Articol Digital Media Copyright Protection (1) [621294]

Digital Media Copyright Protection
Catalina Manolache

Faculty of Automatics and Computer Science, University „Politehnica“ of Bucharest,
Romania
[anonimizat]
Abstract. This paper presents the attempt to contribute to the global struggle of
reducing piracy by offering a n original solution to the issue . The idea behind
the solution is to merge the advantages of the current related work and to
provide alternatives to the involved weaknesses. So, the solution is produced
after a thorough ana lysis, as a compilation of the current assets and also tries to
bring innovation when gathering the assets in an efficient and suitable way. The
effects of the proposed solution w ere accurately analyzed and the conclusions
are highlighted so as to serve as a guideline for future researches .
Keywords: Digital media, copyright , digital media protection, piracy, digital
rights .
1 Introduction
Media comprise the formats used for disseminating information.
Digital media, as opposed to analog media, are usua lly electronic media that
work on digital codes, that is on series of discrete states of “0” and “1” (the so -called
binary numeral system). Digital media refers to digital audio, digital video and other
digital content, like e -books, images, music, movies, applications , games etc. that can
be created, referred to and distributed via digital information processing machines.
The most notable digital information processing machine is the computer –
the cheap and wide -spread PC. In these conditions, as opposed to analog data, digital
data is in many cases easier to manipulate and the end result can be reproduced
indefinitely without any loss of quality.
Still, in most cases, digital works are the result of the effort and investments
of the producers (authors ) and obviously, the authors deserve special property rights
regarding their products – the so -called copyrights. Copyright is a form of intellectual
property that gives the author of an original work exclusive right for a certain time
period in relation to that work, including its publication, distribution and adaptation.
Still, t he laws regarding copyrights retain vague items. The Copyright Act
from 1968 presents the copyright infringement scenarios in terms of technologies that
were already known or being developed at that time. As could be expected, it makes no
reference to “multi media”. The question of the protection of multimedia works was
briefly considered by the Copyright Law Review Committee (“CLRC”) in its Final

Report on Computer Software Protection, which was released in 1995. Still, there is
place for further law amendme nts, thus for further copyright law improvements.
Nowadays, we define c opyright infringement (or copyright violation or
piracy) as the unauthorized use of material that is covered by copyright law, in a
manner that violates one of the copyright owner's e xclusive rights, such as the right to
reproduce or distribute the copyrighted work.
In addition to the restrictions imposed by the nowadays copyright laws, other
practical methods for preventing digital media piracy were adopted, such as: anti –
copying tec hnologies (built into DVD systems, CAD systems), copy tracking systems
(digital watermarking, digital fingerprinting, copyright management systems and the
new tracking systems based on encryption) – all these methods are known as DRM
(digital rights manage ment).
The objective of this paper is to present a solution for preventing piracy. In
this paper, first, there are exposed the methods that are currently used so as to
accomplish this objective (those mentioned above). After analyzing these ones and
becom ing aware of their strengths and threats, the proposed solution that tries to get
closer to the objective is presented. Finally, the conclusions are expressed so as to
highlight the valuable resulting ideas of the project, derived from the effort of
resear ching, analyzing , creating and designing the proposed solution – and may
constitute a guideline for future researches.

2 Related Work
2.1 Presentation

During the past forty years, the copyright holders responded to digital
technology development with proposal s for expanded protection of digital works and
restrictions on personal use rights [1].
In order to achieve digital media copyright protection, it was believed that
involving the complementary legal and technological approac hes would be the key of
success [2]. Until now, there were a few legal trials to solve the problem (e.g.: the
copyright law) whilst there were plenty of technological attempts, generically known
as DRM (Digital Rights Management) [3][4]. Gradually, DRM approaches were
developed for every digital media category: films, music, computer games, programs,
e-books and images.
In the film domain , the pillars of the DRM approach were encryption, usage
of external storage disks, such as DVDs (with built -in anti -copying technology) and
video strea ming. An example of a DRM system is the Content Scrambling System
(CSS). It is used on film DVDs to encrypt the data so that only licensed DVD players
can decode it. In this case, the copyright protection is assured as byte -for-byte copies
of an MPEG strea m are not playable and CSS scrambled disks don't play on
noncompliant devices.
In the music domain , the DRM approach was based on installing monitoring
software on client’s host, encryption, subscription, price discrimination and audio

