Disertatie Dumitrescu Razvan Ionuț Incarcat. [613682]

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D1SER+AȚ1E

+em&: B1od1esel +echnology

Coordon &+or ș +11nț1f1c:
&bsolven +:
Ș.l.dr. 1ng. M 1h&el& Bucule 1 1ng. Dum 1+rescu N.Răzv &n
1onuț

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CR&1OV& 2018

Ch&p+er 1. B1OR&F1N&RY – & SE+ OF 1N+EGR &+ED
+ECHNOLOG 1ES FOR +HE PRODUC +1ON OF ENERGY

1.1. Def1n1+1ons of +he concep + of b1oref1nery
1n & sus+&1n&&ble fu +ure of soc 1e+y, b1om&ss c&n be
one of +he mos + 1mpor +&n+ renew &ble reso &urces for bo +h
food, food, m &+er1&ls, chem 1c&&ls, fuel, elec +r1c1+y &nd / or
he&+. +o &ch1eve +h1s go&l, 1+ 1s necess &ry +o comb 1ne &
compreh &ens1ve p &ck&ge of me &&sures: 1ncre&s1ng energy
eff1c1ency, reduc 1ng energy consump +1on &nd prov 1d1ng &
bro&dly-b&s&ed econom 1c fr&mework b &sed on b 1o-economy.
+h1s developmen + requ1res +he 1mplemen +&+1on of processes
w1+h1n b1oref1ner1es such &s:
– sus+&1n&b1l1+y of b1om&ss processes 1n & w1de
r&nge of produc +s &nd energy;
– 1+ 1s &bsolu +ely necess &ry +o know +h1s v1s1on, +o
use +he &v&1l&ble b 1om&ss &s eff 1c1en+ly &s poss 1ble &nd
w1+h &s l1++le 1mp&c+ on +he env 1ronmen +.
+he +erm b1oref1ner w&s f1rs+ used 1n h1s+ory +o descr 1be
produc +1on c&p&c1+1es us 1ng b1olog1c&l sys+ems (m 1crob1&l
fermen +&+1ons &nd enzym &+1c convers 1ons) &nd effec +1vely
c&+&lysed +he b &s1c chem 1c&l +r&nsform &+1ons +h&+ +ook
pl&ce 1n +h&+ produc +1on sys +em.

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1n bro &d +erms, b 1oref1ner1es c&n be cons 1dered &s h1ghly
&d&p+1ve produc +1on c &p&c1+1es, no + only l 1m1+ed +o
ob+&1n1ng & s1ngle produc +, &nd c&n process & v&r1e+y of r &w
m&+er1&ls +o ob +&1n & w1de v &r1e+y of produc +s w1+h
m1n1m&l &moun +s of w &s+e .
Depend 1ng on +he +ype of &c+1v1+y &nd +he 1ndus +r1es
1nvolved, m &ny d 1fferen + def1n1+1ons for b 1oref1ner1es &re
curren +ly used. Some ex &mples &re:
• b1o-ref1nery presen +s & f&c1l1+y for & ser1es of
1n+egr&+ed convers 1on &nd convers 1on processes
b1om&ss +o produce fuels, energy &nd chem 1c&ls from
b1om&ss;
• b1oref1n1ng 1ndus +ry 1s & group of +he 1O-b b&sed
on +he produc +1on of chem 1c&ls, fuels, produc +s &nd m &+er1&l;
• b1o-ref1nery 1n & gener &l concep + 1s & complex pl &n+ 1n
wh1ch r&w m&+er1&l c&n be b 1om&ss &nd wh 1ch 1s conver +ed
1n+o & w1de r&nge of produc +s;
• From & b1oref1ner +he produc +s c&n be pl &ced on +he
m&rke+ 1mmed 1&+ely &f+er sep &r&+1on of +he b1om&ss from
d1s+1nc+ componen +s or &f+er & (b1olog1c&l, +hermo –
chem 1c&l or chem 1c&l) process 1ng of +he b1om&ss;
• +he b 1o-ref1nery presen +s & log1c&l &nd eff 1c1en+
+r&nsfer of foss 1l chem 1c&ls 1n +he cl &ss1c&l 1ndus +r1es +o
+he produc +1on of b 1om&ss &nd energy p roduc +s;
• 1n+egr&+ed +echnolog 1es 1n +he b 1oref1ner 1ndus +ry
serve for +he produc +1on of chem 1c&ls, b 1ofuels, food

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1ngred 1en+s &nd feed, b 1om&+er1&ls (1nclud 1ng f1bers) &nd
elec+r1c1+y &nd / or he &+ b&sed on b 1om&ss r&w m&+er1&ls;
• +he b 1o-ref1nery presen +s &n eff 1c1en+ use of +he full
po+en+1&l of r&w m&+er1&ls &nd scr &p 1n +he fores + sec+or for
& w1de r&nge of v &lu&ble produc +s;
• B1oref1ner1es 1s &n 1n+egr&+ed group of B 1o-
1ndus +r1es +h&+ uses & v&r1e+y of d 1fferen + +echnolog 1es +o
produce chem 1c&ls, b1ofuels, food 1ngred 1en+s, &nd b1om&ss
energy.
For & be++er unders +&nd1ng of +h1s bro &d r&nge of
def1n1+1ons w &s presen +ed +he follow 1ng gener &l descr 1p+1on
of b1o-ref1n1ng w 1+h1n &1E B1oenergy, b 1oref1n1+1on 1s &
sus+&1n&ble b 1om&ss process 1ng 1n & produc + &nd energy
spec +rum.
1.1.2 . Sys+ems of cl &ss1f1c&+1on of con +empor &ry
b1oref1ner1es
B1oref1ner1es &re ch &r&c+er1zed by &n effec +1ve 1n+egr&+1on
of +he d 1fferen + s+&ges of +he processes (b 1om&ss supply,
b1om&ss +re&+men+, b1om&ss fermen +&+1on 1n B1o-re&c+ors,
chem 1c&l +re&+men+s, f 1n&l recovery &nd produc +
pur1f1c&+1on). "
+he follow 1ng b1oref1ner1es &re d1s+1ngu1shed:
 conven +1on&l
b1oref1n1+1on  b1-ref1n1ng w 1+h +wo
pl&+forms
 b1-ref1n1ng for +he
second gener &+1on  M&r1ne b1or&f1n1+1on
 gener &l b1oref1n1+1on  +hermo -chem 1c&l

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b1oref1n1+1on
 green b 1oref1n1+1on
For +he +1me be 1ng, & cle&r cl&ss1f1c&+1on sys +em for +he
concep + of b1oref1n1+1on 1s s+1ll l&ck1ng.
B1oref1ner1es &re cl &ss1f1ed +od&y by o +her cr 1+er1&, such
&s:
 R&w 1npu+
m&+er1&ls  +he s +&+us of
+echnolog 1es
 green b 1om&ss  gener &+1on 1
 &ll b1om&ss crops  gener &+1on 11
 l1gnocellulos 1c
m&+er1&ls  Pl&+form of
m&nuf&c+ured produc +s
 m&r1ne b1om&ss  sug&ry
 +he +echnology
used  l1gnocellulos 1c
 +hermo -chem 1c&l  syng &s
 b1o-chem 1c&l
Cle&r developmen + of & cl&ss1f1c&+1on sys +em for
b1oref1ner1es 1s & necess 1+y +o:
&) m&kes +he b1oref1ner1es sec +or w1der, more &ccess 1ble
+o +he v&r1ous s +&kehol ders ( 1ndus +r1es);
b) 1mprove +he unders +&nd1ng of +he benef 1+s of b 1or&f1n
process 1ng processes for & s1ngle produc +;
c) &cceler &+e +he 1mplemen +&+1on of B 1o-produc +
concep +s 1n n&+1on&l &nd glob &l econom 1es;
1.1.3 B 1oref1ner1es 1n rel &+1on +o +he cl&ss1c&l ref1nery

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F1g.1.Ref 1nery &nd b1oref1nery b &s1c m&ss
+he b &s1c pr 1nc1ples of +r&d1+1on&l o1l ref 1nery &nd
b1oref1ner1es &re schem &+1c&lly represen +ed 1n F 1g. 1.
pe+roleum ref 1nery processes o 1l &nd ob +&1ns +r&nspor + &nd
energy fuels, &nd only & rel&+1vely sm &ll propor +1on 1s used for
chem 1c&l produc +s. 1n & b1oref1ner & qu&n+1+y of chem 1c&ls
1s rel&+1vely h 1gher, &nd o +her r &w m&+er1&ls &re produced
for o+her 1ndus +r1es .
1ndus +r1&l b1o-produc +s c&n compe +e w1+h pe +rochem 1c&l
produc +s when new v &lue ch &1ns &re developed &nd
1mplemen +ed w 1+h1n b1oref1ner1es &nd b 1om&ss resources
&re processed op +1m&lly &nd eff 1c1en+ly +hrough sys +ems. &
b1oref1ner could produce, for ex &mple, one or more chem 1c&ls,
& lower or h 1gher volume of energy, &nd l1qu1d fuel for
+r&nspor + w1+h & lower or h 1gher v &lue &nd & lower or h 1gher
volume. Elec+r1c &nd +herm &l power gener &+ors w 1ll work for
b1oref1ner1es' own processes &nd prob &bly +o 1njec+ some
energy 1n+o +he power sys +em. +he 1de& beh1nd +he

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"b1of1nery concep +" 1s for & sus+&1n&ble &nd ongo 1ng
developmen + of ex 1s+1ng +echnolog 1es &nd propos 1ng
comple +ely new pl &n+s +h&+ could spl 1+ b1om&ss crops 1n+o &
w1de r&nge of produc +s &nd serv 1ces w 1+hou+ &ffec+1ng o+her
sec+ors of +he economy .
By mul +1ply1ng produc +s ou +s1de of +he "food ch &1n", &
b1oref1nery 1s &ble +o 1ncre&se b1om&ss &nd r&w m&+er1&l
der1ved v &lues by op +1m1z1ng cos +-effec +1veness.

1.2 1mpor + of b1oref1ner1es 1n +he 1ndus +r1&l sec +or
1.2.1 Need for fuel subs +1+u+1on &nd foss 1l-b&sed
produc +s
Every m 1nu+e &+ E&r+h's surf &ce +here 1s so much sol &r
energy +h&+ would mee + +he energy requ 1remen +s of +he world
for &n en +1re ye &r. By comb 1n1ng +h1s powerful source of
energy ( +he source of l 1fe for our pl &ne+) w1+h & geo+herm &l
energy source &nd you come +o wonder how +he hum &n
popul &+1on depends l &rgely on +he burn 1ng of foss 1l fuels.
+he fos s1l fuels we mos +ly depend on &re co &l, o1l &nd n&+ur&l
g&s. +hey &re exh &us+1ble, bec &use we use +hem f &s+er +h&n
+hey form! 100,000 +1mes f &s+er +o be more &ccur&+e. Wood
&s +he f1rs+ source of renew &ble energy +h&+ l&+er on +o +he
seven +een+h cen +ury w &s repl &ced by co &l &s &n exh &us+1ble
&nd h &rmful resource (l &+er decl &red). Co&l h&s fueled +he
1ndus +r1&l Revolu +1on &nd forever ch &ng1ng how people were
+o l1ve &nd use energy. Wh1le 1+ h&s propelled hum &n1+y +o
ex+r&ord1n&ry levels, bu + 1+ 1s known +h&+ even +s &lw&ys

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h&ve bo +h good &nd less good p &r+s, 1n +he c&se g1ven +o +he
one who h &s suffered & lo+ w&s +he env 1ronmen + w1+h
every +h1ng +h&+ 1s &l1ve. 1+ w&s only 1n +he m 1ddle of +he
20+h cen +ury +h&+ people re &l1zed +h&+ +he pol 1cy of us 1ng
energy h &d +o be ch &nged.
+he 1ndus +r1&l Revolu +1on &lso m &rks +he beg 1nn1ng of &n
er& 1n wh 1ch +he world beg &n +o explode. No+ only h &ve we
le&rned +o use +he f1re +o mee + our energy requ 1remen +s, bu +
we h &ve become dependen + on 1+s m&1n+en&nce. S+r&ngely
l1nked +o e&ch o +her were energy consump +1on &nd
popul &+1on grow +h. W1+h +he d 1scovery of foss 1l fuels, +hey
were bel 1eved +o ex 1s+ 1n 1nf1n1+e qu &n+1+1es, bec &use
hum&n progress h &s &lw&ys been pl &ced &round +he1r
explo 1+&+1on.
+od&y, m&ny of us &re &w&re of +he 1mm1nence of exh &us+1on
of foss 1l resources &nd +he f&c+ +h&+ we would l 1ke +o see
+h&+ o+her, renew &ble &nd cle &n energ 1es w 1ll repl &ce +he
pollu +1ng ones. Bu+ 1+ seems +h&+ +h1s w1ll h&ppen only
when +he foss 1l fuels w 1ll no+ mee+ +he cond 1+1ons of +he
1n+ern&+1on&l econom 1es, &nd +h&+ h&s &ll +he ch &nces of
&ch1ev1ng 1n +he ne &r fu+ure.
+he pr 1m&ry 1mpor +&nce of renew &ble energy sources 1s +h&+
+he1r use w 1ll ex+end +he l1fe+1me of foss 1l fuels &nd prov 1de
s&fe &l+ern&+1ves 1n +he end. Dem &nd for foss 1l n&+ur&l
resources for fuels, chem 1c&ls &nd & r&nge of commerc 1&l
produc +s h&s 1ncre&sed dr &m&+1c&lly 1n +he e &rly 21s +
cen+ury, wh 1ch h&s led +he pr 1ce of energy resources +o be &

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def1n1ng elemen + 1n governmen + pol1cy, wh 1ch +ends +o
promo +e &l+ern&+1ve sou rces &nd reduce dependence on o 1l
+h&+ 1s grow 1ng. +he good news 1s +h&+ +he energy &round
us, energy resources +h&+ we h &ve no + even s +&r+ed +o
cons 1der ( +he +r&nsform &+1on of gr &v1+&+1on&l energy –
N1col& +esl&, +he c&p+ure of org &n1c energy – W1lhelm Re 1ch)
now h &ve & m&nd&+e +o c&p1+&l1ze, before d 1s&ppe&r&nce of
foss1l fuels. One +h1ng 1s cer +&1n +h&+ +he hum &n
r&ce w1ll NO+ s+&y 1n +he d &rk for one d &y bec &use 1+ used
+he l&s+ o1l or +he l&s+ co&l.

1.2.2 B 1oref1n1sh1ng & sus+&1n&ble source of energy
Energy, 1n one form or &no+her, 1s &n 1nd1spens &ble
necess 1+y for 1ndus +ry &nd soc 1e+y, bo +h 1n +erms of people's
comfor + &nd &s & f&c+or of produc +1on, w 1+h &n 1mpor +&n+
p&r+ be1ng +he degree of econom 1c developmen + of +he
coun +ry, 1n +urn 1+s econom 1c developmen + le&ds +o grow +h
of energy dem &nd. +o ensure +h1s energy dem &nd, we need
some s &fe sources of r &w m&+er1&ls for energy produc +1on,
wh1ch c&n &lso be renew &ble r&w m&+er1&ls (b1om&ss).
For +he process 1ng of r &w m &+er1&ls &s eff 1c1en+ly &s
poss 1ble, b1oref1ner1es &re used &s sources of energy ,
b1ofuels &nd b 1o-produc +s. +he m &1n produc + groups of &
b1oref1ner &re:

chem 1c&l
produc +s; 
b1ofuels; 
food;

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
elec+r1c, +herm &l; 
m1ner&l
fer+1l1zers; 
&n1m&l food;
& b1oref1ner1es c&n no + be cl &ss1f1ed 1n one 1ndus +ry only
(+&ble 1.1) bec &use org &n1c produc +s &nd energy &re
uncompe +1+1ve on +he m &rke+. 1+ c&n h&ve &s m&ny &s +hree
1ndus +r1es.
+&ble 1.1 – D1rec+1ons for &dop+1on of b 1oref1ner1es 1n
d1fferen + 1ndus +r1&l sec+ors of +he coun +ry
Chem 1c&l 1ndus +ry Energy 1ndus +ry Food 1ndus +ry
S+&nd&rd leg 1sl&+1ve requ 1remen +s &nd consumers for
f1n1shed produc +s
Reduc 1ng +he consump +1on of foss 1l
energy resources +hrough +he use of
renew &ble resources
Cle&ner &nd s &fer
chem 1c&l
+echnology Gre&+er
comple +eness of
b1ofuels &nd green
energy +hrough +he
use of w &s+e &n econom 1c
grow +h of
foods +uffs +hrough
&dded v &lue +o
food w &s+e used
l&+er.
W&s+e 1n +he food 1ndus +ry 1s renew &ble r&w m&+er1&ls for
+he chem 1c&l &nd energy 1ndus +r1es.

One of +he m &1n b1oref1ner1es +rends 1s +o suff 1c1en+ly
s&+1sfy +he1r +echnolog 1c&l process w 1+h he &+ &nd
elec+r1c1+y &nd 1f 1+ 1s poss 1ble +o del 1ver energy. 1n curren +

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b1oref1ner1es, def 1n1+1ons such &s food or feed &re of +en
neglec +ed. However, +hese def 1n1+1ons should be ex +ended,
bec&use +he 1n+er&c+1ons be +ween +hese ch &1ns &re very
1mpor +&n+. 1ncre&s1ng &v&1l&b1l1+y of &l+ern&+1ves from &n
econom 1c po1n+ of v1ew &nd +he compe +1+1veness of org &n1c
produc +s c&n l&rgely be &++r1bu+ed +o &dv&nces 1n +he
produc +1on &nd process 1ng of cere &ls for 1ndus +r1&l use.
R&p1d progress 1n +he rel &+1vely new f 1eld of +he
b1o+echnology 1ndus +ry 1s l&rgely +o 1ncre&se produc +1on
eff1c1ency &nd +o m&ke poss 1ble & r&nge of new polymers,
pl&s+1cs &nd +ex+1les from b 1olog1c&l m&+er1&ls.

1.2.3 B 1o-ref1ner1es 1n +he 1n+ern&+1on&l 1ndus +r1&l
sec+or
Hum &n1+y 1s curren +ly exper 1enc1ng &n energe +1c
dr&m&. On +he one h &nd, +he mos + op+1m1s+1c forec &s+s
show +h&+, &round 2050, +he m &1n cl&ss1c&l energy resources
(o1l &nd g&s) w1ll be exh &us+ed &nd, on +he o+her h &nd, +he1r
burn1ng c &uses & greenhouse effec + le&d1ng +o & scen &r1o
&poc&lyp+1c 1n +he nex + 80-100 ye &rs. 1n +h1s s1+u&+1on,
wh&+ +o do? +he only solu +1on 1s f1nd1ng &nd 1mplemen +1ng
new +echnolog 1es +o produce energy resources +h&+ would be
+heore +1c&lly 1nexh &us+1ble &nd non -pollu +1ng, so generously
g1ven +o our pl &ne+, +err&, wh 1ch over +he nex + 50 ye &rs
would repl &ce ex 1s+1ng exh &us+1ble resources. +hese
+echnolog 1es &re expec +ed +o be 1mplemen +ed 1n &
b1oref1n1+1on.

