence of an adverbial of time is compulsory.

105 e) The Present Continuous (with future meaning) expresses
one’s immediate plans for the future. It is personal plan, not an
official one.

I am leaving for Paris tonight.

The presence of adverbials of time is compulsory, too.
The two forms of present are also used in subordinate clauses of time
and condition, instead of future:

I will help you if I finish first.

3.6. Future Actions Seen from Past Perspective (Future in the Past)
Future in the past me ans a future action regarded from a viewpoint
in the past.
There are several means in English for describing future actions
viewed from a point further in the past: would + infinitive; was/were
+ infinitive; was/were going to + infinitive; was/were about to +
infinitive; Past Tense Continuous .

Would + Infinitive and was/were to + Infinitive are the only
constructions which render the idea of fulfillment. They are specific
for literary style:

a) Would + Infinitive

Ten years later Henry of Bourbon would become the king of
France.

It is also used in Object Clauses, after a past tense in the main clause:

He promised he would call us.

106 b) Was / Were to + Infinitive. The construction occurs in the
literary style to express:
– plan, arran gement:

The teacher was to defend his thesis that day.

– predestined future (formal) :

She was later to regret her behavior.

Was / Were Going To + Infinitive, Was / Were About To +
infinitive usually carry the information t hat the anticipated event
didn’t take place :

c) Was / Were Going To + Infinitive expresses intention which
may or may not have been fulfilled. This verbal form can be used
to talk about failed future plans from a past perspective.

He was going to invite me to party, but he changed his mind.

d) Was / Were about to + Infinitive (= be on the point of):

I was about to leave when he came and stopped me.

e) Past Tense Continuous denotes an action according to a plan,
an arrangement:

They were packing because they were leaving the next day.

The Future in the Past is especially common in reported speech: it
is used chiefly in reporting the past words or thoughts of someone, etc.
All the future forms dealt with so far can be turned into a Future in the
Past by substituting should or would for shall or will respectively (if
the person remains unchanged):

107 ‘I will be meeting him tomorrow.’ → She said he would be
meeting him the next day.
He asked me whether I would come back soon.
He hoped that by his return Janet would have forgiven him.

3.7. Tense and aspect use across registers and dialects
3.7.1.Tense use across register s
Referring to tense use acrosss registe rs, Biber et al. (2005: 153 -4)
show that Present Tense verbs are slightly more frequent than past
tense verbs, its frequency being related to the great variety of its uses.
The authors consider that there are importa nt differences in the
preferred tense across registers. Present Tense is common in both
spoken English and in academic prose. Still, the reasons are different.
In conversation, present tense is employed to refer to immediate
context. In academic prose, pr esent tense emphasizes the fact that a
proposition is true regardless of time (it conveys general truths).
Past tense is more frequent in fiction. Actually, numerous fictional
narratives are written in the Past Tense and present tense occur only
in the dir ect speech of the characters.
Many verbs are used more common in either Simple Past or Simple
Present Tense. For example, bet and doubt are especially used in the
Present Tense, while remark and sigh usually occur in the Past Tense.
Considering the categor y of tense the same linguists (2005: 156)
state that:
 The verbal phrase in English is marked only for two tenses:
present and past.
 Verb phrases can either be marked for tense (more frequent)
or use a modal verb, but never both.
 There are various meanings expressed by present and past
tense:
Present tense verbs often refer to present time, expressing a
present state or a habitual action;

108 Present tense has also past or future value;
Past tense especially refers to past time, but it is sometimes
used to mark present time.
 Future time is usually marked with modal verbs.

3.7.2. Perfect and Progressive Aspect across registers and dialects
a) Acco rding to Biber et al. (2005: 158-166) there are differences
in the distribution of simple, perfect, and progressive aspe cts
across registers.
 Thus, most of the verbs are not marked for aspect (90 %).
 Although perfect aspect is used in all types of registers, it is
more frequent in fiction and news.
 Progressive aspect is more common in conversation than in
the written regi sters.

b) There are also significant dialect differences between American
and British English in conversation and news:
 American English conversation uses continuous aspect much
more than British English conversation does.
 British English employs perfect asp ect much more than
American English does. American English often uses Past
Tense in contexts w here British English prefers the Present
Perfect. This difference is mainly noticeable when the
sentence includes the adverbs yet or already :

AE conversation: Hey, did you read through this yet?
BE conversation: Have you read it yet?

c) According to these scholars, the Present Perfect is much more
common then the Past Perfect in spoken English, news and
academi c style. On the other hand, Past Perfect is somewhat
more common in fiction.

109 Referring to aspect and dialect (AE vs BE) differences, Biber et
al. point out that:
 Perfect aspect is most common in fiction and news.
 British English newspaper writing employs perfect aspect
more than American English newspapers do.
 Progressive aspect is used especially in conversation than in
writing.
 American English conversation uses continuous aspect the
most, far more than British English conversation register.

110
CHAPTER 4
THE GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF VOICE

4.1. Introduction
Voice is the grammatical category which expresses the
relationship between the verb (the predicate) on the one hand and the
subject and object of the verb, on the other. Voice gives information
about the roles of different participants (agent or recip ient) in an event
(Carter, 2006: 929). There are two voices in English: the active and
the passive voice.
Choice of voice represents one of several ways of organizing the
content of clauses.
The active voice is the most common and unmarked form of
voice , typically chosen to state something about the agent of an action,
the agent being expressed as the grammatical subject and naturally
begins the action (ibid.: 793). So, when the verb is in the active voice,
the grammatical subject and the agent / doer of the action are the same:

The officers have studied all the aspects of the problem.
The police caught the criminal.
The dog hurt the cat.

The grammatical subject is also the logical subject of the sentence.
Changing the sentences into the passive, we notice that the
grammatical subject becomes the goal/ recipient, receiver, or
undergoer of the action and the grammatical subject is no longer
identical with the logical subject of the sentence. The by-phrase ( by
the officers, by the police, by the dog ) indicates the agent or the doer
of the action. They are the logical subjects:

All the aspects of the problems have been studied by the officers.

111 The criminal was caught by the police.
The cat was hurt by the dog.

Although the propositional meaning of t he two sentences (active
and passive) remains the same, there are certain differences in the
emphasis of these sentences. Even though active and passive sentences
are paraphrases of one another, where a shift of focus is required, the
passive, which is les s common, is an important stylistic construction
(Wales, 2001: 406). In point of meaning, an active sentence places the
emphasis on the agent, the doer of the action. In a passive sentence,
the emphasis is placed on the recipient of the action, on the acti on and
its result, rather than on its doer. A passive construction gives less
importance to the agent.
As Langacker (1987, apud Celce -Murcia and Larsen -Freeman,
1999: 343) points out, the difference between active and passive is a
focal adjustment simila r to the difference between:

The cat is under the blanket.
The blanket is over the cat.

In cognitive terms , using passive constructions enables the
speaker to make a kind of figure/ground reversal.

4.2. Language levels of the passive transformation
The pas sivization involves three language levels: 1. the
morphological level, i.e. the form of the verb; 2. the syntactic level:
the changes in the word order and status of the active subject NP and
object NP; 3. the semantic – pragmatic level (Murar, 2010: 116).

4.2.1. The morphological level (the form of the verb)
The passive form of the verb phrase consists of the auxiliary be
(or get in some cases) followed by the Past Participle of the main verb.
The auxiliary ( be / get) marks the categories of person, nu mber, tense

112 aspect and mood. Finite forms as well as non -finite forms have the
grammatical category of voice. A verb has forms corresponding to the
active voice for all the tenses of the Indicative Mood, simple aspect.

The conjugation of the verb to give – 3rd person singular in the
Passive Voice, Indicative Mood:

The simple aspect:
Present Tense: H e is given ;
Past Tense: He was given;
Present Perfect: He has been given ;
Past Perfect: He had been given ;
Future Simple: He will be given ;
Futur e Perfect: He will have been given .

The English verb has passive forms in the continuous aspect only
for two tenses: the present and past:

Present Progressive: He is being given ;
They are building a new school → The school is being built .
They were building a new school → The school was being built.

Although be is the prototypical auxiliary verb of the passive, it is
possible to use other verbs:
Get is another auxiliary which can be used to form a passive
construction. Unlike be which expresses a state , get denotes an action.
Get is used as a resulting, dynamic auxiliary to emphasize the idea of
change, of transformation, the focus is on the resu lt, rather than on the
action. The following verbs require the ver b get in the passive:
a) Verbs of result such as break, burn, catch, hurt, lose, kill, steal,
wound, etc. The auxiliary get expresses a detrimental meaning,
actions that happen suddenly, unexpectedly:

Many people got killed in the war.

113 He got woun ded in that terrible accident.
All my things got burnt in the fire.

The auxiliary get occurs in short passive constructions, i.e. it is
used without an expressed object of agent.

The vase was broken by my husband .
The vase got broken when we mov ed here.

b) Verbs like dress, engage, marry, mix . In this case the auxiliary
get implies actions that we do to ourselves. The actions seem to
be reflexive rather than passive. The sentences cannot be derived
from active counterparts.

When Henry o f Navarre and Margaret of Valois got married
in August 1572, people were amazed.
I always get dressed quickly .

c) With other verbs, the passive with the auxiliary get indicates
involvement of the grammatical subject in the action. Compare:

She was invited to the wedding . (Someone invited her to the party)
She got invited to the wedding . (She managed to be invited)

Get-passive needs an operator ( do) in negative and interrogative
sentences. This means that unlike be, in these cases, get does not
function as a true auxiliary:

be-passive get-passive
A: Was he hurt? A: Did he get hurt ?
B: No, he wasn’t hurt . B: No, he didn’t g et hurt .

Become is rarely used as an auxiliary for the passive. Become
expresses a more gradually achieved result, it emphasizes the change
from one condition to a new condition, from one state to another:

114 The news on the Internet have become widely read.

Past Participles: Adjectives or Passive?
Most of the time the distinction between a Past Participle
functioning as a passive verb and one serving as an adjective is usually
obvious. However, the distinction is not always easy to make. Willis
(1994, apud Celce -Murcia & Larsen -Freeman, 1999: 349) states that
in a sentence such as:

The windows were broken .

the Past Participle broken could be analysed as either adjectival or
passive.

The house was a mess. The paintwork was peeling and t he
windows were broken. (participle is adjectival)
The windows were broken by the force of the explosion.
(participle is passive).

According to Celce -Murcia & Larsen -Freeman (1999: 349), in the
first interpretation, the Past Participle is descriptive, or stative, and
thus adjectival. In the second, the Past Participle is dynamic, and thus
passive. In cases of ambiguity, the only distinguishing sentence -level
feature we are left with is the use of by with a noun phrase to mark an
agent in the passive voice, if there is one:

The fish was refried . – by someone (passive)
– present state of the fish (adjective)

4.2.2. The syntactic level
At the clause level changing from the active to the passive involves
the transformation in the word order and status of the subject NP and
the object NP:

115 – the subject of the active sentence becomes an object of agent
introduced by the preposition by;
– the object of the active sentence becomes the subject in the passive
sentence.
The active – passive correspondence (passive transformation) can
be expressed by the following formula:
NP1 + Vactive + NP2 → NP2 + Vpassive (+ By – NP1)
(S) (P) (O) (S) (P) (O Agent)
The prepo sitional object of agent (the by-phrase) is often an
optional element and can be deleted. The object of agent is only
expressed when it conveys relevant information:

Gutenberg invented movable type printing → The movable
type printing was invented by Gut enberg.

Passives frequently occur without an agent phrase and are called
agentless passives (Carter & McCarthy, 2006: 798). Other linguists
prefer the terms short and long passive (when the object of agent is
expressed) The agentless passive emphasiz es more the process, the
result itself.
Thus, the object of agent is deleted when:
– it is simply unknown to the speaker:

Those castles were built in the Middle Age.
The money was left here.

– it is indefinite: the subject of the senten ce would be expressed by an
indefinite noun or pronoun ( people, they, someone , somebody , one)
which does not convey any relevant information:

People drink coffee everywhere. → Coffee is drunk everywhere .
Someone stole my purse . → My purse was stolen.

– it is redundant (it can be inferred from the context):

116 Peter and James had an argument yesterday and Peter was
defeated.

– the speaker/writer simply does not to mention the doer:

A mistake has been made here.

– Get-passives occur with no agent phrase:

He got hurt in the battle.

Carter and McCarthy (2006: 799) also take into account the following
situations when the agent is omitted:

– detached /impersonal styles (academic and technical language) when
processes are in the centre of att ention:

These medicines should be taken twice a day.
This theory will be dealt with in the next chapter.

-anticipatory it which makes forward reference to a complement
clause, and may be used to denote impersonal agency:

It was decided to evacuate t he region at once.

-existential there. There construction allows an indefinite subject to be
placed later in a passive structure:

I complained, but there were no measures taken at the time.

4.2.3. Passive -like causatives (pseudo -passives): in causative
constructions with have (or get) the object of agent is often omitted.
Such constructions are not true passives because they do not contain
the auxiliary be, but the main verb is in the Past Participle:

117 I can’t paint the walls, so I hired someone else t o do this. →
I had my house painted.
The have -passive is used in formal English, while the get-
passive is specific for informal register:
She has her hair cut once a month. (formal)
She gets her hair cut once a month . (informal)

4.2.4. Classes of verbs used in passive constructions
4.2.4.1. Transitive verbs : Transitive verbs, i.e. verbs of
incomplete predication that need an object, represent the largest class
of verbs which allow passivization. Within this large class o f verbs
there are several subclasses:
a) transitive verbs + one object (monotransitive verbs):
According to the general rule, any transitive verb followed by a
direct object can be passivized (the direct object of the active sentence
becomes the sub ject of the passive):

Tom has eaten all the apples . → All the apples have been
eaten by Tom.
The mechanic has attentively checked the car. → The car has
been attentivel y check ed by the mechanic.

In perfective tenses (Present Perfect, Past Perfect, Future Perfect)
which contain two auxiliaries ( have for the perfective and been for the
passive) adverbs of indefinite time ( just, already, never, often ) follow
the first auxiliary and the adverbs of manner (e.g. attentively ) follow
the seco nd auxiliary (they are placed right before the Past Participle).
Voice constraints: Some transitive state verbs do not occur (at
least in some senses) in the passive: contain, fit, have, hold, lack,
possess, resemble . Thus, the following active sentences h ave no
passive equivalents:

He lacks courage.

118 Jane resembles her grandma.

With some verbs, the passive is not possible when they refer to
states, but it is possible when they express an activity:

hold: This tank holds oil. → *Oil is held by this t ank.
The army held the prisoner. → The prisoner was held by the army.
have: They have a nice car. → *A nice car is had by them.
You can have lunch anytime. → Lunch can be had at any
reasonable time.

Besides the meaning of the verb, co-reference between a subject
and a NP object blocks the passivization. This constraint occurs with
reflexive, reciprocal and possessive pronouns:

Mark could see Dan in the mirror. → Dan could be seen in
the mirror by Mark.
Mark c ould see himself in the mirror. → *Himself could be
seen in the mirror.

b) transitive verbs with two objects (ditransitive verbs)
 a small number of verbs – ask, teach, envy – are followed by
two direct objects: a [+animate] ob ject and a [ -animate] one.
The [+animate] object usually becomes the subject in the
passive:

The t eacher taught us a new lesson → We were taught a new lesson.
A new lesson was taught to us.

 Verbs like allot, allow, award, deny, grant, hand, lend, offer,
pay, present, promise, recommend, refuse, send, show, tell are
followed by two objects: a [+animate] indirect object and a [ –
animate] direct object. There are two possible passive

119 trans formations: either the indirect object or the direct object can
become the grammatical subject of the passive construction:

They showed Marion the painting.

-the direct object becomes the subject of the passive sentence: in such
cases the NP expressing the indirect object (the retained indirect
object) is usually preceded by the preposition to:

The painting was shown to Marion.

-the indirect object becomes the subject of the passive construction:

Marion was shown the painting .

The passive const ruction with the indirect object as subject is more
common than the one with the direct object as subject. There is a
semantic explanation for this preference, viz. it is preferable to use a
person (a being), rather than a thing as the subjec t of the passi ve
construction ( Murar, 2010: 122).

d) Transitive verbs + a that-clause : Verbs of physical perception,
mental cognition as well as declarative verbs – believe, consider,
expect, know, hear, say, suppose, think – are followed in the
active voice by a that-clause or by a complex construction
(Accusative + Infinitive construction):

They consider that he is a good student.
They consider him to be a good student .
They say that a cigarette -end was the cause of the fire.

These sen tences normally have two passive transformations:
– an impersonal construction: it is only the main clause that undergoes
passivization while the rest of the sentence remains unchanged:

120 It is considered that he is a good student .

– a Nominative + Infin itive construction:

He is considered to be a good student .

4.2.4.2. Intransitive verbs
a) There are intransitive verbs such as live, sleep, sit accompanied
by a prepositional object (prep. + NP) which can be used in the
passive. The nominal element (NP) of the prepositional object
becomes the subject while the preposition is retained by the verb.