streaming. Sony BMG introduced DRM technology on audio CDs that installed
additional software on users' computers without requiring their confirmation, software
that was hiddenly monitoring and controlling the user’s audio content manipulation.
In the Internet music domain, i n the beginning, many online music stores employed
DRM to restrict usage of purchased music. Such is the case of the iTunes store. Later,
it decided to sell higher quality DR M-free tracks for higher prices [5]. Nowadays, it
sells DRM -free tracks for low pr ices. Other store, the Napster, offers a subscription –
based approach to DRM. Users of the subscription service can download and stream
an unlimited amount of music. But when the subscription period lapses, all of the
downloaded music becomes unplayable. No w Napster is offering DRM -free MP3
music.
In the computer games area , the principles behind the DRM approach are
related to gaming accounts and online authentication. Computer games use DRM
technologies to limit the number of systems the game can be inst alled on by requiring
authentication with an online server. Such a DRM method was embedded in Steam,
an online -gaming platform. Steam allows users to purchase computer games entirely
digitally. Instead of receiving a box, disc, or even CD key, purchased so ftware is
immediately attached to the user's Steam account. (platforma lor originala)
In the software area , the DRM approach is based on hardware -based copy
prevention and licenses. In the beginning, manufacturers not only made the program
disks uncopyable, but they also required the user to have the original disk in their
computer’s disk drive before they could run the program. Later, the hardware -based
copy protection method used physical keys which were required to unlock software
applications [6]. Afterward, software companies insisted that they license rather than
sell their products. License terms may preclude a buyer from doing the following to
her software: transferring, sublicensing, leasing, copying, modifying, migrating,
translating, disassembling, decompiling or converti ng to another programming
language.
In the e-books area , DRM restrictions are embedded into the e -book viewer
programs, such as Adobe Reader and Microsoft Reader. The DRM approach is
mainly based on encoding the copyright holders’ protection policies dire ctly into the
digital content. When viewing a highl y restricted e -book with Adobe R eader, the user
is unable to print the book, copy or paste selections.
In Microsoft Reader there are three types of e -books: sealed, inscribed and
owner exclusive. Sealed e -books only prevent the document from being modified.
After purchasing and downloading an inscribed e -book, Microsoft Reader adds
tracking information to the digital work. When downloading an owner exclusive e –
book, it becomes linked to the computer’s Micro soft Passport account. Thus the e –
book can only be opened with the computer with which it was downloaded.
In the images and documents area , the DRM approach is based on recording
tracking information and steganographically embedding it into the digital con tent.
There are several DRM flavors: digital watermarking, digital fingerprinting and
copyright management systems. All modify the protected work to include information
that identifies the copyright owner, the buyer of t he work, the distribution chain [7]. If
the buyer distributes unauthorized copies of the work, the tracking information can
make irrefutable evidence of copyright infringement [8].