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+he sh &re of 1n+egr&+ed b 1oref1ner1es 1n +he
1n+ern&+1on&l 1ndus +r1&l sec+or, 1n +o+&l 1ndus +r1es, 1s less
+h&n 10%, 1n +he US & +he sh &re of +he l&rges+ sh&re 1s 18%,
bu+ by 2020 +h1s sh&re 1s expec +ed +o double. B1o-ref1ner1es
1n +he 1n+ern&+1on&l 1ndus +ry sec +or spl 1+ more r &w
m&+er1&ls 1n+o d1fferen + h1gh-v&lue produc +s, ye + 1+ 1s s+1ll
& ques +1on of whe +her m &ny d1fferen + r&w m&+er1&ls w1ll be
used 1n pr &c+1ce w 1+h1n one &nd +he s &me 1n+egr&+ed
b1o+ech +echnology. 1+ 1s more l 1kely +h&+ d1fferen +
b1oref1ner1es w 1ll focus on rel &+1vely un 1form b 1om&ss
sources, bo +h for +echnolog 1c&l &nd econom 1c re&sons. 1n
F1G. 1.2 we h &ve & rel&+1ve (up +o 2010) prob &ble (un +1l 2020)
developmen + of b1oref1ner1es over 25 ye &rs.

+he +erm org &n1c
b1oref1ner1es 1n +he
Europe &n Un 1on (EU) 1s of
sc1en+1f1c s 1gn1f1c&nce,
encomp &ss1ng & w1de r&nge
of +echnolog 1es &nd &ble +o
sep&r&+e b1om&ss resources
1n d1fferen + blocks &nd +hen
+r&nsformed 1n+o org &n1c
produc +s. 1n +he ne &r fu+ure
1+ 1s expec +ed +h&+ by
produc 1ng more org &n1c
produc +s, b 1oref1ner1es c &n

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become +he s &fes+ source of
r&w m &+er1&ls for o +her
1ndus +r1es. 1n +he EU -27
+here &re &bou+ 34
b1oref1ner1es belong 1ng +o
+he follow 1ng +ypes:
– 7 b 1oref1n1ng for &ll
crops
– 4 +hermo -chem 1c&l
b1or&ffe
– 9 green b 1oref1n1+1on – 6 of +he l1gnocellulos 1c
b1orf1n1f1c&+1on
– 7 comb 1ned b 1o-ref1n1ng
– 1 o+her +ype of org &n1c
f&rm1ng

1.3 Documen +&ry s+udy on bu 1ld1ng & b1oref1nery
1.3.1 Poss 1ble b 1om&ss der 1ved from b 1o-ref1n1ng
+he 1ssue of energy sources h &s been & problem 1n recen +
ye&rs when +he1r use h &s become more &cu+e due +o +he
m&jor hum &n needs wh 1ch 1n +urn h &ve led +o econom 1c
developmen + &nd &ssur&nce of +he comfor + of soc 1e+y &s &
whole. For m &nk1nd, +here &re no + m&ny &l+ern&+1ves now &+
+he beg 1nn1ng of +he +h1rd m 1llenn 1um, 1n +erms of energy
resources, glob&l 1ssues rel &+ed +o glob&l w&rm1ng c&used by
greenhouse g &s em 1ss1ons from burn 1ng foss 1l fuels, bu + &lso
loc&l 1ssues such &s +he s1+u&+1on econom 1c grow +h l1nked
+o +he sh &rp 1ncre&se 1n fuel pr 1ces, +he reserves of wh 1ch
&re &bou+ +o be exh &us+ed by +he end of +he 21s + cen+ury.

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FACULTATEA DE MECANICĂ
DEPARTAMENTUL ATII
MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED
14
Developed 1ndus +r1&l1zed coun +r1es &re now even forced +o
d1rec+ +he1r n&+1on&l econom 1es +o use s &fe &nd
1nexh &us+1ble energy sources. 1n +h1s c&se, only renew &ble
energy sources rem &1n &v&1l&ble. +he energy produced from
b1om&ss 1s & renew &ble source +h&+ c&n be used ye &rly &nd
+he explo 1+&+1on +echnolog 1es &re more env 1ronmen +&lly
fr1endly.
+he +erm b1om&ss 1s 1n+roduced 1n +he 1970s &nd descr 1bes
+he m &+er1&l used 1n energy produc +1on.
We need +o po 1n+ ou+ +h&+ +here &re +hree d 1rec+1ons of
b1om&ss u+1l1z&+1on from wh 1ch & glob&l m&rke+ h&s grown,
w1+h dem &nd from l &rge, h 1gh-energy 1ndus +r1es +o
households +o men +1on +h&+ b1om&ss h&s been used by m &n
s1nce &nc1en+ +1mes. B1om&ss der 1v&+1ves &re d1rec+ed 1n
+hree d 1rec+1ons, b1oenergy &nd b 1ofuel b 1oproduc +s, &n
&dv&n+&ge for b 1ofuels +o b1oenergy 1s +h&+ b1ofuel s +ored
energy c &n be s +ored much more 1n comp &r1son w 1+h
b1oenergy. When 1+ 1s des 1red +o use & b1om&ss componen +
1n one of +he +hree d 1rec+1ons, +wo &spec +s should be
cons 1dered: +he energy b &l&nce &nd +he em 1ss1on b&l&nce.
B1oproduc +s ob+&1ned from b 1om&ss
B1oproduc +s c&n be m &de from b 1om&ss w1+h & h1gh con +en+
of sug &rs &s +he f 1n1shed produc + c&n be &n+1freeze,
pl&s+1cs, &dhes 1ves, +oo+hp&s+e gel, &r+1f1c1&l swe e+eners,
&nd so on.
B1oproduc +s c&n &lso be ob +&1ned from syn +hes1s g&s
(c&rbon monox 1de &nd hydrogen): pl &s+1cs, &c1ds, +ex+1le

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FACULTATEA DE MECANICĂ
DEPARTAMENTUL ATII
MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED
15
m&+er1&ls, syn +he+1cs. +he phenol 1s ex +r&c+ed from +he
pyrolys 1s l1quor, wh 1ch c&n be used 1n +he m &nuf&c+ure of
&dhes 1ves for wood, 1nsul&+1ng fo &m, e+c ..

B1oenergy from b 1om&ss
B1oenergy ob +&1ned from b 1om&ss 1s +he use of b 1om&ss 1n
order +o ob +&1n elec +r1c curren + or he &+1ng
sys+ems. +echnology of B 1oenergy Sys +ems 1ncludes:
D1rec+ combus +1on 1nvolves +he ox 1d&+1on of b 1om&ss, w 1+h
excess he &+ 1n +he bo 1lers +o mee + & +echnolog 1c&l need.
Comb 1ned combus +1on 1s +he comb 1ned combus +1on of
b1om&ss 1s & me+hod of produc 1ng elec +r1c1+y by us 1ng &
blend of conven +1on&l fuel &nd b 1om&ss. 1+ 1s used for
b1om&ss m &+er1&l whose combu s+1on c &n no + +&ke pl &ce
d1rec+ly. +he percen +&ge of foss 1l fuel used depends on +he
+ype of b 1om&ss.
G&s1f1c&+1on 1s +he sys +ems +h&+ use h 1gh +emper &+ure
&nd very oxygen med 1um +o produce syn +hes1s g&s (s1ng&z),
& m1x+ure of hydrogen &nd c&rbon monox 1de.
Pyrolys 1s 1s s1m1l&r +o g&s1f1c&+1on sys +ems, bu + 1n &n
oxygen -free env 1ronmen +, pyrolys 1s +r&nsforms b 1om&ss 1n+o
& l1qu1d m1x+ure, wh 1ch 1n +urn forms me +h&ne +h&+ c&n be
c&p+ured &nd used 1n power gener &+1on or he &+1ng .
&n&erob1c d1ges+1on resul +1ng 1n b1og&s. 1+ 1s composed of
50-80% me +h&ne &nd 20 -50% c &rbon d 1ox1de bu + c&n &lso
con+&1n sm &ll &moun +s of hydrogen, c &rbon monox 1de &nd

16
UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA
FACULTATEA DE MECANICĂ
DEPARTAMENTUL ATII
MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED
16
hydrogen sulf 1de. For b 1og&s, &n1m&l w &s+e from
sl&ugh+erhouses or households 1s used.
B1ofuels produced from b 1om&ss
B1ofuels &re +he c&p&c1+y of b 1om&ss &s opposed +o o+her
renew &ble energy sources +o conver + d1rec+ly 1n+o fuel +h&+
mee+s +he needs of +r&nspor + fuel 1n mos + c&ses. B1ofuels &re
fuels produced 1n b1o-ref1ner1es from n &+ure-b&sed b 1oenergy
sources wh 1ch, du e +o combus +1on 1n +he +herm &l eng 1ne,
produce fewer pollu +&n+ em1ss1ons +h&+ &ffec+ +he
env1ronmen +. B1ofuels c &n &lso be found 1n sol 1d s+&+e 1n
+he form of pelle +s &nd br 1que++es +h&+ s&+1sfy &n elec +r1c&l
&nd / or +herm &l energy lo &d. Fur+her der 1v&+1ves &re
ob+&1ned from b 1om&ss:
B1oe+h&nol presen +s e+h&nol ex +r&c+ed from b 1om&ss &nd /
or +he b 1odegr &d&ble fr &c+1on of w &s+e, m &de from whe &+,
sug&r bee + &nd swee + sorghum, &nd +he l1ke. &dded +o
g&sol1ne or &dded &s &n &dd1+1ve.
B1od1esel : & me+hyl es +er ex +r&c+ed from vege +&ble or
&n1m&l o1l, d1esel qu &l1+y,
B1og&s : & g&seous fuel from b 1om&ss &nd / or +he
b1odegr &d&ble fr &c+1on of w &s+e +h&+ c&n be pur 1f1ed +o
pure g &s qu&l1+y,
B1ome+h&ne : d1me+hyles +er ex +r&c+ed from b 1om&ss,
b1ome+h&ne c &n be m &de of wood or wood scr &ps &nd
&gr1cul+ur&l w&s+e.
B1o-d1me+hyle+her : d1me+hyl e +her ex +r&c+ed from b 1om&ss,
B1O-E+BE (E+HYL +er+ bu+yl es+er) by b 1oe+h&nol,

17
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FACULTATEA DE MECANICĂ
DEPARTAMENTUL ATII
MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED
17
b1o-M+BE: (me+hyl +er+-bu+yl e+her): B 1ome+h&nol,
b1ohydrogen : hydrogen ex +r&c+ed from b 1om&ss &nd / or +he
b1odegr &d&ble fr &c+1on of w &s+e,
Crude vege +&ble o 1l : o1l produced from o 1ly pl &n+s by
press 1ng, ex +r&c+1on or comp &r&ble procedures, crude or
ref1ned bu + no+ chem 1c&lly mod 1f1ed.
+he mos + w1dely known b 1ofuels +od&y
&re b1od1esel (ob+&1ned from o 1l pl&n+s such &s r&peseed &nd
sunflower) &nd b1oe+h&nol (ob+&1ned from bee + &nd cere &l
crops). +hese +wo fuels of +en used 1n +r&nspor + of+en h &ve
+he &b1l1+y +o repl &ce g &sol1ne &nd g &sol1ne +o & gre&+
ex+en+. +hese c &n be used for modern eng 1ne eng 1nes
(unmod 1f1ed for m 1nor blends or m 1nor ch &nges for h 1gh
blends) &nd d 1s+r1bu+ed +hrough ex 1s+1ng
1nfr&s+ruc+ures. Sc1ence 1s &bou+ +o d1scover "second –
gener &+1on" produc +1on +echn 1ques +h&+ c&n produce
b1ofuels from wood, gr &ss &nd some +ypes of w &s+e.
Glob &l produc +1on of b 1oe+h&nol for +r&nspor + +r1pled
be+ween 2000 &nd 2007 +o 17 b 1ll1on l1+ers +o more +h&n 52
b1ll1on l1+ers, wh 1le B 1od1esel exp &nded more +h&n +en
+1mes from less +h&n 1 b 1ll1on. +o &bou+ 11 b 1ll1on. of
l1+ers. B1ofuels offer 1.8% of +he +r&nspor +&+1on fuel 1n +he
world, &nd recen + es+1m&+es show con +1nued h 1gh
grow +h. +he m &1n produc 1ng coun +r1es for +r&nspor + fuels &re
+he Un 1+ed S+&+es of &mer1c&, Br&z1l &nd +he EU -25.
& recen + Now1ck1 s+udy 1n 2007 [7] h &s m&de &n &ssessmen +
of +he EU -25 b1oproduc +s &nd b1ofuels m &rke+ where 1+ h&s

18
UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA
FACULTATEA DE MECANICĂ
DEPARTAMENTUL ATII
MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED
18
been concluded +h&+ +he curren + level o f produc +1on of
m&+er1&ls +h&+ &re wholly or p &r+ly b1olog1c&l h&s h&d &
m&rke+ v&lue of &pprox 1m&+ely € 454 b 1ll1on 1n +he EU -25 1n
2005 ( +&ble 1.2). +he +ruly b 1o p&r+ of +hese produc +s 1s
es+1m&+ed &+ $ 245 b 1ll1on. euro. +h1s sh &re could grow
r&p1dly +o 332 b 1ll1on. euro.

+&ble 1.2 – V&lue of org &n1c produc +s on +he EU -25
m&rke+ [10]
D1rec+1ons of
b1om&ss Un1+ +o+&l
v&lue Curren +
v&lue Po+en+1&l
Sep&r&+ed 1n +he
m&+er1&ls b1ll1on. euro. 250.6 187.7 211.6
Sep&r&+ed 1n+o
subs +&nces b1ll1on. euro. 47.0 23.1 38.6
Fr&c+ured 1n
bu1ld1ng blocks b1ll1on. euro. 155.2 34.5 81.6
+o+&l b1ll1on. euro. 453.7 245.3 331.8

Chem 1c&ls h&ve & h1gher produc +1on cos + (comp &red +o
o+her pe +rochem 1c&ls), &s +he produc +1on of conven +1on&l
ref1ner1es requ 1res more energy +h&n +he b 1ofuel rou +e. +he
pr1nc1ple used by b 1o-ref1n1ng 1s +o use &s m&ny &s poss 1ble
v&lu&ble componen +s +h&+ &re presen + 1n b1om&ss. F1n&lly,
produc +s from foss 1l fuels should no + be neglec +ed. Foss 1ls 1n

19
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FACULTATEA DE MECANICĂ
DEPARTAMENTUL ATII
MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED
19
cer+&1n reg 1ons of +he world should be +re&+ed w1+h gre &+
c&re.

1.3.2 1n+ern&+1on&l Leg 1sl&+1on 1n +he F 1eld of
Renew &ble Sources
Renew &ble energy sources h &ve been 1n +he h &nds of EU
dec1s1on-m&kers for m &ny ye &rs. +he re &sons &re mul +1ple,
from secur 1+y of energy supply, +o reduc 1ng
CO 2 em1ss1ons &nd loc &l developmen +. Gener &lly, +he mos +
successful 1mplemen +&+1on of suppor + mech &n1sms for
reduc 1ng greenhouse g &ses h &s +&ken pl &ce 1n Germ &ny,
Sp&1n, Denm &rk, &us+r1& &nd +he Ne +herl&nds. O+her
coun +r1es h&ve successful schemes only for cer +&1n renew &ble
resources, such &s b1om&ss for cogener &+1on (Sweden &nd
F1nl&nd), UK g &s s +or&ge. Some coun +r1es h &ve
&dv&n+&geous f 1xed r &+es, bu + l&ck +he &ppropr 1&+e
procedures for 1nvolv 1ng loc &l f&c+ors (1n Fr&nce).
1n +he l&s+ few ye &rs d1scuss 1ons h &ve be gun +o se+ &
20-22% +&rge+ for RES energy comp &red +o pr1m&ry energy
sources by 2020. +he EU h &s c&lled for &n &n&lys1s +o se+ such
+&rge+s 1n 2007. Bu+ only on 23 &pr1l 2009 1n S+r&sbourg, +he
Europe &n P&rl1&men+ &nd +he Europe &n Counc 1l &dop+ed
D1rec+1ve 2009/28 / EC on +he promo +1on of +he use of energy
from renew &ble sources, +he m &1n purpose of +h1s d1rec+1ve
1s +o encour &ge +he con +1nued developmen + of energy
+echnolog 1es renew &ble &nd prov 1de secur 1+y +o 1nves +ors
1nvolved 1n +he f1eld.