Nobody has slept in this bed. → The bed has not been slept in.

b) Prepositional verbs : Some verbs ( account for, agree upon, deal
with, laugh at, look after / for, listen to, refer to, rely on , send
for, etc.) are followed in the active voice by an obligatory
preposition + NP (a prepositional object). Through passivization,
the nominal element of the prepositional phrase becomes subj ect
while the preposition remained with the verb:

They sent for a doctor. → A doctor was sent for .
I can’t stand people staring at me . → I can’t stand being
stared at .

Some prepositional verbs (look into, go into, arrive at) accept the
passive only when they have an abstract, figurative use. Notice the
difference:

They finally arrived at the chalet → * The chalet was finally
arrived at. (concrete, spatial use)
They finally arrived at a compromise → A compromise was
finally arrived at . (abstract, figurative use)

121 4.2.4 .3. Complex verbs:
 Phrasal verbs :

They put off the wedding. → The wedding was put off.

 Phrasal Prepositional verbs represent combinations of verb
+ adverbial particle + preposition: put up with, do away with ,
etc.). The object of the preposition becomes the subject in the
passive sentence while both the particle and the preposition
are retained:

I can’t put up with her insolence. → Her insolence can’t be
put up with.

 Idiomatic verbal expressions as: lose sight of, make fun of,
make use of, pay attention to, put an end to, take notice of can
be used in the passive. Because of the close connection of the
verb with the noun within the verb phrase the noun is not
normally separated from the verb (and it is not use d as the
subject of the passive construction). Through passivization
the object of the preposition becomes subject and the verb
retains the preposition.

You must make use of a strategy. → A strategy must be made
use of.
He could not stand being made fun of .

In the case of some idiomatic verbal phrases such as pay attention
to, take notice of, take care of, an alternative passive construction is
possible with the noun within the verb p hrase as subject:

They took great care of his house.
(1) His books were taken great care of (object of the preposition
as subject);

122 (2) Great care was taken of his books (noun within the VP as
subject)

4.2.4.4. Passivals (Pseudo -Passives)
There are cer tain transitive verbs, such as: read, sell, peel, iron, wash ,
etc. that can be used in the active voice, but with a passive meaning.

The novel sold well.

Passivization is achieved only at the syntactic level without affecting
the morphology structure of the verb. The direct object becomes the
grammatical subject without a change of the verb into the passive.

The clause reads both ways.
This shirt irons easily.
The passive sentences usually contain an adverbial of manner
which qualify the process: easily, well , etc.

4.3. Semantic and pragmatic aspects of the passive :
The passive constructions are more common in English than in
other languages.
As we have already stated, the passive voice is especially used
when the doer, agent of the action is unknown or unimportant and the
focus is on the action and its result.
The passive voice is associated with the impersonal style ,
occurring in academic register, legal language, technical/scientific and
official writing, where the action is re levant, not the agent.
The passive also helps avoiding an awkward change of a subject
in the middle of a sentence:

John came back yesterday and was immediately visited by his
close friends.
instead of: John came back yesterday, and his close friends
immediately visited him.

123 4.3.1. Passive voice in legal language .
The passive voice is a typical feature of the legal register. In legal
texts passive sentences are frequently used for strategic imprecision:
the passive is useful when the agent is not known to the speaker or
when it can only be vaguely defined. Passive sentences are sometimes
used to deliberately de -emphasize, defocus or obscure the agent
(actor). Thus, passive sentences allow the speaker or writer to omit
direct reference to the agent as in:

The woman was injured yesterday.

Passive structures are so common in English that it has even been
suggested that the passive, rather than the active, is the unmarked
voice there. Passives are therefore impersonal constructions, and they
give an aura of objectivity and authoritativeness to the text; this may
explain why they are common in court orders. Passives are less
common in contracts, where the parties involved typically want to
spell out exactly who is to do what , and thus have an intere st in precise
reference to the agents. (the active voice is more relevant). But it is
largely used in legislative documents like Acts of Parliament,
directives, treaties, regulations, etc.
Both the passive and the reflexive verbs used to translate int o
Romanian are meant to draw attention to the actions expressed and to
their results, rather than to the persons or institutions expected to
perform them. Moreover, we also notice that in the verb phrases built
around such forms, the agent is rather rarely expressed, a fact which
highlights the impersonal character of this type of discourse and the
generalising character of the legal norm. For instance, in the following
example, the performer is understood to be some authority known both
to the addresserr a nd to the addessee of the legislative act:

This Guideline is published following a policy in favour of
transparency by way of official publication of the ECB’s legal instruments .

124 4.3.2. Passive voice across registers
According to Biber et al. (2005: 167), short passives (agenlesss
passives) are about six times as frequent as long passives. The same
authors show that the frequency of both forms of the passive voice
varies greatly across registers. Passive sentences are most common in
academic p rose (about a quarter of all finite verbs). They are also
frequent in news, but very rare in conversation.
In expository prose, passives give a sense of objective detachment.
This sense of objectivity is essential for scientific culture and is often
expect ed in scientific prose (ibid., 2005: 168).
Spoken language is focused on experie nces and actions of people, so
it often expresses the agent as subject, and seldom uses passive voice.
News also makes the agent less prominent.
Even though the long passive (w ith a by -phrase) is much less
common than the short passive, it is similar in being most frequent in
academic writing, and least frequent in conversation.
There are three interrelated reasons (principles) for choosing the
long passive instead of the activ e voice (idem: 169):
Principle 1: The long passive is chosen to accord with the
information flow principle: the preference for presenting new
information at the end of a clause.
Principle 2: The long passive is chosen to accord with the end –
weight priciple . This means that a more lengthy or heavier item of
the clause , i.e. the agent, is placed at the end, where it does not hold
up the processing of the rest of the clause.
Principle 3: the long passive is preferred to place initial stress on
an element of th e clause which is the topic, or theme, of the discourse.
The same linguists (idem: 174) emphasize some major aspects
concerning the category of voice:
 There are three types pf passive voice verb phrases : short
pasives, long and get-passives.

125  Unlike, activ e voice, passive voice reduces the importance of
the agent of the action and permits the receiver of the action
to become the subject of the sentence.
 Passive voice is most common in the expository registers, where
agents are often unknown and irrelevant. In academic prose,
passives often relate to scientific methods or logical relations. In
news, passives often report negative events.
 Get-passives are rare and used almost exclusively in informal
style.
 There are some verbs which usually occur as passives ( be
born, be based on ) other verbs rarely are used in the passive
voice ( hate, like, want )
 Voice and aspect combinations are possible; the perfect passive
is moderately common and the progressive passive is rare .

126
CHAPTER 5
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

5.1. Indicative versus Subjunctive
Poutsma (1926: 11, apud Ștefănescu, 1988: 498) defined mood as
a category by means of which „the speaker expresses his mental
attitude towards the situation rendered by the verb phrase; this attitude
is either one of consider ing the situation as a fact or one of
uncertainty.” The Indicative Mood represents the syntactic realization
of the first attitude, while the Subjunctive Mood of the latter.
Ioana Ștefănescu, (idem) also quotes Curme (1935: 390 -1) in
defining the two verba l forms, the Indicative and the Subjunctive.
Curme considered that the Indicative is the mood of assertion, or
interrogation, representing something as a fact, or as in close relation
to reality, or in interrogative sentences, inquires after a fact, while the
Subjunctive represents something formed in mind of the speaker as a
wish, desire, conception, thought: sometimes closer or less close to
achievement. The Subjunctive does not express the actual reality. The
linguist stated that all the uses of Subjunc tive represent the action or
state as a conception in the speaker’s mind rather than as a reality.
In the same manner, Jespersen (1965: 313) defined the Indicative
Mood as a fact – mood and the Subjunctive as a thought -mood.
Thus, mood is the grammatical ca tegory by means of which we
express modality, i.e. the attitude of the speaker towards the action
expressed by the verb. The speaker can conceptualize the action as being:
1. [+ real], i.e. actual, factual, existing in fact (the Indicative Mood);
2. [- real], i.e. not real, non -factual, hypothetical, possible,
probable, necessary, desirable, etc. (the Subjunctive Mood)
The Indicative Mood is the mood of assertion , it presents the
action as real (or in close relation to reality) or as factual (i.e. as

127 exist ing in fact). It is the most frequent form and involves all he
choices of person, number, tense, aspect, modality and voice. The
tenses of the Indicative Mood cover all the divisions of time on the
temporal axis: past, present or future. (see the third cha pter).
The Subjunctive Mood is non-assertive , it denotes non-factual ,
hypothetical situations. By using the Subjunctive, the speaker
considers the action not as real (as existing in reality) but as
hypothetical (as existing in his/her mind as a possibility , necessity,
supposition, doubt, wish, purpose, etc.). Unlike the Indicative, the
Subjunctive lacks deictic temporal orientation, i.e. it is not actualized
in time.
The Synthetic Subjunctive has three forms: The Present
Subjunctive, The Past Subjunctive an d the Perfect Subjunctive.
Actually, the Subjunctive lacks deictic temporal orientation, i.e. it is
not actualized in time. So, these forms are improperly called tenses
since they do not mark temporal distinctions as the Indicative Mood
does. The so -called ‘tenses’ of the Subjunctive are used to indicate
remoteness from reality in various degrees. The Present and Past
Subjunctive are both used for present time reference with the
difference that the Present Subjunctive expresses a greater degree of
probabili ty than the Past Subjunctive (which expresses doubt, and is
more remote from reality).

It is important that he tell all the truth. (present time reference)
I wish he told the truth . (present time reference)

Also in the Analytic(al) Subjunctive:

It is strange he should lie .
It is strange he should have lied. (It expresses anteriority with
respect to a reference point)

128 The absence of these temporal distinctions in the Subjunctive
Mood is relevant for the fact that the Subjunct ive describes only
possible, not accomplished actions.

5.2. The forms of the Subjunctive
The Subjunctive Mood is represented by two forms: The Synthetic
Subjunctive and the Analytic(al) Subjunctive

5.2.1. The Synthetic Subjunctive
This form is ca lled synthetic on account of the fact that it does not
contain auxiliaries in its composition. The Synthetic Subjunctive is
usually defined as a form which is dying out as an independent mood.
Indeed, the simple synthetic forms have lost most of their dist inctive
endings, so they cannot always be distinguished from the forms of the
Indicative Mood. As we already mentioned, the Synthetic Subjunctive
has forms for the present, the past, the perfect.
Subjunctive verbs are invariable, and they do not exhibit su bject –
verb agreement.

5.2.1.1. The Present Subjunctive
Form: It is identical in form with the base form of the verb (short
infinitive): study.
It expresses an event which can be fulfilled in time and which is,
thus, considered possible.
With regula r verbs, the Present Subjunctive is recognizable only
if we have a singular subject.

Uses:
The Present Subjunctive occurs in both independent sentences and
subordinate clauses:

129 1) Independent Sentences (Formulaic Subjunctive )
The Present Subjunctive in independent sentences is not a
productive form in contemporary English. It occurs in some set
phrases (formulaic expressions):
 wishes:

Long live the prince!

The living, productive form of expressions of this concept contains
may + verb:

May the prince live long!

 oaths, curses:

Damn his arrogance!

 expressions denoting urge, advice:

Far be it from me to offend you.

2) Subordinate Clauses (Mandative Subjunctive)
a) The Present Sub junctive is used in nominal That-clauses (Subject,
Object, Attributive -appositive Clauses) when the main clause
contains an adjective, a verb or a noun which expresses the
meaning of order, demand, suggestion:
 Subject Clauses, after constructions of the ty pe: It is + adjective
(advisable , essential, necessary, important, recommendable, etc. ):

It is / was important that he finish quickly.

 Object clauses, after verbs like demand, desire, order,
recommend, require, suggest, insist, urge, propose, etc. :

They order / ordered that we leave at once.

130 In subjunctive clauses, the negation element is always placed directly
before the main verb, thus, no addition of the do operator is possible.
 Attributive -appositive clauses, after abstract nouns belonging
to the same semantic field: demand, request, idea, suggestion,
proposal:

There was a strange suggestion that she be elected president.

b) The Present Subjunctive is also used in adverbial clauses:
 Adverbial Clauses of Conditio n:

If Peter come here I will receive him immediately .

 Adverbial Clauses of Concession:

Though everyone let you down , I will not.

The Present Subjunctive is found in Old English, in formal style,
in literature, legal language, e.g. in treatises, resolutions, regulations,
news, in elevated prose and poetry. The Present Subjunctive is more
common in American English than in British English.
The examples below are taken from the corpus based grammar
book written by Biber et al. (2005: 261 ):

I told her she could stay with me until she found a place, but
she insisted that she pay her own way . (FICTION)
The way in which we work, whether it be in an office or on the
factory floor, has undergone a major transformation in the past
decade . (NE WS)

5.2.1.2. The Past Subjunctive
Form : It has the same form with the Past Tense, e.g. studied. The
Past Subjunctive has preserved a form distinct from the Past Tense
Indicative only in the verb be, which has a unique form for all persons:

131 were . Yet, in informal language there is a tendency to replace the
invariable subjunctive form were with was in the 1st and 3rd person sg,
so as to follow the paradigm of the Past Tense Indicative.
It expresses a hypothetical meaning, an unreal event, contrary to
the present reality.

Uses:
The Past Subjunctive occurs in subordinate clauses.
1) Subject Clauses : The Past Subjunctive occurs after the
construction It is (about / high) time :

It’s time we left.
It’s high time you graduated.

An equivalent const ruction of the Past Subjunctive after It is
time… is (For -) to Infinitive.

It’s time to leave . (when no subject is expressed)
It’s time for us to leave.

There is a slight difference in meaning between the two
constructions: The subjunctive ( It’s time we left) implies that it is
already a little too late; the infinitive ( It’s time for us to go ) implies
that it is the proper time to do a certain thing.

2) Object Clauses : The Past Subjunctive occurs in hypothetical
constructions after the verbs wish, would rather, would sooner.
After wish the Past Subjunctive expresses an unreal situation in
the present, regret about a present action which does not take place.

I wish I were a child again.
I wish he were studying with us.
Mary wished she knew the rule.

132 Would rather, would sooner express preference. They are
followed by a that-clause (with Past Subjunctive) when the subjects
are different: the person expressing the preference is not the subject of
the action that follows in the secondary cla use:

I’d rather my daughter studied than went out.

Would rather/sooner is followed by an infinitive when the
subjects of the two actions are identical:

I’d rather study for the exam than go out.

3) Conditional Clauses:
The Past Subjun ctive is employed in Conditional Clauses of unreal
condition which refers to the present or future to express an imaginary,
situation contrary to present fact (Type2 Conditional Clause):

If I were you, I wouldn’t sell my house.
If you studied more, you would get better results.

Were is felt as rather formal and is replaced by was in spoken
English.
Were is preserved in some special patterns:
 In the expression: if I were you …

I’d be merciful if I were you.

 In the construc tion: were + (to) infinitive:

If I were to sell my house, I’d let you know.

The Past Subjunctive after if only , the same as after wish,
expresses regret about an action contrary to present reality:

If only I knew the truth.

133 4) Adverbial Clauses of U nreal Comparison (introduced by as
if, as though ). The Past Subjunctive expresses doubt with
reference to a present action, or a hypothetical situation
simultaneous with the action in the main clause:

He talks as if he knew the truth . (But he does n’t).
He talked as if he knew the truth . (But he didn’t).
He spoke as if he were a doctor . (But he is not)

5) Adverbial Clauses of Concession (introduced by even if, even
though ):

Even though he told the truth, they wouldn’t believe him.

The Past Subjunctive is used in both the formal and informal style.

5.2.1.3. The Perfect Subjunctive
Form : It is identical in form with the Past Perfect Indicative
Mood: had studied
It expresses unreal events contrary to the past reality.

Uses : The Perfect Subjunctive is used in subordinate clauses to
express counterfactive meaning.

1) Object Clauses : After the verbs wish, would rather, the
Perfect Subjunctive expresses regret about a past situation or
about an action which did not take place in the past:

Pete wishes his wife had to ld the trut h.
I wish I hadn’t been so naïve.
I wish you had studied more.
I wished you had studied more. (I was sorry you hadn’t studied)
I’d rather you hadn’t behaved like that.

134 2) Condit ional Clauses (Type 3 ): The Perfect Subjunctive
occurs in Conditional Clauses of unreal condition which refers
to the past:

If you had studied more, you would have passed the exam.

In clauses introduced by if only the Perfect Subjunctive expresse s
the same meaning of regret about an action which did not happen in
the past as wish:

If only I hadn’t been so naïve.
If only I hadn’t promised him.
If only I had studied linguistics.

3) Clauses of Comparison introduced by as if, as thoug h.
The Perfect Subjunctive expresses improbability regarding a past
action:

He talks / talked as though he had studied medicine .

3) Clauses of Concession introduced by even if, even though :

Even if he had been ill , he would have finished the proje ct.