2.2 Analysis

One of the most important obstacles to achieving digital media copyright
protection was the ambiguous , noncurrent and so inadequate character of the legal
approach. This happened because the legal approach had been always evolving slower
than the technological approach, therefore it couldn’t constitute its complementary
support. Conversely, the technologi cal approach had a dynamic evolution, consistent
with the digital technology development rhythm. Still, without a legal support, many
adopted DRM methods proved to be exaggerated, hostile and unfitted, causing the
end user’s distrust and dissatisfaction.
In the film domain, the CSS DRM system implementation brought severe
restrictions on sharing digital media that couldn’t be circumvented. But, exactly these
restrictions were the incentive for the Norwegian programmer, Jon Lech Johansen, to
decode CSS. So, the high severity of the DRM method translated into the great
struggle of the end user to overcome the restrictions.
In the music domain, specifically when talking about audio CDs, the Sony’s
attempt to reduce piracy by hiddenly monitoring and controlling user actions led to a
huge copy protection scandal. The effects were that EMI stopped publishing audio
CDs with DRM, stating that "the costs of DRM do not measure up to the results."
This was done because the DRM method had been compromised and it appeare d to be
the only way towards reducing the clients’ frustration and regaining their trust.
Referring to Internet music, a lthough DRM is prevalent, major labels (like
eMusic, Amazon, Dogmazic) have begun releasing online DRM -free music, while
still discourag ing music sharing between users. Musicload.de, one of Europe's largest
online music retailers, announced their position strongly against DRM. It stated that
three out of every four calls to their customer support phone service are as a result of
consumer f rustration with DRM. So, in order to diminish the client’s dissatisfaction,
this music company preferred trusting the clients’ integrity and requiring them not to
share the purchased music to imposing usage constraints.
In computer games, the DRM methods e mbedded into the Steam online –
gaming platform proved to be inadequate. After publishing the first Steam -based
games (Half -Life 2, MassEffect, Spore), considerable protest was recorded, resuming
in a substantial number of users seeking a pirated version ins tead. However, as of
2009 very few games are Steam -based as game producers understood that DRM was
actually inciting people to use pirated copies. So, it is now clear that constraining the
clients actually translates into challenging them to circumvent usa ge limitations and
that the producers’ offensive attitude determines even more offensive customers’
reactions.
In the images and documents area, the tracking -based methods (like digital
watermarking) are not effective as they can be easily bypassed. Some p rograms used
to edit video and/or audio may distort, delete, or otherwise interfere with watermarks.
In the software domain, the release of new copy protected program was
typically followed by the immediate release of a new “cracking” program capable of
defeating the copy protection. Software manufacturers and cracking software
manufacturers engaged in a type of endless arms race over copy protection. So, as
long as this battle continues it is obvious that there wasn’t found a viable solution for
the issue. Moreover, if referring to the hardware -based copy protection method, it

prevented legitimate copying of the software for archival and backup purposes. Thus,
resentment in the marketplace was so strong that organizations started boycotting
software that us ed these types of copy prevention. So, exaggerated protection methods
determine a violent rejection attitude from the clients.
In practice, all widely -used DRM systems are eventually defeated or
circumvented by the user communities; it is just a matter of time. Finally, after these
DRM attempts of bringing copyright protection, many organizations and computer
scientists are opposed to DRM. They state that: "DRM is an example of a malicious
feature – a feature designed to hurt the user of the software, and t herefore, it's
something for which there can never be toleration."

3 Solution
3.1 Premises

Given the facts that during the last three decades DRM has proved its
inability to offer a reliable digital media copyright protection and that the centralized
distri bution business model imposed by the copyright laws has become obsolete with
regards to the Internet, it emerges that the digital media copyright protection issue
needs to be reanalyzed in terms of verifying the sustainability of the old premises and
detec ting the real problem. After a thorough analysis, it comes out that several
decisive pieces of information weren’t taken into consideration in the previous
attempts to solving the issue.
The copyright history reveals its mission and philosophy. Copyright i s an
outgrowth of the privatization of government censorship in 16th-century England. The
first copyright law was designed to serve booksellers and the government, not authors
[9]. The Stationers profited from their monopoly [10] and the government exercis ed
control over the spread of information [11]. Since then, the publishing industry has
been working very hard to promote the myth that the copyright was invented by
authors to protect their rights and incentivize them to create [12]. Also, it has been
campaigning for ever stronger laws against sharing in order to maintain a state of
mind that says someone ought to own products and control who can copy them.
The publishing process is fairly complex and expensive. It encompasses the
costs of vetting the mas ter copy quality, purchasing the physical medium and the
expensive machinery to imprint the content onto the medium and of advertising. With
such investments, it is little wonder that publishers argue hard for copyright.
But now that the Internet has giv en us a world without distribution costs, it
no longer makes any sense to impose the same pay -per-copy model and to restrict
sharing in order to pay for centralized distribution. Moreover, the Internet has already
proved that authors still create without c entralized distribution.
In these conditions, abandoning copyright regarded as a distribution
restriction is now not only possible, but desirable. Both artists and audiences would
benefit, a much finer -grained filtering process allowing works to spread b ased on their
merit alone [13]. Greater exposure for a valuable musician would lead to more