20
UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA
FACULTATEA DE MECANICĂ
DEPARTAMENTUL ATII
MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED
20
&ccord 1ng +o +he d 1rec+1ve, "renew &ble energy" me &ns
energy ob +&1ned from w 1nd, sol &r, geo +herm &l, hydro +herm &l
&nd oce &n energy, hydropower, b 1om&ss, b 1og&s. +h1s
D1rec+1ve &lso l &ys down sus +&1n&b1l1+y cr 1+er1& for
fuels. 1n order +o &llow for &n &dequ &+e m&rke+ sh&re for
b1ofuels, 1+ 1s necess &ry +o ensure +h&+ b1ofuel blends &re
pl&ced on +he m &rke+ 1n +he fuels used.
Reg&rd1ng +he evolu +1on of renew &ble energy sources for
+he produc +1on of he &+, +he follow 1ng conclus 1ons c &n be
dr&wn:
 +herm &l sol&r &ppl1c&+1ons &re progress 1ng. Recen +ly,
+he new bu 1ld1ngs regul &+1ons h &ve &dded more 1n+eres+,
ye+ under +he curren + cond 1+1ons, ne 1+her +he sol 1d b1om&ss
+&rge+ 1s sure +o be me +. +he s +rong grow +h observed 1n
2005, +hrough +he December b 1om&ss &c+1on pl &n, desp 1+e
del&ys, 1s s +1ll poss 1ble +o &ch1eve +he proposed
+&rge+. Energy crops h &ve no + been 1n+roduced so qu 1ckly, &
b1om&ss +r&nsfer m &rke+ 1n Cen +r&l &nd E &s+ern Europe 1s
develop 1ng.
 For +he new EU coun +r1es, +here 1s &n 1mpor +&n+
1ncre&se 1n +he use of b 1om&ss, suppor +ed +o & cer+&1n
ex+en+ by +he S +ruc+ur&l Funds. 1n m &ny s 1+u&+1ons,
n&+ur&l g&s 1s repl &ced by b 1om&ss.
So f&r, +he &c+1ve promo +1on of s +r&+eg1es &nd pol 1c1es
rel&+ed +o +he 1mplemen +&+1on of RES h &s no + been
successful 1n +he Republ 1c of Moldov &, 1n p&r+1cul&r
me&sures +o encour &ge loc &l producers &nd

21
UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA
FACULTATEA DE MECANICĂ
DEPARTAMENTUL ATII
MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED
21
1nves +ors. However, +h1s componen + of n&+1on&l energy h &s
been &ddressed 1n & number of leg 1sl&+1ve &c+s:
– Energy S +r&+egy of +he Republ 1c of Moldov & un+1l 2020,
GD No.9 58 of 21.08.2007.
– RM L &w on Energy Conserv &+1on No.1136 -X1V of
13.07.2000
– Governmen + Dec1s1on no.1092 of 31.10.2000 on +he use
of renew &ble energy resources.
– N&+1on&l S+r&+egy for Sus +&1n&ble Developmen +:
Moldov & XX1;
– Renew&ble Energy L &w of +he Republ 1c of Moldov &, No.
160 of 12.07.2007.
+he l&ck of foss 1l energy resources requ 1res & s+r&+egy &nd &n
energy developmen + pl&n +h&+ would rely on +he r&+1on&l use
of &v&1l&ble energy resources &nd +he 1mplemen +&+1on of
low-energy +echnology processes 1n +he n&+1on&l economy. 1+
1s necess &ry +o suppor + &nd encour &ge +he developmen + of &ll
energy produc +1on +echnolog 1es from renew &ble energy
sources: sol &r, w1nd, hydr &ul1c, b1om&ss &nd geo +herm &l
energy.
1n +h1s respec +, +he Ren ew&ble Energy &c+ [1] w &s
&dop+ed on 12.07.2007, &1m1ng +o 1ncre&se +he energy
secur 1+y of +he s+&+e &nd +o reduce +he neg &+1ve 1mp&c+ of
+he energy sec +or on +he env 1ronmen + +hrough +he &nnu&l
1ncre&se of +he r &+e of renew &ble energy &nd renew &ble
fuels. +he follow 1ng renew &ble energy sources (RES) &re
&v&1l&ble on +he RM m &rke+: b1om&ss, hydr &ul1c power, sol &r

22
UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA
FACULTATEA DE MECANICĂ
DEPARTAMENTUL ATII
MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED
22
&nd w 1nd power, low +herm &l po+en+1&l sources. +he process
of c&p1+&l1z1ng on renew &ble energy sources 1s &+ 1+s
1n1+1&l s+&ge.
+he reforms 1mplem en+ed so f &r 1n +he Republ 1c of
Moldov & &llowed +he form &+1on of +he follow 1ng m &rke+s:
– +he m &rke+ for l1gh+ pe+roleum produc +s for +r&nspor +,
– +he elec +r1c1+y m&rke+,
– +he n&+ur&l g&s &nd l1quef1ed n&+ur&l g&s m&rke+.
Regre +fully, +he sol 1d fue l m&rke+ 1s no + org&n1zed,
wh1ch m &1nly refers +o rur &l consumers, +he sh &re of +he
lowes + 1ncome popul &+1on 1n +he Republ 1c. Ch&rco&ls &re
sold &+ specul &+1ve pr 1ces, &nd l1gh+ers &nd pelle +s h&ve
begun +o en+er +he m &rke+.
More v 1s1ble resul +s 1n c&p1+&l1z1ng on RES h&ve been
&ch1eved 1n recen + ye&rs, w 1+h +he s1gn1f1c&n+ 1ncre&se 1n
n&+ur&l g&s +&r1ffs. &nd here 1s +he produc +1on of b 1ofuels:
b1oe+h&nol &nd r &peseed o 1l, wh 1ch 1s expor +ed +o be
processed 1n b 1od1esel. 1+ 1s obv 1ous +h&+ 1n +he
el&bor&+1on of coheren + energy pol 1c1es 1+ 1s necess &ry +o
+&ke 1n+o &ccoun + bo+h +he econom 1c f&c+ors of r &+1on&l
use of &ll energy resources, &s well &s +he env 1ronmen +&l
pollu +1on preven +1on f &c+ors, once +hey &re pu + 1n+o
oper&+1on.

1.3.3 Glob &l s+r&+eg1c relev &nce for b 1oref1ner1es
+he fund &men+&l +rends of +he 1ndus +r1es descr 1bed &bove
h&ve pu + b1oref1ner1es &nd b1oproduc +s on & h1gher pl &n of

23
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FACULTATEA DE MECANICĂ
DEPARTAMENTUL ATII
MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED
23
+he s +r&+eg1c &gend & of +he b 1g pl &yers 1n m &ny
1ndus +r1es. 1n &dd1+1on, +he b 1o+echnology 1nnov &+1on
po+en+1&l w1ll &llow +he produc +1on of new molecules +o &pply
+hem &s fuels, chem 1c&ls &nd bu 1ld1ng m &+er1&ls +h&+ &re
no+ curren +ly &v&1l&ble 1n foss 1l resources. +he follow 1ng
po1n+s descr 1be +he s +r&+eg1c consequences for f 1ve
1ndus +r1es.

&gr1cul+ure
Grow +h 1n dem &nd &nd regul &+1on of b 1om&ss leg 1sl&+1on
w1ll subs +&n+1&lly 1ncre&se +he +o+&l volume of &gr1cul+ur&l
&nd fores +ry produc +s &nd m &y ch &nge +he food &nd feed
economy for +he l1ves+ock sec +or rel &+1ve +o used l &nd such
&s cellulos 1c energy crops. Open 1ng up n ew econom 1c
oppor +un1+1es for f &rmers, espec 1&lly 1n develop 1ng
coun +r1es. &gr1cul+ur&l commod 1+y pr 1ces m &y &lso be
1nfluenced by 1ncre&sed b 1om&ss process 1ng w 1+h1n
b1oref1ner1es.
However, +he 1mp&c+ on food pr 1ces depends very much on
+he +ype of r &w m &+er1&ls used 1n +he produc +1on
process. Second gener &+1on (l 1gnocellulos 1c) r&w m &+er1&ls
+end +o h&ve & very low 1nfluence on food pr 1ces. 1n rel&+1on
+o f1rs+-gener &+1on r&w m&+er1&ls (corn, whe &+, p&lm o1l &nd
r&pe), wh 1ch could con +r1bu+e +o r1s1ng foo d pr1ces 1f used
excess 1vely, w 1+hou+ 1ncre&s1ng +he curren + produc +1on
c&p&c1+1es of b 1oref1ner1es.

24
UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA
FACULTATEA DE MECANICĂ
DEPARTAMENTUL ATII
MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED
24
Sm&r+ +echnolog 1es &nd 1ncre&s1ng glob &l b1om&ss dem &nd
pu+ & grow 1ng emph &s1s on &gr1cul+ur&l produc +1v1+y &cross
+he globe. New 1ns+&ll&+1ons &nd ch &nges w1ll m&ke 1+
poss 1ble +o use less fer +1le l&nd. +h1s c&n open new
oppor +un1+1es for develop 1ng coun +r1es, who w 1ll
p&r+1c1p&+e 1n & new &gr1cul+ur&l revolu +1on. +h1s even +
focuses more on &gr1cul+ur&l produc +1v1+y &nd w 1ll &lso le &d
+o & subs +&n+1&l 1ncre&se 1n +he use of fer +1l1zers,
espec 1&lly 1n pl&ces where bes + pr&c+1ces &re no + ye+
&ppl1ed 1n &gr1cul+ure. N 1+rogen fer +1l1zers c &n be e &s1ly
m&nuf&c+ured &nd found n &+ur&lly 1n +he l1ves+ock sec +or.
&s & resul +, & new d 1v1s1on of 1n+ern&+1on&l &gr1cul+ur&l
work 1s l1kely +o occur be +ween coun +r1es w 1+h l&rge &r&ble
l&nd &re&s +h&+ &re l1kely +o be &n expor +er of b 1om&ss or
1+s der 1v&+1ves. Coun +r1es w 1+h sm &ller &r&ble l &nd w 1ll
become 1mpor +ers of b 1om&ss, for ex &mple, +he
Ne+herl&nds. +he l&rges+ b1om&ss expor +ers &re expec +ed +o
be Br &z1l, &fr1c& &nd Nor +h &mer1c&.
&u+o 1ndus +ry
Repl&cemen + of conven +1on&l g&sol1ne &nd d 1esel fuel
1s +echnolog 1c&lly s1mple. So -c&lled 'flex -fuel' veh 1cles &re sold
1n Br&z1l &nd +he US, wh 1ch c&n cope w 1+h pure foss 1l fuel
&nd pure b 1ofuel &nd &ny blend of +he +wo. 1n &dd1+1on,
1n+ern&l combus +1on eng 1ne m &nuf&c+urers &n+1c1p&+e
+h&+ +he flee + c&n be renewed &+ & m1n1m&l cos +. Ren &ul+,
for ex &mple, cl &1ms +h&+ flex-fuel eng 1nes 1ncre&se +he +o+&l
cos+ of & c&r for jus + $ 300. 1n &dd1+1on, eng 1ne eng 1nes

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&lre&dy 1n use c &n be mod 1f1ed +o m&ke +hem 1n "flex -fuel"
eng1nes &+ & low cos +.
+he &u+omo+1ve 1ndus +ry f&ces s +r1ngen + regul &+1ons
for +he fu +ure 1n +he c &se of reduc 1ng em 1ss1ons +o +he
exh&us+ p1pe, espec 1&lly w 1+h1n +he p &ssenger veh 1cle
flee+. M&nuf&c+urers &re look 1ng &+ b1ofuels &s & po+en+1&l
me&ns +o mee + +hese cond 1+1ons.
1n Europe, regul &+1ons +o l1m1+ +&1lp1pe em 1ss1ons of
p&ssenger flee + en+ered 1n+o force no l &+er +h&n 2013. +he EU
propos &l requ 1re 65% o f +he Europe &n c&r p&rk +o 1ssue &
m&x1mum of 120 gr.CO 2 / km 1n 2012 &nd 100% of +he
Europe &n c&r flee + +o mee + +h1s s+&nd&rd 1n 2015. +he
curren + vers1on of +he leg 1sl&+1on 1mpl1es +h&+ e&ch gr &m of
CO2 / km em 1++ed &+ +he +op of +h1s v&lue w 1ll be pen &l1zed
up +o 95 euros. 1+ 1s curren +ly under d 1scuss 1on whe +her
renew &ble b 1ofuels c &n &ch1eve +h1s go&l. 1n Br&z1l, 'flex -fuel'
eng1nes &lre&dy h&ve & m&rke+ sh&re of 90%. 1n Fr&nce, +he
pene +r&+1on of 'flex -fuel' eng 1nes h &s r1sen +o ne&rly 60% from
10% o ver +he p&s+ +wo ye &rs. 1n Sweden, +he +&x exemp +1on
for d 1s+r1bu+ors for +he 1ns+&ll&+1on of b 1ofuel spr &ys h&s
1ncre&sed +he m &rke+ sh&re of 'flex -fuel' eng 1nes.
&ll &u+omo+1ve 1ndus +r1es &re curren +ly concerned w 1+h
non-fuel propuls 1on sys +ems. New pro puls1on sys +ems, energy
c&rr1ers (eg hydrogen or elec +r1c veh 1cles) – +he cho 1ce of
wh1ch m &y depend on +he leg 1sl&+1ve fr&mework of d 1fferen +
coun +r1es +h&+ could pu + +he m &x1mum &++en+1on +o +he
le&dersh 1p of +he +r&d1+1on&l &u+omo+1ve 1ndus +ry b&sed on

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+he eng 1nes powered by foss 1l fuels. +he &u+omo+1ve
1ndus +ry 1s curren +ly focus 1ng on +he developmen + of b1ofuel
+echnolog 1es +h&+ c&n &llow +hese +o con +1nue &nd
dom1n&+e +he &u+omo+1ve 1ndus +ry. +he &sp1r&+1on +o
p&r+1&lly repl &ce ex 1s+1ng pl &s+1cs used 1n m&k1ng c &rs
w1+h pl&s+1c b1om&+er1&ls should &lso be no +ed.
Chem 1c&l 1ndus +ry
+he curren + dom1n&n+ &ppro&ch of +he chem 1c&l
1ndus +ry +o b1o-ref1nery l 1m1+s +he use of +r&d1+1on&l,
chem 1c&l-b&sed or b 1ochem 1c&l subs +&nces b &sed on
pe+roleum -b&sed subs +1+u+1on of "green" subs +&nces,
&l+ern&+1ves of +he s &me func +1on&l1+y &nd perform &nce.
Chem 1c&l comp &n1es oper &+1ng 1n +h1s &re& h&ve mos +ly
chosen +o repl &ce selec +ed chem 1c&l 1n+ermed 1&+es 1n +he1r
curren + produc + r&nge r &+her +h&n bu 1ld1ng & whole
b1oref1ner. +h1s 1s m&1nly &ch1eved +hrough unregul &+ed
econom 1es &nd concerns &bou+ +he1r sus +&1n&b1l1+y. B&sed
on +h1s &ppro&ch, +he follow 1ng +ypes of pl &yers m &y &ppe&r
on +he m &rke+ 1n +he fu +ure:
• +r&d1+1on&l chem 1c&l comp &n1es +h&+ repl&ce foss 1l
chem 1c&ls w1+h ecolog 1c&l &l+ern&+1ves for +he en +1re r&nge
of chem 1c&ls, of +en 1n +he1r ex1s+1ng produc + l1nes.
• New comp &n1es +h&+ focus on +he produc +1on of comple +ely
new b 1om&ss produc +s; however, +he m &1n ch&llenges w 1ll be
+o 1n+egr&+e +hese new molecules 1n+o ex 1s+1ng v &lue
ch&1ns, &s well &s 1ssues rel &+ed +o +he m &rke+1ng
process.

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• +echnology m &kers +h&+ offer +echnolog 1es used 1n
me+&bol1c p&+hw&ys, w 1+h +he po +en+1&l +o produce bo +h
ex1s+1ng &nd new chem 1c&l compounds. For m &ny of +hese
comp &n1es, & copyr 1gh+-b&sed bus 1ness model would h &ve
preferred.
Pe+roleum dependence does no + only &ffec+ +he needs of
+r&nspor + 1ndus +r1es +h&+ use foss 1l sources &s r&w
m&+er1&l, espec 1&lly &+ +he b &se of pl &s+1cs. 1f polymers
developed 1n +he chem 1c&l 1ndus +ry &re effec +1vely
syn+hes1zed b 1ochem 1c&lly, +hen +he recen + glob&l
s+r&+eg1es for 1n+egr&+ed b1oref1nery, wh 1ch &re c&p&ble of
produc 1ng b 1om&ss &nd b 1om&ss m &+er1&ls &longs 1de
b1ofuels, w 1ll 1mprove.
Energy 1ndus+ry
Renew &ble energy produc +1on h&s been boom 1ng 1n +he
ye&rs 2000 … 2009, renew &ble energy gener &+1on c&p&c1+1es
(w1+h +he excep +1on of l &rge hydropower pl &n+s) h &ve
1ncre&sed by &lmos + 20% worldw 1de. Even 1f b1om&ss-b&sed
+echnolog 1es h &ve no + grown &s f&s+ &s w1nd, sol &r,
pho+ovol+&1c, sol &r power, +he1r con +r1bu+1on w 1ll be cruc 1&l
+o &ch1ev1ng pol 1+1c&l go&ls of sus +&1n&ble energ 1es. G 1ven
+he 1ncre&se 1n +he sh &re of m &rke+ sh&re of renew &ble
energy sources 1n +he energy 1ndus +ry, l&rge power pl &n+s
produc 1ng foss 1l energy h &ve begun +o lessen +he fu +ure. M &ny
Europe &n energy u +1l1+1es h &ve &lre&dy ex +ended +he1r
&sse+s +o gener &+1ng elec +r1c1+y from h 1gh-power renew &ble

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sources,on +he1r s+r&+eg1c &gend & &nd h &ve &lloc&+ed
cons 1der&ble sums 1n +he1r 1nves +men+ pl&ns.
+he fund &men+&ls of gener &+1ng elec +r1c1+y from b 1om&ss
from &n econom 1c po 1n+ of v1ew &re qu 1+e &++r&c+1ve
comp &red +o o+her renew &ble energy op +1ons &nd w 1ll requ 1re
lower subs 1d1es 1n con +r&s+ +o w1nd &nd sol &r energy.
Obs+&cles +o o vercome +he problem rel &+e +o +he
m&n&gemen + of b1om&ss supply, bu + +h1s compe +ence does
no+ belong +o +he energy sec +or &nd 1s & b&s1c compe +ence
of &gr1cul+ure.
+he 1ssue of secur 1+y of supply &lso m &kes 1+ r1sky +o
&lloc&+e l&rge-sc&le 1nves +men+s 1n +hese new +echnolog 1es.
&n &ppro&ch +o m1+1g&+1ng +h1s r1sk h&s been +&ken by
spec 1&l1zed &genc 1es, wh 1ch suppose +o h&ve 1nves +ed
&dd1+1on&l grow 1ng popl &r pl&n+&+1ons +h&+ & r&p1d grow +h
cycle +o serve &s reserve fuel &+ burn1ng 1n power pl &n+s +o
ensure p roduc +1on &nd supply ch &1n m&n&gemen +.

CH&P+ER 2. COCONU + B1OD1ESEL +ECHNOLOGY

+he s +udy of coco -b1od1esel fuel 1s very +1mely bec &use of
&r1s1ng problems such &s +he r1s1ng cos + of fuel 1n +he
m&rke+, glob &l w&rm1ng phenome non, &nd he &l+h problems
such &s resp 1r&+ory d 1se&ses c&used by +he h &rmful
byproduc +s of burn 1ng pe +roleum -b&sed fuels. +he Ph 1l1pp1nes
spends &bou+ 280 b 1ll1on pesos on o 1l 1mpor +&+1on. 1f &+
le&s+ one percen + (1%) blend of coco -b1od1esel w 1ll be &dded,

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d1esel consump +1on w 1ll be re duced by 540 m 1ll1on l1+ers per
ye&r. &no+her problem concern 1ng +he use of d 1esel 1s +he
de+er1or&+1ng effec +s of +he 1ncre&sed &moun + of
Greenhouse G &ses 1n +he &+mosphere. +h1s 1s due +o +he
h1gh em 1ss1on of c &rbon d 1ox1de com 1ng from 1ncomple +e
combus +1on of d 1esel fuel 1n veh1cles. L&s+ of &ll, +he
em1ss1on of pollu +&n+s such &s n1+rogen ox 1de c&used &lso
by 1ncomple +e combus +1on of d 1esel fuel 1s one of +he le &d1ng
con+r1bu+ors of smog &nd c &n +r1gger ser 1ous resp 1r&+ory
problems.