5.2.2. The Analytic(al) Subjunctive
Since some forms of the synthetic subjunctive have fallen more
and more into disuse because of the loss of distinctive endings, these
forms have been replaced by periphrastic constructions i.e. by th e
Analytic Subjunctive. The subjunctive equivalents represent other
means of expressing hypothetical values at the level of the verb phrase,
e.g. wishes, presuppositions, concessions, conditions, etc. (Murar,
2010: 138).
The forms of the Analytic Subjuncti ve are combinations of modal
verbs used as auxiliaries + the short infinitive (present or perfect) of the
main verb. The Present Infinitive is used for simultaneity or

135 subsequence to the action of the main clause, the Perfect Infinitive is
used for anterio rity. The modal auxiliary verbs employed for the
Analytic Subjunctive are: should, may / might, can / could, will / would .
The modal -auxiliary verbs have the following distribution:

5.2.2.1. Should
The modal -auxiliary should occur in:

1) Independ ent sentences or main clauses:
 to form the Present/Perfect Conditional in the 1st person
singular and plural (British English, formal style):

I should study more if I had time.
I should have studied more if I had had time.

 in (direct or indire ct) questions introduced by who, what, why
(‘rhetorical’ questions), as well as exclamations to express an
emotional state of surprise, or annoyance:

Why should we do such a thing ?

2) Subordinate clauses:
 Subject clauses :
After the constructio n It is + adjective (advisable, essential, desirable,
important, recommendable, necessary, etc.) the Analytic Subjunctive
with should occurs as an alternative to the Synthetic Subjunctive
present or to for-to infinitive:

It is important that he should study more.
It is important that he study more.
It is important for him to study more.

After the construction It is + adjective (amazing, odd, strange,
surprising ), or It is + noun (a pity, a shame, a surprise, a wonder ) the

136 Analytic Subjunctive with should is used as an alternative to the
Indicative Mood:

a) It is surprising that she should behave like that at the party.
b) It is surprising that she behaved like that at the party.

a) It is a surprise that he should have abandoned the project .
b) It is a surprise that he has abandoned the project.

The difference between the sentences (a) and (b) is the difference
conveyed by the two moods. In the Subjunctive Mood the stress is on
the idea of a possible event, while in the Indicative Mood the stress is
on the description of a real, actual event.
According to G. Leech (1978: 72), the subjunctive with should
expresses a non -factual meaning which leaves open the question of the
truth or falsehood of the statement.
This use of should express ing something as a neutral idea rather
than as a fact is called putative should.

 Object clauses :
After verbs expressing command, decision, order, suggestion like
agree, command, demand, insist, order, propose, recommend,
suggest , etc. the Analytic Subjun ctive with should is an alternative to
the Present Synthetic Subjunctive:

He suggested that we should leave at once.
He suggested that we leave at once.

After some verbs – insist, agree – either the subjunctive or the
indicative may be used:

a) He insists that Mike should study medicine. (insist = demand):
b) He insists that Mike studies medicine. (insist = claim):

137 Depending on the main verb, other structures can be used in these
clauses:

Object + infi nitive structure: The captain ordered them to leave .
Possessive + -ing form: The captain insisted on their leaving.
.
 Attributive -appositive clauses.
The subjunctive with should occurs after abstract nouns such as
demand, desire, inten tion, idea, order, proposal, reason, request,
suggestion, wish, etc.

His suggestion that she should be elected president was
rejected.

 Conditional clauses :
The Analytic Subjunctive with should occurs in conditional
clauses as an alternative to the Prese nt Tense Indicative Mood
(Conditional Clause Type1), or to the Past Synthetic Subjunctive
(Conditional Clause Type 2) in order to express a higher degree of
doubt, more uncertainty (an action less likely to happen):

Type 1: If he calls, tell him I will call him back . (Indicative Mood)
If he should call, tell him I will call him back . (Subjunctive
with should = If he happens to call/ If by any chance he calls.)
or: Should he call, tell him I will call him back.

Type 2: If you were invited would you go to the wedding?
If you should be invited would you go to the wedding?
Should you be invited would you go to the wedding?

 Clauses of purpose . The Analytic Subjunctive occurs in:
a) Clauses of affirmative purpose:

He gave me some money so that I should buy a good dictionary.

138 b) Clauses of negative purpose introduced by so that (+ negative
verb, pronoun), lest, for fear, in case (+ an affirmative verb):

He hurried so that he should not miss the plane.
He hurried lest he should miss the plane.
He hurried for fear he should miss the plane.
He hurried in case he should miss the plane (= so that he
shouldn’t miss it)

Both clauses of purpose and clauses of result are introduced b y the
same conjunction: so that. It is the form of the verb that distinguishes
them: the verb in the clause of purpose is in the Analytical
Subjunctive, while the clause of result normally contains a verb in the
Indicative (Murar, 2010: 142):

He left ear lier so that he should catch the first train to
London. (Purpose)
He left earlier so that he caught the first train to London. (Result)

5.2.2.2. May / Might
The modal -auxiliary may / might is used in:
1) Independent sentences – exclamatory sentences to express a
wish, such as desire for people’s health, happiness, or success,
etc. It is the living, productive form employed instead of the
synthetic subjunctive present which is obsolete.

May she recover soon long!
May they rest in peace!

2) Subordinate clauses. If the verb in the main clause is in the
present tense, either may or might can be used in the
subordinate clause ( might suggests a higher degree of
uncertainty); if the verb in the main clause is in the Past Tense
only might can be used .
May / might occurs in:

139  Subject clauses after the construction It is + adjective (possible,
probable , likely ) as an alter native to the Indicative Mood:

It is likely that he may/will pass the exam.

 Object Clauses after be afraid / apprehensive, fear :

I’m afraid the boy may fall ill again.
She was afraid that Henry might refuse her.

 Clauses of Concession. The Analytic Subjunctive with
may/might is used instead of the Indicative Mood to express a
supposition, something more uncertain, hypothet ical. These
clauses are introduced by compound conjunctions in -ever
(whoever, whatever, etc.), by the phrase no matter (who, what
etc.), as:

Whatever my parents may say I will study law.
However hard he may work , he’ll never finish the p roject in time.
Try as he may, he will never convince me.

Because of its strong hypothetical content may + the adversative
coordinating conjunction but can express the idea of concession:

Although he has promised to study harder, I don’t think he will. →
He may have promised to study harder, but I don’t think he will.

 Clauses of Affirmative Purpose (introduced by so that, in order
that):

Mum gave me some money so that I might buy the dictionary.
This is a rather literary st ructure and in spoken English it is more
common to use can / could, will / would in these clauses.

140 5.2.2.3. Will / Would
Will / would occurs in:

1) Independent sentences or main clauses to form the Present
or Perfect Conditional in the 2nd and 3rd persons singular and
plural:

Emily would study more if she had time.
Emily would have studied more if she had had time.

2) Subordinate clauses:

 Object clauses after wish:
It expresses a wish about the future which is not likely to be
fulfilled :

I wish you would study more. (= but I don’t think you would)

It also expresses preference: we want something to happen or
somebody to perform something:

I wish you would finish quickly.

 Conditional clauses introduced by if only :

Oh, if only she would come !

 Clauses of Purpose introduced by so that: will is used when
the verb in the main clause is in the present tense, present
perfect, imperative; would is obligatory when the main verb is
in the Past Tense:

Helen has just given him the money so that he will pay the fee.
She gave me the money so that I would buy the dictionary.

141  Clauses of Concession introduced by as:

Try as he will he won’t finish in time .

5.2.2.4. Can / Could
Can / could occurs in Clauses o f purpose as an informal alternative
construction to may / might . May / might is more formal and shows a
higher degree of uncertainty. Can / could occurs in spoken English
and usually indicates an event which is more likely to happen.

She gave me the mone y so that I could buy the dictionary.

5.3. The distribution of the Conditional Mood in various registers
In this chapter we have analysed the Conditional Mood as a
subtype of Analytical Subjunctive and in this section, we shall give
some data about i ts distribution and the distribution of Conditional
Clauses in different registers (Biber et al ., 2005: 373 -374).

Clauses of condition can be divided into three subtypes: open,
hypothetical and rhetorical:
a) open condition: in an open condition, the clause does not say
whether or not the condition is accomplished. For example:

1. Read the paper if you don’t believe me ! (FICTION)
2. If the wa ter temperature falls below 22 ° C there is a sharp
decrease in yield of grain . (ACADEMIC)
3. He won’t go with you unless he feels he has to. (FICTION)

Thus, in 1., you might or might not believe me, and in 2., the
temperature may or may not fall below 22 degrees. These clauses do
not commit themselves to the truth or falsehood of the proposition
they contain.
b) hypo thetical (also called unreal) condition: A hypothetical
condition implies that the condition is not accomplished:

142 4. If I could correct this I certainly would . (news) <unfulfilled
in the present/future>
5. If he had had a coin he would have tossed it. (Fi ction)
<unfulfilled in the past>

In 4., it is clear that I cannot correct this, and in 5., that he did not
have a coin.

c) rhetorical condition: These clauses take the form of a
condition, but together with the main clause, they actually make
a strong (unconditional) assertion:

You may think that I want to destroy the milk boards, but if
you believe that you will believe anything . (NEWS)

The whole sentence functions as a statement conveying the idea:
‘You cannot believe that.’
If -clauses of conditio n show a high frequency in conversation,
with preferences for both real and unreal condition, as in the examples
below:

If we move some of these off the table, we’ll have more room
to do our pictures . (CONVERSATION) <real>
If we could afford it we’d get o ne. (CONVERSATION)
<unreal>

Conditional clauses also serve special conversational uses in
suggestions , requests, and offers :

You can hold her if you want . (CONVERSATION)
Well, you can stop being a fusspot if you don’t mind .
(conversation) <spoken to a child>
You can go sit in the living room, if you like .
(CONVERSATION)

143
A conditional clause can soften the suggestion or comma nd (a
strategy of politeness). It suggests that the action is the hearer’s choice.

5.4. The distribution of Subjunctive for ms in subordinate
clauses (Murar, 2010: 146 ):

SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE Synthetic S. Analytic S.
Modal –
Auxiliary Main Clause
Constr. (that
requires the
Subj.) Subord. conj.
Pres Past Perf
SUBJECT
CLAUSES x SHOULD It is + Adj.
(necessary)
x SHOULD It is + N/Adj.
(a
pity/strange)
May/might It is + Adj.
(possible)
OBJECT
CLAUSES x SHOULD Demand
x x Wish, I’d
rather
SHOULD Be + Adj.
(anxious)
MAY/MIGHT Be afraid
WOULD Wish
ATTRIBUTIVE –
APPOSIT.
CLAUSES x SHOULD Sugges tion
COMPARATIVE
CLAUSES x x as if, as though
CONCESSION x MAY/MIGHT though
x x even if/though
MAY/MIGHT ever, however,
no matter
CONDITIONAL
CLAUSES x x x SHOULD
PUROPOSE
CLAUSES MAY/MIGHT so that, in
order that
CAN/COULD so that, in
order that

144 SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE Synthetic S. Analytic S.
Modal –
Auxiliary Main Clause
Constr. (that
requires the
Subj.) Subord. conj.
Pres Past Perf
WILL/WOULD so that
SHOULD lest, for fear,
so that

145
CHAPTER 6
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD

The Imperative is not only a verbal form, but also a type of the
sentence whose function is to express orders, commands, or requests.
Thus, from the functional point of view, the Imperative is opposed to
the declarative pattern not to the Indicative Mood (Murar, 2010: 129).
The Imperative Mood must be analysed within the framework of
the Imperative Sentences.

6.1. Imperative sentences (Commands)
6.1.1. Commands without a subject
This is the most frequent type of command, which differs from a
statement in that:
a) it has no overt (formally expressed) grammatical subject;
b) the verb is in imperative mood (the 2nd person sing ular and
plural).

Commands have a falling tone.
Study harder !
Collect all the necessary data .
Invite her tonight.
Commands can sound abrupt, unless toned down by markers of
politeness, such as please (placed at the beginning or end of the
imperative se ntences):

Please, sign here!
Lay the table , please !

146 or if one changes the command into a question or a statement:

Will you sign here?
Would you mind signing here?
I wonder whether you would mind signing here .
Play the tape again, will you ? (will you in final position
gives the imperative sentence the aspect of a tag question ).

6.1.2. Commands with subject
It is implied in the meaning of a command that the omitted subject
of the imperative verb is the 2nd person pronoun you. This is intuitively
clear, but it is also confirmed by the occurrence of you as subject of
the following disjunctive question: Be polite, will you ! and by the
occurrence of yourself as object: Help yourself !
There is, however, a type of command in which the subject you is
overt . You indicates:
– the speaker’s annoyance (these commands are usually admonitory
in tone)

You shut up !

– a differentiation: to single out two or more distinct persons.

You lay the table, Jane, and you bring the drinks, Peter!

A third person subject is al so possible: an indefinite pronoun when
the imperative is addressed to any person in the group.

Somebody help him!
Everybody hand in the papers!

6.1.3. Commands with LET
In the 1st and 3rd person singular and plural, the Imperative can be
formed by means of let followed by a noun or a pronoun in the Accusative.

147 Let me study!
Let us go! or Let’s go !

The structural types of Imperative may be summarized in the
following table (adapted from Quirk et al. 1979: 405):
1st person 2nd person 3rd person
Without subject – (I)Turn on
the light! –
With
subject Without let – (II) You
turn on the
light! (III) Someone
turn on the
light!
With let (IV) Let me
turn on the
light!
Let’s turn
on the light! (V) Let
someone turn
on the light!

6.1.4. Negative commands To negate the first three classes of
Imperative, one simply adds an initial don’t , replacing assertive by
nonassertive forms where necessary:
I. Turn on the light! – Don’t turn on the light!
II. You turn on the light! – Don’t you turn on the light!
III. Someone turn on the light! – Don’t anyone turn on the light!
First person imperatives (class IV), on the other hand, are generally
negated by the insertion of not after the pronoun following let.

Let’s not turn on the light!

Informally, however, the nega tion with don’t is frequently used:

Don’t let’s turn on the light!

The same construction can be employed for class V.

148 Don’t let anyone turn on the light!

6.1.5. Persuasive commands A Persuasive or Emphatic
Imperative is formed by adding do (with a nuc lear tone) before the
main verb. This construction only applies to classes I and IV.

Do study the whole lesson!
Do let’s walk in the park!

6.1.6. Other constructions having the value of a command
Sometimes an imperative sentence may contain no verb, but only
a noun, an adverb or a prepositional phrase.

No smoking!
No entry!
Wet paint!
Out with it!
The book, please!

6.2. The form and function of Imperative Clauses
As we have already stated the Imperative Clauses can be
elaborated by adding questions tags, discourse markers ( please ) or
adverbs like just.
Biber et al . (200 5: 255) give the following examples from
conversation register:

Pick your plates up from down there, will you ? (CONV)
Pass me his drink, please . (CONV )
Just dump it at the door there . (CONV )

The question tag will you does not soften the command so much.
Please has a softening effect but is not a strong politeness strategy. Just
makes the imperative less demanding and, thus, easier to comply with.
It is clear that an imperative can ex press a range of directive speech acts,

149 starting from commands to offers and invitations, depending on the
situation and the kind of demand made on the addressee.
A different kind of function is performed by the following
imperative clause, which is coordi nated with a following declarative
clause. The coordinated clause expresses a conditional relation: ‘if you
touch them the telly goes wrong’.

Touch them and the telly goes wrong . (CONV)

Imperative sentences are used to perform speech acts with
impositive force. Thus, distinction can be made between the following
types of sentences (Croitoru, 2002: 139 ):
a) declarative -form sentences :

I want you to finish this at once.
I’d like the menu, please.

b) declarative -form sentences with explicit performative verbs
and embedded infinitives or that – clauses:

I order you to finish this at once.
I suggest that you should come here.
I ask you not to invite her any more.

c) interrogative -form sentences:

Will you open the door, please?
Shouldn’t you be in your classro om now?
Why don’t you leave me alone?

6.3. The use of the Imperative Mood in different registers
Imperatives are frequently used in spoken English since speakers
often try to direct the activity of listeners. Similarly, fiction texts use
imperatives in dialogue fragments, but, of course, their frequency is
low as compared to conversation.

150 It is more surprising that the written informative registers need
imperatives. In fact, imperatives are more frequent than questions in
news and academic writing, presu mably because writers can use them
as a strategy to manipulate the reaction and behaviour of the reader
(Biber et al., 200 5: 255). For example:
For full details of performances, talks, workshops, contact the
Third Eye Centre . (NEWS)
Biber et al. (1999: 221 -222) concluded that specification of the
subject and the use of softening devices are generally rare: less than
20 % of all imperatives in conversation and fiction have such
characteristics. The most common modifications are an overt subject
you and a fin al vocative.
Surprisingly, these modifications are slightly more frequent in
fiction than in conversation and are rare in news and academic prose,
where the imperative is addressed to the general reader and does not
demand any favours. The low proportion i n spoken language is due to
the informal situations and the intimate relationship between the
interlocutors. Disjunctive questions, please, and do are rare in
conversation and fiction. The main difference between the two
registers is the higher frequency o f just in conversation.