performances, so to increased gains. Authors would benefit from donations of readers
who really appreciate their work. But even if only half or fewer of all readers w ere to
make such donations, authors would still earn more than they do under traditional
royalty schemes. Nevertheless, the authors can implement the Fund and Release
system or get sponsored by commercial organizations.
The flourishing Free Software moveme nt is probably the best example of a
post-copyright world. Instead of prohibiting sharing, the software's license explicitly
permits and encourages it. A number of others soon caught on to his idea, and because
they were able to share and modify each other 's programs without limit, they quickly
produced a large body of working code. Now free software that rivals the products
available in the proprietary market is largely produced. Its copyright serves mainly to
identify the original authors, and in some cas es to prevent anyone else from imposing
a stricter license. The authors have given up every exclusive right except the right to
be identified as the authors.
A new business model appeared: people downloading the software for free
and instead selling servi ces such as technical support, training, and customization. It
brings an efficient way for paying real programmers competitive salaries to work on
free software.
But this trend is not present only in the software area; there are signs of it
happening every where. Musicians are starting to release their tracks online for free
downloading. Gradually, creators in other areas are realizing that they can disseminate
their works without publishers or centralized distribution chains, by simply allowing
the freedom to copy.

After reanalyzing the digital media copyright protection problem, essential
premises come out. First, creators have the normal right and need of being rewarded
for their effort of publishing works. This premise always holds true, especially in th e
film, computer games and applications domains because of the major investments in
releasing the digital content. Moreover, it is obvious that creators need their
authorship to be acknowledged and also their publication and adaptation rights to be
respect ed.
Another premise is that publishing works is aimed at disseminating
information, ideas or messages, entertaining, assisting and supporting the end users in
performing their tasks. So, it can be regarded as a response at the intellectual needs of
the hu man being.
Nowadays, the environment acknowledged as the most chargeable with
copyright infringement is undoubtably represented by the BitTorrent websites. These
sites offer millions of gigabytes of copyrighted digital content for the consumer to
download it for free anytime. Even though the record companies repeatedly strived
against these sites, they continued to flourish.
Amazingly, the BitTorrent sites perfectly accomplish the disseminating
information purpose of publishing and also acknowledge creato rs’ authorship. The
problem is that they don’t reward the creators by allowing users to download digital
media for free and also that they aren’t able to guarantee the authors’ publication and
adaptation rights. The question that surely arises is whether t hese drawbacks can be
solved somehow.

3.2 Presentation

The problem that a BitTorrent site doesn’t reward the authors of the exposed
digital media can be solved by implementing a subscription -based access policy. The
provider of the BitTorrent service would return a satisfactory percent of the collected
subscription fees to the creators. Both the provider and the creators would negotiate
the value of the satisfactory percent so a WIN -WIN commercial relationship to be
built. Also, a small percent of the collec ted sum would be paid to the state in the form
of publication and distribution taxes.
Under these terms, the slogan of the solution is: “Make pirated content
public content for a fee!”. Therefore, the solution is based on substituting the old
copyright cen tralized -distribution business model with a BitTorrent subscription
based model. “Service the needs instead of fighting them!” because, psychologically
speaking, fighting against a proper need of an individual means only postponing its
accomplishment and w orsening the situation.
Still, this solution needs an adequate legal context to sustain its thinking and
justify its actions. Thus, obsolete and restrictive laws like Digital Millenium
Copyright Act (that criminalizes production and dissemination of techno logy, devices,
or services intended to circumvent DRM methods ) should be abolished and new laws
that guarantee the authors’ publication and adaptation rights and also the right of
being rewarded is explicitly asked for.

The solution outline is that the u sers subscribe to a BitTorrent site and they
gain download permissions in return of paying a modest subscription fee. Download
permissions vary with the subscription type as the provider offers several subscription
categories, such as 30 -day trial, basic, premium and elite. Each subscription category
has associated a certain number of credits to be spent on downloading digital media,
thus a download limit. A basic subscription offers the minimum number of credits,
but still a reasonable download limit. Then the 30 -day trial, premium and elite
subscription types gradually raise that download limit. The 30 -day trial subscription is
a promotional category; the premium account brings significantly increased download
potential while the elite subscription has no download restrictions anymore.
The price of every download (expressed as a number of credits) would be
displayed so that the consumer would be accurately informed about the download
conditions. So users would be able to download any film, music track, com puter
game, application, e -book or image as long as they possess enough credit points as
defined by their subscription type. After collecting the subscription fees, the provider
would return a percent of these revenues to the authors of the downloaded digi tal
content.
The technical method needed for implementing the proposed solution is
building websites capable of indexing .torrent files (resembling current BitTorrent
sites), that support the subscription -based model and offer online payment facilities.
The protocol used should resemble the BitTorrent communications protocol, but it
should offer some extra functionalities: extracting the download -specific amount of
credits from the account of the user who has just finished downloading a digital work
and a lso recording the number of downloads for each digital work. This last