2.1. DEF1N1+1ON OF +ERMS

1. &lcohol 1s &ny org&n1c compound 1n wh 1ch & hydroxyl
group (-OH) 1s bound +o & c&rbon &+om of &n &lkyl or
subs +1+u+ed &lkyl group.
2. &rom&+1c1+y 1s & chem 1c&l proper +y 1n wh 1ch &
conjug&+ed r1ng of
uns&+ur&+ed bonds, lone p &1rs,
or emp +y orb 1+&ls exh 1b1+ &
s+&b1l1z&+1on s +ronger +h&n
would be expec +ed by +he s +&b1l1z&+1on of conjug &+1on
&lone. 1+ c&n &lso be cons 1dered & m&n1fes+&+1on of cycl 1c
deloc &l1z&+1on &nd of reson &nce
3. B1od1esel refers +o & d1esel-equ1v&len+, processed fuel
der1ved from b 1olog1c&l sources (such &s vege +&ble o 1ls),
wh1ch c&n be used 1n unmod 1f1ed d1esel-eng1ned veh1cles. 1+ Figure 3
Molecular Structure of Aromatics

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1s +hus d 1s+1ngu1shed from +he s+r&1gh+ vege +&ble o 1ls
(SVO) or w&s+e vege +&ble o 1ls (WVO) used &s fuels 1n some
mod1f1ed d1esel veh 1cles.
4. Ble&ch1ng 1s some +h1ng 1s +o remove or l 1gh+en 1+s
colour , some +1mes &s & prel1m1n&ry s+ep 1n +he process of
dye1ng; & ble&ch 1s & chem 1c&l +h&+ produces +hese effec +s,
of+en v1& ox1d&+1on.
5. C&+&lys1s 1s +he &cceler &+1on (1ncre&se 1n r&+e) of &
chem 1c&l re&c+1on by me &ns of & subs +&nce, c &lled &
c&+&lys+, +h&+ 1s 1+self no + consumed by +he over &ll
re&c+1on.
6. Ce+&ne number or CN 1s & me&sure of +he combus +1on
qu&l1+y of d1esel fuel v1& +he compress 1on 1gn1+1on process.
Ce+&ne number 1s & s1gn1f1c&n+ express 1on of d 1esel fuel
qu&l1+y &mong & number of o +her me &suremen +s +h&+
de+erm1ne over &ll d1esel fuel qu &l1+y. Ce +&ne number 1s
&c+u&lly & me&sure of & fuel's 1gn1+1on del &y; +he +1me
per1od be +ween +he s +&r+ of 1njec+1on &nd s +&r+ of
combus +1on (1gn1+1on) of +he fuel.
7. D1esel or d1esel fuel 1s & spec 1f1c fr&c+1on&l
d1s+1ll&+e of fuel o 1l (mos +ly pe+roleum ) +h&+ 1s used &s fuel
1n & d1esel eng 1ne 1nven +ed by Germ &n eng 1neer Rudolf
D1esel. +he +erm +yp1c&lly refers +o fuel +h&+ h&s been
processed from pe +roleum, bu + 1ncre&s1ngly, &l+ern&+1ves
such &s b1od1esel or b1om&ss +o l1qu1d (B+L) or g&s +o l1qu1d
(G+L) d1esel +h&+ &re no + der1ved from pe +roleum &re be 1ng
developed &nd &dop+ed.

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8. D1s+1ll&+1on 1s & me+hod of sep&r&+1ng chem 1c&l
subs +&nces b&sed on d 1fferences 1n +he1r vol&+1l1+1es.
D1s+1ll&+1on usu &lly forms p &r+ of & l&rger chem 1c&l process,
&nd 1s +hus referred +o &s & un1+
oper&+1on.
9. Es+ers &re org&n1c compounds 1n
wh1ch &n org&n1c group (symbol 1zed by R' 1n
+h1s &r+1cle) repl &ces & hydrogen &+om (or more +h&n one) 1n
& hydroxyl group . &n oxygen &c1d 1s &n &c1d whose molecule
h&s &n -OH group from wh 1ch +he hydrogen (H) c &n
d1ssoc1&+e &s &n H+ 1on.
10. Fl&sh po 1n+ of & fl&mm&ble l 1qu1d 1s +he lowes +
+emper &+ure &+ wh1ch 1+ c&n form &n 1gn1+&ble m 1x+ure 1n
&1r. &+ +h1s +emper &+ure +he v&por m &y ce&se +o burn when
+he source of 1gn1+1on 1s removed. & sl1gh+ly h 1gher
+emper &+ure, +he f1re po 1n+, 1s def 1ned &s +he +emper &+ure
&+ wh1ch +he v&por con +1nues +o burn &f+er be 1ng 1gn1+ed.
11. Glycerol , &lso well known &s glycer 1n &nd glycer 1ne,
&nd less commonly &s prop &ne-1,2,3 -+r1ol, 1,2,3 –
prop &ne+r1ol, 1,2,3 -+r1hydroxypro p&ne, glycer 1+ol, &nd
glycyl &lcohol 1s & colorless, odorless, hygroscop 1c, &nd
swee +-+&s+1ng v1scous l1qu1d. Glyc erol 1s & sug&r &lcohol
&nd h &s +hree hydroph 1l1c &lcohol 1c hydroxyl groups (OH-)
+h&+ &re respons 1ble for 1+s solub 1l1+y 1n w&+er. Glycerol h &s
& w1de r&nge of &ppl1c&+1ons. Glycerol h &s & proch 1r&l
sp&+1&l &rr&ngemen + of &+oms. Figure 4
Molecular Structure of Ester

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12. Me+h&nol, &lso known &s me+hyl &lcohol , c&rb1nol,
wood &lcohol or wood sp 1r1+s, 1s & chem 1c&l compound
w1+h chem 1c&l formul & CH3OH. 1+ 1s +he s 1mples + &lcohol ,
&nd 1s & l1gh+, vol&+1le, colourless , fl&mm&ble, po1sonous
l1qu1d w1+h & d1s+1nc+1ve odor +h&+ 1s somewh &+ m1lder
&nd swee +er +h&n e+h&nol (e+hyl &lcohol ). 1+ 1s used &s &n
&n+1freeze , solven +, fuel, &nd &s & den&+ur&n+ for e+hyl
&lcohol .
13. P&r+1cul&+e m&++er (PM), &erosols or f1ne p &r+1cles,
&re +1ny p&r+1cles of sol 1d or l 1qu1d suspended 1n & g&s. +hey
r&nge 1n s1ze from less +h&n 10 n&nome +res +o more +h&n 100
m1crome +res 1n d1&me+er. +he no +&+1on PM10 1s used +o
descr 1be p&r+1cles of 10 m 1crome +res or less; o +her numer 1c
v&lues m &y &lso be used. +h1s r&nge of s 1zes represen + sc&les
from & g&+her1ng of & few molecules +o +he s1ze where +he
p&r+1cles no longer c &n be c &rr1ed by +he g &s. Sources of
p&r+1cul&+e m&++er c&n be &n+hropog en1c or n &+ur&l.
14. +1+r&+1on 1s & common l &bor&+ory me +hod of
qu&n+1+&+1ve/chem 1c&l &n&lys1s wh1ch c &n be used +o
de+erm1ne +he concen +r&+1on of & known re&c+&n+. Bec &use
volume me &suremen +s pl&y & key role 1n +1+r&+1on, 1+ 1s &lso
known &s volume +r1c &n&lys1s. & re&gen+, c&lled +he +1+r&n+,
of known concen +r&+1on (& s+&nd&rd solu +1on) &nd volume 1s
used +o re &c+ w1+h & me&sured qu &n+1+y of re &c+&n+
(&n&ly+e). Us 1ng & c&l1br&+ed bure++e +o &dd +he +1+r&n+,
1+ 1s poss 1ble +o de +erm1ne +he ex &c+ &moun + +h&+ h&s

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been consumed when +he endpo 1n+ 1s re&ched. +he endpo 1n+
1s +he po 1n+ &+ wh1ch +he +1+r&+1on 1s s+opped.
15. +r&nses +er1f1c&+1on 1s +he process of exch &ng1ng +he
&lkoxy group of &n es+er compound by &no+her &lcohol . +hese
re&c+1ons &re of+en c&+&lyzed by +he &dd1+1on of &n &c1d or
b&se.

16. Vege +&ble f &+s &nd o 1ls &re subs +&nces der 1ved fro m
pl&n+s +h&+ &re composed of +r1glycer 1des. Nom 1n&lly, o 1ls
&re l1qu1d &+ room +emper &+ure, &nd f&+s &re sol 1d; & dense
br1++le f&+ 1s c&lled & w&x. &l+hough m &ny d1fferen + p&r+s of
pl&n+s m&y y1eld o 1l, 1n &c+u&l commerc 1&l pr&c+1ce o1l 1s
ex+r&c+ed pr 1m&r1ly from +he seeds of o1lseed pl &n+s.
17. V1scos 1+y 1s & me&sure of +he res 1s+&nce of & flu1d +o
deform under she&r s+ress. 1+ 1s commonly perce 1ved &s
"+h1ckness", or res 1s+&nce +o flow. V 1scos1+y descr 1bes &
flu1d's 1n+ern&l res1s+&nce +o flow &nd m &y be +hough + of &s
& me&sure of flu 1d fr1c+1on. Figure 4
Molecular Formula Showing the Chemical Reaction of Transesterification

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2.2. Rev1ew of L 1+er&+ure

1n rel&+1on +o +he problem s +&+emen + where &s, +he
r1s1ng cos + of d1esel fuels 1n +he world m &rke+, +he neg &+1ve
resul + of greenhouse g &sses em 1ss1ons 1n +he env 1ronmen +
&nd +he b &d effec +s +o our he &l+h – +h1s p&per prov 1de
1nform &+1on w 1+h be ++er unders +&nd1ng of wh &+ b1od1esel
1s, +he process of how 1+ 1s produces &s well &s +he
equ1pmen +s used; +he publ 1c pol 1cy curren +ly &pproved; +he
1mpor +&nce of us 1ng b 1od1esel &s &n &l+ern&+1ve; +he
&dv&n+&ge &nd d 1s&dv&n+&ges of us 1ng b 1od1esel, +he
econom 1c benef 1+s &nd +he up -+o-d&+e 1nform &+1on &bou+
coco -me+hyl-es+ers (CME) &s & pr1m&ry source of b 1od1esel.

2.3. 1N+RODUC +1ON

By 2030, +he world’s popul &+1on 1s expec +ed +o re&ch 8
b1ll1on (Newsweek, dec. 06 -07) &nd &s +he popul &+1on grows,
more e nergy 1s requ 1red +o produce +he b&s1c need s of
people . &n energy +h&+ 1s more pr &c+1c&l +o use 1n +he s&me
w&y +h&+ 1+ 1s s&fer, renew &ble, &v&1l&ble &nd of co urse –
&fford&ble. B 1od1esel 1s one of +he c &nd1d&+es of +h1s
needed energy bec &use of 1+s &bund &nce &nd po +en+1&l
source 1n +he coun +ry. B 1od1esel 1s & cle&n-burn1ng d 1esel
repl&cemen + fuel +h&+ c&n be used 1n compress 1on-1gn1+1on
(C1) eng 1nes, &nd wh 1ch 1s m&nuf&c+ured from +he follow 1ng
renew &ble, non -pe+roleum -b&sed sources:

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• V1rg1n vege +&ble o 1ls such &s soy, mus +&rd, c &nol&,
r&peseed &nd p&lm o1ls;
• &n1m&l f&+s such &s poul +ry off &l, +&llow, &nd f1sh o1ls; &nd
• Used cook 1ng o1ls &nd +r&p gre &se from res +&ur&n+s.

B1od1esel 1s produced 1n pure form (100% b 1od1esel or B100),
bu+ 1s usu &lly blended w 1+h pe +rod1esel &+ low levels,
be+ween 2% (B2) +o 20% (B20) 1n +he U.S., bu + &+ h1gher
levels 1n o+her p &r+s of +he world, p &r+1cul&rly 1n Europe,
where h1gher-level blends up +o B100 &re used. Blends of
b1od1esel h 1gher +h&n B5 requ 1re spec 1&l h&ndl1ng &nd fuel
m&n&gemen + &s well &s veh 1cle equ 1pmen + mod1f1c&+1ons
such &s +he use of he &+ers &nd ch &ng1ng se &ls/g&ske+s +h&+
come 1n con +&c+ w1+h fuel, &ccord1ng +o +he N &+1on&l
Renew &ble Energy L &bor&+ory (NREL). +he level of c &re needed
depends on +he eng 1ne &nd veh 1cle m &nuf&c+urer.

B1od1esel 1s gener &lly m &de when f &+s &nd o 1ls &re
chem 1c&lly re &c+ed w 1+h &n &lcohol, +yp1c&lly me +h&nol, &nd
& c&+&lys+, +yp1c&lly sod 1um or po +&ss1um hydrox 1de (1.e.,
lye), +o produce &n es+er, or b 1od1esel.

2.4. H1S+OR1C&L B&CKGROUND
Rudolf D 1esel, +he 1nven +or of +he f1rs+ compress 1on-
1gn1+1on (C 1) eng 1ne, once s &1d +h&+ "+he use of vege +&ble
o1ls for eng 1ne fuels m &y see m 1ns1gn1f1c&n+ +od&y bu+ such

36
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o1ls m&y become, 1n +he course of +1me, &s 1mpor +&n+ &s
pe+roleum &nd +he co&l-+&r produc +s of +he presen + +1me." He
w&s 1ndeed r 1gh+ bec&use now &d&ys b1od1esel 1s one of +he
gre&+es+ &l+ern&+1ve sources of renew &ble fuel. +he d1scovery
of +r&nses +er1f1c&+1on of vege +&ble o 1l 1n 1853 by
sc1en+1s+s E. Duffy &nd J. P &+r1ck g &ve w &y +o +he
1nven +1on of b 1od1esel fuel.
Rudolf D 1esel's pr1me model, & s1ngle 10 f + (3 m) 1ron
cyl1nder w 1+h & flywheel &+ 1+s b&se, r&n on 1+s own power for
+he f1rs+ +1me 1n &ugsburg , Germ &ny on &ugus + 10, 1893 . 1n
remembr &nce of +h1s even +, &ugus + 10 h&s been decl &red
"1n+ern&+1on&l B1od1esel D &y". +h1s eng 1ne s +ood &s &n
ex&mple of D 1esel's v 1s1on bec &use 1+ w&s powered by
pe&nu+ o1l — & b1ofuel , +hough no + b1od1esel, s1nce 1+ w&s
no+ +r&nses +er1f1ed. He bel 1eved +h&+ +he u +1l1z&+1on of
b1om&ss fuel w &s +he re &l fu+ure of h 1s eng 1ne.
1n 1979, more +h&n & cen+ury l&+er &f+er +he d1scovery of +he
f1rs+ +r&nses +er1f1c&+1on of vege +&ble o 1l, Sou +h &fr1c&
1n1+1&+ed +he use of +r&ns-es+er1f1ed sunflower o 1l, &nd
ref1ned 1+ +o d1esel fuel s+&nd&rds, By 1983 +he process for
produc 1ng fuel -qu&l1+y, eng 1ne-+es+ed b 1od1esel w &s
comple +ed &nd publ 1shed 1n+ern&+1on&lly. &n &us+r1&n
comp &ny, G &skoks, ob +&1ned +he +echnology from +he Sou +h
&fr1c&n &gr1cul+ur&l Eng 1neers; +he comp &ny erec +ed +he
f1rs+ b1od1esel p1lo+ pl&n+ 1n November 1987, &nd +he f1rs+
1ndus +r1&l-sc&le pl &n+ 1n &pr1l 1989 (w 1+h & c&p&c1+y of
30,000 +ons of r&peseed per &nnum).

37
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+hroughou + +he 1990s, pl &n+s were o pened 1n m&ny Europe &n
coun +r1es, 1nclud 1ng +he Czech Republ 1c, Germ &ny &nd
Sweden . Fr&nce l&unched loc &l produc +1on of b 1od1esel fuel
(referred +o &s d1es+er) from r &peseed o 1l, wh 1ch 1s m1xed
1n+o regul &r d1esel fuel &+ & level of 5%, &nd 1n+o +he d1esel
fuel used by some c &p+1ve flee +s (e.g. publ1c +r&nspor +&+1on)
&+ & level of 30%. Dur 1ng +he s&me per 1od, n &+1ons 1n o+her
p&r+s of world &lso s &w loc &l produc +1on of b 1od1esel
s+&r+1ng up: by 1998 +he &us+r1&n B1ofuels 1ns+1+u+e h&d
1den+1f1ed 21 coun +r1es w 1+h commerc 1&l b1od1esel
projec +s.
1n Sep +ember of 2005 M1nneso +& bec&me +he f1rs+ U.S.
s+&+e +o m&nd&+e +h&+ &ll d1esel fuel sold 1n +he s +&+e
con+&1n p&r+ b1od1esel, requ 1r1ng & con+en+ of &+ le&s+ 2%
b1od1esel. 1n &s1&, Chemrez +echnolog 1es 1nc. 1s +he +he
b1gges + &nd mos + modern b 1od1esel f &c1l1+y, wh 1ch s+&r+ed
1+s ope r&+1on on M &y 2006. +h1s b1od1esel pl &n+ 1s &c+u&lly
loc&+ed here 1n +he Ph 1l1pp1nes, wh 1ch 1n f&c+ m&nuf&c+ures
coco -b1od1esel 1n p&r+1cul&r. Chemrez +echnololog 1es 1nc.
produces 60, 000 me +r1c +ons of B 1o-&c+1ve (+he br &nd n&me
of +he1r coco -b1od1esel) p rem1um b 1od1esel per &nnum.

2.5. B&S1C PRODUC +1ON PROCESS
B1od1esel 1s gener &lly m &de when f &+s &nd o 1ls &re
chem 1c&lly re &c+ed w 1+h &n &lcohol, +yp1c&lly me +h&nol, &nd
& c&+&lys+, +yp1c&lly sod 1um or po +&ss1um hydrox 1de (1.e.,
lye), +o produce &n es +er, or b1od1esel. +he &pprox 1m&+e

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percen +&ge propor +1ons of +he re &c+1on &re &s follows 1n +he
+&ble below:

+h1s process 1s gener &lly known &s +r&nses +er1f1c&+1on,
wh1ch 1s +he re &c+1on of & l1p1d w1+h &n &lcohol +o form
es+ers &nd byproduc +, glycerol. +h1s 1ncludes +he follow 1ng
processes:
 B&se-c&+&lyzed +r&nses +er1f1c&+1on of +he o 1l w1+h
me+h&nol.
 D1rec+ &c1d-c&+&lyzed es +er1f1c&+1on of +he o 1l w1+h
me+h&nol.
 Convers 1on of +he o1l +o f&++y &c1ds, &nd +hen +o &lkyl
es+ers w 1+h &c1d c&+&lys1s.
Mos+ of +he b1od1esel produced +od&y 1s done w 1+h +he b&se
c&+&lyzed re &c+1on for sever &l re&sons:
 1+ 1s low +emper &+ure &nd pressure
 1+ y1elds h 1gh convers 1on (98%) w 1+h m1n1m&l s1de
re&c+1ons &nd re &c+1on +1me Process 1npu+ Levels Process Ou +pu+ Levels
1npu+ Volume
Percen +&ge Ou+pu+ Volume
Percen +&ge
O1l of F &+ 87% Es+er 86%
&lcohol 12% &lcohol 4%
C&+&lys+ 1% Fer+1l1zer 1%
Glycer 1n 9% Table 2
Biodiesel Production Input and Output Levels

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 1+ 1s & d1rec+ convers 1on +o b1od1esel w 1+h no
1n+ermed 1&+e compounds.
 No exo +1c m&+er1&ls of cons +ruc+1on &re needed.