151
CHAPTER 7
MODALITY AND MODAL VERBS

Modality is a very complex and debatable phenomenon. It is just
the complexity of this problem that has caused disagreement
concerning what semantic aspects should be taken into account when
analysing modality. The main issue is how to account for the semantic
overlaps between the functions expressed by moods and the functions
expressed by modals.
The principles which govern the use of modal expressions in
ordinary language differ from the pr inciples governing the use of their
counterparts in logic (Croitoru, 2002: 11).
Modality refers to the speaker’s or writer’s attitude towards a state
of the world. Nine core or central modal auxiliary verbs (can, could,
may, might, will, shall, would, should, must ) and semi -modals or
marginal auxiliary verbs (need, ought to, dare, used to ) represent the
main way in which modal values are expressed. There are also a
number of idiomatic phrases with functions similar to those of modals:
had better, have to, have got to, be supposed to, be going to.
Unlike central modal verbs, some of semi -modals and of modal
idiomatic phrases can be marked for tense and person, and can also
have non -finite forms.
The modal verbs are a special group of verbal forms which were
originally Past Tenses but now have the meaning of the Present Tense:
can, may, dare, shall were Past Indicatives; will, must, ought were Past
Subjunctives (Murar, 2010: 147).
As we have already stated, they are a limited number of verbal
forms (a closed -system) which share the same formal characteristics.

152 7.1. Formal characteristics
1) The modal verbs are uninflected: they don’t add -s for the 3rd
person singular, i.e. all persons have the same form, probably
due to their being felt as subjunctives:

He can study harder.
Yvonne must be at the station at 2 o’clock.

2) They are anomalous verbs: the interrogative and negative
patterns are similar to the auxiliary be, namely without do.
Thus, the interrogative is formed by inverting the subject and
the modal ver b, the negative is formed by putting not after the
modal:

Can he study harder?
He cannot study harder.

3) There are gaps in the tense -aspect -mood paradigms of modal verbs.
They are modal ‘defective’ verbs, i.e. they lack some forms:
 They do not have non -finite forms;
 They cannot be conjugated in all tenses or moods, e.g. they do
not occur in the perfect and future tenses. Furthermore, some,
apparently Past Tense forms such as could, might do not
always indicate past time: time reference is sometimes
inferred by context.

4) The modal verbs are verbs of incomplete predication. That is
why they are always followed by a main verb in the infinitive
(Present or Perfect Infinitive). Most of the verbs are followed
by the Short Infinitive (without to):

Joan can study harder.

153 7.2. Semantic characteristics
The modal verbs form a system of items specialized for expressing
the speaker’s attitude towards the action of the utterance: the action
can be considered as: possible, obligatory, probable, etc. The modals
are also used for requests, offers, suggestions as strategies of
politeness or to express our wishes and intentions.
Modals are polysemantic words: each modal verb has at least two
semantic values, a semantic property also reflected by the syntax of
these verbs.
Modals and semi -modals are grouped into three main categories
according to their main meanings:
1. ability/permission/possibility : can, could, may, might ;
2. obligation /necessity : must, should, had better, have got to,
need to, ought to, be supposed to ;
3. volition/prediction : will, would, shall, be going to.
Each modal can have two different types of meaning, namely
intrinsic (deontic) and extrinsic (epistemic).
Intrinsic or deontic (root, primary) modality refers to actions that
humans or other agents di rectly control: ability, permission,
obligation, volition, intention:

You may come in. (permission)
I must be there. It is very urgent. (obligation)

Extrinsic or epistemic modality (Gk. episteme = ‘knowledge’,
i.e. cognitive) refers to the logical stat us of events or states, relating to
likelihood: possibility, necessity, probability (Biber et al., 1999: 485).
Epistemic modality is concerned with the speaker’s assessment
about the certainty, probability or possibility of something.

He might study medi cine. (It is possible, not certain)
He will study medicine . (It is something certain)

154 If we admit that elements expressing modality mark possibility or
the related notion of permission, probability or the related notion of
obligation, certainty or the r elated concept of requirement, the following
sentences can be interpreted either in terms of possibility, probability
and necessity, or in terms of permission, obligation and requirement, i.e.
either as deontic or epistemic values. (Croitoru, 2002: 48):

Pam may go to the party.
Perhaps Pam will go to the party. (possibility)
Pam is permitted to go to the party . (permission)

Pam must be at school now.
I am certain that she is at school now. (deduction)
She is obliged to be at school now. (obligation)

Ther e are also clear -cut distinctions between the epistemic and
deontic use. The modal form mustn’t is generally used only
deontically:

You mustn’t cross the street here.

The negative of epistemic must is can’t . It expresses a negative
deduction:

Pam must b e at the museum.
Pam can’t be at the museum.

The following tables are relevant for the semantic deontic and
epistemic values of modal verbs and for their syntactic behaviour
(Croitoru, 2002: 49 -50):

155 Deontic value Epistemic value
1. may = permission
May I come in?
You may enter . 1. may = possibility
He may come tomorrow.
He may have studied.
2. can = ability and permission
He can type very well.
Can I come in? 2. can = possibility
Can it be true?

3. must = obligation
He must be there at two o’clock. 3. must = certainty
He must be at the office now.
4. will = volition
I will do this! 4. will = prediction, high
probability
She will manage somehow .
5. should = obligation
You should visit him since he
was ill. 5. should = probability
He should be there by now.

Syntactic characteristics
Deontic value Epistemic value
a) They are not used in the
Perfective and in the
Progressive Aspect:
You may leave now.
(permission)
*He can be swimming . (ability) a) They can be used in the
Perfective and in the Progressive
Aspect
He can’t have behaved like that.
He is very polite . (impossibility,
negative deduction)
b) The subject must be animate:
*The fruit must fall from the
tree. (obligation) b) There is no selection restriction
on the subject :
The fruit must have fallen from
the tree. (certainty)
c) They have Past Tense forms:
might, could, would
They asked if they might leave.
c) The forms might, could, would
are Subjunctives, not past
equivalents:
I wish he might succeed .
She wishes he could be there .

156 7.2.1. Ability
The moda l verbs can / could express the deontic concept of ability,
i.e. physical or mental ability to perform a certain activity.
Can + present infinitive is used for present and future actions.

He can study more than Mary.
Can you type?
Can John come tomorrow? Has he recovered?

Can is used with verbs of physical perception (feel, hear, see,
smell) and cognitive verbs (remember, understand) to express a
physical sense or mental experience that is going on at the present
moment, i.e. to form a kind of substitute for the progressive aspect,
since these verbs cannot be used in the progressive form.

Can you hear the wind?
I can understand what you are saying.

Could + present infinitive expresses:
a) Present or future time reference with a subjunctive meanin g
(Present Conditional), i.e. it expresses a hypothetical value:

I could finish this tomorrow.

b) Past reference: could expresses ability in the past. There is an
adverb or another verb in the past which settle the past reference:

He could study difficult subjects when he was a boy.
He could swim when he was only six.

Particular past ability is expressed by could in negative sentences only:

I tried, but I couldn’t finish my homew ork.

157 In affirmative sentences, a particular event which was successfully
performed in the past under unfavorable circumstances is expressed
by was able, managed to, succeeded in. Could is not used.

Although he was ill, he was able / managed to finish the project.
When the car plunged into the sea, only Jim was able to get out .

Could + perfect infinitive expresses past ability with a subjunctive
reading (Perfect Conditional). It implies that the subject had the ability
or the opportu nity to do something, but he didn’t do it:

He could have helped me, but he refused.

The missing forms of can / could are supplied by the appropriate
periphrastic forms of be able / unable to :

He said he had fallen ill and hadn’t been able to get out of bed.

Other linking verbs as well as be, especially seem or feel are
followed by able to :

No one seemed able to help .

Other verbs which can replace can/could for rendering the concept
of ability are: manage, succeed in, be capable, know how :

This woman is over ninety, but she is still able to work in the
garden.
This woman is over ninety, but she is still capable of working
in the garden.

7.2.2. Permission
This conc ept is expressed by may / might and can / could .
Asking and giving permission is a matter of politeness, so the
forms we use vary in different situations and registers. Can / could is

158 used in less formal situations (in a familiar environment). may / might
express permission in a formal register.
a) Informal requests for permission:

Can/ could we leave now?

More formal requests are rendered by may / might :

May/might we leave now?
May / might I use your phone?
I wonder if you might give me some mon ey.

The verbs might, could express a more polite, respectful way of
asking for permission than may and can . They indicate a certain
hesitation on the part of the speaker. He/she is not sure if he/she will
get an affirmativ e answer.

b) Giving permission (someone is allowed to do something):
 Present or future reference: Can is used in less formal
contexts than may to express permission:

You can use my phone if you need it.
You may us e my phone if you need it . (in more form al situations)

Might and could imply respect , that is why they are more natural
in questions, in requests for permission than in giving it:

Could I use your dictionary?’ ‘ Of course, you can.’
‘Might I bother you for a few minutes?’ ‘Yes, you may.’

May is chiefly used to express permission given by the speaker:

You may smoke here means ‘ I give you permission to smoke’.

If the speak er has no authority in the problem, he will say: ’You
can smoke here’ or ‘You are allowed to smoke here’.

159 Can has a wider use than may, for it can be used not only to express
permission given by the speaker, but also to express the idea of having
permission. In You can smoke here – can expresses both meanings: i.
permi ssion given by the speaker (I give you permission); ii. the idea
of having permission (You have a right to smoke/you are allowed to
smoke) (Murar, 2010: 153)

Refusal of permission is expressed by:
a) present reference: may not, cannot, or by t he stronger modal must
not (prohibition): May I leave now? No, you may not . / No, you
must not.
b) past reference, i.e. permission in the past is expressed by might,
could only in Reported Speech after a past reporting verb:

I asked if I might/could ask a question.
He assured us that we might discuss about everything.

The missing forms are replaced by to (be) allow(ed) to, to (be)
permit(ted) to :

Nobody was allowed to smoke in the room.
Shall we be allowed / permitted to enter the exam roo m earlier?

Other means of expressing permission are:
 give / have permission :
We were allowed / permitted to give a party . = We had
permission to give a party .
 to mind:
May I park here? or: Do you mind if I park here? / Do you
mind my (me) par king here? /
Would you mind if I park here?

160 7.2.3. Obligation
Obligation is expressed by the following modal verbs: must, need,
shall, should, ought to.
Must expresses:
1) Present/future time reference. Several distinctions can be made
within the concept of obligation:
a) internal versus external obligation :
– internal obligation , i.e. obligation imposed by the speaker, or derived
from the speaker’s conviction or point of view is expressed by must .
Must conveys a personal feeling of duty, urgent obligation, strong
advice.
– external obligation, i.e. external authority, circumstances,
regulations, orders issued by someone else. It is expressed by have to :

You must finish the project by the end of July . (obligation
imposed by the speaker)
You have to finish the project by the end of July . (have to
expresses obligation generally, without specifying who does the
compelling)
I must g o (it’s my decision).
I have to go (obligation imposed by circumstances, e.g. the
train leaves).
We have to stay in the exam room at least an hour . (obligation
coming from a regulation)

b) habitual versus urgent, important or versus limited obligation :
– habitual obligation (obligation to perform a habitual action) is
expressed by have to ;
– urgent o bligation is expressed by must;
– limited or single obligation (one particular occasion) is expressed by
have got to :

I have to be at work at 8 o’clock a.m. (habitual, repeated
obligation).

161 I must be at work at 7 o’clock a.m. today. (important , urgent
obligation) .
I must be at hospital at 8 o’clock for some tests. (important,
urgent obligation) .
I’ve got to write an essay. (single, limited obligation).

Sometimes, in informal style, have is left out:

I really got to do it.

c) in negative sentences a distinction is made between obligation not
to do something (prohibition, interdiction), expressed by must not
and lack of obligation expressed by don’t have to, needn’t :

You mustn’t park here.
Must I solve all the exercises?’ ‘No, y ou needn’t ’ /don’t have
to/haven’t got to .
You needn’t finish this now if you don’t want to.

2) Past time reference after a past reporting verb:

I told her she must/had to work harder.

The missing forms of must are supplied by have to :

Have you ever had to work on Sunday ?
We will have to go there before noon .

Need can be treated as a lexical verb or as an auxiliary verb:
a) as a lexical verb, need means ‘require’ and as s uch it behaves like
a main verb: it takes –s in the 3rd person singular; it forms
interrogative and negative sentences with the auxiliary do; it is
conjugated in all tenses and moods; it is followed by a noun or by

162 the long infinitive of another verb; it i s used in all types of
sentences (affirmative, interrogative, negative):

It needs to be repaired.
I need another smart dress for the party.

b) As a modal verb, need has no -s in the 3rd person singular; it forms
interrogative and negative wit hout do; it has no perfect or future
forms; it is followed by the short infinitive of a main verb; it
occurs only in interrogative and negative sentences.
1) Need + present infinitive expresses:
 Present / future time reference: in interrogative sentences
must and need are quite similar in meaning, but the use of
need instead of must shows that the speaker expects a
negative answer:

Need I wash all the laundry? (I hope not).

In negative sentences needn’t is synonymous with don’t have to
(it expresses lack of obligation):

You needn’t take the test if you don’t want to.

 Past time reference after a past reporting verb:

I told him that he needn’t take the test.

2) Need + perfect infinitive expresses absence of obligation of an
action which was nevertheless performed (an action which took
place in the past but was unnecessary):

You needn’t have bought tomatoes I bought two kilos yesterday.

163 Didn’t need to + present infinitive expresses lack of obligation of
an actio n which was probably not performed (the unnecessary action
presumably did not occur). It is synonymous with didn’t have to :

He didn’t need to take the test . (it was unnecessary for him to
take the test and probably he didn’t).

Should and ought to are no t so strong as must in the sense of
obligation. Both modals denote recommendation, advisability, duty, moral
obligation. They mean ‘it is proper’, ‘it is advisable’). Therefore, they are
preferred in those contexts in which must would sound too categorical .
Although should and ought to have very similar meanings, there
is however a difference between them. Should expresses a subjective
opinion, while ought to has a rather more objective force and it is used
especially when we refer to moral obligation.
1) Should / ought to + present infinitive expresses:
a) present or future time reference:

You don’t look too well: you should go to the doctor. (direct
personal statement ).
Children ought not to spend too many hours in front of a
computer. (impersonal stat ement).

b) past time reference after a past reporting verb :

He said that I should study more.

2) Should / ought to + perfect infinitive expresses a past moral
obligation which was not carried out. A note of strong
reproach is obvious:

You ought not to have entered there without his permission.
My brother should have told me what had happened.

164 Obligation can also be expressed by other means:
1) Shall in the 2nd and 3rd persons (it has future time reference).
The construction is chiefly used in formal style (official
regulations, legal language):

Each employee shall wear a uniform.

In less formal English, as well as in indirect speech must, have to ,
or be to is used inst ead of shall in such sentences:

Each employee must/has to/is to wear a uniform.
2) Be to expresses an order, a command. The obligation is
imposed by an authority other than the speaker.

You are to be here by noon.

Was to + present infinitiv e is used:
 With the value of past arrangement, plan:

Olivia was to move to another city .

 After past reporting verbs:

He told me I was not to leave by six p.m.

Was to + perfect infinitive is used for an unfulfilled arrangement,
plan or to show that the instructions, arrangements were not fulfilled:

We were to leave the next day.

In spoken English suppose + present infinitive replaces was +
perfect infinitive:

We were supposed to dance under the stars.

165 3) The ve rbs oblige, compel:

We were obliged to leave the house.
He was compelled by poverty to give up.

4) Had better expresses the meaning of advisability, strong
recommendation. It is usually felt as stronger than
should /ought to:

He’d better remain here.

5) Adjectives: obligatory, compulsory, necessary, bound:
Medical knowledge is compulsory for this job.
He is bound to succeed.

6) Nouns: necessity, compulsion, obligation, need:

Is there any need for doing this?

Prohibition can be thought of as the negation of permission. Can
and may (= ‘permission’) and must (= ‘obligation’) have the meaning
of ‘prohibition’ when used in the negative form:

‘Can I smoke here?’
‘No, I’m afraid you can’t .’
You may not smoke here. (= you are not allowed to…)
You mustn’t smoke here.

A less strong form of prohibition (negative advice) can be
indicated by oughtn’t to (British English), shouldn’t, had better not :

You oughtn’t to waste your time in such places.
He shouldn’t smoke here.

166 7.2.4. Possibility
The epistemic concept of possibility is expressed by may / might,
can / could.
1) present or future time reference:
a) affirmative sentences: may is used to denote factual possibility
(i.e. the actual chances of someth ing happening), while can is
used to denote a more general, theoretical possibility (Murar,
2010: 160)

He may come tonight.
It may clear up soon.
Errors can happen .
Can in general statements of possibility has the same meaning as
sometimes :

Flying can be dangerous. = Flying is sometimes dangerous .

Compare:

The safe may be blocked (= it is possible that the safe is
blocked).
The safe can be blocked (= it is possible to block the safe).

Might and could express a hypothetical possibility, i.e. a more remote
possibility with a higher degree of uncertainty, doubt than may, can .

He might come tonight.
It might clear up later .

Unlike can, could expresses both theoretical and actual possibility
and can be used instead of may, might :

It could/may /might be true .
Don’t work so much: you could/may/might get ill .