functionality would help in computing the revenues that ought to be paid back to the
creators as a reward of their publishing effort.
In order to furnish an accurate credit -based system , the provider should first
create a database that stores the distribution of credits per each digital work and
afterwards repeatedly update its content according to several indicators like the
current prices of the original digital works, the number of cl ients’ orders for a specific
work, according to the terms that have been negotiated with authors and to the own
profit policy. Furthermore, the provider would store in this database user information
such as the chosen subscription type and the remaining do wnload credits and also
download information such as the available works and their number of completed
downloads. The provider should not store information regarding the specific digital
content that a certain client has downloaded in order to respect the user’s privacy
rights.

3.3 Effects Analysis

The suggested solution achieves the goal of easily disseminating the
information (by simply using Website access), while still being affordable and
satisfactory, by not imposing frustrating restrictions upon the user. Thus the client's
intellectual needs are satisfied and addressed as it should be in a civilized society and
so the individual doesn't feel the urge to protest by breaking the legal agreements in
order to fulfill its thirst for knowledge. As a result , the global education and cultural
level rises and the legal environment better fulfills its role as serving the people as
opposed to restricting them.
Furthermore, the authors publishing and adaptation rights are still preserved
by the newly created leg al environment. Also, the revenue system based on the
providers is in accordance with the basic needs of the authors. Lastly, the copyright
holders finally get their long lasting wish of get “pirates” to start paying (while still a
relatively small amount, but at least something) for their products.
Since the service will be so publicly accessible and fairly inexpensive,
people will be more drawn to use it. This will mean the providers can make a profit
by supporting the service and thus a new market will be established. As with any free
market, a competitive system will emerge, in which the providers will offer more and
more convenient services for the clients (smaller fees, more varied forms of
subscriptions, more affordable credit systems) in order to in crease their user base and
hence their profits.
On the other hand, people who buy hard copies (such as CD's and DVD's)
might be increasingly drawn to this type of service. The publishing market will
diminish gradually and will force the remodeling of the centralized distribution
business model to better suit the need of the new market. It is assumed that the
production level of these producers to drop as to only serve the collectors. Also, while
their profits will decrease, the piracy phenomenon will also decrease.
The main purpose of this subscription based system is that it will help users
accustom with contributing to the authors revenues by a small amount, paying for
content becoming common practice. Furthermore, people will understand that
restricting resource sharing through the Internet is an improper method of governing

and understanding the purpose o f the Internet. In the future, if the distribution system
becomes free, the users would understand the ne cessity of contributing to the creative
effort of the authors and so will widely and seamlessly adopt dona tion systems, such
as Fund and R elease. Thus, this system creates the bases for free, unlimited and
civilized distribution of works, in which both the consumers and the authors would be
satisfied, and pir acy would become a nonsensical notion.

4 Solution Testing
The proposed solution is fairly complex as it encompasses a legal context, an
economical means of returning the authors’ investments and also a technical method.
Therefore, the testing of the proposed solution should be performed gradually. First,
the software solution should be tested and after its release, the values of several
indicators should be analyzed, such as the information dissemination degree, the
degree of return of creators’ inve stments, the provider market evolution trend. Also,
an analysis should be performed on the efficiency of the manner in which the legal
context would support the economical and technical solution approaches.
The software solution testing will be performed in accordance with
prescriptions of the FURPS software quality assurance model.
First, the functionality degree of the software system should be tested. So the
subscription functionalities (e.g. login, log out, editing account information, editing
subscri ption type and credit payment per download) would be tested, then the search
.torrent files, download and fee online payment functionalities would be verified.
The technical testing also encompasses the measurement of several non –
functional quality attri butes like: usability (measures how intuitive and easy to use the
system interface is), reliability (measures the availability and fault tolerance of the
system), performance (measures system response time at operations like search and
download) and suppor tability (measures the testability, maintainability,
configurability, compatibility and scalability of the software solution ).
The information dissemination degree reveals how efficient the proposed
solution proved to accomplish the dissemination objectiv e. In order to determine its
value, several other indicators should be monitored, such as the total number of
downloads, the distribution of downloads per digital media category: films, music,
computer games, applications and e -books, the average number of downloads per
user, the average download amount per subscription type, the download distribution
per countries, regions, continents.
The return degree for the creators' investments would be determined by
monitoring the monthly, quarterly and yearly prov ider’s incomes and average return
of creators’ investments and also the partner authors’ satisfaction degree.
The provider market evolution trend would be determined by monitoring the
providers’ services dynamics and quarterly and yearly growth of the number of
providers and subscribers. Moreover, it should be determined whether a competition –
based regime has developed in the providers’ market.