+he c hem1c&l re &c+1on for b &se c &+&lyzed b 1od1esel
produc +1on 1s dep 1c+ed below. One hundred pounds of f &+ or
o1l (such &s soybe &n o1l) &re re &c+ed w 1+h 10 pounds of &
shor+ ch&1n &lcohol 1n +he presence of & c&+&lys+ +o produce
10 pounds of glycer 1n &nd 100 po unds of b 1od1esel. +he shor +
ch&1n &lcohol, s 1gn1f1ed by ROH (usu&lly me +h&nol, bu +
some +1mes e +h&nol) 1s ch&rged 1n excess +o &ss1s+ 1n qu1ck
convers 1on. +he c &+&lys+ 1s usu &lly sod 1um or po +&ss1um
hydrox 1de +h&+ h&s &lre&dy been m 1xed w 1+h +he me +h&nol.
R', R'', &nd R''' 1nd1c&+e +he f&++y &c1d ch&1ns &ssoc1&+ed
w1+h +he o 1l or f &+ wh1ch &re l&rgely p &lm1+1c, s+e&r1c,
ole1c, &nd l1nole1c &c1ds for n &+ur&lly occurr 1ng o1ls &nd f&+s.

+he B1od1esel Re &c+1on:

+he N &+1on&l B1od1esel Bo &rd does no + ge+ 1nvolved w 1+h
commerc 1&l b1od1esel produc +1on or +he des 1gn &nd Figure 5
The Biodiesel Reaction

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cons +ruc+1on of b 1od1esel f &c1l1+1es, bu + we h &ve prov 1ded
&n ex&mple of & s1mple produc +1on flow ch &r+ &long w 1+h &
shor+ expl&n&+1on of +he s +eps 1nvolved +o &cqu&1n+ +he
re&der w 1+h +he gener &l produc +1on process.

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+he B1od1esel Produc +1on Process :

+he b&se c&+&lyzed produc +1on of b 1od1esel gener &lly occurs
us1ng +he follow 1ng s+eps:

2.5.1 M1x1ng of &lcohol &nd c &+&lys+. +he c &+&lys+ 1s
+yp1c&lly sod 1um hydrox 1de (c &us+1c sod &) or po +&ss1um
hydrox 1de (po +&sh). 1+ 1s d1ssolved 1n +he &lcohol us 1ng &
s+&nd&rd &g1+&+or or m 1xer.

2.5.2 Re&c+1on. +he &lcohol/c &+&lys+ m1x 1s +hen ch &rged
1n+o & closed re &c+1on vessel &nd +he o 1l or f &+ 1s &dded.
+he sys +em from here on 1s +o+&lly closed +o +he &+mosphere
+o preven + +he loss of &lcohol. +he re &c+1on m 1x 1s kep + jus+
&bove +he bo 1l1ng po 1n+ of +he &lcohol ( &round 160 °F) +o
speed up +he re &c+1on &nd +he re &c+1on +&kes pl &ce. Figure 6
Schematic Diagram of Biodiesel Production
Process

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Recommended re &c+1on +1me v &r1es from 1 +o 8 hours, &nd
some sys +ems rec ommend +he re &c+1on +&ke pl &ce &+ room
+emper &+ure. Excess &lcohol 1s norm &lly used +o ensure +o+&l
convers 1on of +he f&+ or o1l +o 1+s es +ers. C &re mus + be
+&ken +o mon 1+or +he &moun + of w&+er &nd free f &++y &c1ds
1n +he 1ncom 1ng o1l or f&+. 1f +he free
f&++y &c1d level or w &+er level 1s +oo h 1gh 1+ m&y c&use
problems w 1+h so &p form &+1on &nd +he sep &r&+1on of +he
glycer 1n by-produc + downs +re&m.

2.5.3 Sep&r&+1on. Once +he re &c+1on 1s comple +e, +wo m &jor
produc +s ex 1s+: glycer 1n &nd b 1od1esel. E &ch h &s &
subs+&n+1&l &moun + of +he excess me +h&nol +h&+ w&s used
1n +he re &c+1on. +he re &c+ed m 1x+ure 1s some +1mes
neu+r&l1zed &+ +h1s s+ep 1f needed. +he glycer 1n ph &se 1s
much more dense +h&n b1od1esel ph &se &nd +he +wo c &n be
gr&v1+y sep &r&+ed w 1+h glycer 1n s1mply dr&wn off +he
bo++om of +he se ++l1ng vessel. 1n some c &ses, & cen+r1fuge
1s used +o sep &r&+e +he +wo m &+er1&ls f&s+er.

2.5.4 &lcohol Remov &l. Once +he glycer 1n &nd b 1od1esel
ph&ses h &ve been sep &r&+ed, +he excess &lcohol 1n e&ch
ph&se 1s removed w 1+h & fl&sh ev &por&+1on process or by
d1s+1ll&+1on. 1n o+hers sys +ems, +he &lcohol 1s
removed &nd +he m 1x+ure neu +r&l1zed before +he glycer 1n &nd
es+ers h &ve been sep &r&+ed. 1n e1+her c &se, +he &lcohol 1s
recovered us 1ng d1s+1ll&+1on equ 1pmen + &nd 1s re-used. C &re

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mus+ be +&ken +o ensure no w &+er &ccumul &+es 1n +he
recovered &lcohol s +re&m.

2.5.5 Glycer 1n Neu +r&l1z&+1on. +he glycer 1n by -produc +
con+&1ns unused c &+&lys+ &nd so &ps +h&+ &re neu +r&l1zed
w1+h &n &c1d &nd sen + +o s+or&ge &s crude glycer 1n. 1n some
c&ses +he s&l+ formed dur 1ng +h1s ph&se 1s recovered for use
&s fer+1l1zer. 1n mos + c&ses +he s&l+ 1s lef+ 1n +he glycer 1n.
W&+er &nd &lcohol &re removed +o produce 80 -88% pure
glycer 1n +h&+ 1s re&dy +o be sold &s crude glycer 1n. 1n more
soph 1s+1c&+ed oper &+1ons, +he glycer 1n 1s d1s+1lled +o 99%
or h 1gher pur 1+y &nd sold 1n+o +he cosme +1c &nd
ph&rm&ceu+1c&l m&rke+s.

2.5.6 Me+hyl Es +er W &sh. Once sep &r&+ed from +he glycer 1n,
+he b 1od1esel 1s some +1mes pur 1f1ed by w &sh1ng gen +ly
w1+h w&rm w &+er +o remove res 1du&l c&+&lys+ or so &ps,
dr1ed, &nd sen + +o s+or&ge. 1n some processes +h1s s+ep 1s
unnecess &ry. +h1s 1s norm &lly +he end of +he produc +1on
process resul +1ng 1n & cle&r &mber -yellow l 1qu1d w1+h &
v1scos1+y s1m1l&r +o pe +rod1esel. 1n some sys +ems +he
b1od1esel 1s d1s+1lled 1n &n &dd1+1on&l s+ep +o remove sm &ll
&moun +s of color bod 1es +o produce & colorless b 1od1esel.

2.5.7 Produc + Qu&l1+y &nd Reg 1s+r&+1on. Pr1or +o use &s &
commerc 1&l fuel, +he f1n1shed b 1od1esel mus + be &n&lyzed
us1ng soph 1s+1c&+ed &n&ly+1c&l equ1pmen + +o ensure 1+

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mee+s &S+M spec 1f1c&+1ons. &dd1+1on&lly, &ll b1od1esel
produced mus + be reg 1s+ered w 1+h +he Un 1+es S +&+es
Env1ronmen +&l Pro+ec+1on &gency
under 40 CFR P &r+ 79. +he mos + 1mpor +&n+ &spec +s of
b1od1esel produc +1on +o ensure +rouble free oper&+1on 1n
d1esel eng 1nes &re:
 Comple +e Re &c+1on
 Remov &l of Glycer 1n
 Remov &l of C &+&lys+
 Remov &l of &lcohol
 &bsence of Free F &++y &c1ds
+hese p &r&me+ers &re &ll spec 1f1ed +hrough +he b 1od1esel
s+&nd&rd, &S+M D 6751.
However, B 1od1esel c &nno+ be used &s r&w or ref 1ned
vege +&ble o 1ls +h&+ &re unprocessed &nd should no + be used
&s b1od1esel fuel. R&w or unref 1ned vege +&ble o 1ls &nd
gre&ses used 1n C1 eng1nes &+ levels &s low &s 10% c &n
c&use problems 1nclud 1ng long -+erm eng 1ne depos 1+s, r1ng
s+1ck1ng, lube o1l gell 1ng, wh 1ch c &n reduce +he eng 1ne’s
useful l 1fe. +hese problems gener &lly s+em from +hese o 1ls’
gre&+er +h1ckness, or v 1scos1+y, comp &red +o +h&+ of +yp1c&l
d1esel fuels for wh 1ch +he eng 1nes were des 1gned. +hese
problems &re &vo1ded +hrough +he ref1nemen + of +hese o 1ls 1n
+he b1od1esel produc +1on process.

2.6. QU&L1+Y SPEC 1F1C&+1ON FOR B 1OD1ESEL

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Fur+her spec 1f1c&+1ons for b 1od1esel &re 1mplemen +ed
+hroughou + U.S by +he &mer1c&n Soc 1e+y of +es+1ng &nd
M&+er1&ls (&S+M). &S+M D6751 1s +he g1ven spec1f1c&+1on
n&me for B 1od1esel 1n U.S. +h1s compr 1sed of f &++y &c1ds
der1ved from vege +&ble o 1ls &nd &n1m&l f&+s. +hus, 1f +hese
componen +s 1s r&w &nd h&s no+ been processed, 1+ w1ll no+
mee+ +he spec 1f1c&+1on for b 1od1esel. 1+ 1s 1mpor +&n+ +o
remember +h&+ +he &S+M Spec 1f1c&+1on for B 1od1esel 1s
blended 1n+o pe+rod1esel &nd 1s no+ me&n+ +o be &s B100 &s
s+&nd &lone fuel.
Me&nwh1le 1n Europe &n coun +r1es, EN 14214 1s +he
g1ven spec 1f1c&+1on for b 1od1esel. 1n con +r&s+ +o +he &S+M
D 6751, B100 could be used u nblended 1n & d1esel eng 1ne or
blended w 1+h d1esel fuel +o produce & blend 1n &ccord &nce +o
+he EN 590 (Europe &n d1esel fuel spec 1f1c&+1on). +h1s
cons 1der up +o only 5% blend 1ng of b 1od1esel fuel +o d1esel
fuel &s s+&nd&rd d1esel fuel spec 1f1c&+1on.
&PPL1C&+1ONS
B1od1esel c &n be used 1n pure form (B100) or m &y be blended
w1+h pe+roleum d 1esel &+ &ny concen +r&+1on 1n mos + modern
d1esel eng 1nes. 1+ h&s h1gher lubr1c1+y 1ndex comp &red +o
pe+rod1esel 1s &n &dv&n+&ge &nd c&n con +r1bu+e +o longer
fuel 1njec+or l1fe. However, b 1od1esel 1s & be++er solven +
+h&n pe +rod1esel, &nd h &s been known +o bre &k down
depos 1+s of res 1due 1n +he fuel l 1nes of veh 1cles +h&+ h&ve
prev1ously been run on pe +rod1esel. &s & resul +, fuel f 1l+ers
&nd 1njec+ors m &y become clogged w 1+h p&r+1cul&+es 1f &

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qu1ck +r&ns1+1on +o pure b 1od1esel 1s m&de, &s b1od1esel
“cle&ns” +he eng 1ne 1n +he process. 1+ 1s, +herefore,
recommended +o ch&nge +he fuel f 1l+er w1+h1n 600 -800 m 1les
&f+er f1rs+ sw1+ch1ng +o & b1od1esel b lend.
Pure unblended b 1od1esel c &n be poured s +r&1gh+ 1n+o +he
+&nk of &ny d 1esel veh 1cle. &s w1+h norm &l d1esel, low –
+emper &+ure b 1od1esel 1s sold dur 1ng w 1n+er mon +hs +o
preven + v1scos1+y problems. Some older d 1esel eng 1nes s +1ll
h&ve n &+ur&l rubber p &r+s wh 1ch w 1ll be &ffec+ed by
b1od1esel, bu + 1n pr&c+1ce +hese rubber p &r+s should h &ve
been repl &ced long &go. B 1od1esel 1s used by m 1ll1ons of c &r
owners 1n Europe (p &r+1cul&rly Germ &ny).
Rese &rch sponsored by pe +roleum producers h &s found
pe+roleum d 1esel +o be be ++er for c &r eng 1nes +h&n b1od1esel.
+h1s h&s been d 1spu+ed by 1ndependen + bod1es, 1nclud 1ng for
ex&mple +he Volksw &gen env 1ronmen +&l &w&reness d 1v1s1on,
who no +e +h&+ b1od1esel reduces eng 1ne we &r. B1od1esel h &s
&lso been no +ed +o be l 1nked +o prem&+ure 1njec+1on pump
f&1lures. Wh 1le m&ny veh 1cles h &ve been us 1ng b1od1esel for
m&ny ye &rs w 1+hou+ 1ll effec +, +he correl &+1on be +ween
sever &l c&ses of pump f &1lure &nd b 1od1esel c &nno+ be
d1sm1ssed. Pure b 1od1esel produced ' &+ home' 1s 1n use by
+hous &nds of dr 1vers who h &ve no + exper 1enced f &1lure,
however. +he f&c+ rem&1ns +h&+ b1od1esel h &s been w 1dely
&v&1l&ble &+ g&s s+&+1ons for less +h&n & dec&de, &nd w 1ll
hence c &rry more r 1sk +h&n older fuels. B 1od1esel sold publ 1cly

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1s held +o h1gh s +&nd&rds s e+ by n &+1on&l s+&nd&rds
bod1es.).

HE&L+H EFFEC +S

Resul +s of +he he &l+h effec +s +es+1ng concluded +h&+
b1od1esel 1s non -+ox1c &nd b1odegr &d&ble, pos 1ng no +hre&+
+o hum &n he &l+h. &lso &mong +he f1nd1ngs of b 1od1esel
em1ss1ons comp &red +o pe+roleum d 1esel em1ss1ons 1n +h1s
+es+1ng:
 +he ozone (smog) form 1ng po +en+1&l of hydroc &rbon
exh&us+ em1ss1ons from b 1od1esel 1s 50% less.
 +he exh &us+ em1ss1ons of c&rbon monox 1de ( &
po1sonous g &s &nd & con+r1bu+1ng f&c+or 1n +he loc &l1zed
form&+1on of smog &nd ozone) from b 1od1esel &re 50% lower.
 +he exh &us+ em1ss1ons of p&r+1cul&+e m &++er
(recogn 1zed &s & con+r1bu+1ng f &c+or 1n resp 1r&+ory
d1se&se) from b 1od1esel &re 30% lower.
 +he exh &us+ em1ss1ons of sulfur ox 1des &nd sulf &+es
(m&jor componen +s of &c1d r&1n) from b1od1esel &re
comple +ely el 1m1n&+ed.
 +he exh &us+ em1ss1ons of hydroc &rbons (&
con+r1bu+1ng f&c+or 1n +he loc &l1zed form &+1on of smog &nd
ozone) &re 95% lower.
 +he exh &us+ em1ss1ons of &rom&+1c compounds known
&s P&H &nd NP &H compounds (suspec +ed of c &us1ng c&ncer)
&re subs +&n+1&lly reduced for b 1od1esel comp &red +o d1esel.

48
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MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED
48
Mos+ P&H compounds were reduced by 75% +o 85%. &ll NP &H
compounds were reduced by &+ le&s+ 90%.