167 b) Interrogative sentences: can is very common in interrogative and
negative sentences whereas may is not. In the interrogative
sentences may is replaced by can / could, is it likely :

Where can Jane be now?
Who can that man be ? Can it be your brother ? (but it is not
used in the affirmative sentence s: *It can be your brother .

In affirmative sentences can expresses only theoretical possibility
as we hav e already stated.

It may be true . → Can it be true?
He may come tonight. → Is he likely to come?
It may clear up later. → Is it likely to clear up?

c) Negative sentences. May / might occurs in negative sentences only
when the scope of negation does not include the meaning of the
moda l (the modal verb is not negated), i.e . may not means ‘it is
possible that something does not happen’ (Murar, 2010: 162)

Dmitry may not be in London . = It is possible that he isn’t in
London.

In negative sentences with can / could the scope of n egation
includes the modal, i.e. cannot means ‘it is not possible, it is
impossible’. It expresses a negative deduction about a present situation.

Dmitry can’t be in London = It is not possible, it is impossible
that he should be in London.
That man can’t be Tom .
She can’t be over forty . She looks so young.

Note the difference between may not and cannot in these contexts:

Marion may not be there . (= It is possible that she isn’t there)

168 Marion can’t be there . (= It is not possible, it is impossible
that she should be there)

2) past time reference :
a) Might and could are used after a past reporting verb or after an
adverb denoting past reference:

He said it might clear up soon.
I thought he might finish the project.
In those dark days a man could be killed for being a
Huguenot .

b) may / might / can / could + perfect infinitive express speculations
about past actions, i.e. the modal verb expresses the possibility
that an actio n happened in the past.
 in affirmative sentences may, might, could are normally used
(can + perfect infinitive does not occur in affirmative
sentences):

He may / might / could have read the novel.

In certain contexts, may denotes the fact that the possibility of the
past action still exists, while might expresses the idea that a past action
was possible but was not accomplished:

He may have been arrested (= perhaps he was arrested) .
You shouldn’t have let him to go to the river: he might have
drowned (but he didn’t ).

Might + present / perfect infinitive has an additional, derived
meaning: it expresses criticism, reproach about a present / past action
which is not fulfilled:

You might ask before you take my money .
Robert might have telephoned me to say he wouldn’t come.

169  in interrogative and negative sentences can, could are
frequently used:
– interrogative:

‘Can they have missed the flight?’ ‘Yes, they may have .’
Could he have told a lie?

– negative:

She can’t have written this. She can’t write.

In the negative, the meanings between might not and could not
differ:

You might not have read the letter yesterday (= perhaps you
didn’t read it).
You couldn’t have read the letter yesterday (negative
deduction about a past event).
You couldn’t have seen Jim yesterday. He is out of town.
(negative deduction about a past event)

There are also other means of expressin g the concept of possibility:
a) adjectives: possible, impossible, likely :

It’s possible that he’ll finish the project by next week (= He
may finish)
It’s impossibl e that they should have lied . / It’s impossible for
them to have lied . (= They can’t have lied)

b) adverbs: possibly, maybe, perhaps :

Perhaps / maybe he’ll finish the project by next week (= He
may finish)
Possibly Olivia wasn’t there . (= She may not have been there)

170 c) nouns: possibilit y:

There’s a possibility that he’ll finish the project by next week
/ of his finishing the project by next week.

7.2.5. Probability
The extrinsic modality concept of probability, supposition,
likelihood, assumption, logical deduction, i.e. what we deduc e or
conclude to be the most likely interpretation of a situation or a state –
is expressed by must, ought to, will, would .

Must is used to indicate strong likelihood, certainty.
Must + present infinitive expresses logical deduction, suppositio n,
about a present action:

The children must be studying in the library .
He has high grades . He must be a very good student.
They must be having a party.

Must + perfect infinitive indicates logical deduction, assumption
about a past action:

She must have left . It’s very late . (= I suppose she left).
Joan must have missed the bus .

Must is used to express logical deduction only in affirmative
sentences. In interrogative and negative sentences can is used instead:

‘He must be at home now.’
‘He can’t be at home now.’

The following diagram is relevant for the deontic and epistemic
value of must (ibid.:166)

171 MUST

Obligation (deontic) Deduction (epistemic)
Present must ( be) must (be)
Past: had to ( be) must (have been)
We can notice that:
 In the present, the same form must + present infinitive is used
for both obligation and deduction.
 In the past the forms are different: had to is used for
obligation; must + perfect infinitive is used for deduction.
 Must for obligation can be used in all types of sentences:
affirmative, interrogative and negative. Must for deduction
can be used in the affirmative only.

Should and ought to indicate a lesser degree of certainty than must:

Father must be home by now. (‘I am certain’)
Father should / ought to be home by now. (‘He probably is,
but I’m not certain’)

Should / ought to + present infinitive has present time reference,
expressing a present deduction:

He should be a good doctor .

Should / ought to + perfect infinitive has past time reference,
expressi ng deduction about a past action:

He should have graduated by now.

Will expresses suppositions about an action.
Will + present infinitive expresses prediction about a present state
of affairs:

172 That will be the man we are looking for. (= That is probably the
man we are looking for).

This type of prediction with will often occurs in conditional
sentences:
If you heat butter, it will melt .

Will + perfect infinitive expresses a present supposition about a
past situation:

They will have finished the test by now.

Would is weaker than will in expressing deduction:
Would + present infinitive expresses an assumption about a
present state of affairs:

Would you be his old friend , by any chance?

Would + perfect infinitive expresses supposition referring to the past:

That would have been his old shelter .

Other means of expressing probability are:
a) adjectives: likely, probable, sure, certain, positive

It’s probable / likely that he didn’t attend the meeting.

b) adverbs: probably

He is probably the best writer of his age.

c) nouns: probability, chance, likelihood

There is little chance for him to come.

173 d) verbal expressions: expect, suppose, daresay, be going t o:

I suppose he hasn’t come.

Improbability can be expressed by shouldn’t , oughtn’t to , or it is
improbable / unlikely that:

It is unlikely that he will accept .
There shouldn’t be any changes in the programme.

7.2.6. Volition, Willingnes s
Volition or willingness is expressed by the modal verbs: will,
would, shall .
When will expresses strong volition, determination is stressed and
cannot be contracted to’ ll. It can be used with all persons:

a) With a 1st person subject, the s peaker makes his own volition and
determination very clear:

I will hire him no matter how you feel about this.
I will be a doctor .

b) With a 2nd person subject, will expresses volition in:
 conditional clauses (Type I). Will has present time reference:
it is used to express a polite request or invitation:

If you will wait a moment, I’ll bring the catalogue .

 questions expressing invitation or request. Will has present
time reference:

Will you sign here, please?
Will you join me?
Won’t you come in ? (the negative form won’t is more
convincing since it expects a positive answer)

174 c) with a 2nd and 3rd person will, expresses obstinate determination,
insistence (strong volition). It has present time reference and it is
always stressed:
He will go there although he knows nobody wants to see him .

d) in negative sentences will not (usually contracted to won’t )
expresses refusal. It has present time reference:

I won’t study Geology (= I refuse to do it).
They won’t accept a no for an answer.

Would expresses volition, willingness in the following contexts:

a) With a 2nd person subject , would expresses more polite, more
tentative willingness than will. It has present time reference and
occurs in:
 conditional clauses (Type 2) expressing offers and requests:

If you would help me I would be very grateful .

 questions expressing polite invitation or request ( would is
more tactful than will):

Would you accept my offer ?

Sometimes other strategies of polit eness are added: please, kindly,
be so kind as to, be good enough to, mind:

Would you be good enough to finish this translation for me,
please?
Would you be so kind as to help me with my project?
Would you mind paying the bill for me?

b) With a 2nd and 3rd person subject , would shows strong determination ,
even obstination. It has past time reference:

175 She would have her way and refused to listen to our advice .

b) In negative sentences would not expresses absence of
willingness, i.e. refusal in the past:

He could have helped us, but he wouldn’t.

Shall used in the 2nd and 3rd persons expresses speaker’s volition,
determination:

He shall graduate.

7.2.7. Habit
The concept of habit which refers to a habitual, repeated action or
state (i .e. what is characteristic under certain circumstances) is
expressed by will, would, used to.
Will + present infinitive is used with present time reference. It
expresses present repeated, habitual actions or specific, predictable
behaviour. The constructio n is used when we wish to emphasize the
characteristics of the performer rather than the action performed. With
this value will is used especially in the 3rd person (ibid.: 171)

She will sit there for hours posting on Facebook.
Children will be children .

As the construction with will is normal for the 3rd person, the Present
Tense Simple is used when reference is made to the other persons:

I often sit for hours watching TV.

Would + present infinitive has past time reference and e xpresses habitual,
repeated actions in the past or predictable behaviour in the past :
He would solve problems for hours when he was in high school.
Mary would keep silent when you ask something she
considered embarrassing.

176 In these sentences we could use the simple Past Tense or used to
instead of would.

Used to + present infinitive has only past time reference. It
expresses a habitual, repeated action in the past which does not take
place in the present. Unlike would, the semi -modal used to implies
strong contrast with the present.
Used to expresses:
a) an action that was repeated regularly in the past (past routine).
With this value used to is synonymous with would :

When I was a child I used to go to school in the morning.
I used to paint when I was a child, but now I don’t.

b) a state that existed in the past (to contrast a past and present
state). Would may not be used as an alternative. Would cannot be
used for states, but only for past repeated actions:

There used to be a splendid p ark there.
Her hair used to be dark brown , now it is gray.

In interrogative and negative sentences used to displays both
patterns (of a modal verb and a lexical one):
 the pattern of a modal verb which forms the interrogative and
negative wi thout do (did) The contracted form is usedn’t
[ju:snt]) :

Used you to play football at college?
I used not to like tea but now I drink it with pleasure.

 the pattern of a lexical verb which forms the interrogative and
negative with the auxiliary do (did). This pattern is frequent in
spoken English:

177 Did you use to play football at college?
I didn’t use to like tea but now I drink it with pleasure .

The modal verb used to should not be mistaken to be used to in
which used is an adjecti ve, meaning ‘accustomed to’ after a copular
verb: be / get / become . This adjectival construction can be used in the
present, past or future and is followed by a noun or a Gerund:

He is not used to being treated like that.
I could never get used to living in a block.

The adjectival construction be / get used to should not be confused
with the lexical verb to use in the passive, i.e. to be used:

Tom was used to training hard so that was not a problem for
him. (= was accustomed to…)

7.2.8. Dare is a semi -modal verb, since it behaves both like a
lexical verb and like a modal verb:

a) As a lexical verb, dare takes an –s in the 3rd person singular. The
interrogative and negative are formed with the auxi liary verb do
/ did; it can be conjugated in all tenses and moods; it is followed
by the long infinitive of another verb. It is used in all types of
sentences (affirmative, interrogative, negative):

He dared to tell the truth.
I didn’t dare to say a wor d.
Nobody would have dared to contradict her.

As a lexical transitive verb dare has the meaning of ‘challenge’:

I dare you to jump into the cold water .

178 b) As a modal auxiliary, dare is used without –s in the 3rd person
singular; it forms questions and negations without do; it is
followed by the short infinitive of another verb. It is used only in
the interrogative and negative sentences:

How dare you contradic t me?
She is very severe. I dare not even look at her.

Past time reference is expressed by:
 dared + Present Infinitive:

My brother dared not tell our parents about his results.

 dare + Perfect Infinitive:

Ellen dare not have shown up if the bride hadn’t invited her .

A mixture of the two constructions (lexical and modal) is
sometimes found in the case of dare: it is formed with the auxiliary do
but followed by the short infinitive:

Don’t you dare tell such things to your father.
I didn’t dare say a word .

179 The following table is very relevant for the multiple semantic values
of the modal verbs (Murar, 2010: 176)

MODAL VERBS

MODAL Ability Permission Obligation Possibility Deduction Volition
CAN X X X
COULD X X X
MAY X X
MIGHT X X
MUST X X
SHALL X X
SHOULD X X
OUGHT X X
WILL X X
WOULD X X

7.3. Pragmatic values of modal verbs
Modal verbs can be used to perform illocutionary acts (Searle,
apud. Croitoru, 2002: 47):
1. assertives, used t o tell the hearer how things are; the sentence
can be true or false;
2. directives, used when the speaker tries to get the hearer to do
certain things;
3. commissives, i.e when we commit ourselves to do things;
4. declaratives, used when we produce changes in the world with
our utterance;
5. expressives, used to express our feelings and attitudes.

It is evident that modals occur as assertives, directives and
commissives, since the speaker uses them to present the facts, or to
make the hearer do something. Declarative s and expressives indicate
the complex relationship between modality and mood, and modality
and aspect (idem).

180 7.4. Modal and semi -modals across registers
7.4.1. The distribution of modal and semi -modal verbs
In their corpus -based grammar book, LGSWE, Biber et al. (1999:
486-495) discuss the distribution of modals across registers:
 The modals can, will, and would are extremely frequent.
 At the other pole, shall is relatively rare.
 Considering the pairs of central modals, the tentative/past time
member i s less common than its partner in all cases, except for
shall and should .
 Modal and semi -modal verbs are especially common in spoken
English, and not so frequent in news and academic prose.
 The register differences in the use of semi -modals are very
striki ng: semi -modals are five times more common in
conversation than they are in written language.
 Semi -modals are considerably less frequent than modal verbs.
The greater frequency of both modals and semi -modals in
conversation is understandable considering th at these forms
mostly express stance -type meanings. The predominance of
semi -modal verbs in conversation can be explained
historically. The central modals pre -date the tenth century,
whereas the semi -modals developed much more recently.
 In fiction and conv ersation, many modal verbs are more
frequent in BrE than Am E. This applies especially in the case
for modals marking obligation/necessity -must and should -and
modals marking volition and prediction -will, would , and shall .
 On the contrary, semi -modals tend to be more common in
American English (especially have to and be going to .
 Modals expressing permission /possibility and volition /
prediction are considerably more common than those marking
obligation/necessity.
 Most modals display strikingly different di stributions across
registers.

181 Can and could are common in all types of registers.
May is very common in academic style, but rare in conversation.
Must and should are relatively common in academic register.
Will and would are frequent in all registers.
Be going to (including the form gonna) is the most common
semi -modal in spoken English . The same is true for have to.

The semi -modals bad better, have got to , and used to are also
relatively common in conversation.
It is interesting that British English is m ore innovative now than
American English regarding the use of semi -modals. Thus, the more
recent had better and have got to also transcribed gotta are more
frequent in spoken British English:

I gotta read this. (CONV)

The low frequency of modals expressi ng obligation has two
sources. First, there is a tendency to avoid the threatening meaning of
the expressions marking obligation. Then, semi -modals tend to replace
the modal verbs to a greater extent. Six different semi -modals attested
after 1650 are nowad ays used to express obligation and necessity.
Have to is the most common of these and is the only semi -modal to be
used commonly in all four registers:

Then he has to come and show me. (CONV )
We have to catch him first (FICT)
He had to deal forcefully wit h Britain’s Martin Brundle. (NEWS)
Some reflex actions have to be learnt . (ACAD)

 The semi -modals be going t o and used to are primarily used
to mark time distinctions rather than personal stance.
Be going to is widely used in conversation and fictional
dialogue, but it is rarely used in written language. Used to is
common in conversation.

182 We’re going to wait . (CONV)
I think I ’m going to die . (FICT)
This was before I used to speak to her . (CONV)
He used to sleep -walk . (CONV)

 The semi -modals have to, need to , and be going to can occur
in sequences following another modal or semi -modal:

The researchers warn that they will have to treat many more
patients before they can report a cure . (NEWS)
I’m gonna have to stay . (CONV)
These two will need to rest for a goo d long time . (FICT)
I thought, perhaps, you might be going to be married . (FICT)

7.4.2. Extrinsic versus intrinsic uses of modals in different registers
The permission/possibility/ability modals
 In academic register, could, may, and might are used almost
exclusively to mark logical possibility. May is utterly common
in this function.
 Can in academic style commonly expresses both ability and
logical possibility.
 Permission is rarely expressed in academic prose.
 Logical possibility is the most common use of these modals in
conversation.
 Can occurs with permission and ability meanings in
conversation.
 The meanings of the four permission/possibility modals are
multi -functional to various extents. Migh t is used only to
express logical possibility and, at the oth er pole, can marks
permission, ability, and logical possibility.

183 The obligation/necessity modals and semi -modals
 Obligation/necessity modals and semi -modals are less
frequent than the other modal verbs.
 Have to is very common in conversation to mark per sonal
obligation.
 Should is common in both conversation and academic register
to express personal obligation.
 Must is the only modal verb commonly used for logical
necessity and personal obligation .
 Surprisingly , must in spoken English is used specially to mark
logical necessity .

The volition/prediction modals and semi -modals
 In academic register, these modals are used mostly to mark
prediction.
 In conversation they express both volition and prediction
 Be going to is many times more common in conversation than
in academic prose.