In order to determine the efficiency of the legal context, several indicators
should be monitored such as: t he incidence of legally uncovered situations and
lawsuits against providers, authors or users, the average satisfaction degree of the
consumer, provider and creator.
The expected results for the solution testing process are: the software system
should mee t all its functional and non -functional requirements, the information
dissemination degree should have a great value in countries with high and medium
standards of living and it should display a slowly rising trend in poorer countries. The
degree of return of creators’ investments is expected to prove satisfactory for authors.
Also the provider market evolution trend is expected to be a rising one. Finally, the
legal context should be appropriate for the current situation and it should bring an
important sa tisfaction degree.
In the case that such results would be obtained in 12 to 18 months after
implementing the solution, it should definitely emerge that the yearly statistics
regarding piracy losses like economic losses, jobs lost, loss in workers’ earnin gs, loss
in tax revenues would change according to a decreasing trend.

5 Conclusions
In the past thirty years, copyright holders used all the possible means to
increase the copyright protection of digital work in order to restrict its unauthorized
distribut ion – the so called DRM methods. But all widely -used DRM systems were
eventually defeated or circumvented by dissatisfied user communities. Finally, many
organizations and computer scientists declared to be opposed to DRM. They state
that: “What digital r ights management does is to enable the centralized distribution
business models”. Currently the recent copyright laws are pursuing the same purpose.
But, the Internet has given us a world with no distribution costs and it no
longer makes any sense to rest rict sharing in order to pay for centralized distribution.
Furthermore, the consumer's intellectual needs have risen strongly during the past
decades, thus the demand of stronger information dissemination has considerably
grown. Therefore, it is reasonable that these needs are to be served and not foug ht
against, as was tried by DRM.
In this context, it is proposed as a temporary solution, the creation of a
subscription -based legal system of downloading .torrent files. This would assure a
large scale dissem ination of information and acknowledgment of the authorship for
the creators.
This solution could be extended in the future after performing the efficient
analysis of several indicators such as: information di ssemination, investment returns
and provider market evolution trends. Thus the expansion would mean determining
the possible issues / opportunities to improve the solution that may arise and resolving
/ undertaking them.
The issue with investment return for the authors will be solved by fees paid
by su bscribers to the offered services. The purpose of this solution is to gradually
accustom users into contributing with a modest sum in paying back the authors, and

thus becoming common practice. During this time, free publishing methods for music,
e-books, games and free software will be developed and established. In the future,
when the distribution system becomes free, users will be used to the idea of
contributing to the authors’ effort and so would widely accept and promote donations
and systems such as Fund and Release as ways of paying back the authors. Therefore,
this system creates the bases for free, unlimited and civilized distribution of works, in
which both the consumers and the authors would be satisfied, and piracy would
become a nonsensical not ion.
6 References
1. Paul Goldstein (1994 ), Copyright’s Highway
2. Garry McDaniels (1996) , Copyright Protection on the Internet
3. Dale J. Ream (1995) , Copyrighted Works & Computer Networks: Is Protection
Possible
4. Elizabeth Corcoran (1995) , A Digital Duel: Whose Prop erty Is This? Business and
‘Net Cruisers Debate ow and Whether Copyright Applies in Cyberspace
5. Goldstein , see 1
6. Alexander Wolfe (1996). Pirates prey on the Net, Electronic Engineering Times
7. Otis Port (1994) , Halting Highway Robbery on the Internet
8. Port, see 7
9. Benjamin Kaplan (1967) , An Unhurried View of Copyright , p. 4 -5.
10. Kaplan, p. 7 -9, see 9
11. Kaplan, p. 6, see 9
12. Lyman Ray Patterson (1993), Copyright And `The Exclusive Right' Of Authors
13. S. H. Steinberg (1955) , Five Hundred Years of Printing