L1FE CYCLE SUMM &RY
+he m &jor f1nd1ngs of +he s+udy &re:
 +he +o+&l energy eff 1c1ency r &+1o (1e. +o+&l fuel
energy/ +o+&l energy used 1n produc +1on, m &nuf&c+ure,
+r&nspor +&+1on, &nd d 1s+r1bu+1on) for d 1esel fuel &nd
b1od1esel &re 83.28% for d 1esel vs 80.55% for b 1od1esel. +he
repor + no+es: "B 1od1esel &nd pe +roleum d 1esel h &ve very
s1m1l&r energ y eff1c1enc1es."
 +he +o+&l foss1l energy eff 1c1ency r &+1o (1e. +o+&l fuel
energy/ +o+&l foss 1l energy used 1n produc +1on, m &nuf&c+ure,
+r&nspor +&+1on, &nd d 1s+r1bu+1on) for d 1esel fuel &nd
b1od1esel shows +h&+ b1od1esel 1s four +1mes &s eff1c1en+
&s d1esel fuel 1n u+1l1z1ng foss 1l energy – 3.215 for b 1od1esel
vs 0.8337% for d 1esel. +he s+udy no +es: "1n +erms of effec +1ve
use of foss 1l energy resources, b 1od1esel y 1elds &round 3.2
un1+s of fuel produc + for every un 1+ of foss 1l energy consumed
1n +he l1fecycle . By con +r&s+, pe+roleum d 1esel's l 1fe cycle
y1elds only 0.83 un 1+s of fuel produc + per un 1+ of foss 1l energy
consumed. Such me &sures conf 1rm +he 'renew &ble' n &+ure of
b1od1esel.
 1n urb &n bus eng 1nes, b1od1esel &nd B20 exh 1b1+
s1m1l&r fuel economy +o d1esel fuel, b&sed on & comp &r1son of
+he volume +r1c energy dens 1+y of +he +wo fuels. +he s +udy
expl&1ns, "Gener &lly fuel consump +1on 1s propor +1on&l +o +he

49
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DEPARTAMENTUL ATII
MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED
49
volume +r1c energy dens 1+y of +he fuel b &sed on lower or ne +
he&+1ng v&lue. D1esel con+&1ns &bou+ 131,29 5 B+u/g&l wh1le
b1od1esel con +&1ns &pprox 1m&+ely 117,093 B+u/g&l. +he
r&+1o 1s 0.892. 1f b1od1esel h &s no 1mp&c+ on eng 1ne
eff1c1ency, volume +r1c fuel economy would be &pprox 1m&+ely 1
0% lower for b 1od1esel comp &red +o pe+roleum d 1esel.
 +he over &ll l1fecycle em 1ss1ons of c&rbon d 1ox1de (&
m&jor greenhouse g &s) from b 1od1esel &re 78% lower +h&n +he
over&ll c&rbon d 1ox1de em 1ss1ons from pe +roleum d 1esel. " +he
reduc +1on 1s & d1rec+ resul + of c&rbon recycl 1ng 1n soybe &n
pl&n+s," no +es +he s+udy.
 +he over &ll l1fecycle em 1ss1ons of c&rbon monox 1de ( &
po1sonous g &s &nd & con+r1bu+1ng f&c+or 1n +he loc &l1zed
form&+1on of smog &nd ozone) from b 1od1esel &re 35% lower
+h&n over &ll c&rbon monox 1de em 1ss1ons from d 1esel.
B1od1esel &lso reduces bus +&1lp1pe em 1ss1ons of c&rbon
monox 1de by 46%.
 +he over &ll l1fecycle em 1ss1ons of p&r+1cul&+e m&++er
(recogn 1zed &s & con+r1bu+1ng f &c+or 1n resp 1r&+ory
d1se&se) from b 1od1esel &re 32% lower +h&n over &ll
p&r+1cul&+e m&++er em 1ss1ons from d 1esel. Bus +&1lp1pe
em1ss1ons of PM 10 &re 68% lower for b 1od1esel comp &red +o
pe+roleum d 1esel. +he s +udy no +es, 'PM10 em 1++ed from
mob1le sources 1s & m&jor EP & +&rge+ bec&use of 1+s role 1n
resp1r&+ory d 1se&se. Urb &n &re&s represen + +he gre &+es+
r1sk 1n +erms of numbers of people exposed &nd level of PM 1 0
presen +. Use of b 1od1esel 1n urb &n buses 1s po +en+1&lly &

50
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MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED
50
v1&ble op +1on for con +roll1ng bo +h l1fe cycle em 1ss1ons of
+o+&l p&r+1cul&+e m&++er &nd +&1lp1pe em 1ss1on of PM1 O."
+he s +udy &lso f 1nds +h&+ b1od1esel reduces +he +o+&l
&moun + of p&r+1cul&+e m&++er soo + 1n bus +&1lp1pe exh &us+
by 83.6%. Soo + 1s +he he &vy bl &ck smoke por +1on of +he
exh&us+ +h&+ 1s essen +1&lly 100% c &rbon +h&+ forms &s &
resul + of pyrolys 1s re&c+1ons dur 1ng fuel combus +1on.
 +he over &ll l1fecycle em 1ss1ons of sulfur ox 1des (m&jor
componen +s of &c1d r&1n) from b 1od1esel &re 8% lower +h&n
over&ll sulfur ox 1des em 1ss1ons from d 1esel. B 1od1esel
comple +ely el 1m1n&+es em1ss1ons of sulfur ox 1des from bus
+&1lp1pe em 1ss1ons. +he s +udy no +es, "B 1od1esel c &n
el1m1n&+e sulf ur ox 1des em 1ss1ons bec &use 1+ 1s sulfur -free."
 +he over &ll l1fecycle em 1ss1ons of me+h&ne (one of +he
mos+ po+en+ greenhouse g &ses) from b 1od1esel &re &lmos +
3.0% lower +h&n over &ll me +h&ne em 1ss1ons from d 1esel. +he
s+udy no +es, " +hough +he reduc +1ons &ch1eved w 1+h
b1od1esel &re sm &ll, +hey could be s 1gn1f1c&n+ when
es+1m&+ed on +he b &s1s of 1+s 'CO2 equ 1v&len+'-w&rm1ng
po+en+1&l."
 +he over &ll l1fecycle em 1ss1ons of n1+rogen ox 1des (&
con+r1bu+1ng f&c+or 1n +he loc &l1zed form &+1on of smog &nd ozone)
from b1od1esel &re 13% gre &+er +h&n over &ll n1+rogen ox 1de
em1ss1ons from d 1esel. &n urb &n bus +h&+ runs on b 1od1esel h &s
+&1lp1pe em 1ss1ons +h&+ &re only 8.89% h 1gher +h&n & bus oper &+ed
on pe +roleum d 1esel. +he s+udy &lso no +es: "Sm &ller ch &nges 1n NOx
em1ss1ons for B 1OO &nd B20 h &ve been observed 1n curren + rese&rch

51
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MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED
51
progr &ms on new model eng 1nes bu + 1+ 1s s+1ll +o e&rly +o pred 1c+
whe+her &ll or jus + & few fu +ure eng 1nes w 1ll d1spl&y +h1s
ch&r&c+er1s+1c." &nd "… solu +1ons &re po +en+1&lly &ch1ev&ble +h&+
mee+ +ougher fu +ure (veh 1cle) s +&nd&rds for NOx w 1+hou+
s&cr1f1c1ng +he o+her benef 1+s of +h1s fuel."
 +he bus +&1lp1pe em 1ss1ons of hydroc &rbons (&
con+r1bu+1ng f&c+or 1n +he loc &l1zed form &+1on of smog &nd ozone)
&re 37% lower for b 1od1esel +h&n d1esel fuel . However, +he over &ll
l1fecycle em 1ss1ons of hydroc &rbons from b 1od1esel &re 35% gre &+er
+h&n over &ll hydroc &rbon em 1ss1ons from d 1esel. +he s+udy no +es, '1n
unders +&nd1ng +he 1mpl1c&+1ons of h 1gher l 1fecycle em 1ss1ons, 1+ 1s
1mpor +&n+ +o remember +h&+ em1ss1ons of hydroc &rbons, &s w1+h &ll
of +he &1r pollu +&n+s d1scussed, h &ve loc &l1zed effec +s. 1n o+her words
1+ m&kes & d1fference where +hese em 1ss1ons occur. +he f&c+ +h&+
b1od1esel's hydroc &rbon em 1ss1ons &+ +he +&1lp1pe &re lower m &y
me&n +h&+ +he b 1od1esel l 1fe cycle h &s benef 1c1&l effec +s on urb &n
&re& pollu +1on." +he s +udy &lso c &u+1ons &bou+ dr&w1ng h &rd
conclus 1ons rel &+ed +o +he +o+&l l1fe cycle em 1ss1ons of hydroc &rbons
from sources o +her +h&n +he eng 1ne +&1lp1pe
 +he over &ll l1fecycle produc +1on of w&s+ew&+er from b 1od1esel 1s
79.0% lower +h&n over &ll produc +1on of w &s+ew&+er from d 1esel. +he
s+udy no +es, 'Pe +roleum d 1esel gener &+es roughly f 1ve +1mes &s much
w&s+ew&+er flow &s b1od1esel.' +he over &ll l1fecycle produc +1on of
h&z&rdous sol 1d w&s+es from b 1od1esel 1s 96% lower +h&n over &ll
produc +1on of h &z&rdous sol 1d w&s+es from d 1esel. However, +he
over&ll l1fe cycle produc +1on of non-h&z&rdous sol 1d w&s+es from
b1od1esel 1s +w1ce &s gre &+ &s +he produc +1on of non -h&z&rdous

52
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52
sol1d w&s+es from d 1esel. +he s+udy no +es: "G 1ven +he more severe
1mp&c+ of h&z&rdous versus non -h&z&rdous w &s+e d1spos &l, +h1s 1s
& re&son&ble +r&de-off."
&1r pollu +1on 1s & m&jor problem +h&+ 1s occurr 1ng worldw 1de.
Severe &1r pollu +1on c&n c&use Glob &l W&rm1ng. 1f glob &l w&rm1ng
occurs &nd becomes ser 1ous, m &ny +h1rd world coun +r1es w 1ll suffer.
+he r1s1ng occurrence of 1llnesses bec &use of pollu +1on h&s 1nsp1red
+he group +o come up w 1+h +he 1de& of h&v1ng & comprehens 1ve
&n&lys1s reg &rd1ng &l+ern&+1ve fuels +h&+ would help reduce or even
con+rol +he pollu +1on c&used by norm &l foss 1l fuels. +he r1s1ng cos +
of fuel 1n our coun +ry &nd worldw 1de 1s very &l&rm1ng, +he supply of
foss1l fuels &re by f &r deple +1ng.
& produc + known known &s B1o&c+1v™ 1s &v&1l&ble 1n +he
Ph1l1pp1ne m &rke+. +h1s produc + 1s der 1ved from coconu + o1l. 1+ 1s
comple +ely b 1odegr &d&ble &nd con +&1ns no +ox1c or h &rmful
elemen +s. +h1s &l+ern&+1ve fuel 1s s&fer +h&n norm &l foss 1l fuel.
L1ke d 1esel fuel, 1+ h&s & h1gh fl&sh po 1n+ (h1gher +h&+ d1esel).
Wh1ch me &ns 1s 1+ s&fe +o h&ndle &nd w 1ll no+ e&s1ly 1gn1+e.
+h1s &l+ern&+1ve fuel 1s env 1ronmen +&l fr1endly, unl 1ke foss 1l
fuels, when +h1s fuel sp 1lls ou + 1n+o +he se &, 1+ w1ll no+ h&rm &ll
+he l1v1ng spec 1es comp &red +o +he d &m&ge +h&+ o1l sp1ll&ge of
foss1l fuels wh1ch le &ds +o long +erm cle &n1ng process. +h1s produc +
&lso 1mproves eng 1ne perform &nce. 1+ does +horough cle &n1ng
1ns1de +he eng 1ne &nd 1ns1de +he eng 1ne &nd fuel +&nk.

CH&P+ER 3 : COCONU + O1L PROPER +1ES

53
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MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED

53 3.1 Econom 1c Benef 1+s
&c+u&l ro&d +r1&ls &nd dyn&mome +er +es+s show up +o & 25% g &1n
1n veh 1cle m 1le&ge w 1+h & blend of &s l1++le &s 1%. &s +he pump
pr1ce of d 1esel goes up, +he gross s &v1ngs gener &+ed w 1+h +he use
of B1o&c+1v™ (& br&nd n &me of & coco -b1od1esel) &lso 1ncre&ses.
1n &dd1+1on, ex +r& power, less serv 1ce down +1me, reduced eng 1ne
we&r equ &+e +o even more s &v1ngs. &c+u&l s&v1ngs &re 1llus+r&+ed
on +he +&ble below:
GROSS S &V1NGS PER FULL +&NK (50 l 1+ers)
D1esel Pump
Pr1ce P 30 /
l1+er P 32 /
l1+er P 34 /
l1+er P 36 /
l1+er P 38 /
l1+er
M1le&ge
G&1n 5% P 75.00 P 80.00 P 85.00 P 90.00 P 95.00
10% 150.00 160.00 170.00 180.00 190.00
15% 225.00 240.00 255.00 270.00 285.00
20% 300.00 320.00 340.00 360.00 380.00
25% 375.00 400.00 425.00 450.00 475.00

+he +&ble below 1s +&ken fro m +he brochure of Chemrez
+echnolog 1es 1nc.

3.2 Env1ronmen +&l &nd He &l+h Benef 1+s
+he use of coco -b1od1esel w 1ll help preserve our env 1ronmen +.
B1o&c+1v™ 1s comple +ely b 1odegr &d&ble &nd con +&1ns no +ox1c or
h&rmful elemen +s. 1+ 1s non -fl&mm&ble, s &fe +o h&ndle, &nd poses no
d&nger +o +he env 1ronmen +. Bes + of &ll, 1+ 1s m&de from & Table 2
Economics of 1% BioActiv™ into Diesel

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54 renew &ble resource +h&+ 1s &bund &n+. 1+ w1ll &lso 1mprove +he &1r
+h&+ we bre &+he. &1r pollu +1on 1s & ser1ous problem worldw 1de &nd
+he r1s1ng 1nc1dence of pollu +1on-rel&+ed 1llnesses h &s become &
ser1ous concern. Ex +ens1ve f1eld &nd l&bor&+ory +es+s prove +h&+
B1o&c+1v™ dr&m&+1c&lly reduces smoke em 1ss1ons +hrough
comple +e combus +1on. W 1+h +he el 1m1n&+1on of &1r pollu +1on
c&used by smoke, & cle&ner &1r w1ll resul + 1n be ++er re sp1r&+ory
cond 1+1ons of people.

3.3 Eng 1ne Benef 1+s
B1o&c+1v™ 1s & prem 1um fuel enh &ncer. 1+ con+&1ns oxygen
for cle &n burn 1ng; solvency for eng 1ne cle &n1ng; &nd h1gh lubr 1c1+y
+o reduce fr 1c+1on &nd we &r 1n fuel sys +ems. 1+s h1gh ce +&ne
number boos +s eng1ne &cceler &+1on +o +he s &+1sf&c+1on of
mo+or1s+s. +he +&ble below summ &r1zes +he benef 1+s of us 1ng
b1od1esel comp &red +o regul &r d1esel:
D1esel P&r&me+er B1o&c+1v Benef 1+s
51 Ce+&ne
Number 70 Be++er 1gn1+1on
/ god
&cceler &+1on
49șC Fl&sh Po 1n+ 114șC S&fer +o h&ndle
&nd s+ore
0.05% Sulfur
Con+en+ 0% No sulfur ox 1de
em1ss1on
0% Oxygen
Con+en+ 11% Comple +e
combus +1on, less
smoke

55
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MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED

55 3 – 4 cs+ K1nem&+1c
V1scos1+y 2 – 3 cs+ Be++er
&+om1z&+1on
3,800 gms Lubr1c1+y
(BOCLE) > 7,000
gms Enh&nces
eff1c1ency of f uel
pump
360șC +90
+emper &+ure 313șC Be++er
vol&+1l1+y r&nge

3.4 Gener &l &dv&n+&ges
1+'s sus +&1n&ble & non -+ox1c.
Em1ss1ons. B 1od1esel 1s ne&rly c&rbon-neu+r&l, me &n1ng 1+
con+r1bu+es &lmos + zero em 1ss1ons +o glob &l w&rm1ng.
Eng1ne l1fe. S +ud1es h&ve shown 1+ reduces eng 1ne we &r by
&s much &s one h &lf, pr 1m&r1ly bec &use 1+ prov1des excellen +
lubr1c1+y. Even & 2% b 1od1esel/98% d 1esel blend w 1ll help.
Dr1v&b1l1+y. We h &ve ye + +o mee + &nyone who doesn' +
no+1ce &n 1mmed 1&+e smoo +h1ng of +he eng 1ne w1+h b1od1esel. 1+
jus+ runs qu 1e+er, &nd produces less smoke.

3.5 Gener &l D1s&dv&n+&ges
Pr1m&r1ly, b 1od1esel 1s no + re&d1ly &v&1l&ble 1n +he
n&+1on. Only few commerc 1&l g&s s+&+1ons offers b 1od1esel l 1ke
Fly1ng V. Table 3
Comparing Diesel and BioActiv™

56
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56
B1od1esel 1s no+ su1+&ble +o &ny eng 1nes, more of +he older
one.
1+ h&s & h1gher gel po 1n+. B100 (100% b 1od1esel) ge +s
slushy & l1++le under 32°F. Bu + B20 (20% b 1od1esel, 80% regul &r
d1esel – more commonly &v&1l&ble +h&n B100) h &s & gel po 1n+ of –
15°F. L 1ke regul &r d1esel, +he gel po 1n+ c&n be lowered fur +her w 1+h
&dd1+1ves such &s kerosene (blended 1n+o w1n+er d1esel 1n cold –
we&+her &re&s).

3.6. Conclus 1on

+he use of coco -b1od1esel h &s more benef 1+s comp &red +o 1+s
downs 1de. 1+ 1s 1llus+r&+ed on +he resul +s presen +ed prev 1ously.
However, 1n order +o consumm &+e +h1s p&per, some +h1ngs h &ve +o
be po 1n+ed ou + cle&rly. One of +he wrong no +1ons &bou+ coco –
b1od1esel 1s s&y1ng +h&+ 1+ c&me d 1rec+ly from coconu + o1l. +h&+
1s & wrong 1de& bec&use coco -b1od1esel 1s r&+her der1ved from
coconu + o1l. Coco-b1od1esel c &me from cook 1ng o 1ls. +he o 1l 1s
m1xed w 1+h &lcohol &nd c &+&lys+ &nd undergoes
+r&nses +er1f1c&+1on before 1+ 1s conver +ed 1n+o b1od1esel.

CH&P+ER 4. S +&B1L1+Y OF OX 1D&+1VE PROCESSES

Ox1d&+1on s+&b1l1+y 1s &n 1mpor +&n+ p&r&me+er w1dely kn own &s
m&+er1&l con +rol &nd ev &lu&+1on of d 1fferen + +ypes of o 1l &nd +he
effec +1veness of &n+1ox1d&n+s. +here were formed +wo se +s of
s&mples of b 1od1esel. & s&mple w 1+hou+ &dd1+1ves &nd o+her w 1+h

57
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MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED

57 &dd1+1ves w 1+h 0.1% m 1x+ure of 0.1% &nd 0.1% ex +r&c+ ex+r&c+
seed &nd sk 1n of Lycopers 1con esculen +um. S&mples were 1ncub &+ed
for 4 weeks &+ 50°C. Weekly, +he s&mples of b 1od1esel h &ve been
de+erm1ned follow 1ng p&r&me+ers: Ox 1d&+1on S +&b1l1+y, Perox 1de
v&lue &nd &c1d1+y. &dd1+1ves s &mples showed v &lues h 1gher +h&n
+hose w 1+hou+ &dd1+1ves ox 1d&+1on s+&b1l1+y r&nge 187 -515 m 1n.
+ow&rd +he s&mples w 1+hou+ &dd1+1ves for 90 -450m 1n. B1od1esel
s&mples w 1+hou+ &dd1+1ves show &n 1ncre&se 1n Perox 1de v&lue
dur1ng s+or&ge be +ween 1.5 -62.2 mEqO 2/kg +o +he &dd1+1ves of 1.0 –
39.4 mEqO 2/kg. V &r1&+1on 1n &c1d1+y dur 1ng s+or&ge 1s be+ween
0.4-1.4 mgKOH/g for s &mples w 1+hou+ &dd1+1ves &nd 0.36 -1.0
mgKOH/g for s &mples &dd1+1ves.
Key words : C&ro+ene, Lycopers 1con esculen +um, &n+1ox1d&n+s,
b1od1esel
1n+roduc +1on
Vege +&ble o 1ls &nd &n1m&l f&+s &re &n 1mpor +&n+ source of energy,
possess 1ng, &f+er process 1ng, s 1m1l&r ch&r&c+er1s+1cs &nd +he
+ype of d 1esel fuel held. 1+ +urned ou + +h&+ +he end produc + of f&++y
&c1d es +er1f1c&+1on n &mely es +er (b 1od1esel) ob +&1ned by
process 1ng f&+s h&s ch &r&c+er1s+1cs closely resembl 1ng +hose of
cl&ss1c&l fuel. Chem 1c&l re&c+1on &nd flow +echnology of b 1od1esel
(1lgen e + &l.2007; Dum 1+ru &nd Grecu, 2010; B 1ț& e+ &l., 2012;
Chem 1c&l Buss 1nes &nd www.chems +&+1ons.com rev) &re shown 1n
F1gure 7 &nd 8.