184
CHAPTER 8
THE NON -FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB

The non -finite forms of the verb do not have the grammatical
categories of person, number, tense, mood and syntactically, they
cannot discharge the function of predicate in a senten ce.
The non -finite forms of the verb in English, also called verbals
are: the Infinitive, the –ing forms (Gerund and Present Participle), and
the Past Participle ( -ed Participle). A verbal is a verb form functioning
as a noun or as an adjective.
Thus, th e non -finite forms combine the verbal characteristics with
nominal ones:
a) verbal characteristics:
– they are marked for the categories of aspect (continuous and
perfective) and voice.
– syntactically, they can have their own subject, object, adverbial
modifier, the same as the finite forms.
b) nominal characteristics : the Infinitive and Gerund have features
in common with the noun, i.e. they may have syntactic functions
typical of the noun (they can function as subject, object in a
sentence); the Prese nt and the Past Participle can display
adjectival features.

8.1. The I nfinitive
8.1. 1.The forms of the Infinitive:
1) The Infinitive, the base form of the verb, names the action or
the state expressed by it, with no reference to person, number,
tense or mood. The Infinitive occurs in two forms:

185  The Long Infinitive / the to-Infinitive (the verbal form
preceded by the particle to) is generally used after verbs of full
lexical meaning:

She likes to study alone.

The to-Infinitive can discharge nominal and adverbial functions in the
sentence. It can have the function of a subject, object, adverbial modifier:

To meet him was very important for her career .

 The Short / B are Infinitive (the infinitive without the particle
to) is generall y used after verbs totally or partly devoid of
lexical meaning:
◊ auxiliary and modal verbs ( can, must, will, shall, may , etc.):

I can’t swim .

◊ modal phrases ( had better, would rather, would sooner,
rather/ sooner than):

We’d better obey them.
I’d sooner meet Alice.

◊ after some classes of verbs in the Accusative + Infinitive
construction: verbs of physical perception ( feel, hear, see);
some verbs of permission (let, have); some causativ e verbs
(have, make ):

I heard Mary come .
He made me laugh.

When these verbs are in the passive, they are followed by the to-
Infinitive in the Nominative with Infinitive construction:

Mary was heard to come.

186 ◊ In two Infinitive structures joined by the conjunctions
and, but , or, having the same function, the particle to is
placed before the first Infinitive only:

I’d like to collect the last data and finish the project .

But the particle to is repeated if emphasis or contrast is intended
(Murar, 2010: 179) :

To be or not to be – that is the question .

2) The Split Infinitive refers to the use of an adverb or other item
between the particle to and the Infinitive form of the verb:

I came to completely r ealize that he had been right.
I want you to clearly understand the whole matter.
I have principles and I am determined to flatly refuse her offer .

The construction is quite common in informal language.

3) The Implicit Infinitive : the particl e to is used a lone, and the verb
is omitted if the latter is clearly understood from the context.
The Implicit Infinitive is used in spoken English to avoid the
unnecessary repetition of the verb. It mainly occurs after such
verbs as hope, tell, want, wish as well as after some semi -modal
verbs such as ought to, used to :
He invited the woman although I had told him not to.
‘Did you attend the optional course?’ ‘No, I wanted to, but I
didn’t have the time.’

The particle to is deleted when like, want are used in subordinate
clauses:
Chose what you like.

187 8.1.2. The grammatical categories of the Infinitive
The Infinitive has the grammatical categories of aspect and voice:

8.1.2.1 The category of aspect is represented by:
a) The Present Infinitive and the Perfect Infinitive:
Present Infinitive: indicates that the action expressed by the
Infinitive is simultaneous with that of the finite verb:

I am so happy to see you again
I was so happy
I will be so happy

Perfe ct Infinitive: indicates that the action expressed by the
Infinitive is anterior to the action expressed by the finite verb. The
perfect Infinitive is used after:
 auxiliary and modal verbs ( will, shall, can, could, may,
might, m ust etc.). The modal verbs + Perfect Infinitive
express an action which didn’t take place:

He could have helped me. (But he didn’t)

 seem, appear, happen, pretend , mean, expect, hope, would
like:

He pretends to have been the best doctor in the town.

With to like both patterns can be used to express an unfulfilled wish:

I would like to have met her.
I would have liked to meet her.

 adjectives: glad, pleased, happy, sorry :

I am so glad to have finished .

188 b) The Simple Infinitive and the Progressive Infinitiv e:
The present progressive Infinitive indicates an action in progress
at the same time as the action of the finite verb. The Present
Progressive Infinitive is used after:
 some auxiliary and modal verbs:

He must be having a party .

 after the verbs seem, appear, happen, pretend, hope :

He happened to be studying guitar at the time.

The perfect progressive Infinitive is used especially after auxiliary
(modal) verbs and after seem, appear, happen, pretend :

He pretends to have been waiting for me.

8.1.2.2. The category of voice
The Infinitive (Present and Perfect Infinitive) displays forms for
both active and passive voice. The forms of the Present and Perfect
Passive Infinitive are used when the action expressed by the Infinitive
is undergone by the subject of the finite verb.

a) Present Passive Infinitive:

He didn’t ask to be favoured .

The Passive Infinitive may vary with the Active Infinitive after
certain constructions with be:
 Be + Long Infinitive:

The land is to sell (= to be sold).

 Be + adjective + Long Infinitive:

The problem is too difficult to solve. (=to be solved)

189  There is / was + NP + Long Infinitive:

There is too much work to finish / to be finished .

b) Perfect Passive Infinitive:

This device seems to have been invented in the 16th century.

8.1.3. The subject of the Infinitive
According to linguists, for instance, Cornilescu and Iclezan –
Dimitriu, (2000); Murar (2010: 183), the subject of the Infinitive may
be deleted or expressed in the following situations:
1) The subject of the Infinitive is deleted when:
a) the subject is co -referential with a NP in the sentence :

She tried (she) to study .

b) the subject is indefinite or generic:

To see is to believe. (the underlying subject is the i ndefinite
pronoun one)

2) The subject of the Infinitive is retained in two patterns:

a) As a NP in the nominative (the Nominative + Infinitive
construction):

He is considered to have been a good actor .

b) As a NP in the accusative:
 The Accusative + Infinitive construction:

I want you to study more .

190  The For to -Infinitive construction: the construction contains
an Infinitive which is in predicate relation to a NP preceded
by the preposition for:

It is important for you to study more.

 The of to -Infinitive construction, after adjectives like nice,
kind, foolish , brave etc.:

It was kind of you to offer me a shelter .

8.1.4. The syntactic functions of the Infinitive
The Infinitive discharges the following syntactic functions
specific to a Noun Phrase:

8.1.4.1. Subject
The Infinitive can be the subject of:
 some transitive verbs: need , require, take :

To drive in such conditions needs courage.

 some intransitive verbs: be, remain :

To eat fruit is healthy.
To run in the park in the morning h as remained his pleasure .

The Infinitive can be placed first in the sentence (as in the
examples above), but in contemporary English it is usually extraposed
with the pronoun it (introductory -anticipatory it) in front position.

It needs courage to dri ve in such conditions.
It is healthy to eat fruit.
It has remained his pleasure to run in the park in the morning .

191 Complex constructions (Complex Subject)
The Infinitive as Subject can have its own subject , i.e. a NP in the
Nominative or Accusative.

a) The Nominative with Infinitive :
The construction expressed by a NP in the Nominative + to-
Infinitive has the syntactic function of complex subject, being
equivalent to a subject clause. In the case of nominative + Infinitive
construction, th e nominative and the Infinitive make up one semantic
unit, one clause, which can be rephrased using a that-clause:

Robert seems to be a good leader . – It seems that Robert is a
good leader.

The nominative is semantically related only to the Infinitive v erb,
and does not depend on the main clause verb.
The most common verbs that require this pattern are:
1) Transitive verbs in the passive voice (i.e. most verbs which in
the active voice are followed by an Accusative + Infinitive):
 verbs of mental activit y: believe, consider, expect, imagine,
know, suppose, think, understand:

He is considered to be one of the most famous actors in the
world . (The subject of the predicate is considered is a complex
construction expressed by a NP in the Nominative – he and an Infinitive
– to be = It is considered that he is one of the most famous actors in
the world .

In this sentence the relation between the NP in the Nominative and
the Infinitive is that of logical subject and logical predicate).

The document is believ ed to have been stolen long ago.

192  verbs of physical perception: feel, hear, notice, observe, see :

She was seen to have entered the house.

 declarative verbs: announce, declare, report, say, rumour,
allege :

He is said to be a talented poet. (=It is said that he is…)
Pete was reported to have disappeared.

 verbs of command, permission as well as causative verbs:
allow, make, order:

She was made to take wrong decisions.
They were allowed to smoke here.

2) Intransitive verbs (in the active voice): appear, seem, chance,
happen, prove, turn out:

He seems to be lying .
Do you happen to know the name of that king?

Verbs such as appear to, seem to, happen to, come to, get to, fail
to, tend to, followed by a lexical verb make up catenative verb
phrases . Catenative is a term referring to a lexical verb which governs
the non -finite form of another lexical verb, as with try in She tried to
escape. (Crystal, 1999: 50). In generative grammar such constructions
are known as control and raising constructions (Cornilescu, 2012).
These verbs have meanings which are similar to some of the
modal verbs or meanings similar to those indicated by aspect choices.
Yet, they behave li ke lexical verbs in that they form their complex
forms with auxiliary do, be and have .

193 The catenative verbs express modal meanings, indicating whether
something is probable or certain, or aspectual meanings, indicating
whether something is completed (Murar , 2010).

He appears to be a good man .

The sentence can be rephrased as:

He is probably a good man.
He must be a good man.

The catenative verbs can be deleted without any major change to
the meaning:

Do you happen to know the name of that k ing? The sentence
can be rephrased as Do you know the name of that king?

3) Nominal predicates expressed by the link verb be + adjective
(certain, sure, likely, unlikely):

He is sure to succeed .
He is unlikely to come.

b) a NP in the Accusative , prec eded by prepositions:
1) For + NP Accusative + to-Infinitive (the subject of the
Infinitive is expressed by a NP in the Accusative preceded by
the preposition for):

For him to understand the situation is important.

If we choose the extraposition: It is important for him to
understand the situation .
In both cases, the subject of the predicate is important is a complex
construction expressed by the Infinitive to understand + its own
subject him preceded by the preposition for: for him to understand .

194 The complex subject for + NP Accusative + to-Infinitive occurs
when the predicate of the sentence is expressed by a copular verb ( be)
+ an adjective ( advisable, difficult, easy, essential, important,
impossible, necessary).

It is essential f or you to take the medicine.

2) Of + NP Accusative + to-Infinitive (the subject of the Infinitive
is expressed by a Nominal Phrase in the accusative preceded
by the preposition of).
This complex subject occurs when the predicate is expressed b y a
linking verb ( be) + an adjective ( brave, clever, foolish, generous, kind,
nice, sensible, silly, stupid, wise ):

It was so generous of him to help his enemy.
It was stupid of John to behave like that.

c) A special construction is represented by th e Infinitive as subject of
a predicate expressed by be + adjective ( difficult, easy, hard,
interesting, nice, pleasant, tough, etc). These adjectives can be
used in two related structures:
 With the introductory pronoun it and extraposition of the
Infiniti ve:

It is hard to solve this problem.
It is very difficult to talk to her.
It is not easy to put up with him.

We notice that the Infinitive as subject is followed by an object
(direct, indirect, prepositional object).
 The object of the Infi nitive can become the subject of the
sentence:
The direct object becomes the subject:

The problem is hard to solve.

195 The indirect/prepositional object becomes the subject (the
preposition is retained):

She is a difficult person to talk to .
He is not an easy person to put up with .

8.1.4.2. Predicative (Subject Complement)

His secret desire is to meet this famous actor.
Her goal was to make fortune .

The subject of the Infinitive can be expressed through the
construction for to -Infinitive:

The best thing is for you to refuse this compromise.

The alternative construction is a that-clause with Subjunctive :

The best thing is that you should refuse this compromise.

8.1.4.3. Attribute
The Infinitive can function as an attribute after t he following
categories of nouns (NP antecedents):
a) The Infinitive as an appositive complement, after some abstract
nouns (derived from verbs or adjectives): ambition, attempt,
decision, desire, difficulty, idea, intention, order, reason, wish , etc.:

He a nnounced his intention to design a new project.
Mike’s idea to be elected chairman was rejected by the committee .

b) The Infinitive can reduce a Relative Clause after the following
classes of NP antecedents:
 NPs determined by a superlative, an ordinal numeral (the first,
the second, the last, etc.), the only :

196 He is the first man to succeed in doing this.
The rain was the only sound to be heard .

 NPs determined by indefinite determiners (the indefinite
article and indefinite pronoun s or adjectives)
The Infinitive is a reduction of a relative clause which contains
a modal verb ( can, must, should ):

There are some problems to solve first. (= that had to be solved)

The Infinitive retains the preposition which would have occur red
in the relative clause:

I need a pair of glasses to read with .

The subject of the Infinitive can be expressed through the
construction for to -Infinitive:

The first thing for you to do is to apologize.

8.1.4.4. Object
The Infinitive discharges the function of Direct Object after
certain transitive verbs:
a) Transitive verbs followed by an Infinitive only: afford, fail,
manage , prepare, threaten :

He threatened to resign .
We managed to finish the project.

b) Transitive ver bs followed by an Infinitive or a that-clause:
 verbs of communication: claim, pretend, promise, swear:

He promised to keep his word . (= He promised that he would
keep his word.)

197  verbs such as agree, arrange, decide, forget, hope are
followed by an Infinitive if the subjects are co -referential or
by a that-clause if there are different subjects:
We have agreed to continue the research.
We have agreed that the research should be continued .

c) Transitive verbs followed by an Infinitiv e or a wh-clause
Verbs such as explain, know, show, tell are followed by a wh-
clause (introduced by an interrogative pronoun or adverb when, where,
what, who, why, how ). Such a clause is reduced to an Infinitive if the
subject of the wh-clause is co -refer ential with a NP in the main clause:

He doesn’t know what he should say . → He doesn’t know
what to say .
He doesn’t know what Mary should say .

In this example the wh -clause can’t be reduced to an Infinitive
because the subject of the clause is not co -referential with the NP in
the main clause.
The verbs know, learn, teach are followed by how to – Infinitive:

I have learnt how to manage in such difficult situations.

d) Certain adjectives: afraid, glad, happy, pleased, sorry, surprised
can be followed by an Infinitive, a that-clause or a prepositional
object:

I was pleased to meet my old friends.
I was pleased that you had moved in our town .
I was pleased with her success .

e) Complex constructions (The Accusative + Infinitive construction
or the Complex Object)
Some transitive verbs are followed by a NP in the Accusative case
+ Infinitive. The NP is the grammatical object of the finite verb

198 and at the same time the logical subj ect of the Infinitive. In this
case the relation between the nominal element and the non -finite
form (the Infinitive) is similar to that between subject and
predicate. The construction has the syntactic function of Complex
Object and it occurs after the fo llowing classes of transitive verbs:

 Verbs expressing physical perception: feel, hear, notice,
observe , see, watch (the verbs are followed by the Short
Infinitive):

I saw her study in the library.
I heard him come .

Note: When the verbs see, feel indica te mental not physical
perceptions they cannot be followed by an Accusative + Infinitive, but
by a that clause (Murar, 2010: 192):

I see that you don’t follow me .
I felt that they disapproved .

 Verbs expressing wishes, feelings: like, love, prefer, want ,
wish (the verbs are followed by the Long Infinitive):

I want you to study medicine.
Would you like me to help you?

 Verbs expressing mental activity: assume, believe, consider,
expect, imagine, know, suppose, think, understand (the verbs
are followe d by the Long Infinitive ):

I consider him to be a famous scholar.
They believed him to have stolen the money.

A that-clause is preferred in spoken English:

199 I consider that he is a famous scholar .

 Verbs expressing permissi on, order: allow, permit, have, let,
force, order (the Long Infinitive is used except after have
and let):

I won’t have you contradict me.
The teacher didn’t allow students to use the dictionaries
during the test.

 Causative verbs: cause, determine, get, have, make (the Long
Infinitive is used except after have and make ):

He made me laugh .
He tried to get me to agree .

The Infinitive has its own subject expressed by a NP in the
Accusative preceded by for + to-Infinitive construction.
The For + to-Infinitive construction is required by:

 Be + adjective ( anxious, delighted, pleased, sorry ):

I am sorry for you to suffer like that.

A that-clause can be used instead of this construction:

I am sorry that you suffer like that .

 Verbs + the obligatory preposition for (arrange, long, provide,
wait):
They arranged for us to stay in this hotel.
We cannot wait for him to change his mind .

200 8.1.4.5. Adverbial Modifier
The Infinitive is f requently used in adverbial clauses that express
possible rather than real action. It is thus used in adverbial clauses of
purpose, adverbial clauses of result, as well as in a few other clauses, for
instance, unreal comparative clauses, conditionals, clau ses of exception.

8.1.4.5. 1. Adverbial Modifier of Purpose
The Long Infinitive qualifies a verb expressing the function of
adverbial modifier of purpose:

He saved money to go to Rome.

The Infinitive may qualify a whole sentence, and, in this case, it
occupies the initial position:

To get better marks, you should study more.

In academic prose and in formal register in order to or so as are
placed before the Long Infinitive:

He hurried in order to catch the plane .

In negative sentences in order not to, so as not to are preferred
instead of the Long Infinitive alone:

He hurried so as not to miss the plane.

The complex construction for+ to -Infinitive is used when the
action expressed by the Infinitive has a different subject from that of
the finite verb:

He saved money for me to go to Rome.

201 8.1.4.5. 2. Adverbial Modifier of Result
The Infinitive discharges this function in several structures:
a) The subject of the fini te verb is also the subject of the Infinitive
(the Infinitive has an active meaning):
 Too + adj. / adv. + Infinitive (the adverb too implies a negative
result):

Mary is too old to change.

 Adj./ adv.+ enough+ Infinitive (enough implies a positi ve
result):

He is healthy enough to join the army.

 So + adj./ adv. + as + Infinitive:

The rain was so bad as to make our vacation a disaster.

The last two patterns are also used as a strategy of politeness:

Would you be kind enough to lend me some money?
Would you be so kind as to lend me some money?

b) The subject of the finite verb is the object of the Infinitive (the
Infinitive has a passive meaning):

The box is too heavy to carry . = The box is so heavy that it
can’t be carried.

c) The subject of the finite verb is (at the same time) the pr epositional
object of the Infinitive:

The bank was too wet to sit on .

202 d) The complex construction for + to -Infinitive is used when the
Infinitive has its own subject:

The book was too dif ficult for me to understand .

e) The Infinitive can express unexpected consequences, mainly with
such verbs as find, hear, learn, see .

He returned home to learn that his son had changed so much.

If preceded by only, the Infinitive em phasizes unpleasant
consequences, a disappointing sequel:

The man survived war only to die in a car accident.
.
8.1.4.5. 3. Adverbial Modifier of Condition :

To hear him talk, you’d think he is a doctor .

8.1.4.5. 4. Adverbial Modifier of Comparison
 after than, as:

She liked nothing better than to be always praised .

 unreal comparison, after as though:

She came closer as though to say something.

8.1.4.5. 5. Adverbial Modifier of Exception

Tom did nothing but sleep all day.

8.1.5. The Infinitive in parenthetic constructions.
These constructions modify the whole sentence: to be honest, to be
(quite) frank, to tell the truth, to be sure, to begin with, to put it mildly:

To put it mildly , I don’t like her .

203 To be honest , I have never heard about this.

8.1.6. Grammatical patterns of post -predicate infinitive clauses.
Biber et.al. (2005: 328 -329) state that there are five main grammatical
patterns for post -predicate infinitive clauses following a verb:

 Pattern 1 : verb+ to-clause (e.g. try, hope )

I’m just trying to get away early . (CONV)

This pattern is the most common pattern for to clauses in all
registers.

 Pattern 2: verb + NP + to-clause (e.g. tell, believe, enable, expect )

It enables [the farmer] to maintain uniform and near
constant conditio ns in the house . (ACAD)

This pattern is moderately common in news and academic register.
Pattern 2 has a corresponding passive form : be verb -ed+ to-
clause . This is moderately frequent in news and academic prose:

Heavy fighting with government troops was expected to break
out soon. (NEWS)

 Pattern 3: verb + for NP + to-clause (e.g. ask, love, arrange, wait )

Hire a Daily Mirror van and wait for him to arrive . (CONV)

This structure is most common in American English conversation .

 Pattern 4 : verb + bare in finitive clause (e.g. dare, help, let )
This pattern is rarely encountered in all of the registers of the
authors ‘corpus.

204 The police didn’t dare touch them because of United Nations.
(FICT)
I could have helped clarify a number of issues . (NEWS)

 Pattern 5 : verb + NP + bare infinitive clause (e.g. have, feel,
make, help, see)

I’ll have him do it. (CONV)
He actually felt the sweat break out now on his forehead .
(FICT)

Pattern 5 is mainly found in spoken and fiction registers, but is
much less common than t he first and the second patterns.

8.2. The –ing Forms
The –ing forms are derived from the Infinitive of a verb by using
the suffix –ing.
There are two –ing forms: the Gerund and the Present Participle.
Although identical in form, their functions are di fferent, according
to the contexts in which they occur. Thus, the Gerund has nominal
functions, while the Participle serves as a verb or an adjective, e.g. a
sleeping pill , i.e. a pill for sleeping (Gerund); a sleeping child , i.e. a
child who sleeps (Parti ciple) (Murar, 2010: 198)
The –ing forms of the verb should not be confused with the –ing
nouns and –ing adjectives., i.e with adjectives or nouns formed with
the derivational suffix -ing. Thus:
 The –ing nouns often have plural forms: painting(s); they can
be determined by the definite/indefinite articles (the/a), by an
adjective or a noun: the / her beautiful painting.
 The –ing adjectives are often determined by adverbs of degree
such as very, quite, so, too : very annoying.

205 8.2.1. The Gerund
In some grammar books (see Carter & McCarthy, 2006: 905; Swan,
2009), the term ‘Gerund’ refers only to the verb form ending in –ing
which functions as a noun (also termed verbal noun or –ing noun):

Smoking is forbidden here.
No parking!
Jogging is good for h ealth.

8.2.1. 1. The features of the Gerund
The Gerund has nominal and verbal characteristics:
a) Nominal characteristics: A Gerund displays most of the syntactic
properties of a noun:
 It may be modified by some noun determiners: possessive or
demonstrati ve adjectives, nouns in the synthetic genitive:

Do you mind my interrupting you?

 It is used after prepositions:

There are two theories of approaching the text.

 The Gerund can perform the syntactic functions of subject or
object in the sentence:

Eating cereals is good for health .

b) Verbal characteristics:
 A Gerund may be determined by an adverb, and it may take
an object if the verb is transitive:

Learning foreign language s can be very useful.
 It may have a subject of its own:

She insists on his coming here.

206  It has the grammatical categories of aspect and voice.

8.2.1.2 . The grammatical categories of the Gerund.
The Gerund has the grammatical categories of aspect and voice,
having the following forms:

Active: Indefinite Gerund: studying ;
Perfect Gerund: having studied
Passive: Indefinite Gerund: being studied ;
Perfect Gerund: having been studied

The Indefinite Gerund (whether active or passive) expresses an
action simultaneous with the finite verb (which may be in the present,
past, future).

Active: He enjoys studying new subjects.
Passive: Rick insisted on being treated well.
Rick objects to being treated like an idiot.

The Perfect Gerund (active or passive) denotes an action prior
to tha t of the finite verb:

He admitted having studied very little for the exam. (= that he
had studied very little …)
He denied having stolen the money.

After some verbs – excuse, forgive, remember, thank – anteriority
can also be expressed by means of the Indefinite Gerund:

I can’t remember studying / having studied this before.

With some verbs – won’t / doesn’t bear, deserve, need, require,
want (= require), be worth – the active Gerund has a passive meaning.
The verbs can be followed by an active -ing form structure although

207 the grammatical subject is the affected participant of the event
expressed by the verb, thus creating a meaning similar to a passive
voice structure:

My shoes need / want repairing .
That film is worth seeing .

8.2.1.3 . The subject of the Gerund may be deleted or may be
retained.
The subject of the Gerund is deleted:
a) When it is co -referential with some NP in the sentence :

He insists on seeing her.

b) It is indefinite, generic (the underlying subject is the indefinite
pronoun one):

Taking exercise is healthy.

The subject of the Gerund is retained if it is different from that of
the finite verb. The subject of the Gerund can be:
a) a NP in the possessive case: a possessive determiner or a noun in
the synthetic genitive. Th e construction is used only with
[+animate] nouns:

Pete’s / His smoking so much must have upset his wife.

b) a NP in the objective case: a personal pronoun in the accusative
or a noun without’ s. This form occurs:
– in informal English, if the Gerund fun ctions as the grammatical
object of the sentence:

Do you mind my / me smoking here? (formal / informal English).

208 – with certain types of NPs which cannot take the ’ s: inanimate nouns,
demonstrative pronouns, compound constructions, the formal s ubject
there, etc.:

I can’t remember Mary saying that.

Greenbaum and Quirk (1990: 312 -313) consider that the common case
is preferred where the subject is a non -personal NP and not a pronoun
and the style is not formal:

I don’t know about the weathe r being so awful in this area.

The genitive is avoided when the NP is lengthy and requires a group
genitive:

Do you remember the students and the teachers protesting
against the new rule?

8.2.1.4. The syntactic functions of the Gerund
The Gerund may occ ur in all the functions of a noun.
1) Subject:
a) The Gerund has an unspecified, indefinite subject o ne:

Parking is not allowed here.

b) The subject of the Gerund is expressed by means of a NP in the
genitive case:

Your co ming so late surprised us.

From the syntactic point of view the NP in the possessive case +
Gerund construction has the function of a complex subject.
Gerunds as subject can be paraphrased by: the fact that …
The fact that you came so late surprised us.

209 The Gerund and the Infinitive compared
There are cases when either form (Infinitive or Gerund) is used:

Studying foreign languages is useful.
It is useful to study foreign languages .

The Gerund is of a more general, abstract character than t he Infinitive.
The Infinitive refers to something restricted to a particular situation:

Running is good for health. (general)
To run in the morning is good for health . (particular)

As we have already seen, most Infinitives having the function of
a subject are usually extraposed. Extraposition of Gerunds is not
applied due to the high degree of nouniness of Gerunds: the Gerund
evinces features characteristic of a noun in a higher degree than the
Infinitive (Murar, 2010: 202).
Yet, extrapositi on of the Gerund is allowed with certain patterns:
be + adjective / noun ( nice, useless, good, worth (while); use,
pleasure ). The Gerund is introduced by the anticipatory it:

It was nice meeting you.
It’s no use talking to her. She is not o pen minded.
It’s been a pleasure seeing you here.

2) Predicative

Her aim is getting a high position .
Seeing is believing .

3) Premodifier

dining room; sleeping pill; playin g field

210 4) Object
The Gerund is used as a direct object after many transitiv e verbs.
These transitive verbs also take the Infinitive as object or a that-clause.
They fall into the following classes:
a) Transitive verbs followed by the Gerund only: avoid, enjoy,
escape, excuse, fancy, forgive, can’t help , keep (continue), risk,
can’t bear / stand:

This dog kept jumping on my lap.
They can’t help staring at her.
Fancy seeing you here!

Some transitive verbs (excuse, forgive) require a complex object
(NP in the possessive + Gerund)) or a NP in the objective case + prep.
+ Gerund:

Forgive my interfering in your personal life.
Forgive me for interfering in your personal life.

b) Some transitive verbs such as admit, deny, imagine, mind,
suggest are followed by a Gerund or a that-clause:

The students admitted having studied very little for the exam.
The students admitted that they had studied very little for the
exam .

c) Verbs followed by either the Gerund or the Infinitive with a
difference in meaning .

 After the aspectual verbs begin, cease, continue, start the
Gerund and the Infinitive are interchangeable in a variety of
contexts:

It started snowing / to snow .

211 When the verbs begin, start are used in the continuous aspect, the
Infinitive is preferred (to avoid the repeti tion of –ing):

It’s starting to rain .

Nevertheless, the Gerund is preferred when we refer to a voluntary
action, while the Infinitive refers to an involuntary action (with verbs
of mental activity: know, realize, understand ):

Michael began studying Law. (deliberate action)
Michael began to understand / to realize his mistake .
(involuntary action)

 After verbs denoting feelings (likes and dislikes): adore, hate,
like, love , prefer , the Infinitive indicates an action referring to
a certain occasion, a si ngle event while the Gerund indicates a
general action. The Gerund is more general in meaning:

I like reading . It’s my favourite pastime.
I like to read in weekends.
He prefers studying to any other activity.
He prefers to study in the library .

When love, like, prefer are used in the Conditional ( would love /
like / prefer ) the verbs are followed by the Infinitive:

I would like to read a poem .

 After the verbs forget, remember, regret the Gerund refers to
an action anterior to that of the fin ite verb. The Gerund has a
factive interpretation, i.e. it may be paraphrased by ‘the fact
that’. The Infinitive points to the future: it denotes an action
that will happen after the action of the finite verb:

212 I remember paying the bill.
I must remembe r to pay the bill.

 to try is followed by an Infinitive when it means ‘to make an
attempt/effort’ and it is followed by the Gerund when it means
‘to test’, to make an experiment’:

I tried to write with my left hand.
Try putting some more potat oes in the soup. That might make
it less salty .

 to stop is followed by Infinitive when it means ‘to halt’ (it
indicates the purpose of the action) and by Gerund when it
means ‘to cease’:

I stopped to talk to her.
I stopped talking to her when I realized what kind of woman
she is.

 to mean is followed by an Infinitive when it means ‘intend’ and
it is followed by a Gerund when it means ‘involve’, ‘signify’,
‘entail’, ‘result in’. The subject is impersonal: it, that :

I did not mean to hurt you.
If we take the morning train, it means getting up very early.

d) Verbs followed by the Gerund or the Infinitive but in different
patterns :
 deserve, need, require, want (= need) can be fol lowed by an
active Gerund or by an Infinitive in the Passive Voice. The
Gerund is the more common construction, in this case, the
grammatical subject of the finite verb being at the same time
the logical object of the Gerund:

213 The shoes need repairing.
The shoes need to be repaired .

 advise, allow, forbid, permit, recommend can be followed by
an Accusative + Infinitive or a Gerund: When an object is
expressed these verbs take an Infinitive; if the object is not
mentioned the Gerund is used:

They didn’t allow us to bring the dictionaries in the exam room.
They didn’t allow bringing the dictionaries in the exam room.

5) Prepositional Object
The prepositional context is the most characteristic environment
for Gerund comple ments, being the only context that they do not have
in common with Infinitives or that-clauses. Unlike other types of
complements (Infinitives or that-clauses), Gerunds behave like NPs
with respect to prepositions, i.e. the preposition is not deleted befor e
Gerunds and NPs (Murar, 2010: 208).

I was angry at his behavior.
I was angry at his behaving like that.
I was surprised that he behaved like that.

The Gerund occurs after:
a) Verbs with obligatory preposition : abstain from, apologize
for, approve of, cong ratulate on, consent to, look forward to,
object to, prevent from, succeed in etc.:

He succeeded in changing her mind.
I am looking forward to going in Spain .

Some verbs like: aim at, decide on, long for can be followed by
either a preposition + Gerund or by an Infinitive:

She decided on doing her way.

214 She decided to do her way.

Some verbs such as insist on can be followed by a preposition +
Gerund or by a that-clause:

I insisted on her taking the pills.
I insisted that he should take the pills .

b) Adjectives with obligatory preposition : angry at, astonished at,
capable of, fond of, good at, keen on, interested in, surprised at,
tired of, used to etc.:

I am used to working hard
They are interested in studying foreign languages .

A few adjectives like afraid of, ashamed of, delighted at, pleased
at, sorry for, surprised at etc. can be followed by a preposition +
Gerund or by an Infinitive / that-cause:

He was afraid of being dismissed .
He was afraid to tell the truth.
He was afraid that the child might fall ill.

6) Prepositional Attribute.
The Gerund is used after nouns with preposition: difficulty in,
doubt about, objection to, opportunity of, pleasure of, cause for,
reason for, thought of :

I have no objection to his participating in the project.
I had the great pleasure of working together.

A few nouns like intention, honour can be followed either by
preposition + Gerund or by Infinitive:

It was an honour of having you here.

215 It was an honour t o have you here.

7) Adverbial Modifier
a) Adverbial Modifier of Time :
The Gerund is preceded by the prepositions after, before, on :

He died after being severely wounded in the war.
On leaving town they asked me to look after their garden.

According to Carter & McCarthy (2006: 31), the verb in the –ing
form is many times more frequent in written than in spoken English.
In informal register there is a strong preference for a full finite clause.

b) Adverbial Modifier of Manner :
The Gerund is preceded by the prepositions by, in, without:

He left without saying good -bye.
He resembles his father in spending his spare time fishing.

c) Adverbial Modifier of Cause:
The Gerund is preceded by the prepositions because of, for, with:

He was dismissed for not accomplishing his duty.

d) Adverbial Modifier of Concession :
The Gerund is preceded by the prepositions in spite of, despite:

In spite of being ill , he managed to comply with his obligations.

e) Adverbial M odifier of Purpose.
The Gerund, preceded by the preposition for expresses the general
purpose of things:

A pen is a tool for writing with.

216 For a particular purpose the Infinitive is used:

He asked for a pen to write with.

8.2.2. The Participle
There are two participle forms in English: the –Ing Participle or
Present Participle which expresses a progressive action or state (with
an active meaning) and the Past Participle which denotes an action a s
a result (with a passive meaning).

The –Ing Participle /Present Participle
Unlike the Gerund, the Present Participle has only verbal features.