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58

F1g. 7. +he re &c+1on for ob +&1n1ng b1od1esel from f &++y &c1ds

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59

F1g. 8. +echnolog 1c&l flow of ob +&1n1ng b1od1esel

&n 1mpor +&n+ d1s&dv&n+&ge of b 1od1esel 1s +he rel &+1vely
sm&ll per 1od of +h1s fuel conserv &+1on due +o +he &c+1on of oxygen
on uns &+ur&+ed c &rbon &+oms (Chul e + &l., 2004 &nd D 1vy& &nd
+y&g1, 2006). Degr &d&+1on chem 1s+ry of b 1od1esel 1s +he s&me &s
+h&+ o1ls 1+ comes from.
+he uns &+ur&+ed f&++y &c1d ch&1ns 1n b1od1esel &re suscep +1ble
+o ox1d&+1on, &nd +he mech &n1sm 1s well known. &u+oox1d&+1on
1s & ch&1n re&c+1on 1nclud 1ng +hree b &s1c s+eps: 1n1+1&+1on,
prop&g&+1on, &nd +erm1n&+1on (+op&ll&r e+ &l., 1997; Sch &1ch,
2005; Wyr 1ck, 2005 &nd Dum 1+ru e+ &l., 2009).
1n1+1&lly, +he &llyl1c hydrogen of uns &+ur&+ed f&++y &c1d
ch&1ns 1s e&s1ly removed +o form & c&rbon-b&sed r &d1c&l (R*),
wh1ch +hen re &c+s w1+h oxygen 1n & prop&g&+1on s+ep +o form &
peroxy r &d1c&l (ROO*) &nd & hydroperox 1de (ROOH). +wo free
r&d1c&ls c&n re&c+ w1+h one &no+her 1n & +erm1n&+1on s+ep. +he
ROOH concen +r&+1on 1s very low dur 1ng +he 1n1+1&l per 1od;
however, 1n +he prop &g&+1on per 1od, +he ROOH level 1ncre&ses

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60 r&p1dly, 1nd1c&+1ng +he onse + of +he over &ll ox1d&+1on process.
+he hydroperox 1de spec 1es c&n form &c1ds, &ldehydes, &nd d1mers,
f1n&lly resul +1ng 1n polymer form &+1on even &+ &mb1en+
+emper &+ures. +hese polymers m &y po+en+1&lly plug fuel f 1l+ers &nd
1njec+1on sys +ems.
F&c+ors wh 1ch 1nfluence +he ox 1d&+1ve s+&b1l1+y of b 1od1esel
1nclude f &++y &c1d compos 1+1on, n &+ur&l &n+1ox1d&n+ con+en+,
+he level of +o+&l glycer 1n, &nd +he cond 1+1ons of fuel s +or&ge such
&s +emper &+ure, exposure +o l1gh+ &nd &1r, &nd +&nk m &+er1&l of
cons +ruc+1on (Schober &nd M 1++ellb&ch, 2005 &nd Sendz 1k1ene e +
&l., 2005). 1n f1g. 3 sho ws +he mech &n1sm of &u+oox1d&+1on of
ole&+e, l1nole&+e &+ L1nolen &+e (Fr &nkel, 2005).

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61

F1g. 9. Mech &n1sm of ole &+e, l1nole&+e &+ l1nolen &+e
&u+ox1d&+1on
1n +h1s s+udy & f1sh o1l b1od1esel w &s used from wh 1ch +he con +en+
of f&++y &c1ds, 1n p&r+1cul&r uns &+ur&+ed f&++y &c1ds w 1+h more
+h&n +hree double bonds, ( +&ble 6) , h&s & s1gn1f1c&n+ degr&d&+1on
dur1ng s+or&ge Cherng -Yu&n &nd Rong, 2009).

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62

+&ble 6. F&++y &c1d compos 1+1on of f 1sh o1l, %

+o reduce ox 1d&+1on re &c+1ons +h&+ occur dur 1ng s +or&ge use
&n+1ox1d&n+s.
1n & sys+em, &n &n+1ox1d&n+ c&n be def 1ned &s &ny subs +&nce
presen + 1n low concen +r&+1ons
comp &red +o +h&+ of & subs +r&+e ox1d&ble &nd del &ys or preven +s
ox1d&+1on of +he subs +r&+e (H&ll1well e + &l., 1995). &n+1ox1d&n+s
&re n&+ur&l or syn +he+1c, wh 1ch re &c+s w1+h &+mospher 1c oxygen
or free r &d1c&ls 1n +he env 1ronmen +, pro +ec+1ng &g&1ns+ self
ox1d&+1on compounds.

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63 &f+er or 1g1n, &n+1ox1d&n+s &re cl&ss1f1ed 1n+o: n&+ur&l &nd
syn+he+1c, &nd &f+er s +ruc+ure: phenol 1c, &m1no, end 1ol1c
(reduc +ones), he +erocycl1c -1zopreno 1d1c.
By mode of &c+1on, +hey &re cl &ss1f1ed 1n+o: pr 1m&ry or
d1scon +1nue +he k 1ne+1c ch &1n by d 1rec+ re&c+1on w 1+h free
r&d1c&ls &nd second &ry, &c+1ng +hrough o +her mech &n1sms of
re&c+1on. &n+1ox1d&n+s &re +he pr 1m&ry hydrogen donor
(+ocopherols, &scorb 1c &c1d, g&ll1c &c1d &nd 1+s es+ers, fl &vones
e+c.) +o s+&b1l1ze free r &d1c&ls +hereby block 1ng 1+s k1ne+1c
ch&1n.
1n +he s+udy & n&+ur&l &n+1ox1d&n+ from res 1dues resul +1ng
from +he 1ndus +r1&l1z&+1on process of +om&+o (Lycopers 1con
esculen +um) w&s used wh 1ch 1s &n effec +1ve w &y +o prov 1de
c&ro+eno1ds espec 1&lly β -c&ro+ene &nd lycopene. +hese res 1dues
cons 1s+ m&1nly of sk 1ns &nd seeds, husks con +&1n1ng 5 +1mes more
lycopene +h&n +he pulp (Del 1& e+ &l., 1975; Sh &rm&, 1996 &nd
Knobl 1ch e+ &l., 20 05).

+he exper 1men+

+o &ch1eve exper 1men+ +he follow 1ng +hree s +eps were
necess &ry:
Ex+r&c+1on of c &ro+eno1d subs +&nces
C&ro+eno1d subs +&nces were ex +r&c+ed from +he sk 1ns &nd
seeds of Lycopers 1con esculen +um by solven + ex+r&c+1on (hex &ne)
us1ng Soxhle + (B1ț& &nd Pred &, 2004 &nd +em1me e + &l., 2004).
Ex+r&c+s ob+&1ned were ev &por&+ed under reduced pressure 1n &n

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64 ev&por&+or sk 1n +ype RV 05 -Below B &s1c +ype &nd s+ored &+ -25 °C
un+1l use.

De+erm1n&+1on of &n+1ox1d&n+ &c+1v1+y of +he ex +r&c+ m1x+ure
of 0.1% s k1n of Lycopers 1con esculen +um &nd 0.1% of Lycopers 1con
esculen +um seed ex +r&c+
For +he de +erm1n&+1on of +he l 1poph 1l1c fr &c+1on
&n+1ox1d&n+ &c+1v1+y, +he re &c+1on m 1x+ure con +&1ned 56 mM
&B+S (2,2'-&z1no-b1s(3-e+hylbenz +h1&zol1ne-6-sulfon 1c &c1d) &nd
24.5 mM K 2S2O8 1n e+h&nol (d 1lu+1on 1:100) 1n & +o+&l volume of 1
mL. 1n +h1s c&se, 5 μL of +he l1poph 1l1c fr&c+1on (org &n1c ph&se)
were &dded +o +he re &c+1on m 1x+ure &nd +he decre &se 1n
&bsorb &nce &+ 734 nm w &s de+erm1ned &f+er 5 m 1n. +he +o+&l +1me
needed +o c&rry ou + e&ch &ss&y w&s &pprox 1m&+ely 6 m 1n. +he
&bsorb &nce decr e&se w &s de+erm1ned from +he d1fference be +ween
+he &734 v&lues before &nd &f+er &dd1+1on of s &mple. +he
&n+1ox1d&n+ &c+1v1+y m&y be expressed &s % 1nh1b1+1on of
r&d1c&l1c c&+1on (+ommon &ro, 2008).

B1od1esel s &mple prep &r&+1on
+wo se +s of s &mples were fo rmed:
– & se+ of b1od1esel m &de from f 1sh o1l w1+hou+ &dd1+1ves
– & se+ of b1od1esel m &de from f 1sh o1l m1x+ure &dm1xed w 1+h 0.1%
sk1n of Lycopers 1con esculen +um &nd 0.1% of Lycopers 1con
esculen +um seed ex +r&c+. S&mples were pl &ced 1n d&rk gl&ss &nd
1ncub &+ed &+ 50 °C for 4 weeks. &n&lys1s of +he m &1n 1nd1c&+ors of
qu&l1+y b1od1esel s &mples (Ox 1d&+1on s +&b1l1+y, Perox 1de v &lue

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65 &nd &c1d v&lue) were de +erm1ned &+ +he beg 1nn1ng of s +or&ge, 2
weeks, 3 weeks &nd 4 weeks of s +or&ge.

Ox1d&+1on s+&b1l1+y by Zürche r-H&dorn me +hod (R &nc1m&+)
+h1s me +hod cons 1s+s 1n +he b 1od1esel ox 1d&+1on 1n
&cceler &+e cond 1+1ons. +he me +hod perm 1+s +he es +&bl1shmen + of
+he 1nduc +1on per 1od wh 1ch corresponds w 1+h +he 1n1+1&+1on
s+ep of +he b1od1esel &u+o-ox1d&+1on.
+o de +erm1ne +he s+&b1l1+y 1n ox 1d&+1on 1+ w&s used &n
1ns+&ll&+1on wh 1ch used ox 1d&+ed B 1od1esel s &mples (10 g) &+ &
+emper &+ure of 110 °C (Sens 1don1 e+ &l., 1974; Schw &rz e+ &l., 2001;
K1r1+s&k1s e+ &l., 2002; Dum 1+ru &nd Grecu, 2010; B 1ț& e+ &l., 2012
&nd D &v1d &nd +rembl&y). +hrough +he b 1od1esel s &mples 1+ w&s
b&rbo+ed &1r w1+h & deb1+ of 8 l 1+res per hour. &s & resul + of +he
ox1d&+1on re &c+1ons wh 1ch +&ke pl &ce 1n & re&c+or, +he formed
vol&+1le &c1ds &re +r&1ned by +he &1r curren + &nd &bsorbed 1n +he
me&suremen + cell where +here 1s b 1d1s+1lled w &+er. +he
me&suremen + of +he solu +1on conduc +1b1l1+y 1s done w 1+h &
conduc +ome+er of R &delk1s +ype. 1n +he beg 1nn1ng we no +1ce &
slow 1ncre&s1ng of +he solu +1on conduc +1b1l1+y, &f+er +h&+ 1+
&ppe&rs & sudden 1ncre&s1ng of +h1s &s & resul + of +he form &+1on of
vol&+1le &c1ds. +he 1nduc +1on per 1od 1s cons 1dered +he 1n+erv&l
un+1l +he momen + of +he suddenly curve`s ch &nge, F 1g.9.

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66

F1g. 9. 1ns+&ll&+1on for +he de +erm1n&+1on of s +&b1l1+y 1n +he
b1od1esel ox 1d&+1on

De+erm1n&+1on of p erox1de v&lue level by H &r&-+o+&n1 me+hod
Perox 1de of b 1od1esel s &mples w &s de +erm1ned &+ +he
beg1nn1ng &nd &f+er de +erm1n1ng ox 1d&+1on s +&b1l1+y by H &r&-
+o+&n1 (H&r& &nd +o+&n1, 1988; B 1ț& &nd Pred &, 2004 &nd Dum 1+ru
&nd Grecu, 2010).
1n & 250 mL con 1c&l bo++le w &s we 1ghed on &n&ly+1c&l
b&l&nce & f1xed qu &n+1+y of b 1od1esel (20 mg) &nd were d 1ssolved
1n 10 mL chloroform. &dd 15 mL gl &c1&l &ce+1c &c1d &nd m 1x. &f+er
repl&c1ng &1r w1+h n1+rogen or CO 2, &dd 0.3 mL s &+ur&+ed K 1
solu+1on &nd sh &ke for 1 m 1nu+e, followed by cool 1ng 1n 1ce w &+er
b&+h 1n +he d&rk. &dd 100 mL cold d 1s+1lled w &+er &nd sh &ke &nd
+hen +1+r&+ed po +en+1ome+r1c&lly w 1+h sod 1um +h1osulf &+e
solu+1on 0.001N keep 1ng +he v1&l 1n 1ce b&+h. Dur 1ng +1+r&+1on
+here 1s & ch&nge 1n po+en+1&l +h&+ 1n +he equ 1v&lence momen +
shows & sudden drop. P &r&llel runn 1ng & bl&nk solu +1on w 1+hou+
b1od1esel where volume 0.001N sod 1um +h1osulph &+e used 1n

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67 +1+r&+1on un +1l +he equ 1v&lence po 1n+ should no + exceed 0.15 mL.
1f +h1s &moun + 1s exceeded +hen &no+her w 1ll prep &re & s&+ur&+ed
solu+1on of K 1. 1ndex v &lue 1s c&lcul&+ed 1n m1ll1equ1v&len+s
perox 1de oxygen/kg l 1p1d us1ng formul &:

where: V – number ml 0.001N s od1um +h1osulph &+e solu +1on used for
+1+r&+1on of s &mple +o be &n&lyzed
Vm – number ml 0.001N sod 1um +h1osulph &+e solu +1on used 1n bl&nk
+1+r&+1on
m – m&ss of b 1od1esel s &mple (g)
F – f&c+or solu +1on 0.001N sod 1um +h1osulph &+e
N – norm &l1+y of 0.001N sod 1um +h1osulph &+e

De+erm1n&+1on of &c1d1+y of b 1od1esel s &mples
+he &c1d1+y v&lue, 1& represen +s +he number of m 1l1gr&ms of
po+&ss1um hydrox 1de necess &ry +o neu +r&l1ze +he free f &++y &c1ds
1n+o & gr&m of o 1l. +h1s 1ndex mod 1f1es 1+ self &ccord 1ng +o +he
leng+h &nd +o +he cond 1+1ons of s +or&ge of +he o1l. +he fresh o 1ls
h&ve & very sm &ll &c1d1+y. +he &c1d1+y v&lue grows w 1+h +he &ge
&nd gr &de of r &nc1d1+y of +he o 1l &nd 1nd1c&+es +he gr &de of
hydrol 1ses of +he f&+ (Boz e + &l., 2009; +yson, 2001; B 1ț& e+ &l., 2012
&nd Chem 1c&l Buss 1nes). +he &c1d1+y w&s es+&bl1shed w 1+h +he
formul &:

where: K – +1+re of +he solu +1on of KOH 0.1N

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68 V – volume of +he hydrox 1de used &+ +1+r&+1on, mL
M – m&ss of +he b1od1esel used &+ +1+r&+1on, g

Resul+s &nd D 1scuss 1ons
&f+er de +erm1n1ng +he &n+1ox1d&n+ &c+1v1+y of l 1poph 1l1c
ex+r&c+s from sk 1n &nd seeds of Lycopers 1con esculen +um 1+ w&s
ob+&1ned & v&lue of 89.7% wh 1ch demons +r&+es 1ncre&sed
&n+1ox1d&n+ c&p&c1+y of +he m 1x+ure of ex +r&c+s from sk 1ns &nd
seeds.

Ox1d&+1on s+&b1l1+y by Zürcher -H&dorn me +hod (R &nc1m&+)
&f+er de +erm1n&+1on of +he ox 1d&+1on s+&b1l1+y of b 1od1esel
s&mples dur 1ng s+or&ge were ob +&1ned resul +s +h&+ &re cons 1s+en+
w1+h +he EN 14112 &nd o+her &u+hors, (Wyn 1ck, 20 05; L 1n &nd L1 ,
2009 &nd Dunn, 2008), F 1g.5.
&ccord 1ng +o +he Europe &n S+&nd&rd (EN 14214), +he 1nduc +1on
per1od w 1+h & m1n1mum of 6 hours &+ 110 °C.
+he h 1gh con +en+ of compounds w 1+h double bonds
(uns&+ur&+ed, +&ble), f 1sh o 1l le&ds +o & more pronounce d
degr&d&+1on w 1+h form &+1on of second &ry compounds 1n h1gher
concen +r&+1ons (Kno +he &nd Dunn, 2003; Fr &nkel, 2005; Reyes &nd
Sepulved &, 2006; Kno +he, 2008 &nd L1n &nd L1, 2009). +he presence
of &n+1ox1d&n+s from sk 1ns &nd seeds of Lycopers 1con esculen +um
1n+o b1od1esel con +r1bu+ed +o reduc 1ng +he degr &d&+1on process
of +he oper &+1on of r &d1c&ls formed. Peroxyl r &d1c&l ROO* &++&ck
+&k1ng pl &ce &ccord 1ng +o +he follow 1ng schem:

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69

F1g. 10 . Peroxyd r&d1c&l &++&ck by β -c&ro+ene

+he mech &n1sm of &n+1ox1d&n+ &c+1on of c &ro+eno1ds
w1+hou+ OH groups d 1ffer +herefore from +he mech &n1sm of +he
&n+1ox1d&n+ phenol 1c s+ruc+ure, +he r&d1c&l ROO* 1n&c+1v&+1on
1s &ch1eved due +o OH group.
De+em1n&+1on of p &r&me+ers by H &rdorn -Zürcher me +hod, F 1g. 11,
shows & v&r1&+1on +hroughou + +he +es+.
+here 1s & correl &+1on be +ween 1nduc +1on per 1od &nd qu &l1+y
degr&d&+1on. +hus, b 1od1esel &dd1+1ves s &mples h &ve h 1gh
ox1d&+1on s+&b1l1+y be+ween 187 m 1n. &nd 515 m 1n., v&lues +h&+
&re h1gher +h&n +hose w 1+hou+ &dd1+1ves (90 m 1n-450 m 1n.)

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70

F1g. 11 . Ox1d&+1on s+&b1l1+y of b 1od1esel s &mples

Percen +&ge decre &se 1n ox1d&+1on s+&b1l1+y 1s be+ween 13% &nd
63% for s &mples &dd1+1ves &nd 15% +o 80% for +hose w 1+hou+
&dd1+1ves. +here 1s & s1gn1f1c&n+ 1ncre&se 1n degr &d&+1on
be+ween +he second &nd +h1rd weeks of s +or&ge (63.3%) 1n s&mples
w1+hou+ &dd1+1ves +o +he &dd1+1ve show 1ng +he 1ncre&se
be+ween +he +h1rd &nd four +h weeks (63%). +hese f 1gures h 1ghl1gh+
+he role of sk 1ns &nd seeds of Lycopers 1con esculen +um ex+r&c+ +he
&n+1ox1d&n+ &c+1v1+y of b 1od1esel.

De+erm1n&+1on of &c1d1+y of b 1od1esel s &mples
&c1d1+y 1s one of +he essen +1&l proper +1es for b 1od1esel
qu&l1+y. 1+ &r1ses from +he process of form &+1on of perox 1des wh 1ch
decompose &nd 1n+er&c+s &s form &+1on of numerous ox 1d&+1on
produc +s 1nclud 1ng &ldehydes, wh 1ch &re ox 1d1zed +o &c1ds
(Kno +he &nd Dunn, 2003; Fr &nkel, 2005 &nd Cherng -Yu&n &nd Rong,
2009).

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71 Follow 1ng +he de +erm1n&+1ons m &de 1n s&mples of b 1od1esel
resul +s 1n & whose v &lue on &c1d1+y 1s shown 1n F1g. 12 .

F1g. 12 . B1od1esel s &mples &c1d1+y
1+ 1s no+ed +h&+ b1od1esel &dd1+1ves ex +r&c+ s&mples from
sk1ns &nd seeds of Lycopers 1con esculen +um h&ve & v&r1&+1on of pH
dur1ng s +or&ge be +ween 0.4 -1.4 mgKOH/g for s &mples w 1+hou+
&dd1+1ves &nd 0.36 -1.0 mgKOH/g for s &mples &dd1+1ves.

Sm&ll &moun+s of &c1d &dd1+1ves s &mples &re &v&1l&ble on +he
1nfluence &n+1ox1d&n+ wh1ch c&uses & decre &se 1n +he number of
double bonds wh 1ch ox 1d1zes reduced le &d1ng +o &n &ccumul &+1on
of ox 1d&+1on produc +s. +h1s reduced &ccumul &+1on of ox 1d&+1on
produc +s le&ds +o decre &se &c1d1+y (B1ț& &nd Pred &, 2008).

De+erm1n&+1on of perox 1de v&lue
Perox 1de 1s & p&r&me+er used +o de+erm1ne +he ox 1d&+1on of
b1od1esel. 1+ me&sures only pr 1m&ry ox 1d&+1on produc +s,
hydroperox 1des (Wyn 1ck, 2005).
&l+hough +he perox 1de v &lue 1s no+ spec 1f1ed 1n +he s +&nd&rds

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72 +h&+ ch&r&c+er1ze b1od1esel, 1+ 1s & p&r&me+er +h&+ 1nfluences
ce+&ne number, p &r&me+er 1s spec 1f1ed 1n +he s +&nd&rds. &n
1ncre&se 1n +he perox 1de 1nvolves &n 1ncre&se 1n ce+&ne number
&nd +herefore m &y reduce 1gn1+1on (Monyem &nd Gerpen, 2000 &nd
Boul1f1 e+ &l., 2010). From l 1+er&+ure (Berner, 1989) 1+ resul +s 1n &
v&lue less +h&n 10 mEq/g.

F1g. 8. Perox 1de v&lues of +he s&mples of b 1od1esel

Exper 1men+&l d&+& ob+&1ned, F 1g. 8, show &n 1ncre&se 1n
+he perox 1de v&lue dur 1ng s+or&ge be +ween 1.5 -62.2 mEqO 2/kg +he
s&mples w 1+hou+ &dd1+1ves &nd 1.0 -39.4 mEqO 2/kg +he ev 1dence
&dd1+1ves.
Sm&ll v&lues of +he s&mples of perox 1de &dd1+1ves &re de +erm1ned
by +he used ex +r&c+ &nd reduced &ccumul &+1on of ox 1d&+1on
produc +s (Monyem, 2000) due +o 1n&c+1v&+1on of perox 1de r&d1c&ls
by β-c&ro+ene.

Conclus 1on

Effec + of n&+ur&l &n+1ox1d&n+ from +he sk 1n &nd seeds of
Lycopers 1con esculen +um 1n+o b1od1esel s +&b1l1+y w&s 1den+1f1ed
from +he resul +s &s & v1&ble me &ns +o 1mprove 1+s s+&b1l1+y +o
ox1d&+1on.
Sm&ll &moun +s of perox 1de, low &c1d1+y &nd s +&b1l1+y of
b1od1esel s &mples +re&+ed w 1+h +he ex +r&c+ cle&rly shows +he1r
po+en+1&l &s &n &l+ern&+1ve source of n &+ur&l &n+1ox1d&n+s.

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73 +he resul +s were gener &lly 1n &greemen + w1+h s+ud1es
&v&1l&ble 1n +he l1+er&+ure. Fur +her s +udy w 1ll be needed +o
es+&bl1sh some gener &l conclus 1ons on +he use of n &+ur&l
&n+1ox1d&n+ ex+r&c+ed from +he sk 1ns &nd seeds of Lycopers 1con
esculen +um. Resul +s ob +&1ned 1n +h1s rese &rch &re &v&1l&ble +o
reduce +he effec +s of ox 1d&+1ve degr &d&+1on produces b 1od1esel
dur1ng s+or&ge.
&bund &nce of r &w m &+er1&ls &nd h 1gh con +en+ of
&n+1ox1d&n+ subs +&nces ch &r&c+er sk 1ns &nd seeds of
Lycopers 1con esculen +um recommends 1+s use 1n +he pro +ec+1on of
+he produc +s of ox 1d&+1ve degr &d&+1on effec +.

Ch&p+er 5. S 1MUL &+1ON OF BURN 1NG PROCESSES 1N D1ESEL
ENG 1NES FUELED W 1+H B1OD1ESEL

1n compress 1on-1gn1+1on eng 1nes, self -1gn1+1on &nd combus +1on &re
cond 1+1oned by +he form &+1on of +he m 1x+ure be +ween &1r &nd fuel. 1n +hese
eng1nes, +he fuel 1s 1njec+ed 1n+o +he cyl 1nder ne &r +he en d of +he
compress 1on process. For self -1gn1+1on, +he 1njec+ed l1qu1d fuel 1s requ 1red +o
be spr &yed, v &por1zed, +hen +he formed v &pors m 1xed w 1+h +he en +r&1ned &1r
+hrough +urbulen + d1ffus1on 1n +he proper propor +1ons. Hence, +he m &1n
fe&+ure of fuel 1n+roduc+1on by 1njec+1on +ow&rds +he end of compress 1on 1n
+he combus +1on ch &mber 1s +he form &+1on of & he+erogeneous m 1x+ure [7].

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74 1+ 1s obv 1ous +h&+ +he 1njec+ed fuel fr &c+1ons &+ +he end of +he 1njec+1on
pene +r&+e 1n+o & s+rongly con +&m1n&+ed &+mosphere of flue g &ses resul +1ng
from +he combus +1on of +he f1rs+ fr&c+1on of +he 1njec+ed fuel. +he burn 1ng
processes 1n m.&.c. h&ve & gre&+ complex 1+y due +o +he 1nhomogene 1+y of +he
&1r-fuel m 1x+ure &nd +he qu &s11s1mul+&ne1+y of +he form &+1on of +he m 1x+ure
w1+h 1+s self -1gn1+1on &nd combus +1on. +he dur &+1on of +he phys 1c&l
+r&1n1ng process 1s def 1ned 1n +he l1+er&+ure &s +he phys 1c&l del&y of self –
1gn1+1on. +he leng +h of +he phys 1c&l del &y 1s def 1ned by +he sum of +he
spr&y1ng +1mes of +he 1njec+ed fuel, +he v&por1z&+1on of +he l1qu1d drople +s
&nd +he m 1x1ng of +he fuel v &por w 1+h +he &1r 1n +he se + propor +1ons &nd +he
self-1gn1+1on. Reg &rd1ng +he dur &+1on of spr &y1ng, +h1s 1s pr&c+1c&lly null,
s1nce +he je +, from 1+s pene +r&+1on 1n+o +he &1r, h&s suff 1c1en+ drople +s +o
ensure +he con +1nu&+1on of +he processes. V &por1z&+1on h &s & very low
dur&+1on, s 1nce only & fr&c+1on of +he &moun + of fuel con +&1ned 1n & drop 1s
cons 1dered &s self -1gn1+1on.
+he longes + dur&+1on 1s cons 1dered for m 1x1ng +he fuel v &por w 1+h +he &1r. &+
+he end of m 1x1ng +o +he requ 1red propor +1ons, chem 1c&l prep &r&+1on s+&r+s
for self -1gn1+1on or chem 1c&l del&y 1n self -1gn1+1on.
+he f1r1ng process 1n +h1s ph&se 1s ch&r&c+er1zed by +he burn 1ng of
+he preformed m 1x+ure, wh 1ch 1s formed dur 1ng +he self -1gn1+1on
del&y. From +he presen +&+1on of +he fuel je + 1+ c&n be no +ed, +he
form&+1on of fl &me &nd +he w &y +he burn 1ng 1n +he m. &.c

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75

F1g.13. Correl &+1on of +he pressure d 1&gr&m (&) w1+h +he
combus +1on speed (b) &nd +he fuel je + (c), (d)

+he follow 1ng elemen +s &re d1s+1ngu1shed by +he je +:
Lp – pene +r&+1on d1s+&nce;
b – +he w 1d+h of +he je +;
– +he &ngle of d 1spl&cemen + of +he je +;
+he C -core of +he fuel drople +s, +he s1ze of wh 1ch decre &ses +o +he
ou+s1de;
&- &re& of fl&mm&ble preformed m 1x+ures;
+he zone of non -fl&mm&ble poor m 1x+ures, ou +s1de of wh 1ch +here 1s
only &1r

Rese &rch from +he l1+er&+ure [23], [25], [28] shows +h&+ +he process
of combus +1on 1n compress 1on 1gn1+1on eng 1nes 1s & process w 1+h

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76 & much h 1gher degree of complex 1+y +h&n +h&+ of sp&rk 1gn1+1on
eng1nes w 1+h lo &d homogeneous. Reg &rd1ng +he model 1ng of
burn1ng 1n mcm, 1+ dem&nds & bro&der &c+1v1+y +h&+ h1ghl1gh+s
+he follow 1ng &spec +s:
• form &+1on of +he fuel je + 1ns1de +he combus +1on ch &mber;
• v1scous movemen + of compress 1ble flu 1ds;
• spr&y1ng +he je +,
• v&por1z&+1on of drople +s;
• &1r en+r&1nmen +;
• m1x1ng of fuel v &por w 1+h &1r +hrough +urbulen + d1ffus1on;
• chem 1c&l k1ne+1cs of ox 1d&+1on re &c+1ons;
Due +o +he l1m1+&+1ons &nd res +r1c+1ons 1n+roduced 1n +he
equ&+1ons descr 1b1ng +he sh&pe of +he je +, loc &l +urbulen +
spr&y1ng of +he lo &d from +he cyl 1nder +o model +he burn 1ng process
1n m.&.c. +here &re +wo c&+egor1es of models:
+hermodyn &m1c
– un1z1on≤
– mul+1-zone;
1mens 1on&l;
– d1mens 1on&l;
– d1mens 1on&l;
– mul+1d1mens 1on&l;
1n +hese +wo m &1n c&+egor1es of models 1s &dded +he cl &ss of
qu&s1-d1mens 1on&l phenomenolog 1c&l models. Un 1son models &re
used 1n +he &n&lys1s +o ob+&1n +he he &+ rele&se l&w b&sed on +he
&ppl1c&+1on of +he f1rs+ pr1nc1ple of +hermodyn &m1cs, 1n +he c&se
of exper 1men+&lly de +erm1ned pressure d 1&gr&ms. +he use of mul +1-

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77 zon&l models 1mpl1es +he ex 1s+ence of sp &+1&l &nd +empor &l
d1s+r1bu+1ons of +emper &+ure &nd chem 1c&l concen +r&+1ons. +hese
d1s+r1bu+1ons &re de +erm1ned by d 1v1d1ng +he je + of l1qu1d fuel
1njec+ed 1n+o +he cyl 1nder 1n+o +he compos 1+1on &nd +emper &+ure
r&nges. For d 1mens 1on&l models, +he s&me m &ss, pulse, energy &nd
subs +&nce conserv &+1on eq u&+1ons &re &ppl1ed +h&+ &re
+empor &lly or m &ss-mod1f1ed. +he de +&1ls of +he spr &y1ng process
&re &pprox 1m&+ed by drople + d1s+r1bu+1on func +1ons. Drops &re
cons 1dered p &cked 1n p&cke+s of +he s &me d 1&me+er, speed &nd
+emper &+ure, +hese p &cke+s ch &nge w 1+h +he surround 1ng g &s
m&ss, pulse &nd energy.
D1ESEL -RK [95] 1s & s1mul&+1on sof +w&re for +he en +1re eng 1ne
+hermodyn &m1c cycle. 1+ 1s des 1gned +o s1mul&+e &nd op +1m1ze
workflows for +wo-s+roke &nd four -s+roke eng 1nes. +he progr &m c&n
be used +o model +he fo llow1ng +ypes of eng 1nes:
• d1rec+ 1njec+1on d1esel eng 1nes &nd b1ofuel eng 1nes;
• d1rec+ 1njec+1on pe +rol eng 1nes;
• g&s eng 1nes 1nclud 1ng pre -ch&mber sys +ems &nd mo +ors powered
by d1fferen + g&ses: me +h&ne, prop &ne, bu +&ne, b 1og&s, syn +hes1s
g&s, e+c.

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78
F1g.14. S1mul&+1on of fuel spr &y1ng 1ns1de &nd ou +s1de +he
combus +1on ch &mber
D1ESEL -RK 1s & +hermodyn &m1c sof +w&re: eng 1ne cyl 1nders &re
cons 1dered &s open +hermodyn &m1c sys +ems. 1+ s1mul&+es fuel
spr&y1ng 1n +he combus +1on ch &mber . +he progr &m s1mul&+es +he
combus +1on of d 1esel fuels b &sed on +he1r elemen +&l compos 1+1on
&nd +he1r phys 1cochem 1c&l proper +1es.
+he spr &y1ng spr &y of +he fuel p &sses +hrough +hree s +&ges
• 1n1+1&l form &+1on of dense &x1&l flow
• +he m &1n s+&ge of cumul &+1ve spr &y evolu +1on
• Fuel Spr &y +1me 1n+er&c+1on w 1+h combus +1on ch &mber w &lls &nd
fuel d 1s+r1bu+1on.
Dur1ng +he 1n1+1&l spr&y1ng s+&ge +he fuel spr &y s+&r+s from +he
v1c1n1+y of +he 1njec+or nozzle. +he fuel drople +s move &+ speed,
cre&+1ng & con1c&l sh&pe.

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79
S1mul&+1on of combu s+1on processes for +he d1esel eng 1ne fueled w 1+h d1esel:

F1g.15. D1s+r1bu+1on of d 1esel 1n +he combus +1on ch &mber

F1g.16. Phys 1co-chem 1c&l proper +1es of p &lm o1l b1od1esel:

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80
S1mul&+1on of combus +1on processes for d 1esel eng 1ne powered by p &lm
b1od1esel:

F1g.17. D1s+r1bu+1on of p &lm b1od1esel 1n +he combus +1on ch &mber

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81

S1mul&+1on of combus +1on processes for +he d1esel eng 1ne fueled w 1+h f1sh o1l
b1od1esel

F1g.18. D1s+r1bu+1on of f1sh o1l b1od1esel 1n +he combus +1on
ch&mber

+he RK D 1esel S 1mul&+1on Progr &m &llows you +o v1ew +he fuel
d1s+r1bu+1on 1n +he combus +1on ch &mber. V &lues ob+&1ned for b 1od1esel from
p&lm o1l &nd f1sh o1l &re s1m1l&r +o +hose ob +&1ned for d 1esel. Ch &nges 1n +he
d1s+r1bu+1on of fuel p &r+1cles 1njec+ed 1n+o +he combus +1on ch &mber due +o
1ncre&sed v 1scos1+y of b 1od1esel &re observed. &lso, due +o +he f&c+ +h&+
b1od1esel h &s & h1gher dens 1+y +h&n d1esel, +he fuel &1r m1x+ure w 1ll be
denser. &ccord 1ng +o +he f1gure &bove, +he 1njec+1on r&+e for b 1od1esel 1s
lower +h&n for d 1esel fuel due +o d1fferen + phys 1co-chem 1c&l proper +1es. By
mod1fy1ng +he b1od1esel 1njec+1on +emper &+ure by us 1ng &dd1+1on&l he&+1ng

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82 sys+ems ( &s +he +emper &+ure r 1ses, +he v1scos1+y drops +o & v&lue close +o
+h&+ of d1esel), perf orm&nce comp &r&ble +o +he cl &ss1c pe +rod1essel c &n be
&ch1eved. +o s1mul&+e he &+ exch &nge, 1+ 1s &ssumed +h&+ he&+ exch &nge
cons 1s+s of four m &1n ph &ses. +hese ph &ses d 1ffer from e &ch o +her +hrough
phys 1c&l &nd chem 1c&l processes &nd f&c+ors l 1m1+1ng +he r&+e of +hese
processes.

+he RK model shown 1s 1n+ended for s 1mul&+1ng d 1esel combus +1on
cons 1der1ng +he sh &pe of +he p1s+on, +he sh &pe of +he 1njec+or, 1+s loc &+1on,
&nd +he 1njec+1on l&w. D1esel RK &lso +&kes 1n+o &ccoun + drople + s1zes, sp &r
1n+er&c+1ons w1+h sw 1rl1ng vor +ex spr &ys, fuel spr &y1ng on cyl 1nder w &lls,
p1s+on cup &nd p 1s+on he &d, p1s+on movemen + effec + &nd sw 1rl 1n+ens1+y
effec +. D1esel RK h &s +he &b1l1+y +o &ccur&+ely pred 1c+ +he he &+ rele&sed for
&ll oper &+1ng modes. B 1od1esel fuel s 1mul&+1on shows & lower combus +1on
+emper &+ure +h&n conven +1on&l pe+roleum d 1esel. H 1gher hydrogen &nd c&rbon
con+en+ r&1ses +he +herm &l v&lue of +he fuel, &s burn 1ng produces +he h1ghes +
&moun + of he &+.

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FACULTATEA DE MECANICĂ
DEPARTAMENTUL ATII
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85
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85 22. Kno+he, G., R. O. Dunn , 2003. Dependence of o 1l s+&b1l1+y 1ndex of f &++y
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86
UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA
FACULTATEA DE MECANICĂ
DEPARTAMENTUL ATII
MASTER, SPECIALIZAREA AED

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