8.2.2.1 . The grammatical categories of the Present Participle :
The Participle has the grammatical categories of aspect and voice.
There are aspectual distinctions between the Present and Perfect
Participle and voice distinctions between the active and passive Participle:

Active voice: Indefinite / Present Participle: studying;
Perfect Participle: having studied;

Passive voice: Indefinite / Present Participle: being studied;
Perfect Participle: having been studied.

The Indefinite / Present Participle (active, passive) denotes an
action simultaneous with that denoted by the fi nite verb:

Walking in the park he met some friends.

The Perfect Participle (active, passive) denotes an action anterior
to that denoted by the finite verb:

Having finished the work, he left the office.
The man having been told that the PC was the best, he bought it.

217 8.2.2.2 The syntactic functions of the Present Participle
1) With the auxiliary be, the –Ing P articiple is used to form the
continuous aspect of the verb:

I am studying .
He was working.

2) Noun Modifier
As a noun modifier (attr ibute), equivalent to a relative attributive
clause, the Participle can occur either before or after the noun it
determines:
a) Before the noun as premodifier : If the Participle has no other
determination (e.g. object or adverbial) it occurs before the no un.
When the Present Participle is used as an attribute, it usually
expresses a characteristic feature of the thing referred to by the noun:

They had an encouraging attitude .

Some Present Participles have become adjectives:

an interesting theory , an entertaining programme.

Unlike the Gerund, the Participle determining a noun can be
expanded into a relative attributive clause. Compare:

a 'sleeping carriage = a railway carriage for sleeping
(Gerund)
a 'sleeping 'child = a child who is sleeping (Participle)

The difference in pronunciation is also obvious. When a Gerund
modifies a noun only the Gerund is stressed; when the Participle
determines a noun both words are stressed (Murar, 2010: 213).

b) After the n oun as postmodifier , if the Participle has its own
determiners:

218 He looked after the children playing in the park . (the children
who were playing in the park)

As the Participle lacks the category of tense, it can be contextually
interpreted as past, prese nt or future:

When you get there, please, look carefully at the girl sitting in
the front line. = …who is sitting /…who will be sitting ).

The –ing Participle Clause need not carry the meaning of the
continuous aspect:

People studying Law are ve ry interested in this conference . =
people who study Law.

3) Complex constructions
a) The Nominative + Participle construction : The Nominative
with the Participle consists of a NP in the Nominative case and
a Participle. It is actually a passive construct ion, similar to the
Nominative with the Infinitive construction from which it differs
in that it implies an event in progress, an incomplete action or
state. Syntactically, the construction discharges the function of a
Complex Subject. The Nominative with the Participle is required
by the following verbs:
– Verbs of physical perception: hear, notice, observe, see in the passive
voice):

Paula was seen crossing the street.
He was heard coming.

– The verbs catch, find, keep, leave :

They were cau ght stealing from the old lady.

219 b) The Accusative + Participle construction :
The Accusative with the Participle consists of a NP in the
Accusative and a Participle. Syntactically, the Accusative with
Participle has the function of a Complex Object. Thi s pattern is
required after transitive verbs:
– Verbs denoting physical perception: feel, hear, notice, see, smell,
watch:

I watched the Sun rising .
Liz felt him coming closer .

The verbs of perception can also be followed by a Short Infinitive,
that is why the Accusative + Participle construction is similar to the
Accusative + Infinitive construction, the difference between them
resides in aspect . The Infinitive suggests a finished action or merely
states the fact of an action. The Participle im plies an action in progress,
therefore an incomplete action.

I saw her cross the street. – (complete action: from one side
to another)
I saw her crossing the street – (incomplete action: on the way
to the other side).

– The causative verbs get, ha ve:

My furniture is very heavy. Could you help me to get it moving?

Have in negative sentences has the meaning of ‘permit’ (this use is
restricted to the 1st person):

I won’t have my boy bringing the dog in the house . (= I won’t
allow him to bring the dog)

– The verbs catch, find, leave, keep, send, set:

220 The policeman caught them stealing .
The doctor left me waiting more than I had expected .

4) Adverbial Modifier
This function is expressed by the Participle alone or by an
Absolute Participial Construction. The Absolute Participial
Construction contains a Participle which stands in predicate relation
to a noun / pronoun in the Nominative case, but the NP is not the
subject of the sentence. The Absolute Participial Constr uction is quite
common in literary English.
Greenbaum and Quirk (1990: 327) define this type of construction
as non -finite adverbial clause that have an overt subject but are not
introduced by a subordinator, so termed because they are not explicitly
boun d to the matrix clause syntactically.

No further discussion arising , the meeting was brought to a close.

According to the above mentioned linguists, adverbial participle
clauses without a subordinator are supplementive clauses: they do not
signal specifi c logical relations, but such relations are generally clear
from the context. The formal explicitness of supplementive clauses
allows considerable flexibility in what we may wish them to express.
According to the context, we may want to imply temporal, con ditional,
causal, concessive relations.
Participial constructions have the following functions:

a) Adverbial Modifier of Time :
Participial constructions are used to reduce adverbial clauses of
time. The Present Participle can express actions performed
simultaneously with the finite verb:

Walking in the park he saw his friend. (= While he was
walking in the park he saw his friend.)

221 The Perfect Participle expresses an action anterior to that of the
finite verb. The Perfect Participle can replace the Present Perfect or
Past Perfect in adverbial clauses of time.

Having got their grades, the students left the class . (= When
they had got their grades, they left the class)

Absolute participial constructions:

Everything being rea dy, they left for the airport . (= When
everything was ready, they left for the airport.)
The singer having arrived the show began. (= When the
singer had arrived the show began)

The Participle may be preceded by the conjunction used to
introduce the adve rbial clause of time: when, while . The temporal
value of the Participle can be defined by the preceding conjunction:

While I was studying in the library I met a high school colleague.
The temporal clause can be reduced to:
While studying in the libr ary I met a high school colleague.
Studying in the library, I met a high school colleague.

b) Adverbial Modifier of Reason

Being a kind man, Henry IV improved the life conditions of
his subjects .
Not having studied the theory he got a l ow grade .

Absolute participial constructions :

The weather being fine , we went fishing.

222 c) Adverbial Modifier of Manner

Using a sharp knife, he cut the steak . (= By using)
He entered the room smiling .

The partic iple is sometimes seen as a predicative after the verbs
lie, sit, stand:

The child stood there staring at her enormous hat.

As an Adverbial of Manner, the Participle can be introduced by as:

She is described as belonging to the revol utionary age.

Absolute participial constructions

He came in with his feet trembling.

d) Adverbial Modifier of Concession

Even accepting her apology, she cannot be trusted.

e) Adverbial Modifier of Condition
Absolute participial constructions :

Weather permitting, we will go to London next week . =If the
weather permits, we will go …

f) Adverbial Modifier of Comparison

He spoke as if studying medicine.

g) The participle is equivalent to a c oordinate clause :
When two actions immediately follow one another, the first action
can be rendered by a Participle:

223 Opening the door, the thief took all he could find. = The thief
opened the door and took all he could find.

Related and unrelated participial constructions
a) Related participial constructions
Generally, the Participle relates to a noun / pronoun which functions
as subject or object of the sentence:
I looked at the man painting the fence.
b) Unrelated participial constructions
There are a number of phrases in which the Participle does not refer
to any particul ar word in the sentence. Such a construction is called
an unrelated participial construction or a parenthetic construction .
An unrelated participle occurs in the following contexts:

– With certain verbs, when the subject of the participle is the indefinit e
pronoun one:

Judging from the facts, he seems to be a good man.

– In certain stereotyped phrases: roughly speaking, generally speaking,
strictly speaking, judging by appearances:

Judging by appearances , the things went wrong.

c) Misr elated Participles : A Participle connected to the wrong NP
is considered to be misrelated. It may occur in careless, informal
writing (Murar, 2010: 221):

Waiting for the bus, a brick fell on my head.

The sentence makes it appear that the brick was waiting for the
bus, which is nonsensical. The correct form is:

As I was waiting for the bus, a brick fell on my head.

224 Comparison between the Participle and the Gerund
a) If the –ing form determining a noun can be expanded into a
relative clause, it is a participle, if it cannot, it is a Gerund:

a sleeping child = a child who is sleeping (Participle)
a sleeping pill =a pill for sleeping (Gerund)

b) The action expressed by the Participle is performed by the
subject of the sentence, whi le the Gerund is itself the subject of
the sentence:

Walking in the park, I met a homeless cat . (Participle)
Walking in the park is relaxing. (Gerund)

8.3. The Past Participle
The term Past Participle is somehow vague since it does not
always refer to past time. Modern grammarians prefer the term –en
Participle. Its meaning is passive. It has a resultative meaning,
defining the action as a result.
The Past Participle has verbal and adjectival features.
The form of the Past Participle
 The Past Particip le of regular verbs is formed by adding –(e)d
to the base form of the verb: studied.
 The Past Participle of irregular verbs is the 3rd form of the
verb: written, eaten

8.3.1. The uses of the Past Participle :
 Together with a form of the auxiliary verb have , the Past
Participle is used to form the perfective aspect , i.e. the
Present Perfect, Past Perfect, Future Perfect, Perfect
Infinitive, Perfect Gerund, Perfect Participle : has studied, had
studied, will have studied, to have studied, having studied.

225  Together with a form of the auxiliary verb be, the Past
Participle is used to form the passive voice : is studied, was
studied, etc.

8.3.2. The syntactic functions of the Past Participle
1) Noun Modifier
The Past Participle is equivalent to an attribute/attr ibutive clause:
a) The Past Participle as premodifier (placed before the noun):

a commented poem, a debated issue

A few old Past Participles survive as adjectives (attributes) in a form
different from that of the verbal use: drink, melt, rot, shave, s hrink,
sink. When used as attributes, the Past Participle of these verbs ends
in –en: drunken, molten, rotten, shaven , shrunken, sunken.

Drink : adjective (attribute) A drunken man was lying there.
predicate I have never drunk whiskey .

Shrink : adjective: shrunken linen/cheeks; He has shrunken
cheeks. He has been ill.
predicative: The dress has shrunk after being washed.

Sink: adjective: sunken eyes / cheeks; She had sunken eyes,
she must have worked hard lately.
predicative: sunk; The boat had sunk .

The Past Participle of some regular verbs aged, beloved, blessed ,
cursed, dogged, learned is pronounced with a syllabic [id] when the
Past Participle is used as an adjective:

Angela is an aged ['eidзid] woman.
She has aged ['eidзd ] latel y.
He is a learned ['lə:nid] student.
The student has learned [lə:nt ] the poem by heart.

226 b) The Past Participle as postmodifier (after a noun): The Past
Participle is a postmodifier similar in meaning to a relative
clause, passive voice.

Many courses delive red in that college were very challenging.
= Many courses which were delivered in that college were very
challenging .

2) Complex Object :
The construction consisting in a NP in the Accusative and a Past
Participle has the syntactic function of a complex object. The
construction is required after the following verbs:
a) Verbs of physical perception see, hear, feel :

We saw people destroyed by drugs.

b) The verbs find, keep, leave, like, make, order, want:

He left me amazed .
I want this project carried out .

There is also a construction made up of an Accusative + passive
Infinitive which is also used after some of these verbs like, order,
want:
I want this project to be carried out .
c) The verbs have, get followed by Accusative + P ast Participle
have two meanings:
 a causative meaning = ‘to cause sb./something. to be’, ‘to
employ sb. to do something’ . The construction expresses that
something is performed by someone else for the person
denoted by the subject of the sentence. The per son doing the
action expressed by the Past Participle is either not mentioned
or is indicated by a by-phrase (the Object of Agent)

227 I had my house redecorated last month.
If he continues this way, I’ll have him punished by Mum .

When have is used in this construction, the negative and
interrogative of the Present and Past Tense are formed with the
auxiliary do/did:

Did you have your shoes repaired ?

Have can be used in the progressive aspect:

Pat is having her hair cut now.

Get can be used the same as have but in a colloquial register:

Get the car fixed at the service .

 experience sufferings:
Have/get + NP Acc. + Past Participle can be used informally to
replace a passive verb (usu ally one referring to some misfortune):

Her money was stolen before she had the chance to buy the PC.

The sentence can be rephrased:

She had her money stolen before she had the chance to buy
the PC.
I got my leg hurt in the conflict.

While in the case of causative meaning, the subject is the person
who orders the things to be done, in these cases the subject is the
person who suffers as the result of the action.

228 3) Adverbial Modifier :
The Past Participle construction is used to reduce an adverbial
clause. This function can be expressed by a Past Participle alone or by
an Absolute Participial Construction (the Past Participle is preceded
by a NP functioning as its subject).
a) Adverbial Modifier of Time
The Past Participle is usually prece ded by the conjunctions when,
until, once:

When interrogated during the inquest, he kept silent.

Absolute Participial Construction:

The project finished , he went on vacation.

b) Adverbial Modifier of Condition

Given time , she will become a famous singer. = Provided she
is given time, she’ll become a famous singer.

The Past Participle can be sometimes preceded by the
conjunctions if, unless:

If watered properly, the flowers will grow quickly.

Absolute Participial Const ruction:

All things considered , he is a generous man.

c) Adverbial Modifier of Concession
The Past Participle is usually introduced by the conjunction
though:

Though exhausted, she managed to finish the race.

229 d) Adverbial Modifier of Reason

Weakened by illness, she collapsed.

e) Adverbial Modifier of Manner
There are three types of Adverbial Modifiers of Manner: i.
proper; ii. of comparison; iii. of attending circumstances
i. proper:

He left the project unfinished.

ii. of comparison introduced by the conjunctions as if, as though :

He looked, as if amazed , incapable of saying a word.

iii. of attending circumstances, sometimes accompanied by the
preposition with.

Absolute Participial Construct ion:

She entered with her eyes filled with tears.

As we shall see, participial constructions are not frequent in spoken
English. They are preferred in written English, in formal register.

230 8.4. Complex Constructions (Gălățeanu and Comișel, 1992 : 194)
with the Accusative with the Nominative Absolute Nominative
Accusative +
Infinitive Nominative +
Infinitive Absolute Nominative
+Infinitive
I want you to study
this. I was ordered to leave. He sent a message
first, the letter to post
later.
Accusative + Present
Participle Nominative + Present
Participle Absolute Nominative
+ Present Participle
I saw Pam coming. George was
noticed entering there. Everything being
ready we went to the
station.
Accusative + Past
Parti ciple – Absolute Nominative
+ Past Participle
I want this finished at
once. – His work finished , he
went for a walk with
his friends.

8.5. Non -finite clauses across registers
Biber et al. (2005: 342 -350) take into consideration the following
facts conce rning the distribution of infinitiva l and ing-clauses:
1) The distribution of to -clauses reflects their various discourse
functions. Over 60 per cent of all to -clauses occur in post –
predicate position. These to -clauses are especially used to
report the activi ties, desires, thoughts, and feelings of human
participants:

I wanted to do it . (CONV)
Dr. Grunter asked Uncle Sammler to read a few items from
the Market Letter . (FICT)
Mrs Carol Bentley tried to ignore the fuss . (NEWS)
Carpenter found highly nonlinear cases to be chaotic . (ACAD)

231 Post-predicate to -clauses controlled by adjectives express someone’s
stance towards his or her activities. This structure is relatively
common in news:

Sir Anthony is willing to provide a focal point for discussion.
(NEWS)

On the contrary, extraposed to -clauses following an adjective usually
present a stance that is not directly attributed to anyone. This pattern
occurs mainly in academic prose:

It is important to specify the states after the formulae in the
equation . (ACA D)

2) The most frequent verbs controlling ing-clauses, broken down
by the four registers are:

CONV: keep, start, go, stop, see NP, remember, think, get NP, sit
FICT: keep, see NP, go, start, stop, begin, hear NP, come,
spend, remember, think, get NP, sit, feel NP, stand/stood
NEWS: start, keep, begin, see , NP, go, spend, come, stop, be
accused of
ACAD: be used for, involve, be achieved by/with

Keep is the most common verb + ing-clause in conversation. Start is
also very common. In academic prose, be us ed for + ing-clause is
surprisingly common:

She keeps smelling the washing powder . (CONV)

An informal synonym is go on :

The guard went on sleeping . (FICTION)

232 News and academic prose have more specialized verbs that control
ing-clauses:

Some method o f refrigeration is used for cooling the milk in
all bulk tanks . (ACAD)
George Helaine, a Belgian, is accused of organizing the
shipment from Morocco . (NEWS)

Most adjectives that control ing-clauses express a personal feeling or
attitude, or some evaluati on of the message in the ing-clause:

I’m sorry about being in a mood Saturday . (CONV)
These people were not afraid of signing papers . (FICT)
There is no reason why women should not be good a t selling
cars. (NEWS)
Mineralogy and texture are also useful in subdividing the
sedimentary rocks . (ACAD)

Biber et al. conclude that:
 Generally, that-clauses and to-clauses are more than twice as
common as wh-clauses and ing-clauses.
 Finite complement clauses, i.e. that-clauses and wh-clauses
are very frequent in conv ersation, followed by fiction. They
are relatively rare in academic prose.
 Non-finite complement clauses – to clauses and ing-clauses –
are most common in fiction, followed by news and academic
prose, but are relatively rare in conversation.

233
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